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diff --git a/16295.txt b/16295.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..034d198 --- /dev/null +++ b/16295.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19974 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Vedanta-Sutras with the Commentary by +Sankaracarya + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Vedanta-Sutras with the Commentary by Sankaracarya + Sacred Books of the East, Volume 1 + +Author: + +Translator: George Thibaut + +Release Date: July 15, 2005 [EBook #16295] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VEDANTA-SUTRAS *** + + + + +Produced by Srinivasan Sriram, David King, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + +VEDANTA-SUTRAS + +_With the Commentary by_ + +SA@NKARACHARYA + +_Translated by_ +GEORGE THIBAUT + +_Part I_ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +INTRODUCTION + +VEDANTA-SUTRAS WITH THE COMMENTARY BY SA@NKARACHARYA. + +ADHYAYA I. + + Pada I. + + Pada II. + + Pada III. + + Pada IV. + +ADHYAYA II. + + Pada I. + + Pada II. + + * * * * * + +Transliteration of Oriental Alphabets adopted for the Translations of +the Sacred Books of the East. + +[Transcriber's Note: This book contains many words with one or two +letters in the word printed in italics; those letters are transcribed by +enclosing them in slashes, e.g. "karmaka/nd/a" has the letters "nd" in +italics. Also, the symbol "@" is used before the letter "n" to indicate +a horizontal bar across the top.] + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +To the sacred literature of the Brahmans, in the strict sense of the +term, i.e. to the Veda, there belongs a certain number of complementary +works without whose assistance the student is, according to Hindu +notions, unable to do more than commit the sacred texts to memory. In +the first place all Vedic texts must, in order to be understood, be read +together with running commentaries such as Saya/n/a's commentaries on +the Sa/m/hitas and Brahma/n/as, and the Bhashyas ascribed to Sa@nkara on +the chief Upanishads. But these commentaries do not by themselves +conduce to a full comprehension of the contents of the sacred texts, +since they confine themselves to explaining the meaning of each detached +passage without investigating its relation to other passages, and the +whole of which they form part; considerations of the latter kind are at +any rate introduced occasionally only. The task of taking a +comprehensive view of the contents of the Vedic writings as a whole, of +systematising what they present in an unsystematical form, of showing +the mutual co-ordination or subordination of single passages and +sections, and of reconciling contradictions--which, according to the +view of the orthodox commentators, can be apparent only--is allotted to +a separate sastra or body of doctrine which is termed Mima/m/sa, i.e. +the investigation or enquiry [Greek: kat ezochaen], viz. the enquiry +into the connected meaning of the sacred texts. + +Of this Mima/m/sa two branches have to be distinguished, the so-called +earlier (purva) Mima/m/sa, and the later (uttara) Mima/m/sa. The former +undertakes to systematise the karmaka/nd/a, i.e. that entire portion of +the Veda which is concerned with action, pre-eminently sacrificial +action, and which comprises the Sa/m/hitas and the Brahma/n/as exclusive +of the Ara/n/yaka portions; the latter performs the same service with +regard to the so-called j/n/anaka/nd/a, i.e. that part of the Vedic +writings which includes the Ara/n/yaka portions of the Brahma/n/as, and +a number of detached treatises called Upanishads. Its subject is not +action but knowledge, viz. the knowledge of Brahman. + +At what period these two /s/astras first assumed a definite form, we are +unable to ascertain. Discussions of the nature of those which constitute +the subject-matter of the Purva Mima/m/sa must have arisen at a very +early period, and the word Mima/m/sa itself together with its +derivatives is already employed in the Brahma/n/as to denote the doubts +and discussions connected with certain contested points of ritual. The +want of a body of definite rules prescribing how to act, i.e. how to +perform the various sacrifices in full accordance with the teaching of +the Veda, was indeed an urgent one, because it was an altogether +practical want, continually pressing itself on the adhvaryus engaged in +ritualistic duties. And the task of establishing such rules was moreover +a comparatively limited and feasible one; for the members of a certain +Vedic sakha or school had to do no more than to digest thoroughly their +own brahma/n/a and sa/m/hita, without being under any obligation of +reconciling with the teaching of their own books the occasionally +conflicting rules implied in the texts of other sakhas. It was assumed +that action, as being something which depends on the will and choice of +man, admits of alternatives, so that a certain sacrifice may be +performed in different ways by members of different Vedic schools, or +even by the followers of one and the same sakha. + +The Uttara Mima/m/sa-/s/astra may be supposed to have originated +considerably later than the Purva Mima/m/sa. In the first place, the +texts with which it is concerned doubtless constitute the latest branch +of Vedic literature. And in the second place, the subject-matter of +those texts did not call for a systematical treatment with equal +urgency, as it was in no way connected with practice; the mental +attitude of the authors of the Upanishads, who in their lucubrations on +Brahman and the soul aim at nothing less than at definiteness and +coherence, may have perpetuated itself through many generations without +any great inconvenience resulting therefrom. + +But in the long run two causes must have acted with ever-increasing +force, to give an impulse to the systematic working up of the teaching +of the Upanishads also. The followers of the different Vedic sakhas no +doubt recognised already at an early period the truth that, while +conflicting statements regarding the details of a sacrifice can be got +over by the assumption of a vikalpa, i.e. an optional proceeding, it is +not so with regard to such topics as the nature of Brahman, the relation +to it of the human soul, the origin of the physical universe, and the +like. Concerning them, one opinion only can be the true one, and it +therefore becomes absolutely incumbent on those, who look on the whole +body of the Upanishads as revealed truth, to demonstrate that their +teaching forms a consistent whole free from all contradictions. In +addition there supervened the external motive that, while the +karmaka/nd/a of the Veda concerned only the higher castes of +brahmanically constituted society, on which it enjoins certain +sacrificial performances connected with certain rewards, the +j/n/anaka/nd/a, as propounding a certain theory of the world, towards +which any reflecting person inside or outside the pale of the orthodox +community could not but take up a definite position, must soon have +become the object of criticism on the part of those who held different +views on religious and philosophic things, and hence stood in need of +systematic defence. + +At present there exists a vast literature connected with the two +branches of the Mima/m/sa. We have, on the one hand, all those works +which constitute the Purva Mima/m/sa-/s/astra--or as it is often, +shortly but not accurately, termed, the Mima/m/sa-/s/astra--and, on the +other hand, all those works which are commonly comprised under the name +Vedanta-/s/astra. At the head of this extensive literature there stand +two collections of Sutras (i.e. short aphorisms constituting in their +totality a complete body of doctrine upon some subject), whose reputed +authors are Jainini and Badaraya/n/a. There can, however, be no doubt +that the composition of those two collections of Sutras was preceded by +a long series of preparatory literary efforts of which they merely +represent the highly condensed outcome. This is rendered probable by the +analogy of other /s/astras, as well as by the exhaustive thoroughness +with which the Sutras perform their task of systematizing the teaching +of the Veda, and is further proved by the frequent references which the +Sutras make to the views of earlier teachers. If we consider merely the +preserved monuments of Indian literature, the Sutras (of the two +Mima/m/sas as well as of other /s/astras) mark the beginning; if we, +however, take into account what once existed, although it is at present +irretrievably lost, we observe that they occupy a strictly central +position, summarising, on the one hand, a series of early literary +essays extending over many generations, and forming, on the other hand, +the head spring of an ever broadening activity of commentators as well +as virtually independent writers, which reaches down to our days, and +may yet have some future before itself. + +The general scope of the two Mima/m/sa-sutras and their relation to the +Veda have been indicated in what precedes. A difference of some +importance between the two has, however, to be noted in this connexion. +The systematisation of the karmaka/nd/a of the Veda led to the +elaboration of two classes of works, viz. the Kalpa-sutras on the one +hand, and the Purva Mima/m/sa-sutras on the other hand. The former give +nothing but a description as concise as possible of the sacrifices +enjoined in the Brahma/n/as; while the latter discuss and establish the +general principles which the author of a Kalpa-sutra has to follow, if +he wishes to render his rules strictly conformable to the teaching of +the Veda. The j/n/anaka/nd/a of the Veda, on the other hand, is +systematised in a single work, viz. the Uttara Mima/m/sa or +Vedanta-sutras, which combine the two tasks of concisely stating the +teaching of the Veda, and of argumentatively establishing the special +interpretation of the Veda adopted in the Sutras. This difference may be +accounted for by two reasons. In the first place, the contents of the +karmaka/nd/a, as being of an entirely practical nature, called for +summaries such as the Kalpa-sutras, from which all burdensome +discussions of method are excluded; while there was no similar reason +for the separation of the two topics in the case of the purely +theoretical science of Brahman. And, in the second place, the +Vedanta-sutras throughout presuppose the Purva Mima/m/sa-sutras, and may +therefore dispense with the discussion of general principles and methods +already established in the latter. + +The time at which the two Mima/m/sa-sutras were composed we are at +present unable to fix with any certainty; a few remarks on the subject +will, however, be made later on. Their outward form is that common to +all the so-called Sutras which aims at condensing a given body of +doctrine in a number of concise aphoristic sentences, and often even +mere detached words in lieu of sentences. Besides the Mima/m/sa-sutras +this literary form is common to the fundamental works on the other +philosophic systems, on the Vedic sacrifices, on domestic ceremonies, on +sacred law, on grammar, and on metres. The two Mima/m/sa-sutras occupy, +however, an altogether exceptional position in point of style. All +Sutras aim at conciseness; that is clearly the reason to which this +whole species of literary composition owes its existence. This their aim +they reach by the rigid exclusion of all words which can possibly be +spared, by the careful avoidance of all unnecessary repetitions, and, as +in the case of the grammatical Sutras, by the employment of an +arbitrarily coined terminology which substitutes single syllables for +entire words or combination of words. At the same time the manifest +intention of the Sutra writers is to express themselves with as much +clearness as the conciseness affected by them admits of. The aphorisms +are indeed often concise to excess, but not otherwise intrinsically +obscure, the manifest care of the writers being to retain what is +essential in a given phrase, and to sacrifice only what can be supplied, +although perhaps not without difficulty, and an irksome strain of memory +and reflection. Hence the possibility of understanding without a +commentary a very considerable portion at any rate of the ordinary +Sutras. Altogether different is the case of the two Mima/m/sa-sutras. +There scarcely one single Sutra is intelligible without a commentary. +The most essential words are habitually dispensed with; nothing is, for +instance, more common than the simple ommission of the subject or +predicate of a sentence. And when here and there a Sutra occurs whose +words construe without anything having to be supplied, the phraseology +is so eminently vague and obscure that without the help derived from a +commentary we should be unable to make out to what subject the Sutra +refers. When undertaking to translate either of the Mima/m/sa-sutras we +therefore depend altogether on commentaries; and hence the question +arises which of the numerous commentaries extant is to be accepted as a +guide to their right understanding. + +The commentary here selected for translation, together with +Badaraya/n/a's Sutras (to which we shall henceforth confine our +attention to the exclusion of Jaimini's Purva Mima/m/sa-sutras), is the +one composed by the celebrated theologian /S/a@nkara or, as he is +commonly called, /S/a@nkara/k/arya. There are obvious reasons for this +selection. In the first place, the /S/a@nkara-bhashya represents the +so-called orthodox side of Brahminical theology which strictly upholds +the Brahman or highest Self of the Upanishads as something different +from, and in fact immensely superior to, the divine beings such as +Vish/n/u or Siva, which, for many centuries, have been the chief objects +of popular worship in India. In the second place, the doctrine advocated +by /S/a@nkara is, from a purely philosophical point of view and apart +from all theological considerations, the most important and interesting +one which has arisen on Indian soil; neither those forms of the Vedanta +which diverge from the view represented by /S/a@nkara nor any of the +non-Vedantic systems can be compared with the so-called orthodox Vedanta +in boldness, depth, and subtlety of speculation. In the third place, +/S/a@nkara's bhaashya is, as far as we know, the oldest of the extant +commentaries, and relative antiquity is at any rate one of the +circumstances which have to be taken into account, although, it must be +admitted, too much weight may easily be attached to it. The +/S/a@nkara-bhashya further is the authority most generally deferred to +in India as to the right understanding of the Vedanta-sutras, and ever +since /S/a@nkara's time the majority of the best thinkers of India have +been men belonging to his school. If in addition to all this we take +into consideration the intrinsic merits of /S/a@nkara's work which, as a +piece of philosophical argumentation and theological apologetics, +undoubtedly occupies a high rank, the preference here given to it will +be easily understood. + +But to the European--or, generally, modern--translator of the +Vedanta-sutras with /S/a@nkara's commentary another question will of +course suggest itself at once, viz. whether or not /S/a@nkara's +explanations faithfully render the intended meaning of the author of the +Sutras. To the Indian Pandit of /S/a@nkara's school this question has +become an indifferent one, or, to state the case more accurately, he +objects to it being raised, as he looks on /S/a@nkara's authority as +standing above doubt and dispute. When pressed to make good his position +he will, moreover, most probably not enter into any detailed comparison +of /S/a@nkara's comments with the text of Badaraya/n/a's Sutras, but +will rather endeavour to show on speculative grounds that /S/a@nkara's +philosophical view is the only true one, whence it of course follows +that it accurately represents the meaning of Badaraya/n/a, who himself +must necessarily be assured to have taught the true doctrine. But on the +modern investigator, who neither can consider himself bound by the +authority of a name however great, nor is likely to look to any Indian +system of thought for the satisfaction of his speculative wants, it is +clearly incumbent not to acquiesce from the outset in the +interpretations given of the Vedanta-sutras--and the Upanishads--by +/S/a@nkara and his school, but to submit them, as far as that can be +done, to a critical investigation. + +This is a task which would have to be undertaken even if /S/a@nkara's +views as to the true meaning of the Sutras and Upanishads had never been +called into doubt on Indian soil, although in that case it could perhaps +hardly be entered upon with much hope of success; but it becomes much +more urgent, and at the same time more feasible, when we meet in India +itself with systems claiming to be Vedantic and based on interpretations +of the Sutras and Upanishads more or less differing from those of +/S/a@nkara. The claims of those systems to be in the possession of the +right understanding of the fundamental authorities of the Vedanta must +at any rate be examined, even if we should finally be compelled to +reject them. + +It appears that already at a very early period the Vedanta-sutras had +come to be looked upon as an authoritative work, not to be neglected by +any who wished to affiliate their own doctrines to the Veda. At present, +at any rate, there are very few Hindu sects not interested in showing +that their distinctive tenets are countenanced by Badaraya/n/a's +teaching. Owing to this the commentaries on the Sutras have in the +course of time become very numerous, and it is at present impossible to +give a full and accurate enumeration even of those actually existing, +much less of those referred to and quoted. Mr. Fitz-Edward Hall, in his +Bibliographical Index, mentions fourteen commentaries, copies of which +had been inspected by himself. Some among these (as, for instance, +Ramanuja's Vedanta-sara, No. XXXV) are indeed not commentaries in the +strict sense of the word, but rather systematic expositions of the +doctrine supposed to be propounded in the Sutras; but, on the other +hand, there are in existence several true commentaries which had not +been accessible to Fitz-Edward Hall. It would hardly be practical--and +certainly not feasible in this place--to submit all the existing +bhashyas to a critical enquiry at once. All we can do here is to single +out one or a few of the more important ones, and to compare their +interpretations with those given by /S/a@nkara, and with the text of the +Sutras themselves. + +The bhashya, which in this connexion is the first to press itself upon +our attention, is the one composed by the famous Vaish@nava theologian +and philosopher Ramanuja, who is supposed to have lived in the twelfth +century. The Ramanuja or, as it is often called, the /S/ri-bhashya +appears to be the oldest commentary extant next to /S/a@nkara's. It is +further to be noted that the sect of the Ramanujas occupies a +pre-eminent position among the Vaishnava, sects which themselves, in +their totality, may claim to be considered the most important among all +Hindu sects. The intrinsic value of the /S/ri-bhashya moreover is--as +every student acquainted with it will be ready to acknowledge--a very +high one; it strikes one throughout as a very solid performance due to a +writer of extensive learning and great power of argumentation, and in +its polemic parts, directed chiefly against the school of /S/a@nkara, it +not unfrequently deserves to be called brilliant even. And in addition +to all this it shows evident traces of being not the mere outcome of +Ramanuja's individual views, but of resting on an old and weighty +tradition. + +This latter point is clearly of the greatest importance. If it could be +demonstrated or even rendered probable only that the oldest bhashya +which we possess, i.e. the /S/a@nkara-bhashya, represents an +uninterrupted and uniform tradition bridging over the interval between +Badaraya/n/a, the reputed author of the Sutras, and /S/a@nkara; and if, +on the other hand, it could be shown that the more modern bhashyas are +not supported by old tradition, but are nothing more than bold attempts +of clever sectarians to force an old work of generally recognised +authority into the service of their individual tenets; there would +certainly be no reason for us to raise the question whether the later +bhashyas can help us in making out the true meaning of the Sutras. All +we should have to do in that case would be to accept /S/a@nkara's +interpretations as they stand, or at the utmost to attempt to make out, +if at all possible, by a careful comparison of /S/a@nkara's bhashya with +the text of the Sutras, whether the former in all cases faithfully +represents the purport of the latter. + +In the most recent book of note which at all enters into the question as +to how far we have to accept /S/a@nkara as a guide to the right +understanding of the Sutras (Mr. A. Gough's Philosophy of the +Upanishads) the view is maintained (pp. 239 ff.) that /S/a@nkara is the +generally recognised expositor of true Vedanta doctrine, that that +doctrine was handed down by an unbroken series of teachers intervening +between him and the Sutrakara, and that there existed from the beginning +only one Vedanta doctrine, agreeing in all essential points with the +doctrine known to us from /S/a@nkara's writings. Mr. Gough undertakes to +prove this view, firstly, by a comparison of /S/a@nkara's system with +the teaching of the Upanishads themselves; and, secondly, by a +comparison of the purport of the Sutras--as far as that can be made out +independently of the commentaries--with the interpretations given of +them by /S/a@nkara. To both these points we shall revert later on. +Meanwhile, I only wish to remark concerning the former point that, even +if we could show with certainty that all the Upanishads propound one and +the same doctrine, there yet remains the undeniable fact of our being +confronted by a considerable number of essentially differing theories, +all of which claim to be founded on the Upanishads. And with regard to +the latter point I have to say for the present that, as long as we have +only /S/a@nkara's bhashya before us, we are naturally inclined to find +in the Sutras--which, taken by themselves, are for the greater part +unintelligible--the meaning which /S/a@nkara ascribes to them; while a +reference to other bhashyas may not impossibly change our views at +once.--Meanwhile, we will consider the question as to the unbroken +uniformity of Vedantic tradition from another point or view, viz. by +enquiring whether or not the Sutras themselves, and the +/S/a@nkara-bhashya, furnish any indications of there having existed +already at an early time essentially different Vedantic systems or lines +of Vedantic speculation. + +Beginning with the Sutras, we find that they supply ample evidence to +the effect that already at a very early time, viz. the period antecedent +to the final composition of the Vedanta-sutras in their present shape, +there had arisen among the chief doctors of the Vedanta differences of +opinion, bearing not only upon minor points of doctrine, but affecting +the most essential parts of the system. In addition to Badaraya/n/a +himself, the reputed author of the Sutras, the latter quote opinions +ascribed to the following teachers: Atreya, A/s/marathya, Au/d/ulomi, +Karsh/n/agini, Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna, Jaimini, Badari. Among the passages +where diverging views of those teachers are recorded and contrasted +three are of particular importance. Firstly, a passage in the fourth +pada of the fourth adhyaya (Sutras 5-7), where the opinions of various +teachers concerning the characteristics of the released soul are given, +and where the important discrepancy is noted that, according to +Au/d/ulomi, its only characteristic is thought (/k/aitanya), while +Jaimini maintains that it possesses a number of exalted qualities, and +Badaraya/n/a declares himself in favour of a combination of those two +views.--The second passage occurs in the third pada of the fourth +adhyaya (Sutras 7-14), where Jaimini maintains that the soul of him who +possesses the lower knowledge of Brahman goes after death to the highest +Brahman, while Badari--whose opinion is endorsed by /S/a@nkara--teaches +that it repairs to the lower Brahman only--Finally, the third and most +important passage is met with in the fourth pada of the first adhyaya +(Sutras 20-22), where the question is discussed why in a certain passage +of the Brhadara/n/yaka Brahman is referred to in terms which are +strictly applicable to the individual soul only. In connexion therewith +the Sutras quote the views of three ancient teachers about the relation +in which the individual soul stands to Brahman. According to +A/s/marathya (if we accept the interpretation of his view given by +/S/a@nkara and /S/a@nkara's commentators) the soul stands to Brahman in +the bhedabheda relation, i.e. it is neither absolutely different nor +absolutely non-different from it, as sparks are from fire. Audulomi, on +the other hand, teaches that the soul is altogether different from +Brahman up to the time when obtaining final release it is merged in it, +and Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna finally upholds the doctrine that the soul is +absolutely non-different from Brahman; which, in, some way or other +presents itself as the individual soul. + +That the ancient teachers, the ripest outcome of whose speculations and +discussions is embodied in the Vedanta-sutras, disagreed among +themselves on points of vital importance is sufficiently proved by the +three passages quoted. The one quoted last is specially significant as +showing that recognised authorities--deemed worthy of being quoted in +the Sutras--denied that doctrine on which the whole system of /S/a@nkara +hinges, viz. the doctrine of the absolute identity of the individual +soul with Brahman. + +Turning next to the /S/a@nkara-bhashya itself, we there also meet with +indications that the Vedantins were divided among themselves on +important points of dogma. These indications are indeed not numerous: +/S/a@nkara, does not on the whole impress one as an author particularly +anxious to strengthen his own case by appeals to ancient authorities, a +peculiarity of his which later writers of hostile tendencies have not +failed to remark and criticise. But yet more than once /S/a@nkara also +refers to the opinion of 'another,' viz., commentator of the Sutras, and +in several places /S/a@nkara's commentators explain that the 'other' +meant is the V/ri/ttikara (about whom more will be said shortly). Those +references as a rule concern minor points of exegesis, and hence throw +little or no light on important differences of dogma; but there are two +remarks of /S/a@nkara's at any rate which are of interest in this +connexion. The one is made with reference to Sutras 7-14 of the third +pada of the fourth adhyaya; 'some,' he says there, 'declare those +Sutras, which I look upon as setting forth the siddhanta view, to state +merely the purvapaksha;' a difference of opinion which, as we have seen +above, affects the important question as to the ultimate fate of those +who have not reached the knowledge of the highest Brahman.--And under I, +3, 19 /S/a@nkara, after having explained at length that the individual +soul as such cannot claim any reality, but is real only in so far as it +is identical with Brahman, adds the following words, 'apare tu vadina/h/ +paramarthikam eva jaiva/m/ rupam iti manyante asmadiya/s/ /k/a ke/k/it,' +i.e. other theorisers again, and among them some of ours, are of opinion +that the individual soul as such is real.' The term 'ours,' here made +use of, can denote only the Aupanishadas or Vedantins, and it thus +appears that /S/a@nkara himself was willing to class under the same +category himself and philosophers who--as in later times the Ramanujas +and others--looked upon the individual soul as not due to the fictitious +limitations of Maya, but as real in itself; whatever may be the relation +in which they considered it to stand to the highest Self. + +From what precedes it follows that the Vedantins of the school to which +/S/a@nkara himself belonged acknowledged the existence of Vedantic +teaching of a type essentially different from their own. We must now +proceed to enquire whether the Ramanuja system, which likewise claims to +be Vedanta, and to be founded on the Vedanta-sutras, has any title to be +considered an ancient system and the heir of a respectable tradition. + +It appears that Ramanuja claims--and by Hindu writers is generally +admitted--to follow in his bhashya the authority of Bodhayana, who had +composed a v/ri/tti on the Sutras. Thus we read in the beginning of the +/S/ri-bhashya (Pandit, New Series, VII, p. 163), +'Bhagavad-bodhayanak/ri/ta/m/ vistirna/m/ brahmasutra-v/ri/tti/m/ +purva/k/arya/h/ sa/m/kikshipus tanmatanusare/n/a sutrakshara/n/i +vyakhyasyante.' Whether the Bodhayana to whom that v/ri/tti is ascribed +is to be identified with the author of the Kalpa-sutra, and other works, +cannot at present be decided. But that an ancient v/ri/tti on the Sutras +connected with Bodhayana's name actually existed, there is not any +reason to doubt. Short quotations from it are met with in a few places +of the /S/ri-bhashya, and, as we have seen above, /S/a@nkara's +commentators state that their author's polemical remarks are directed +against the V/ri/ttikara. In addition to Bodhayana, Ramanuja appeals to +quite a series of ancient teachers--purva/k/aryas--who carried on the +true tradition as to the teaching of the Vedanta and the meaning of the +Sutras. In the Vedarthasa@ngraha--a work composed by Ramanuja +himself--we meet in one place with the enumeration of the following +authorities: Bodhayana, /T/a@nka, Drami/d/a, Guhadeva, Kapardin, +Bharu/k/i, and quotations from the writings of some of these are not +unfrequent in the Vedarthasa@ngraha, as well as the /S/ri-bhashya. The +author most frequently quoted is Drami/d/a, who composed the +Drami/d/a-bhashya; he is sometimes referred to as the bhashyakara. +Another writer repeatedly quoted as the vakyakara is, I am told, to be +identified with the /T/a@nka mentioned above. I refrain from inserting +in this place the information concerning the relative age of these +writers which may be derived from the oral tradition of the Ramanuja +sect. From another source, however, we receive an intimation that +Drami/d/a/k/arya or Dravi/d/a/k/arya preceded /S/a@nkara in point of +time. In his /t/ika on /S/a@nkara's bhashya to the Chandogya Upanishad +III, 10, 4, Anandagiri remarks that the attempt made by his author to +reconcile the cosmological views of the Upanishad with the teaching of +Sm/ri/ti on the same point is a reproduction of the analogous attempt +made by the Dravi/d/a/k/arya. + +It thus appears that that special interpretation of the Vedanta-sutras +with which the /S/ri-bhashya makes us acquainted is not due to +innovating views on the part of Ramanuja, but had authoritative +representatives already at a period anterior to that of /S/a@nkara. This +latter point, moreover, receives additional confirmation from the +relation in which the so-called Ramanuja sect stands to earlier sects. +What the exact position of Ramanuja was, and of what nature were the +reforms that rendered him so prominent as to give his name to a new +sect, is not exactly known at present; at the same time it is generally +acknowledged that the Ramanujas are closely connected with the so-called +Bhagavatas or Pa/nk/aratras, who are known to have existed already at a +very early time. This latter point is proved by evidence of various +kinds; for our present purpose it suffices to point to the fact that, +according to the interpretation of the most authoritative commentators, +the last Sutras of the second pada of the second adhyaya +(Vedanta-sutras) refer to a distinctive tenet of the Bhagavatas--which +tenet forms part of the Ramanuja system also--viz. that the highest +being manifests itself in a fourfold form (vyuha) as Vasudeva, +Sa@nkarsha/n/a, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, those four forms being identical +with the highest Self, the individual soul, the internal organ (manas), +and the principle of egoity (aha@nkara). Whether those Sutras embody an +approval of the tenet referred to, as Ramanuja maintains, or are meant +to impugn it, as /S/a@nkara thinks; so much is certain that in the +opinion of the best commentators the Bhagavatas, the direct forerunners +of the Ramanujas, are mentioned in the Sutras themselves, and hence must +not only have existed, but even reached a considerable degree of +importance at the time when the Sutras were composed. And considering +the general agreement of the systems of the earlier Bhagavatas and the +later Ramanujas, we have a full right to suppose that the two sects were +at one also in their mode of interpreting the Vedanta-sutras. + +The preceding considerations suffice, I am inclined to think, to show +that it will by no means be wasted labour to enquire how Ramanuja +interprets the Sutras, and wherein he differs from /S/a@nkara. This in +fact seems clearly to be the first step we have to take, if we wish to +make an attempt at least of advancing beyond the interpretations of +scholiasts to the meaning of the Sutras themselves. A full and +exhaustive comparison of the views of the two commentators would indeed +far exceed the limits of the space which can here he devoted to that +task, and will, moreover, be made with greater ease and advantage when +the complete Sanskrit text of the /S/ri-bhashya has been printed, and +thus made available for general reference. But meanwhile it is possible, +and--as said before--even urged upon a translator of the Sutras to +compare the interpretations, given by the two bhashyakaras, of those +Sutras, which, more than others, touch on the essential points of the +Vedanta system. This will best be done in connexion with a succinct but +full review of the topics discussed in the adhikara/n/as of the +Vedanta-sutras, according to /S/a@nkara; a review which--apart from the +side-glances at Ramanuja's comments--will be useful as a guide through +the Sutras and the /S/a@nkara-bhashya. Before, however, entering on that +task, I think it advisable to insert short sketches of the philosophical +systems of /S/a@nkara as well as of Ramanuja, which may be referred to +when, later on discrepancies between the two commentators will be noted. +In these sketches I shall confine myself to the leading features, and +not enter into any details. Of /S/a@nkara's system we possess as it is +more than one trustworthy exposition; it may suffice to refer to +Deussen's System of the Vedanta, in which the details of the entire +system, as far as they can be learned from the Sutra-bhashya, are +represented fully and faithfully, and to Gough's Philosophy of the +Upanishads which, principally in its second chapter, gives a lucid +sketch of the /S/a@nkara Vedanta, founded on the Sutra-bhashya, the +Upanishad bhashyas, and some later writers belonging to /S/a@nkara's +school. With regard to Ramanuja's philosophy our chief source was, +hitherto, the Ramanuja chapter in the Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha; the +short sketch about to be given is founded altogether on the +/S/ri-bhashya itself. + +What in /S/a@nkara's opinion the Upanishads teach, is shortly as +follows.--Whatever is, is in reality one; there truly exists only one +universal being called Brahman or Paramatman, the highest Self. This +being is of an absolutely homogeneous nature; it is pure 'Being,' or, +which comes to the same, pure intelligence or thought (/k/aitanya, +j/n/ana). Intelligence or thought is not to be predicated of Brahman as +its attribute, but constitutes its substance, Brahman is not a thinking +being, but thought itself. It is absolutely destitute of qualities; +whatever qualities or attributes are conceivable, can only be denied of +it.--But, if nothing exists but one absolutely simple being, whence the +appearance of the world by which we see ourselves surrounded, and, in +which we ourselves exist as individual beings?--Brahman, the answer +runs, is associated with a certain power called Maya or avidya to which +the appearance of this entire world is due. This power cannot be called +'being' (sat), for 'being' is only Brahman; nor can it be called +'non-being' (asat) in the strict sense, for it at any rate produces the +appearance of this world. It is in fact a principle of illusion; the +undefinable cause owing to which there seems to exist a material world +comprehending distinct individual existences. Being associated with this +principle of illusion, Brahman is enabled to project the appearance of +the world, in the same way as a magician is enabled by his +incomprehensible magical power to produce illusory appearances of +animate and inanimate beings. Maya thus constitutes the upadana, the +material cause of the world; or--if we wish to call attention to the +circumstance that Maya belongs to Brahman as a /s/akti--we may say that +the material cause of the world is Brahman in so far as it is associated +with Maya. In this latter quality Brahman is more properly called +I/s/vara, the Lord. + +Maya, under the guidance of the Lord, modifies itself by a progressive +evolution into all the individual existences (bheda), distinguished by +special names and forms, of which the world consists; from it there +spring in due succession the different material elements and the whole +bodily apparatus belonging to sentient Beings. In all those apparently, +individual forms of existence the one indivisible Brahman is present, +but, owing to the particular adjuncts into which Maya has specialised +itself, it appears to be broken up--it is broken up, as it were--into a +multiplicity, of intellectual or sentient principles, the so-called +jivas (individual or personal souls). What is real in each jiva is only +the universal Brahman itself; the whole aggregate of individualising +bodily organs and mental functions, which in our ordinary experience +separate and distinguish one jiva from another, is the offspring of Maya +and as such unreal. + +The phenomenal world or world of ordinary experience (vyavahara) thus +consists of a number of individual souls engaged in specific cognitions, +volitions, and so on, and of the external material objects with which +those cognitions and volitions are concerned. Neither the specific +cognitions nor their objects are real in the true sense of the word, for +both are altogether due to Maya. But at the same time we have to reject +the idealistic doctrine of certain Bauddha schools according to which +nothing whatever truly exists, but certain trains of cognitional acts or +ideas to which no external objects correspond; for external things, +although not real in the strict sense of the word, enjoy at any rate as +much reality as the specific cognitional acts whose objects they are. + +The non-enlightened soul is unable to look through and beyond Maya, +which, like a veil, hides from it its true nature. Instead of +recognising itself to be Brahman, it blindly identifies itself with its +adjuncts (upadhi), the fictitious offspring of Maya, and thus looks for +its true Self in the body, the sense organs, and the internal organ +(manas), i.e. the organ of specific cognition. The soul, which in +reality is pure intelligence, non-active, infinite, thus becomes limited +in extent, as it were, limited in knowledge and power, an agent and +enjoyer. Through its actions it burdens itself with merit and demerit, +the consequences of which it has to bear or enjoy in series of future +embodied existences, the Lord--as a retributor and dispenser--allotting +to each soul that form of embodiment to which it is entitled by its +previous actions. At the end of each of the great world periods called +kalpas the Lord retracts the whole world, i.e. the whole material world +is dissolved and merged into non-distinct Maya, while the individual +souls, free for the time from actual connexion with upadhis, lie in deep +slumber as it were. But as the consequences of their former deeds are +not yet exhausted, they have again to enter on embodied existence as +soon as the Lord sends forth a new material world, and the old round of +birth, action, death begins anew to last to all eternity as it has +lasted from all eternity. + +The means of escaping from this endless sa/ms/ara, the way out of which +can never be found by the non-enlightened soul, are furnished by the +Veda. The karmaka/nd/a indeed, whose purport it is to enjoin certain +actions, cannot lead to final release; for even the most meritorious +works necessarily lead to new forms of embodied existence. And in the +j/n/anaka/nd/a of the Veda also two different parts have to be +distinguished, viz., firstly, those chapters and passages which treat of +Brahman in so far as related to the world, and hence characterised by +various attributes, i.e. of I/s/vara or the lower Brahman; and, +secondly, those texts which set forth the nature of the highest Brahman +transcending all qualities, and the fundamental identity of the +individual soul with that highest Brahman. Devout meditation on Brahman +as suggested by passages of the former kind does not directly lead to +final emancipation; the pious worshipper passes on his death into the +world of the lower Brahman only, where he continues to exist as a +distinct individual soul--although in the enjoyment of great power and +knowledge--until at last he reaches the highest knowledge, and, through +it, final release.--That student of the Veda, on the other hand, whose +soul has been enlightened by the texts embodying the higher knowledge of +Brahman, whom passages such as the great saying, 'That art thou,' have +taught that there is no difference between his true Self and the highest +Self, obtains at the moment of death immediate final release, i.e. he +withdraws altogether from the influence of Maya, and asserts himself in +his true nature, which is nothing else but the absolute highest Brahman. + +Thus /S/a@nkara.--According to Ramanuja, on the other hand, the teaching +of the Upanishads has to be summarised as follows.--There exists only +one all-embracing being called Brahman or the highest Self of the Lord. +This being is not destitute of attributes, but rather endowed with all +imaginable auspicious qualities. It is not 'intelligence,'--as +/S/a@nkara maintains,--but intelligence is its chief attribute. The Lord +is all-pervading, all-powerful, all-knowing, all-merciful; his nature is +fundamentally antagonistic to all evil. He contains within himself +whatever exists. While, according to /S/a@nkara, the only reality is to +be found in the non-qualified homogeneous highest Brahman which can only +be defined as pure 'Being' or pure thought, all plurality being a mere +illusion; Brahman--according to Ramanuja's view--comprises within itself +distinct elements of plurality which all of them lay claim to absolute +reality of one and the same kind. Whatever is presented to us by +ordinary experience, viz. matter in all its various modifications and +the individual souls of different classes and degrees, are essential +real constituents of Brahman's nature. Matter and souls (a/k/it and +/k/it) constitute, according to Ramanuja's terminology, the body of the +Lord; they stand to him in the same relation of entire dependence and +subserviency in which the matter forming an animal or vegetable body +stands to its soul or animating principle. The Lord pervades and rules +all things which exist--material or immaterial--as their antaryamin; the +fundamental text for this special Ramanuja tenet--which in the writings +of the sect is quoted again and again--is the so-called antaryamin +brahma/n/a. (B/ri/. Up. III, 7) which says, that within all elements, +all sense organs, and, lastly, within all individual souls, there abides +an inward ruler whose body those elements, sense-organs, and individual +souls constitute.--Matter and souls as forming the body of the Lord are +also called modes of him (prakara). They are to be looked upon as his +effects, but they have enjoyed the kind of individual existence which is +theirs from all eternity, and will never be entirely resolved into +Brahman. They, however, exist in two different, periodically +alternating, conditions. At some times they exist in a subtle state in +which they do not possess those qualities by which they are ordinarily +known, and there is then no distinction of individual name and form. +Matter in that state is unevolved (avyakta); the individual souls are +not joined to material bodies, and their intelligence is in a state of +contraction, non-manifestation (sa@nko/k/a). This is the pralaya state +which recurs at the end of each kalpa, and Brahman is then said to be in +its causal condition (kara/n/avastha). To that state all those +scriptural passages refer which speak of Brahman or the Self as being in +the beginning one only, without a second. Brahman then is indeed not +absolutely one, for it contains within itself matter and souls in a +germinal condition; but as in that condition they are so subtle as not +to allow of individual distinctions being made, they are not counted as +something second in addition to Brahman.--When the pralaya state comes +to an end, creation takes place owing to an act of volition on the +Lord's part. Primary unevolved matter then passes over into its other +condition; it becomes gross and thus acquires all those sensible +attributes, visibility, tangibility, and so on, which are known from +ordinary experience. At the same time the souls enter into connexion +with material bodies corresponding to the degree of merit or demerit +acquired by them in previous forms of existence; their intelligence at +the same time undergoes a certain expansion (vika/s/a). The Lord, +together with matter in its gross state and the 'expanded' souls, is +Brahman in the condition of an effect (karyavastha). Cause and effect +are thus at the bottom the same; for the effect is nothing but the cause +which has undergone a certain change (pari/n/ama). Hence the cause being +known, the effect is known likewise. + +Owing to the effects of their former actions the individual souls are +implicated in the sa/m/sara, the endless cycle of birth, action, and +death, final escape from which is to be obtained only through the study +of the j/n/anaka/nd/a of the Veda. Compliance with the injunctions of +the karmaka/nd/a does not lead outside the sa/m/sara; but he who, +assisted by the grace of the Lord, cognizes--and meditates on--him in +the way prescribed by the Upanishads reaches at his death final +emancipation, i.e. he passes through the different stages of the path of +the gods up to the world of Brahman and there enjoys an everlasting +blissful existence from which there is no return into the sphere of +transmigration. The characteristics of the released soul are similar to +those of Brahman; it participates in all the latter's glorious qualities +and powers, excepting only Brahman's power to emit, rule, and retract +the entire world. + +The chief points in which the two systems sketched above agree on the +one hand and diverge on the other may be shortly stated as +follows.--Both systems teach advaita, i.e. non-duality or monism. There +exist not several fundamentally distinct principles, such as the +prak/r/iti and the purushas of the Sa@nkhyas, but there exists only one +all-embracing being. While, however, the advaita taught by /S/a@nkara is +a rigorous, absolute one, Ramanuja's doctrine has to be characterised as +visish/t/a advaita, i.e. qualified non-duality, non-duality with a +difference. According to Sankara, whatever is, is Brahman, and Brahman +itself is absolutely homogeneous, so that all difference and plurality +must be illusory. According to Ramanuja also, whatever is, is Brahman; +but Brahman is not of a homogeneous nature, but contains within itself +elements of plurality owing to which it truly manifests itself in a +diversified world. The world with its variety of material forms of +existence and individual souls is not unreal Maya, but a real part of +Brahman's nature, the body investing the universal Self. The Brahman of +/S/a@nkara is in itself impersonal, a homogeneous mass of objectless +thought, transcending all attributes; a personal God it becomes only +through its association with the unreal principle of Maya, so +that--strictly speaking--/S/a@nkara's personal God, his I/s/vara, is +himself something unreal. Ramanuja's Brahman, on the other hand, is +essentially a personal God, the all-powerful and all-wise ruler of a +real world permeated and animated by his spirit. There is thus no room +for the distinction between a param nirgu/n/am and an apara/m/ sagu/n/am +brahma, between Brahman and I/s/vara.--/S/a@nkara's individual soul is +Brahman in so far as limited by the unreal upadhis due to Maya. The +individual soul of Ramanuja, on the other hand, is really individual; it +has indeed sprung from Brahman and is never outside Brahman, but +nevertheless it enjoys a separate personal existence and will remain a +personality for ever--The release from sa/m/sara means, according to +/S/a@nkara, the absolute merging of the individual soul in Brahman, due +to the dismissal of the erroneous notion that the soul is distinct from +Brahman; according to Ramanuja it only means the soul's passing from the +troubles of earthly life into a kind of heaven or paradise where it will +remain for ever in undisturbed personal bliss.--As Ramanuja does not +distinguish a higher and lower Brahman, the distinction of a higher and +lower knowledge is likewise not valid for him; the teaching of the +Upanishads is not twofold but essentially one, and leads the enlightened +devotee to one result only [1]. + +I now proceed to give a conspectus of the contents of the Vedanta-sutras +according to /S/a@nkara in which at the same time all the more important +points concerning which Ramanuja disagrees will be noted. We shall here +have to enter into details which to many may appear tedious. But it is +only on a broad substratum of accurately stated details that we can hope +to establish any definite conclusions regarding the comparative value of +the different modes of interpretation which have been applied to the +Sutras. The line of investigation is an entirely new one, and for the +present nothing can be taken for granted or known.--In stating the +different heads of discussion (the so-called adhikara/n/as), each of +which comprises one or more Sutras, I shall follow the subdivision into +adhikara/n/as adopted in the Vyasadhika-ra/n/amala, the text of which is +printed in the second volume of the Bibliotheca Indica edition of the +Sutras. + + +FIRST ADHYAYA. +PADA I. + + +The first five adhikara/n/as lay down the fundamental positions with +regard to Brahman. Adhik. I (1) [2] treats of what the study of the +Vedanta presupposes. Adhik. II (2) defines Brahman as that whence the +world originates, and so on. Adhik. III (3) declares that Brahman is the +source of the Veda. Adhik. IV (4) proves Brahman to be the uniform topic +of all Vedanta-texts. Adhik. V (5-11) is engaged in proving by various +arguments that the Brahman, which the Vedanta-texts represent as the +cause of the world, is an intelligent principle, and cannot be +identified with the non-intelligent pradhana from which the world +springs according to the Sa@nkhyas. + +With the next adhikara/n/a there begins a series of discussions of +essentially similar character, extending up to the end of the first +adhyaya. The question is throughout whether certain terms met with in +the Upanishads denote Brahman or some other being, in most cases the +jiva, the individual soul. /S/a@nkara remarks at the outset that, as the +preceding ten Sutras had settled the all-important point that all the +Vedanta-texts refer to Brahman, the question now arises why the enquiry +should be continued any further, and thereupon proceeds to explain that +the acknowledged distinction of a higher Brahman devoid of all qualities +and a lower Brahman characterised by qualities necessitates an +investigation whether certain Vedic texts of prima facie doubtful import +set forth the lower Brahman as the object of devout meditation, or the +higher Brahman as the object of true knowledge. But that such an +investigation is actually carried on in the remaining portion of the +first adhyaya, appears neither from the wording of the Sutras nor even +from /S/a@nkara's own treatment of the Vedic texts referred to in the +Sutras. In I, 1, 20, for instance, the question is raised whether the +golden man within the sphere of the sun, with golden hair and beard and +lotus-coloured eyes--of whom the Chandogya Upanishad speaks in 1, 6, +6--is an individual soul abiding within the sun or the highest Lord. +/S/a@nkara's answer is that the passage refers to the Lord, who, for the +gratification of his worshippers, manifests himself in a bodily shape +made of Maya. So that according to /S/a@nkara himself the alternative +lies between the sagu/n/a Brahman and some particular individual soul, +not between the sagu/n/a Brahman and the nirgu/n/a Brahman. + +Adhik. VI (12-19) raises the question whether the anandamaya, mentioned +in Taittiriya Upanishad II, 5, is merely a transmigrating individual +soul or the highest Self. /S/a@nkara begins by explaining the Sutras on +the latter supposition--and the text of the Sutras is certainly in +favour of that interpretation--gives, however, finally the preference to +a different and exceedingly forced explanation according to which the +Sutras teach that the anandamaya is not Brahman, since the Upanishad +expressly says that Brahman is the tail or support of the +anandamaya[3].--Ramanuja's interpretation of Adhikara/n/a VI, although +not agreeing in all particulars with the former explanation of +/S/a@nkara, yet is at one with it in the chief point, viz. that the +anandamaya is Brahman. It further deserves notice that, while /S/a@nkara +looks on Adhik. VI as the first of a series of interpretatory +discussions, all of which treat the question whether certain Vedic +passages refer to Brahman or not, Ramanuja separates the adhikara/n/a +from the subsequent part of the pada and connects it with what had +preceded. In Adhik. V it had been shown that Brahman cannot be +identified with the pradhana; Adhik. VI shows that it is different from +the individual soul, and the proof of the fundamental position of the +system is thereby completed[4].--Adhik. VII (20, 21) demonstrates that +the golden person seen within the sun and the person seen within the +eye, mentioned in Ch. Up. I, 6, are not some individual soul of high +eminence, but the supreme Brahman.--Adhik. VIII (22) teaches that by the +ether from which, according to Ch. Up. I, 9, all beings originate, not +the elemental ether has to be understood but the highest +Brahman.--Adhik. IX (23). The pra/n/a also mentioned in Ch. Up. I, ii, 5 +denotes the highest Brahman[5]--Adhik. X (24-27) teaches that the light +spoken of in Ch. Up. III, 13, 7 is not the ordinary physical light but +the highest Brahman[6].--Adhik. XI (28-31) decides that the pra/n/a +mentioned in Kau. Up. III, 2 is Brahman. + + +PADA II. + + +Adhik. I (1-8) shows that the being which consists of mind, whose body +is breath, &c., mentioned in Ch. Up. III, 14, is not the individual +soul, but Brahman. The Sutras of this adhikara/n/a emphatically dwell on +the difference of the individual soul and the highest Self, whence +/S/a@nkara is obliged to add an explanation--in his comment on Sutra +6--to the effect that that difference is to be understood as not real, +but as due to the false limiting adjuncts of the highest Self.--The +comment of Ramanuja throughout closely follows the words of the Sutras; +on Sutra 6 it simply remarks that the difference of the highest Self +from the individual soul rests thereon that the former as free from all +evil is not subject to the effects of works in the same way as the soul +is [7].--Adhik. II (9, 10) decides that he to whom the Brahmans and +Kshattriyas are but food (Ka/th/a. Up. I, 2, 25) is the highest +Self.--Adhik. III (11, 12) shows that the two entered into the cave +(Ka/th/a Up. I, 3, 1) are Brahman and the individual soul[8].--Adhik. IV +(13-17) shows that the person within the eye mentioned in Ch. Up. IV, +15, 1 is Brahman.--Adhik. V (18-20) shows that the ruler within +(antaraymin) described in B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 3 is Brahman. Sutra 20 +clearly enounces the difference of the individual soul and the Lord; +hence /S/a@nkara is obliged to remark that that difference is not +real.--Adhik. VI (21-23) proves that that which cannot be seen, &c, +mentioned in Mu/nd/aka Up. I, 1, 3 is Brahman.--Adhik. VII (24-32) shows +that the atman vai/s/vanara of Ch. Up. V, 11, 6 is Brahman. + + +PADA III. + + +Adhik. I (1-7) proves that that within which the heaven, the earth, &c. +are woven (Mu/nd/. Up. II, 2, 5) is Brahman.--Adhik. II (8, 9) shows +that the bhuman referred to in Ch. Up. VII, 23 is Brahman.--Adhik. III +(10-12) teaches that the Imperishable in which, according to B/ri/. Up. +III, 8, 8, the ether is woven is Brahman.--Adhik. IV (13) decides that +the highest person who is to be meditated upon with the syllable Om, +according to Pra/s/na Up. V, 5, is not the lower but the higher +Brahman.--According to Ramanuja the two alternatives are Brahman and +Brahma (jivasamash/t/irupoz/nd/adhipatis /k/aturmukha/h/).--Adhik. V and +VI (comprising, according to /S/a@nkara, Sutras l4-2l) discuss the +question whether the small ether within the lotus of the heart mentioned +in Ch. Up. VIII, 1 is the elemental ether or the individual soul or +Brahman; the last alternative being finally adopted. In favour of the +second alternative the purvapakshin pleads the two passages Ch. Up. +VIII, 3, 4 and VIII, 12, 3, about the serene being (samprasada); for by +the latter the individual soul only can be understood, and in the +chapter, of which the latter passage forms part, there are ascribed to +it the same qualities (viz. freeness from sin, old age, death, &c.) that +were predicated in VIII, 1, of the small ether within the heart.--But +the reply to this is, that the second passage refers not to the +(ordinary) individual soul but to the soul in that state where its true +nature has become manifest, i.e. in which it is Brahman; so that the +subject of the passage is in reality not the so-called individual soul +but Brahman. And in the former of the two passages the soul is mentioned +not on its own account, but merely for the purpose of intimating that +the highest Self is the cause through which the individual soul +manifests itself in its true nature.--What Ramanuja understands by the +avirbhava of the soul will appear from the remarks on IV, 4. + +The two next Sutras (22, 23) constitute, according to /S/a@nkara, a new +adhikara/n/a (VII), proving that he 'after whom everything shines, by +whose light all this is lighted' (Ka/th/a Up. II, 5, 15) is not some +material luminous body, but Brahman itself.--According to Ramanuja the +two Sutras do not start a new topic, but merely furnish some further +arguments strengthening the conclusion arrived at in the preceding +Sutras.[9] + +Adhik. VIII (24, 25) decides that the person of the size of a thumb +mentioned in Ka/th/a Up. II, 4, 12 is not the individual soul but +Brahman. + +The two next adhikara/n/as are of the nature of a digression. The +passage about the a@ngush/th/amatra was explained on the ground that the +human heart is of the size of a span; the question may then be asked +whether also such individuals as belong to other classes than mankind, +more particularly the Gods, are capable of the knowledge of Brahman: a +question finally answered in the affirmative.--This discussion leads in +its turn to several other digressions, among which the most important +one refers to the problem in what relation the different species of +beings stand to the words denoting them (Sutra 28). In connexion +herewith /S/a@nkara treats of the nature of words (/s/abda), opposing +the opinion of the Mima/m/saka Upavarsha, according to whom the word is +nothing but the aggregate of its constitutive letters, to the view of +the grammarians who teach that over and above the aggregate of the +letters there exists a super-sensuous entity called 'spho/t/a,' which is +the direct cause of the apprehension of the sense of a word (Adhik. IX; +Sutras 26-33). + +Adhik. X (34-38) explains that /S/udras are altogether disqualified for +Brahmavidya. + +Sutra 39 constitutes, according to /S/a@nkara, a new adhikara/n/a (XI), +proving that the pra/n/a in which everything trembles, according to +/K/a/th/a Up. II, 6, 2, is Brahman.--According to Ramanuja the Sutra +does not introduce a new topic but merely furnishes an additional reason +for the decision arrived at under Sutras 24, 25, viz. that the +a@ngus/th/amatra is Brahman. On this supposition, Sutras 24-39 form one +adhikara/n/a in which 26-38 constitute a mere digression led up to by +the mention made of the heart in 25.--The a@ngus/th/matra is referred to +twice in the Ka/th/a Upanishad, once in the passage discussed (II, 4, +12), and once in II, 6, 17 ('the Person not larger than a thumb'). To +determine what is meant by the a@ngus/th/matra, Ramanuja says, we are +enabled by the passage II, 6, 2, 3, which is intermediate between the +two passages concerning the a@ngus/th/matra, and which clearly refers to +the highest Brahman, of which alone everything can be said to stand in +awe. + +The next Sutra (40) gives rise to a similar difference of opinion. +According to /S/a@nkara it constitutes by itself a new adhikara/n/a +(XII), proving that the 'light' (jyotis) mentioned in Ch. Up. VIII, 12, +3 is the highest Brahman.--According to Ramanuja the Sutra continues the +preceding adhikara/n/a, and strengthens the conclusion arrived at by a +further argument, referring to Ka/th/a Up. II, 5, 15--a passage +intermediate between the two passages about the a@ngush/th/amatra--which +speaks of a primary light that cannot mean anything but Brahman. The +Sutra has in that case to be translated as follows: '(The +a@ngush/th/amatra is Brahman) because (in a passage intervening between +the two) a light is seen to be mentioned (which can be Brahman only).' + +The three last Sutras of the pada are, according to /S/a@nkara, to be +divided into two adhikara/n/as (XIII and XIV), Sutra 41 deciding that +the ether which reveals names and forms (Ch. Up. VIII, 14) is not the +elemental ether but Brahman; and 42, 43 teaching that the vij/n/anamaya, +'he who consists of knowledge,' of B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 7 is not the +individual soul but Brahman.--According to Ramanuja the three Sutras +make up one single adhikara/n/a discussing whether the Chandogya +Upanishad passage about the ether refers to Brahman or to the individual +soul in the state of release; the latter of these two alternatives being +suggested by the circumstance that the released soul is the subject of +the passage immediately preceding ('Shaking off all evil as a horse +shakes off his hair,' &c.). Sutra 41 decides that 'the ether (is +Brahman) because the passage designates the nature of something else,' +&c. (i.e. of something other than the individual soul; other because to +the soul the revealing of names and forms cannot be ascribed, &c.)--But, +an objection is raised, does not more than one scriptural passage show +that the released soul and Brahman are identical, and is not therefore +the ether which reveals names and forms the soul as well as +Brahman?--(The two, Sutra 42 replies, are different) 'because in the +states of deep sleep and departing (the highest Self) is designated as +different' (from the soul)--which point is proved by the same scriptural +passages which /S/a@nkara adduces;--and 'because such terms as Lord and +the like' cannot be applied to the individual soul (43). Reference is +made to IV, 4, 14, where all jagadvyapara is said to belong to the Lord +only, not to the soul even when in the state of release. + + +PADA IV. + + +The last pada of the first adhyaya is specially directed against the +Sa@nkhyas. + +The first adhikara/n/a (1-7) discusses the passage Ka/th/a Up. I, 3, 10; +11, where mention is made of the Great and the Undeveloped--both of them +terms used with a special technical sense in the Sa@nkhya-/s/astra, +avyakta being a synonym for pradhana.--/S/a@nkara shows by an exhaustive +review of the topics of the Ka/th/a Upanishad that the term avyakta has +not the special meaning which the Sa@nkhyas attribute to it, but denotes +the body, more strictly the subtle body (sukshma /s/arira), but at the +same time the gross body also, in so far as it is viewed as an effect of +the subtle one. + +Adhik. II (8-10) demonstrates, according to /S/a@nkara, that the +tricoloured aja spoken of in /S/ve. Up. IV, 5 is not the pradhana of the +Sankhyas, but either that power of the Lord from which the world +springs, or else the primary causal matter first produced by that +power.--What Ramanuja in contradistinction from /S/a@nkara understands +by the primary causal matter, follows from the short sketch given above +of the two systems. + +Adhik. III (11-13) shows that the pa/nk/a pa/nk/ajana/h/ mentioned in +B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 17 are not the twenty-five principles of the +Sa@nkhyas.--Adhik. IV (14, 15) proves that Scripture does not contradict +itself on the all-important point of Brahman, i.e. a being whose essence +is intelligence, being the cause of the world. + +Adhik. V (16-18) is, according to /S/a@nkara, meant to prove that 'he +who is the maker of those persons, of whom this is the work,' mentioned +in Kau. Up. IV, 19, is not either the vital air or the individual soul, +but Brahman.--The subject of the adhikara/n/a is essentially the same in +Ramanuja's view; greater stress is, however, laid on the adhikara/n/a +being polemical against the Sa@nkhyas, who wish to turn the passage into +an argument for the pradhana doctrine. + +The same partial difference of view is observable with regard to the +next adhikara/n/a (VI; Sutras 19-22) which decides that the 'Self to be +seen, to be heard,' &c. (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5) is the highest Self, not +the individual soul. This latter passage also is, according to Ramanuja, +made the subject of discussion in order to rebut the Sa@nkhya who is +anxious to prove that what is there inculcated as the object of +knowledge is not a universal Self but merely the Sa@nkhya purusha. + +Adhik. VII (23-27) teaches that Brahman is not only the efficient or +operative cause (nimitta) of the world, but its material cause as well. +The world springs from Brahman by way of modification (pari/n/ama; Sutra +26).--Ramanuja views this adhikara/n/a as specially directed against the +Se/s/vara-sa@nkhyas who indeed admit the existence of a highest Lord, +but postulate in addition an independent pradhana on which the Lord acts +as an operative cause merely. + +Adhik. VIII (28) remarks that the refutation of the Sa@nkhya views is +applicable to other theories also, such as the doctrine of the world +having originated from atoms. + +After this rapid survey of the contents of the first adhyaya and the +succinct indication of the most important points in which the views of +/S/a@nkara and Ramanuja diverge, we turn to a short consideration of two +questions which here naturally present themselves, viz., firstly, which +is the principle on which the Vedic passages referred to in the Sutras +have been selected and arranged; and, secondly, if, where /S/a@nkara and +Ramanuja disagree as to the subdivision of the Sutras into +Adhikara/n/as, and the determination of the Vedic passages discussed in +the Sutras, there are to be met with any indications enabling us to +determine which of the two commentators is right. (The more general +question as to how far the Sutras favour either /S/a@nkara's or +Ramanuja's general views cannot be considered at present.) + +The Hindu commentators here and there attempt to point out the reason +why the discussion of a certain Vedic passage is immediately followed by +the consideration of a certain other one. Their explanations--which have +occasionally been referred to in the notes to the translation--rest on +the assumption that the Sutrakara in arranging the texts to be commented +upon was guided by technicalities of the Mima/m/sa-system, especially by +a regard for the various so-called means of proof which the Mima/m/saka +employs for the purpose of determining the proper meaning and position +of scriptural passages. But that this was the guiding principle, is +rendered altogether improbable by a simple tabular statement of the +Vedic passages referred to in the first adhyaya, such as given by +Deussen on page 130; for from the latter it appears that the order in +which the Sutras exhibit the scriptural passages follows the order in +which those passages themselves occur in the Upanishads, and it would +certainly be a most strange coincidence if that order enabled us at the +same time to exemplify the various prama/n/as of the Mima/m/sa in their +due systematic succession. + +As Deussen's statement shows, most of the passages discussed are taken +from the Chandogya Upanishad, so many indeed that the whole first +adhyaya may be said to consist of a discussion of all those Chandogya +passages of which it is doubtful whether they are concerned with Brahman +or not, passages from the other Upanishads being brought in wherever an +opportunity offers. Considering the prominent position assigned to the +Upanishad mentioned, I think it likely that the Sutrakara meant to begin +the series of doubtful texts with the first doubtful passage from the +Chandogya, and that hence the sixth adhikara/n/a which treats of the +anandamaya mentioned in the Taittiriya Upanishad has, in agreement with +Ramanuja's views, to be separated from the subsequent adhikara/n/as, and +to be combined with the preceding ones whose task it is to lay down the +fundamental propositions regarding Brahman's nature.--The remaining +adhikara/n/as of the first pada follow the order of passages in the +Chandogya Upanishad, and therefore call for no remark; with the +exception of the last adhikara/n/a, which refers to a Kaushitaki +passage, for whose being introduced in this place I am not able to +account.--The first adhikara/n/a of the second pada returns to the +Chandogya Upanishad. The second one treats of a passage in the Ka/th/a +Upanishad where a being is referred to which eats everything. The reason +why that passage is introduced in this place seems to be correctly +assigned in the /S/ri-bhashya, which remarks that, as in the preceding +Sutra it had been argued that the highest Self is not an enjoyer, a +doubt arises whether by that being which eats everything the highest +Self can be meant[10]--The third adhikara/n/a again, whose topic is the +'two entered into the cave' (Ka/th/a Up. I, 3, 1), appears, as Ramanuja +remarks, to come in at this place owing to the preceding adhikara/n/a; +for if it could not be proved that one of the two is the highest Self, a +doubt would attach to the explanation given above of the 'eater' since +the 'two entered into the cave,' and the 'eater' stand under the same +prakara/n/a, and must therefore be held to refer to the same +matter.--The fourth adhikara/n/a is again occupied with a Chandogya +passage.--The fifth adhikara/n/a, whose topic is the Ruler within +(antaryamin), manifestly owes its place, as remarked by Ramanuja also, +to the fact that the Vedic passage treated had been employed in the +preceding adhikara/n/a (I, 2, 14) for the purpose of strengthening the +argument [11].--The sixth adhikara/n/a, again, which discusses 'that +which is not seen' (adre/s/ya; Mu/nd/. Up. I, 1, 6), is clearly +introduced in this place because in the preceding adhikara/n/a it had +been said that ad/ri/sh/t/a, &c. denote the highest Self;--The reasons +to which the last adhikara/n/a of the second pada and the first and +third adhikara/n/as of the third pada owe their places are not apparent +(the second adhikara/n/a of the third pada treats of a Chandogya +passage). The introduction, on the other hand, of the passage from the +Pra/s/na Upanishad treating of the akshara. O/m/kara is clearly due to +the circumstance that an akshara, of a different nature, had been +discussed in the preceding adhikara/n/a.--The fifth and sixth +adhikara/n/as investigate Chandogya passages.--The two next Sutras (22, +23) are, as remarked above, considered by /S/a@nkara to constitute a new +adhikara/n/a treating of the 'being after which everything shines' +(Mu/nd/. Up. II, 2, 10); while Ramanuja looks on them as continuing the +sixth adhikara/n/a. There is one circumstance which renders it at any +rate probable that Ramanuja, and not /S/a@nkara, here hits the intention +of the author of the Sutras. The general rule in the first three padas +is that, wherever a new Vedic passage is meant to be introduced, the +subject of the discussion, i.e. that being which in the end is declared +to be Brahman is referred to by means of a special word, in most cases a +nominative form [12]. From this rule there is in the preceding part of +the adhyaya only one real exception, viz. in I, 2, 1, which possibly may +be due to the fact that there a new pada begins, and it therefore was +considered superfluous to indicate the introduction of a new topic by a +special word. The exception supplied by I, 3, 19 is only an apparent +one; for, as remarked above, Sutra 19 does not in reality begin a new +adhikara/n/a. A few exceptions occurring later on will be noticed in +their places.--Now neither Sutra 22 nor Sutra 23 contains any word +intimating that a new Vedic passage is being taken into consideration, +and hence it appears preferable to look upon them, with Ramanuja, as +continuing the topic of the preceding adhikara/n/a.--This conclusion +receives an additional confirmation from the position of the next +adhikara/n/a, which treats of the being 'a span long' mentioned in +Ka/th/a Up. II, 4, 12; for the reason of this latter passage being +considered here is almost certainly the reference to the alpa/s/ruti in +Sutra 21, and, if so, the a@ngush/th/amatra properly constitutes the +subject of the adhikara/n/a immediately following on Adhik. V, VI; +which, in its turn, implies that Sutras 22, 23 do not form an +independent adhikara/n/a.--The two next adhikara/n/as are digressions, +and do not refer to special Vedic passages.--Sutra 39 forms a new +adhikara/n/a, according to /S/a@nkara, but not according to Ramanuja, +whose opinion seems again to be countenanced by the fact that the Sutra +does not exhibit any word indicative of a new topic. The same difference +of opinion prevails with regard to Sutra 40, and it appears from the +translation of the Sutra given above, according to Ramanuja's view, that +'jyoti/h/' need not be taken as a nominative.--The last two +adhikara/n/as finally refer, according to Ramanuja, to one Chandogya +passage only, and here also we have to notice that Sutra 42 does not +comprise any word intimating that a new passage is about to be +discussed. + +From all this we seem entitled to draw the following conclusions. The +Vedic passages discussed in the three first padas of the Vedanta-sutras +comprise all the doubtful--or at any rate all the more important +doubtful--passages from the Chandogya Upanishad. These passages are +arranged in the order in which the text of the Upanishad exhibits them. +Passages from other Upanishads are discussed as opportunities offer, +there being always a special reason why a certain Chandogya passage is +followed by a certain passage from some other Upanishad. Those reasons +can be assigned with sufficient certainty in a number of cases although +not in all, and from among those passages whose introduction cannot be +satisfactorily accounted for some are eliminated by our following the +subdivision of the Sutras into adhikara/n/as adopted by Ramanuja, a +subdivision countenanced by the external form of the Sutras. + +The fourth pada of the first adhyaya has to be taken by itself. It is +directed specially and avowedly against Sa@nkhya-interpretations of +Scripture, not only in its earlier part which discusses isolated +passages, but also--as is brought out much more clearly in the +/S/ri-bhashya than by /S/a@nkara--in its latter part which takes a +general survey of the entire scriptural evidence for Brahman being the +material as well as the operative cause of the world. + +Deussen (p. 221) thinks that the selection made by the Sutrakara of +Vedic passages setting forth the nature of Brahman is not in all cases +an altogether happy one. But this reproach rests on the assumption that +the passages referred to in the first adhyaya were chosen for the +purpose of throwing light on what Brahman is, and this assumption can +hardly be upheld. The Vedanta-sutras as well as the Purva +Mima/m/sa-sutras are throughout Mima/m/sa i.e. critical discussions of +such scriptural passages as on a prima facie view admit of different +interpretations and therefore necessitate a careful enquiry into their +meaning. Here and there we meet with Sutras which do not directly +involve a discussion of the sense of some particular Vedic passage, but +rather make a mere statement on some important point. But those cases +are rare, and it would be altogether contrary to the general spirit of +the Sutras to assume that a whole adhyaya should be devoted to the task +of showing what Brahman is. The latter point is sufficiently determined +in the first five (or six) adhikara/n/as; but after we once know what +Brahman is we are at once confronted by a number of Upanishad passages +concerning which it is doubtful whether they refer to Brahman or not. +With their discussion all the remaining adhikara/n/as of the first +adhyaya are occupied. That the Vedanta-sutras view it as a particularly +important task to controvert the doctrine of the Sa@nkhyas is patent +(and has also been fully pointed out by Deussen, p. 23). The fifth +adhikara/n/a already declares itself against the doctrine that the world +has sprung from a non-intelligent principle, the pradhana, and the +fourth pada of the first adhyaya returns to an express polemic against +Sa@nkhya interpretations of certain Vedic statements. It is therefore +perhaps not saying too much if we maintain that the entire first adhyaya +is due to the wish, on the part of the Sutrakara, to guard his own +doctrine against Sa@nkhya attacks. Whatever the attitude of the other +so-called orthodox systems may be towards the Veda, the Sa@nkhya system +is the only one whose adherents were anxious--and actually attempted--to +prove that their views are warranted by scriptural passages. The +Sa@nkhya tendency thus would be to show that all those Vedic texts which +the Vedantin claims as teaching the existence of Brahman, the +intelligent and sole cause of the world, refer either to the pradhana or +some product of the pradhana, or else to the purusha in the Sankhya +sense, i.e. the individual soul. It consequently became the task of the +Vedantin to guard the Upanishads against misinterpretations of the kind, +and this he did in the first adhyaya of the Vedanta-sutras, selecting +those passages about whose interpretation doubts were, for some reason +or other, likely to arise. Some of the passages singled out are +certainly obscure, and hence liable to various interpretations; of +others it is less apparent why it was thought requisite to discuss them +at length. But this is hardly a matter in which we are entitled to find +fault with the Sutrakara; for no modern scholar, either European or +Hindu, is--or can possibly be--sufficiently at home, on the one hand, in +the religious and philosophical views which prevailed at the time when +the Sutras may have been composed, and, on the other hand, in the +intricacies of the Mima/m/sa, to judge with confidence which Vedic +passages may give rise to discussions and which not. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 1: The only 'sectarian' feature of the Sri-bhashya is, that +identifies Brahman with Vish/n/u or Naraya/n/a; but this in no way +affects the interpretations put on the Sutras and Upanishads. Naraya/n/a +is in fact nothing but another name of Brahman.] + +[Footnote 2: The Roman numerals indicate the number of the adhikara/n/a; +the figures in parentheses state the Sutras comprised in each +adhikara/n/a.] + +[Footnote 3: Deussen's supposition (pp. 30, 150) that the passage +conveying the second interpretation is an interpolation is liable to two +objections. In the first place, the passage is accepted and explained by +all commentators; in the second place, /S/a@nkara in the passage +immediately preceding Sutra 12 quotes the adhikara/n/a 'anandamayo s +bhyasat' as giving rise to a discussion whether the param or the aparam +brahman is meant. Now this latter point is not touched upon at all in +that part of the bhashya which sets forth the former explanation, but +only in the subsequent passage, which refutes the former and advocates +the latter interpretation.] + +[Footnote 4: Eva/m/ jij/n/anasya brahma/nas/ +/ko/tanabhogvabhutaga/d/arupsattvara, istamomayapradhanad vyav/ri/ttir +ukta, idani/m/ karmava/s/vat trigu/n/atmakaprik/ri/u +sa/m/sangammittanamavidhan intadukhasagaranimajjaoni/s/addha/h/. /k/i +pratya gaumano nyan nikhilaheyapratauika/m/ miatimyanandam brahmeti +pratipadyate, anandamayo bhyasat.] + +[Footnote 5: There is no reason to consider the passage 'atra ke/k/it' +in /S/a@nkara's bhashya on Sutra 23 an interpolation as Deussen does (p. +30). It simply contains a criticism passed by /S/a@nkara on other +commentators.] + +[Footnote 6: To the passages on pp. 150 and 153 of the Sanskrit text, +which Deussen thinks to be interpolations, there likewise applies the +remark made in the preceding note.] + +[Footnote 7: Givaysa iva parasyapi brahma/n/a/h/ /s/arirantarvaititvam +abhyupagata/m/ /k/et tadvad eva +/s/arirasainbandhaprayuktasukhadukhopabhogapraptir hi /k/en na, +hetuvai/s/eshyat, na hi /s/arirantarvartitvam eva +sukhadukhopabhogahetu/h/ api tu pu/n/yapaparnpakarmaparavasatva/m/ ta/k/ +/K/apahatapapmana/h/ parahatmano na sambhavati.] + +[Footnote 8: The second interpretation given on pp. 184-5 of the +Sanskrit text (beginning with apara aha) Deussen considers to be an +interpolation, caused by the reference to the Paingi upanishad in +/S/a@nkara's comment on I, 3, 7 (p. 232). But there is no reason +whatsoever for such an assumption. The passage on p. 232 shows that +/S/a@nkara considered the explanation of the mantra given in the +Paingi-upanishad worth quoting, and is in fact fully intelligible only +in case of its having been quoted before by /S/a@nkara himself.--That +the 'apara' quotes the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka not according to the Ka/n/va +text--to quote from which is /S/a@nkara's habit--but from the +Madhyandina text, is due just to the circumstance of his being an +'apara,' i.e. not /S/a@nkara.] + +[Footnote 9: Ita/s/ /k/aitad evam. Anuk/ri/tes tasya /k/a. Tasya +daharakasasya parabrahma/n/o snukarad ayam apahatapapmatvadigu/n/ako +vimuktabandha/h/ pratyagatma na daharaka/s/a/h/ tadanukaras tatsamya/m/ +tatha hi pratyagalmanozpi vimuktasya parabrahmanukara/h/ sruyate yada +pa/s/ya/h/ pa/s/yate rukmavar/n/a/m/ kartaram i/s/a/m/ purusha/m/ +brahmayoni/m/ tada vidvan pu/n/yapape vidhuya nira/ng/ana/h/ parama/m/ +samyam upaitity atos'nukarta prajapativakyanirdish/t/a/h/ anukarya/m/ +para/m/ brahma na daharaka/s/a/h/. Api /k/a smaryate. Sa/m/sari/n/oszpi +muktavasthaya/m/ paramasamyapattilaksha/n/a/h/ parabrahmanukara/h/ +smaryate ida/m/ j/n/anam upasritya, &c.--Ke/k/id anuk/ri/tes tasya +/k/api smaryate iti /k/a sutradvayam adhikara/n/antara/m/ tam eva +bhantam anubhati sarva/m/ tasya bhasa sarvam ida/m/ vibhatity asya/h/ +/s/rute/h/ parabrahmaparatvanir/n/ayaya prav/ri/tta/m/ vadanti. Tat tv +ad/ris/yatvadigu/n/ako dharmokte/h/ dyubhvadyayatana/m/ sva/s/abdad ity +adhi kara/n/advayena tasya prakara/n/asya brahmavishayatvapratipadanat +jyoti/sk/ara/n/abhidhanat ity adishu parasya brahma/n/o +bharupatvavagates /k/a purvapakshanutthanad ayukta/m/ +sutraksharavairupya/k/ /k/a.] + +[Footnote 10: Yadi paramatma na bhokta eva/m/ taihi bhokt /i/taya +pratiyamano jiva eva syad ity asankyaha atta.] + +[Footnote 11: Sthanadivyapade/s/a/k/ /k/a ity atra ya/h/ /k/akshushi +tish/th/ann ity adina pratipadyamana/m/ /k/akshushi +sthitiniyamanadika/m/ paramatmana eveti siddha/m/ k/ri/tva +akshipurushasya paramatmatva/m/ sadhitam idani/m/ tad eva samarthayate +antaryau.] + +[Footnote 12: Anandamaya/h/ I, 1, 12; anta/h/ I, i, 20; aka/s/a/h/ I, 1, +22; prana/h/ I, 1, 23; jyoti/h/ I, 1, 24; prana/h/ I, 1, 28; atta I, 2, +9; guha/m/ pravish/t/au I, 2, 11; antara I, 2,13; antaryami I, 2, 18; +ad/ris/yatvadigu/n/aka/h/ I, 2, 21; vai/s/vanara/h/ I, 2, 24; +dyubhvadyayatanam I, 3, 1; bhuma I, 3, 8; aksheram I, 3, 10; sa/h/ I, 3, +13; dahara/h/ I, 3, 14; pramita/h/ I, 3, 24; (jyoti/h/ 40;) aka/s/a/h/ +I, 3,41.] + + +SECOND ADHYAYA. + + +The first adhyaya has proved that all the Vedanta-texts unanimously +teach that there is only one cause of the world, viz. Brahman, whose +nature is intelligence, and that there exists no scriptural passage +which can be used to establish systems opposed to the Vedanta, more +especially the Sa@nkhya system. The task of the two first padas of the +second adhyaya is to rebut any objections which may be raised against +the Vedanta doctrine on purely speculative grounds, apart from +scriptural authority, and to show, again on purely speculative grounds, +that none of the systems irreconcilable with the Vedanta can be +satisfactorily established. + + +PADA I. + + +Adhikara/n/a I refutes the Sa@nkhya objection that the acceptation of +the Vedanta system involves the rejection of the Sa@nkhya doctrine which +after all constitutes a part of Sm/ri/ti, and as such has claims on +consideration.--To accept the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, the Vedantin replies, +would compel us to reject other Sm/ri/tis, such as the Manu-sm/ri/ti, +which are opposed to the Sa@nkhya doctrine. The conflicting claims of +Sm/ri/tis can be settled only on the ground of the Veda, and there can +be no doubt that the Veda does not confirm the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, but +rather those Sm/ri/tis which teach the origination of the world from an +intelligent primary cause. + +Adhik. II (3) extends the same line of argumentation to the +Yoga-sm/ri/ti. + +Adhik. III (4-11) shows that Brahman, although of the nature of +intelligence, yet may be the cause of the non-intelligent material +world, and that it is not contaminated by the qualities of the world +when the latter is refunded into Brahman. For ordinary experience +teaches us that like does not always spring from like, and that the +qualities of effected things when the latter are refunded into their +causes--as when golden ornaments, for instance, are melted and thereby +become simple gold again--do not continue to exist in those +causes.--Here also the argumentation is specially directed against the +Sa@nkhyas, who, in order to account for the materiality and the various +imperfections of the world, think it necessary to assume a causal +substance participating in the same characteristics. + +Adhik. IV (12) points out that the line of reasoning followed in the +preceding adhikara/n/a is valid also against other theories, such as the +atomistic doctrine. + +The one Sutra (13) constituting Adhik. V teaches, according to +/S/a@nkara, that although the enjoying souls as well as the objects of +fruition are in reality nothing but Brahman, and on that account +identical, yet the two sets may practically be held apart, just as in +ordinary life we hold apart, and distinguish as separate individual +things, the waves, ripples, and foam of the sea, although at the bottom +waves, ripples, and foam are all of them identical as being neither more +nor less than sea-water.--The /S/ri-bhashya gives a totally different +interpretation of the Sutra, according to which the latter has nothing +whatever to do with the eventual non-distinction of enjoying souls and +objects to be enjoyed. Translated according to Ramanuja's view, the +Sutra runs as follows: 'If non-distinction (of the Lord and the +individual souls) is said to result from the circumstance of (the Lord +himself) becoming an enjoyer (a soul), we refute this objection by +instances from every-day experience.' That is to say: If it be +maintained that from our doctrine previously expounded, according to +which this world springs from the Lord and constitutes his body, it +follows that the Lord, as an embodied being, is not essentially +different from other souls, and subject to fruition as they are; we +reply that the Lord's having a body does not involve his being subject +to fruition, not any more than in ordinary life a king, although himself +an embodied being, is affected by the experiences of pleasure and pain +which his servants have to undergo.--The construction which Ramanuja +puts on the Sutra is not repugnant either to the words of the Sutra or +to the context in which the latter stands, and that it rests on earlier +authority appears from a quotation made by Ramanuja from the +Drami/d/abhashyakara[13]. + +Adhik. VI (14-20) treats of the non-difference of the effect from the +cause; a Vedanta doctrine which is defended by its adherents against the +Vai/s/eshikas according to whom the effect is something different from +the cause.--The divergent views of /S/a@nkara and Ramanuja on this +important point have been sufficiently illustrated in the general sketch +of the two systems. + +Adhik. VII (21-23) refutes the objection that, from the Vedic passages +insisting on the identity of the Lord and the individual soul, it +follows that the Lord must be like the individual soul the cause of +evil, and that hence the entire doctrine of an all-powerful and all-wise +Lord being the cause of the world has to be rejected. For, the Sutrakira +remarks, the creative principle of the world is additional to, i.e. +other than, the individual soul, the difference of the two being +distinctly declared by Scripture.--The way in which the three Sutras +constituting this adhikara/n/a are treated by /S/a@nkara on the one hand +and Ramanuja on the other is characteristic. Ramanuja throughout simply +follows the words of the Sutras, of which Sutra 21 formulates the +objection based on such texts as 'Thou art that,' while Sutra 22 replies +that Brahman is different from the soul, since that is expressly +declared by Scripture. /S/a@nkara, on the other hand, sees himself +obliged to add that the difference of the two, plainly maintained in +Sutra 22, is not real, but due to the soul's fictitious limiting +adjuncts. + +Adhik. VIII (24, 25) shows that Brahman, although destitute of material +and instruments of action, may yet produce the world, just as gods by +their mere power create palaces, animals, and the like, and as milk by +itself turns into curds. + +Adhik. IX (26-29) explains that, according to the express doctrine of +Scripture, Brahman does not in its entirety pass over into the world, +and, although emitting the world from itself, yet remains one and +undivided. This is possible, according to /S/a@nkara, because the world +is unreal; according to Ramanuja, because the creation is merely the +visible and tangible manifestation of what previously existed in Brahman +in a subtle imperceptible condition. + +Adhik. X (30, 31) teaches that Brahman, although destitute of +instruments of action, is enabled to create the world by means of the +manifold powers which it possesses. + +Adhik. XI (32, 33) assigns the motive of the creation, or, more properly +expressed, teaches that Brahman, in creating the world, has no motive in +the strict sense of the word, but follows a mere sportive impulse. + +Adhik. XII (34-36) justifies Brahman from the charges of partiality and +cruelty which might be brought against it owing to the inequality of +position and fate of the various animate beings, and the universal +suffering of the world. Brahman, as a creator and dispenser, acts with a +view to the merit and demerit of the individual souls, and has so acted +from all eternity. + +Adhik. XIII (37) sums up the preceding argumentation by declaring that +all the qualities of Brahman--omniscience and so on--are such as to +capacitate it for the creation of the world. + + +PADA II. + + +The task of the second pada is to refute, by arguments independent of +Vedic passages, the more important philosophical theories concerning the +origin of the world which are opposed to the Vedanta view.--The first +adhikara/n/a (1-10) is directed against the Sa@nkhyas, whose doctrine +had already been touched upon incidentally in several previous places, +and aims at proving that a non-intelligent first cause, such as the +pradhana of the Sa@nkhyas, is unable to create and dispose.--The second +adhikara/n/a (11-17) refutes the Vai/s/eshika tenet that the world +originates from atoms set in motion by the ad/ri/sh/t/a.--The third and +fourth adhikara/n/as are directed against various schools of Bauddha +philosophers. Adhik. III (18-27) impugns the view of the so-called +sarvastitvavadins, or bahyarthavadins, who maintain the reality of an +external as well as an internal world; Adhik. IV (28-32) is directed +against the vij/n/anavadins, according to whom ideas are the only +reality.--The last Sutra of this adhikara/n/a is treated by Ramanuja as +a separate adhikara/n/a refuting the view of the Madhyamikas, who teach +that everything is void, i.e. that nothing whatever is real.--Adhik. V +(33-36) is directed against the doctrine of the Jainas; Adhik. VI +(37-41) against those philosophical schools which teach that a highest +Lord is not the material but only the operative cause of the world. + +The last adhikara/n/a of the pada (42-45) refers, according to the +unanimous statement of the commentators, to the doctrine of the +Bhagavatas or Pa/nk/aratras. But /S/a@nkara and Ramanuja totally +disagree as to the drift of the Sutrakara's opinion regarding that +system. According to the former it is condemned like the systems +previously referred to; according to the latter it is approved +of.--Sutras 42 and 43, according to both commentators, raise objections +against the system; Sutra 42 being directed against the doctrine that +from the highest being, called Vasudeva, there is originated +Sa@nkarsha/n/a, i.e. the jiva, on the ground that thereby those +scriptural passages would be contradicted which teach the soul's +eternity; and Sutra 43 impugning the doctrine that from Sa@nkarsha/n/a +there springs Pradyumna, i.e. the manas.--The Sutra on which the +difference of interpretation turns is 44. Literally translated it runs, +'Or, on account of there being' (or, 'their being') 'knowledge and so +on, there is non-contradiction of that.'--This means, according to +/S/a@nkara, 'Or, if in consequence of the existence of knowledge and so +on (on the part of Sa@nkarsha/n/a, &c. they be taken not as soul, mind, +&c. but as Lords of pre-eminent knowledge, &c.), yet there is +non-contradiction of that (viz. of the objection raised in Sutra 42 +against the Bhagavata doctrine).'--According to Ramanuja, on the other +hand, the Sutra has to be explained as follows: 'Or, rather there is +noncontradiction of that (i.e. the Pa/nk/aratra doctrine) on account of +their being knowledge and so on (i.e. on account of their being +Brahman).' Which means: Since Sa@nkarsha/n/a and so on are merely forms +of manifestation of Brahman, the Pa/nk/aratra doctrine, according to +which they spring from Brahman, is not contradicted.--The form of the +Sutra makes it difficult for us to decide which of the two +interpretations is the right one; it, however, appears to me that the +explanations of the 'va' and of the 'tat,' implied in Ramanuja's +comment, are more natural than those resulting from /S/a@nkara's +interpretation. Nor would it be an unnatural proceeding to close the +polemical pada with a defence of that doctrine which--in spite of +objections--has to be viewed as the true one. + + +PADA III. + + +The third pada discusses the question whether the different forms of +existence which, in their totality, constitute the world have an origin +or not, i.e. whether they are co-eternal with Brahman, or issue from it +and are refunded into it at stated intervals. + +The first seven adhikara/n/as treat of the five elementary +substances.--Adhik. I (1-7) teaches that the ether is not co-eternal +with Brahman, but springs from it as its first effect.--Adhik. II (8) +shows that air springs from ether; Adhik. IV, V, VI (10; 11; 12) that +fire springs from air, water from fire, earth from water.--Adhik. III +(9) explains by way of digression that Brahman, which is not some +special entity, but quite generally 'that which is,' cannot have +originated from anything else. + +Adhik. VII (13) demonstrates that the origination of one element from +another is due, not to the latter in itself, but to Brahman acting in +it. + +Adhik. VIII (14) teaches that the reabsorption of the elements into +Brahman takes place in the inverse order of their emission. + +Adhik. IX (15) remarks that the indicated order in which the emission +and the reabsorption of the elementary substances take place is not +interfered with by the creation and reabsorption of the organs of the +soul, i.e. the sense organs and the internal organ (manas); for they +also are of elemental nature, and as such created and retracted together +with the elements of which they consist. + +The remainder of the pada is taken up by a discussion of the nature of +the individual soul, the jiva.--Adhik. X (16) teaches that expressions +such as 'Devadatta is born,' 'Devadatta has died,' strictly apply to the +body only, and are transferred to the soul in so far only as it is +connected with a body. + +Adhik. XI (17) teaches that the individual soul is, according to +Scripture, permanent, eternal, and therefore not, like the ether and the +other elements, produced from Brahman at the time of creation.--This +Sutra is of course commented on in a very different manner by /S/a@nkara +on the one hand and Ramanuja on the other. According to the former, the +jiva is in reality identical--and as such co-eternal--with Brahman; what +originates is merely the soul's connexion with its limiting adjuncts, +and that connexion is moreover illusory.--According to Ramanuja, the +jiva is indeed an effect of Brahman, but has existed in Brahman from all +eternity as an individual being and as a mode (prakara) of Brahman. So +indeed have also the material elements; yet there is an important +distinction owing to which the elements may be said to originate at the +time of creation, while the same cannot be said of the soul. Previously +to creation the material elements exist in a subtle condition in which +they possess none of the qualities that later on render them the objects +of ordinary experience; hence, when passing over into the gross state at +the time of creation, they may be said to originate. The souls, on the +other hand, possess at all times the same essential qualities, i.e. they +are cognizing agents; only, whenever a new creation takes place, they +associate themselves with bodies, and their intelligence therewith +undergoes a certain expansion or development (vikasa); contrasting with +the unevolved or contracted state (sanko/k/a) which characterised it +during the preceding pralaya. But this change is not a change of +essential nature (svarupanyathabhava) and hence we have to distinguish +the souls as permanent entities from the material elements which at the +time of each creation and reabsorption change their essential +characteristics. + +Adhik. XII (18) defines the nature of the individual soul. The Sutra +declares that the soul is 'j/n/a.' This means, according to /S/a@nkara, +that intelligence or knowledge does not, as the Vai/s/eshikas teach, +constitute a mere attribute of the soul which in itself is essentially +non-intelligent, but is the very essence of the soul. The soul is not a +knower, but knowledge; not intelligent, but intelligence.--Ramanuja, on +the other hand, explains 'j/n/a' by 'j/n/at/ri/,' i.e. knower, knowing +agent, and considers the Sutra to be directed not only against the +Vai/s/eshikas, but also against those philosophers who--like the +Sa@nkhyas and the Vedantins of /S/a@nkara's school--maintain that the +soul is not a knowing agent, but pure /k/aitanya.--The wording of the +Sutra certainly seems to favour Ramanuja's interpretation; we can hardly +imagine that an author definitely holding the views of /S/a@nkara +should, when propounding the important dogma of the soul's nature, use +the term j/n/a of which the most obvious interpretation j/n/at/ri/, not +j/n/anam. + +Adhik. XIII (19-32) treats the question whether the individual soul is +a/n/u, i.e. of very minute size, or omnipresent, all-pervading +(sarvagata, vyapin). Here, again, we meet with diametrically opposite +views.--In /S/a@nkara's opinion the Sutras 19-38 represent the +purvapaksha view, according to which the jiva is a/n/u, while Sutra 29 +formulates the siddhanta, viz. that the jiva, which in reality is +all-pervading, is spoken of as a/n/u in some scriptural passages, +because the qualities of the internal organ--which itself is +a/n/u--constitute the essence of the individual soul as long as the +latter is implicated in the sa/m/sara.--According to Ramanuja, on the +other hand, the first Sutra of the adhikara/n/a gives utterance to the +siddhanta view, according to which the soul is of minute size; the +Sutras 20-25 confirm this view and refute objections raised against it; +while the Sutras 26-29 resume the question already mooted under Sutra +18, viz. in what relation the soul as knowing agent (j/n/at/ri/) stands +to knowledge (j/n/ana).--In order to decide between the conflicting +claims of these two interpretations we must enter into some +details.--/S/a@nkara maintains that Sutras 19-28 state and enforce a +purvapaksha view, which is finally refuted in 29. What here strikes us +at the outset, is the unusual length to which the defence of a mere +prima facie view is carried; in no other place the Sutras take so much +trouble to render plausible what is meant to be rejected in the end, and +an unbiassed reader will certainly feel inclined to think that in 19-28 +we have to do, not with the preliminary statement of a view finally to +be abandoned, but with an elaborate bona fide attempt to establish and +vindicate an essential dogma of the system. Still it is not altogether +impossible that the purvapaksha should here be treated at greater length +than usual, and the decisive point is therefore whether we can, with +/S/a@nkara, look upon Sutra 29 as embodying a refutation of the +purvapaksha and thus implicitly acknowledging the doctrine that the +individual soul is all-pervading. Now I think there can be no doubt that +/S/a@nkara's interpretation of the Sutra is exceedingly forced. +Literally translated (and leaving out the non-essential word +'praj/n/avat') the Sutra runs as follows: 'But on account of that +quality (or "those qualities;" or else "on account of the quality--or +qualities--of that") being the essence, (there is) that designation (or +"the designation of that").' This /S/a@nkara maintains to mean, 'Because +the qualities of the buddhi are the essence of the soul in the sa/m/sara +state, therefore the soul itself is sometimes spoken of as a/n/u.' Now, +in the first place, nothing in the context warrants the explanation of +the first 'tat' by buddhi. And--which is more important--in the second +place, it is more than doubtful whether on /S/a@nkara's own system the +qualities of the buddhi--such as pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, +&c.--can with any propriety be said to constitute the essence of the +soul even in the sa/m/sara state. The essence of the soul in whatever +state, according to /S/a@nkara's system, is knowledge or intelligence; +whatever is due to its association with the buddhi is non-essential or, +more strictly, unreal, false. + +There are no similar difficulties in the way of Ramanuja's +interpretation of the adhikara/n/a. He agrees with /S/a@nkara in the +explanation of Sutras 19-35, with this difference that he views them as +setting forth, not the purvapaksha, but the siddhanta. Sutras 26-28 also +are interpreted in a manner not very different from /S/a@nkara's, +special stress being laid on the distinction made by Scripture between +knowledge as a mere quality and the soul as a knowing agent, the +substratum of knowledge. This discussion naturally gives rise to the +question how it is that Scripture in some places makes use of the term +vij/n/ana when meaning the individual soul. The answer is given in Sutra +29, 'The soul is designated as knowledge because it has that quality for +its essence,' i.e. because knowledge is the essential characteristic +quality of the soul, therefore the term 'knowledge' is employed here and +there to denote the soul itself. This latter interpretation gives rise +to no doubt whatever. It closely follows the wording of the text and +does not necessitate any forced supplementation. The 'tu' of the Sutra +which, according to /S/a@nkara, is meant to discard the purvapaksha, +serves on Ramanuja's view to set aside a previously-raised objection; an +altogether legitimate assumption. + +Of the three remaining Sutras of the adhikara/n/a (30-32), 30 explains, +according to /S/a@nkara, that the soul may be called a/n/u, since, as +long as it exists in the sa/m/sara condition, it is connected with the +buddhi. According to Ramanuja the Sutra teaches that the soul may be +called vij/n/ana because the latter constitutes its essential quality as +long as it exists.--Sutra 31 intimates, according to /S/a@nkara, that in +the states of deep sleep, and so on, the soul is potentially connected +with the buddhi, while in the waking state that connexion becomes +actually manifest. The same Sutra, according to Ramanuja, teaches that +j/n/at/ri/tva is properly said to constitute the soul's essential +nature, although it is actually manifested in some states of the soul +only.--In Sutra 32, finally, /S/a@nkara sees a statement of the doctrine +that, unless the soul had the buddhi for its limiting adjunct, it would +either be permanently cognizing or permanently non-cognizing; while, +according to Ramanuja, the Sutra means that the soul would either be +permanently cognizing or permanently non-cognizing, if it were pure +knowledge and all-pervading (instead of being /jn/at/ri/ and a/n/u, as +it is in reality).--The three Sutras can be made to fit in with either +interpretation, although it must be noted that none of them explicitly +refers to the soul's connexion with the buddhi. + +Adhik. XIV and XV (33-39; 40) refer to the kart/ri/tva of the jiva, i.e. +the question whether the soul is an agent. Sutras 33-39 clearly say that +it is such. But as, according to /S/a@nkara's system, this cannot be the +final view,--the soul being essentially non-active, and all action +belonging to the world of upadhis,--he looks upon the next following +Sutra (40) as constituting an adhikara/n/a by itself, and teaching that +the soul is an agent when connected with the instruments of action, +buddhi, &c., while it ceases to be so when dissociated from them, 'just +as the carpenter acts in both ways,' i.e. just as the carpenter works as +long as he wields his instruments, and rests after having laid them +aside.--Ramanuja, perhaps more naturally, does not separate Sutra 40 +from the preceding Sutras, but interprets it as follows: Activity is +indeed an essential attribute of the soul; but therefrom it does not +follow that the soul is always actually active, just as the carpenter, +even when furnished with the requisite instruments, may either work or +not work, just as he pleases. + +Adhik. XVI (41, 42) teaches that the soul in its activity is dependent +on the Lord who impels it with a view to its former actions. + +Adhik. XVII (43-53) treats of the relation of the individual soul to +Brahman. Sutra 43 declares that the individual soul is a part (a/ms/a) +of Brahman, and the following Sutras show how that relation does not +involve either that Brahman is affected by the imperfections, +sufferings, &c. of the souls, or that one soul has to participate in the +experiences of other souls. The two commentators of course take entirely +different views of the doctrine that the soul is a part of Brahman. +According to Ramanuja the souls are in reality parts of Brahman[14]; +according to Sa@nkara the 'a/ms/a' of the Sutra must be understood to +mean 'a/ms/a iva,' 'a part as it were;' the one universal indivisible +Brahman having no real parts, but appearing to be divided owing to its +limiting adjuncts.--One Sutra (50) in this adhikara/n/a calls for +special notice. According to Sa@nkara the words 'abhasa eva /k/a' mean +'(the soul is) a mere reflection,' which, as the commentators remark, is +a statement of the so-called pratibimbavada, i.e. the doctrine that the +so-called individual soul is nothing but the reflection of the Self in +the buddhi; while Sutra 43 had propounded the so-called ava/kkh/edavada, +i.e. the doctrine that the soul is the highest Self in so far as limited +by its adjuncts.--According to Ramanuja the abhasa of the Sutra has to +be taken in the sense of hetvabhasa, a fallacious argument, and the +Sutra is explained as being directed against the reasoning of those +Vedantins according to whom the soul is Brahman in so far as limited by +non-real adjuncts[15]. + + +PADA IV. + + +Adhik. I, II, III (1-4; 5-6; 7) teach that the pra/n/as (by which +generic name are denoted the buddhindriyas, karmen-driyas, and the +manas) spring from Brahman; are eleven in number; and are of minute size +(a/n/u). + +Adhik. IV, V, VI (8; 9-12; 13) inform us also that the mukhya pra/n/a, +i.e. the vital air, is produced from Brahman; that it is a principle +distinct from air in general and from the pra/n/as discussed above; and +that it is minute (a/n/u). + +Adhik. VII and VIII (14-16; 17-19) teach that the pra/n/as are +superintended and guided in their activity by special divinities, and +that they are independent principles, not mere modifications of the +mukhya pra/n/a. + +Adhik. IX (20-22) declares that the evolution of names and forms (the +namarupavyakara/n/a) is the work, not of the individual soul, but of the +Lord. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 13: Lokavat, Yatha loke raja/s/asananuvartina/m/ /k/a +rajanugrahanigrahak/ri/takhadukhayoges'pi na sa/s/ariraivamatre/n/a +sasake rajany api /s/asananuv/ri/ttyauv/ri/ttinimittasukhadukhayor +bhokt/ri/vaprasa@nga/h/. Yathaha Drami/d/abhashyakara/h/ yatha loke raja +pra/k/uradanda/s/uke ghores'narthasa/m/ka/t/es'pi prade/s/e +vartamanoszpi vyajanadyavadhutadeho doshair na sprisyate abhipreta/ms/ +/k/a lokan paripipalayishati bhoga/ms/ /k/a gandhadin +avi/s/vajanopabhogyan dharayati tathasau loke/s/varo +bhramatsvasamait/h/ya/k/amato doshair na sp/ris/yate rakshati /k/a lokan +brahmalokadi/ms/ /k/avi/s/vajanopabhogyan dharayatiti.] + +[Footnote 14: Givasya kart/ri/tva/m/ paramapurushayattam ity uktam. +Idanim kim aya/m/ giva/h/ parasmad atyantabhinna/h/ uta param eva brahma +bhrantam uta brahmaivopadhyava/kkh/innam atha brahma/ms/a iti +sa/m/sayyate /s/rutivipraticpatte/h/ sa/m/saya/h/. Nanu tadananyam +arambha/n/a/s/abdadibhya/h/ adhika/m/ tu bhedanirdesad ity atraivayam +aitho nir/n/ita/h/ Satya/m/ sa eva nanatvaikatva/s/rutivipratipattya +skshipya jivasya brahma/ms/atvopapadanena vi/s/eshato nir/n/iyate. Yavad +dhi jivasya brahma/m/satva/m/ na nir/n/itam tavaj jivasya +brahmanosnanyatva/m/ brahma/n/as tasmad adhikatva/m/ /k/a na +pratitish/th/ati. Ki/m/ tavat praptam. Atyanta/m/ bhinna iti. Kuta/h/. +J/n/aj/n/nau dvav ityadibhedanirde/s/at. J/n/aj/n/ayor abheda/s/rutayas +tv agnina si/nk/ed itivad viruddharthapratipadanad aupa/k/arikya/h/, +Brahma/n/os/ms/o jiva ity api na sadhiya/h/, ekavastvekade/s/ava/k/i hy +a/ms/a/s/sabda/h/, jivasya brahmaikade/s/atve tadgata dosha brahma/n/i +bhaveyu/h/. Na /k/a brahmakha/nd/o jiva ity a/ms/atvopapatti/h/ +kha/nd/ananarhatvad brahma/n/a/h/ praguktadoshaprasa@nga/k/ /k/a, tasmad +atyantabhinnasya tada/ms/atva/m/ durupapadam. Yadva bhranta/m/ brahmaiva +jiva/h/. Kuta/h/. Tat tvam asi ayam atma +brahmetyadibrahmatmabhavopade/s/at, nanatmatvavadinyas tu +pratyakshadisiddharthanuvaditvad ananyathasiddhadvaitopade/s/aparabhi/h/ +/s/rutibhi/h/ pratyakshadaya/s/ /k/a avidyantargata/h/ +khyapyante.--Athava brahmaivanadyupadhyava/kkh/inna/m/ jiva/h/. Kuta/h/. +Tata eva brahmatmabhavopade/s/at. Na /k/ayam upadhir bhrantiparikalpita +ita vaktu/m/ sakya/m/ bandhamokshadivyavasthanupapatter. Ity eva/m/ +pratptesbhidhiyate. Brahma/ms/a iti. Kuta/h/. Nanavyapade/s/ad anyatha +/k/aikatvena vyapade/s/ad ubhayatha hi vyapade/s/o d/ris/yate. +Navavyapade/s/as tavat +srash/tri/tva/rig/yatva--niyant/ri/tvaniyamyatva--sarvaj/n/atvaj/n/atva-- +svadhinatvaparadhinatva--/s/uddhatva/s/uddhatva-- +kalya/n/agu/n/akaratvaviparitatva--patitva/s/eshatvadibhir d/ris/yate. +Anyatha /k/abhedena vyapade/s/os pi tat tvam asi ayam atma +brahmetyadibhir d/ris/yate. Api da/s/akitavaditvam apy adhiyate eke, +brahma dasa brahma dasa brahmeme kitava ity atharva/n/ika brahma/n/o +da/s/akitavaditvam apy adhiyate, tata/s/ /k/a sarvajivavyapitvena abhedo +vyapadi/s/yata it artha/h/. Evam ubhayavyapade/s/amukhyatvasiddhaye +jivosya/m/ brahma/n/os/ms/a ity abhyupagantavya/h/.] + +[Footnote 15: Nanu bhrantabrahmajivavadeszpy avidyak/ri/topadhibhedad +bhogavyavasthadaya upapadyanta ata aha, abhasa eva /k/a. +Akha/nd/aikarasapraka/s/amatratvarupasya +svarupatirodhanapurvakopadhibhedopapadanahetur abhasa eva. +Praka/s/aikasvarupasya praka/s/atirodhana/m/ praka/s/ana/s/a eveti prag +evopapaditam. Abhasa eveti va pa/th/a/h/, tatha sati hetava abhasa/h/.] + + +THIRD ADHYAYA. +PADA I. + + +Adhik. I (1-7) teaches that the soul, when passing out of the body at +the time of death, remains invested with the subtle material elements +(bhutasukshma) which serve as an abode to the pra/n/as attached to the +soul. + +Adhik. II (8-11) shows that, when the souls of those who had enjoyed the +reward of their good works in the moon descend to the earth in order to +undergo a new embodiment, there cleaves to them a remainder (anu/s/aya) +of their former deeds which determines the nature of the new embodiment. + +Adhik. III (12-21) discusses the fate after death of those whom their +good works do not entitle to pass up to the moon. + +Adhik. IV, V, VI (22; 23; 24-27) teach that the subtle bodies of the +souls descending from the moon through the ether, air, &c., do not +become identical with ether, air, &c., but only like them; that the +entire descent occupies a short time only; and that, when the souls +finally enter into plants and so on, they do not participate in the life +of the latter, but are merely in external contact with them. + + +PADA II. + + +Adhik. I (1-6) treats of the soul in the dreaming state. According to +/S/a@nkara the three first Sutras discuss the question whether the +creative activity ascribed to the soul in some scriptural passages +produces things as real as those by which the waking soul is surrounded, +or not; Sutra 3 settles the point by declaring that the creations of the +dreaming soul are mere 'Maya,' since they do not fully manifest the +character of real objects. Sutra 4 adds that dreams, although mere Maya, +yet have a prophetic quality. Sutras 5 and 6 finally reply to the +question why the soul, which after all is a part of the Lord and as such +participates in his excellencies, should not be able to produce in its +dreams a real creation, by the remark that the soul's knowledge and +power are obscured by its connexion with the gross body. + +The considerably diverging interpretation given of this adhikara/n/a by +Ramanuja has the advantage of more closely connecting the Sutras with +each other. According to him the question is not whether the creations +of a dream are real or not, but whether they are the work of the +individual soul or of the Lord acting within the soul. Sutras 1 and 2 +set forth the purvapaksha. The creations of dreams (are the work of the +individual soul); for thus Scripture declares: 'And the followers of +some /s/akas declare (the soul to be) a creator,' &c. The third Sutra +states the siddhanta view: 'But the creations of dreams are Maya, i.e. +are of a wonderful nature (and as such cannot be effected by the +individual soul), since (in this life) the nature (of the soul) is not +fully manifested.' Concerning the word 'maya,' Ramanuja remarks, +'maya/s/abdo hy a/sk/aryava/k/i janaka/s/ya kule jata devamayeva nirmita +ityadishu tatha dar/s/anat.' The three remaining Sutras are exhibited in +the /S/ri-bhashya in a different order, the fourth Sutra, according to +/S/a@nkara, being the sixth according to Ramanuja. Sutras 4 and 5 +(according to Ramanuja's numeration) are explained by Ramanuja very much +in the same way as by /S/a@nkara; but owing to the former's statement of +the subject-matter of the whole adhikara/n/a they connect themselves +more intimately with the preceding Sutras than is possible on +/S/a@nkara's interpretation. In Sutra 6 (su/k/aka/s/ /k/a hi) Ramanuja +sees a deduction from the siddhanta of the adhikara/n/a, 'Because the +images of a dream are produced by the highest Lord himself, therefore +they have prophetic significance.' + +Adhik. II teaches that in the state of deep dreamless sleep the soul +abides within Brahman in the heart. + +Adhik. III (9) expounds the reasons entitling us to assume that the soul +awakening from sleep is the same that went to sleep.--Adhik. IV (9) +explains the nature of a swoon. + +Adhik. V (11-21) is, according to /S/a@nkara, taken up with the question +as to the nature of the highest Brahman in which the individual soul is +merged in the state of deep sleep. Sutra 11 declares that twofold +characteristics (viz. absence and presence of distinctive attributes, +nirvi/s/eshatva and savi/s/eshatva) cannot belong to the highest Brahman +even through its stations, i.e. its limiting adjuncts; since all +passages which aim at setting forth Brahman's nature declare it to be +destitute of all distinctive attributes.--The fact, Sutra 12 continues, +that in many passages Brahman is spoken of as possessing distinctive +attributes is of no relevancy, since wherever there are mentioned +limiting adjuncts, on which all distinction depends, it is specially +stated that Brahman in itself is free from all diversity; and--Sutra 13 +adds--in some places the assumption of diversity is specially objected +to.--That Brahman is devoid of all form (Sutra 14), is the pre-eminent +meaning of all Vedanta-texts setting forth Brahman's nature.--That +Brahman is represented as having different forms, as it were, is due to +its connexion with its (unreal) limiting adjuncts; just as the light of +the sun appears straight or crooked, as it were, according to the nature +of the things he illuminates (15).--The B/ri/hadara/n/yaka expressly +declares that Brahman is one uniform mass of intelligence (16); and the +same is taught in other scriptural passages and in Sm/ri/ti (l7).--At +the unreality of the apparent manifoldness of the Self, caused by the +limiting adjuncts, aim those scriptural passages in which the Self is +compared to the sun, which remains one although his reflections on the +surface of the water are many (18).--Nor must the objection be raised +that that comparison is unsuitable, because the Self is not material +like the sun, and there are no real upadhis separate from it as the +water is from the sun; for the comparison merely means to indicate that, +as the reflected image of the sun participates in the changes, increase, +decrease, &c., which the water undergoes while the sun himself remains +unaffected thereby, so the true Self is not affected by the attributes +of the upadhis, while, in so far as it is limited by the latter, it is +affected by them as it were (19, 20).--That the Self is within the +upadhis, Scripture declares (21). + +From the above explanation of this important adhikara/n/a the one given +in the Sri-bhashya differs totally. According to Ramanuja the +adhikara/n/a raises the question whether the imperfections clinging to +the individual soul (the discussion of which has now come to an end) +affect also the highest Lord who, according to Scripture, abides within +the soul as antaryamin. 'Notwithstanding the abode (of the highest Self +within the soul) (it is) not (affected by the soul's imperfections) +because everywhere (the highest Self is represented) as having twofold +characteristics (viz. being, on one hand, free from all evil, +apahatapapman, vijara, vim/ri/tyu, &c., and, on the other hand, endowed +with all auspicious qualities, satyakama, satyasa/m/kalpa, &c.) +(11).--Should it be objected that, just as the soul although essentially +free from evil--according to the Prajapativakya in the Chandogya--yet is +liable to imperfections owing to its connexion with a variety of bodies, +so the antaryamin also is affected by abiding within bodies; we deny +this because in every section of the chapter referring to the antaryamin +(in the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka) he is expressly called the Immortal, the +ruler within; which shows him to be free from the shortcomings of the +jiva (12).--Some, moreover, expressly assert that, although the Lord and +the soul are within one body, the soul only is imperfect, not the Lord +(dva supar/n/a sayuja sakhaya) (13).--Should it be said that, according +to the Chandogya, Brahman entered together with the souls into the +elements previously to the evolution of names and forms, and hence +participates in the latter, thus becoming implicated in the sa/m/sara; +we reply that Brahman, although connected with such and such forms, is +in itself devoid of form, since it is the principal element (agent; +pradhana) in the bringing about of names and forms (according to +'aka/s/o ha vai namarupayor nirvahita') (14).--But does not the passage +'satya/m/ j/n/anam anantam brahma' teach that Brahman is nothing but +light (intelligence) without any difference, and does not the passage +'neti neti' deny of it all qualities?--As in order, we reply, not to +deprive passages as the one quoted from the Taittiriya of their purport, +we admit that Brahman's nature is light, so we must also admit that +Brahman is satyasa/m/kalpa, and so on; for if not, the passages in which +those qualities are asserted would become purportless (15).--Moreover +the Taittiriya passage only asserts so much, viz. the praka/s/arupata of +Brahman, and does not deny other qualities (l6).--And the passage 'neti +neti' will be discussed later on.--The ubhayali@ngatva of Brahman in the +sense assigned above is asserted in many places /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti +(17).--Because Brahman although abiding in many places is not touched by +their imperfections, the similes of the reflected sun, of the ether +limited by jars, &c., are applicable to it (18).--Should it be said that +the illustration is not an appropriate one, because the sun is +apprehended in the water erroneously only while the antaryamin really +abides within all things, and therefore must be viewed as sharing their +defects (19); we reply that what the simile means to negative is merely +that Brahman should, owing to its inherence in many places, participate +in the increase, decrease, and so on, of its abodes. On this view both +similes are appropriate (20).--Analogous similes we observe to be +employed in ordinary life, as when we compare a man to a lion (21). + +Sutras 22-30 constitute, according to /S/a@nkara, a new adhikara/n/a +(VI), whose object it is to show that the clause 'not so, not so' (neti +neti; B/ri/hadar) negatives, not Brahman itself, but only the two forms +of Brahman described in the preceding part of the chapter. Sutras 23-26 +further dwell on Brahman being in reality devoid of all distinctive +attributes which are altogether due to the upadhis. The last four Sutras +return to the question how, Brahman being one only, the souls are in so +many places spoken of as different from it, and, two explanatory +hypotheses having been rejected, the conclusion is arrived at that all +difference is unreal, due to fictitious limiting adjuncts. + +According to Ramanuja, Sutras 22 ff. continue the discussion started in +Sutra 11. How, the question is asked, can the ubhayali@ngatva of Brahman +be maintained considering that the 'not so, not so' of the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka denies of Brahman all the previously mentioned modes +(prakara), so that it can only be called that which is (sanmatra)?--The +reply given in Sutra 22 is that 'not so, not so' does not deny of +Brahman the distinctive qualities or modes declared previously (for it +would be senseless at first to teach them, and finally to deny them +again[16]), but merely denies the prak/ri/taitavattva, the previously +stated limited nature of Brahman, i.e. it denies that Brahman possesses +only the previously mentioned qualifications. With this agrees, that +subsequently to 'neti neti' Scripture itself enunciates further +qualifications of Brahman. That Brahman as stated above is not the +object of any other means of proof but Scripture is confirmed in Sutra +23, 'Scripture declares Brahman to be the non-manifest.'--And the +intuition (sakshatkkara) of Brahman ensues only upon its sa/m/radhana, +i.e. upon its being perfectly pleased by the worshipper's devotion, as +Scripture and Sm/ri/ti declare (24).--That this interpretation of 'neti' +is the right one, is likewise shown by the fact that in the same way as +praka/s/a, luminousness, j/n/ana, intelligence, &c., so also the quality +of being differentiated by the world (prapa/nk/avsish/t/ata) is intuited +as non-different, i.e. as likewise qualifying Brahman; and that +praka/s/a, and so on, characterise Brahman, is known through repeated +practice (on the part of /ri/shis like Vamadeva) in the work of +sa/m/radhana mentioned before (25).--For all these reasons Brahman is +connected with the infinite, i.e. the infinite number of auspicious +qualities; for thus the twofold indications (li@nga) met with in +Scripture are fully justified (26).--In what relation, then, does the +a/k/id vastu, i.e. the non-sentient matter, which, according to the +b/ri/hadara/n/yaka, is one of the forms of Brahman, stand to the +latter?--Non-sentient beings might, in the first place, be viewed as +special arrangements (sa/m/sthanavisesha/h/) of Brahman, as the coils +are of the body of the snake; for Brahman is designated as both, i.e. +sometimes as one with the world (Brahman is all this, &c.), sometimes as +different from it (Let me enter into those elements, &c.) (27).--Or, in +the second place, the relation of the two might be viewed as analogous +to that of light and the luminous object which are two and yet one, both +being fire (28).--Or, in the third place, the relation is like that +stated before, i.e. the material world is, like the individual souls +(whose case was discussed in II, 3, 43), a part--a/ms/a--of Brahman (29, +30). + +Adhik. VII (31-37) explains how some metaphorical expressions, seemingly +implying that there is something different from Brahman, have to be +truly understood. + +Adhik. VIII (38-41) teaches that the reward of works is not, as Jaimini +opines, the independent result of the works acting through the so-called +apurva, but is allotted by the Lord. + + +PADA III. + + +With the third pada of the second adhyaya a new section of the work +begins, whose task it is to describe how the individual soul is enabled +by meditation on Brahman to obtain final release. The first point to be +determined here is what constitutes a meditation on Brahman, and, more +particularly, in what relation those parts of the Upanishads stand to +each other which enjoin identical or partly identical meditations. The +reader of the Upanishads cannot fail to observe that the texts of the +different /s/akhas contain many chapters of similar, often nearly +identical, contents, and that in some cases the text of even one and the +same /s/akha exhibits the same matter in more or less varied forms. The +reason of this clearly is that the common stock of religious and +philosophical ideas which were in circulation at the time of the +composition of the Upanishads found separate expression in the different +priestly communities; hence the same speculations, legends, &c. reappear +in various places of the sacred Scriptures in more or less differing +dress. Originally, when we may suppose the members of each Vedic school +to have confined themselves to the study of their own sacred texts, the +fact that the texts of other schools contained chapters of similar +contents would hardly appear to call for special note or comment; not +any more than the circumstance that the sacrificial performances +enjoined on the followers of some particular /s/akha were found +described with greater or smaller modifications in the books of other +/s/akhas also. But already at a very early period, at any rate long +before the composition of the Vedanta-sutras in their present form, the +Vedic theologians must have apprehended the truth that, in whatever +regards sacrificial acts, one /s/akha may indeed safely follow its own +texts, disregarding the texts of all other /s/akhas; that, however, all +texts which aim at throwing light on the nature of Brahman and the +relation to it of the human soul must somehow or other be combined into +one consistent systematical whole equally valid for the followers of all +Vedic schools. For, as we have had occasion to remark above, while acts +may be performed by different individuals in different ways, cognition +is defined by the nature of the object cognised, and hence can be one +only, unless it ceases to be true cognition. Hence the attempts, on the +one hand, of discarding by skilful interpretation all contradictions met +with in the sacred text, and, on the other hand, of showing what +sections of the different Upanishads have to be viewed as teaching the +same matter, and therefore must be combined in one meditation. The +latter is the special task of the present pada. + +Adhik. I and II (1-4; 5) are concerned with the question whether those +vidyas, which are met with in identical or similar form in more than one +sacred text, are to be considered as constituting several vidyas, or one +vidya only. /S/a@nkara remarks that the question affects only those +vidyas whose object is the qualified Brahman; for the knowledge of the +non-qualified Brahman, which is of an absolutely uniform nature, can of +course be one only wherever it is set forth. But things lie differently +in those cases where the object of knowledge is the sagu/n/am brahma or +some outward manifestation of Brahman; for the qualities as well as +manifestations of Brahman are many. Anticipating the subject of a later +adhikara/n/a, we may take for an example the so-called /S/a/nd/ilyavidya +which is met with in Ch. Up. III, 14, again--in an abridged form--in +B/ri/. Up. V, 6, and, moreover, in the tenth book of the +/S/atapathabrahma/n/a (X, 6, 3). The three passages enjoin a meditation +on Brahman as possessing certain attributes, some of which are specified +in all the three texts (as, for instance, manomayatva, bharupatva), +while others are peculiar to each separate passage (pra/n/a/s/ariratva +and satyasa/m/kalpatva, for instance, being mentioned in the Chandogya +Upanishad and /S/atapatha-brahma/n/a, but not in the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka +Upanishad, which, on its part, specifies sarvava/s/itva, not referred to +in the two other texts). Here, then, there is room for a doubt whether +the three passages refer to one object of knowledge or not. To the +devout Vedantin the question is not a purely theoretical one, but of +immediate practical interest. For if the three texts are to be held +apart, there are three different meditations to be gone through; if, on +the other hand, the vidya is one only, all the different qualities of +Brahman mentioned in the three passages have to be combined into one +meditation.--The decision is here, as in all similar cases, in favour of +the latter alternative. A careful examination of the three passages +shows that the object of meditation is one only; hence the meditation +also is one only, comprehending all the attributes mentioned in the +three texts. + +Adhik. III (6-8) discusses the case of vidyas being really separate, +although apparently identical. The examples selected are the +udgithavidyas of the Chandogya Upanishad (I, 1-3) and the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka Upanishad (I, 3), which, although showing certain +similarities--such as bearing the same name and the udgitha being in +both identified with pra/n/a--yet are to be held apart, because the +subject of the Chandogya vidya is not the whole udgitha but only the +sacred syllabic Om, while the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka Upanishad represents +the whole udgitha as the object of meditation. + +Sutra 9 constitutes in /S/a@nkara's view a new adhikara/n/a (IV), +proving that in the passage, 'Let a man meditate' (Ch. Up. I, 1, 1), the +O/m/kara and the udgitha stand in the relation of one specifying the +other, the meaning being, 'Let a man meditate on that O/m/kara which,' +&c.--According to Ramanuja's interpretation, which seems to fall in more +satisfactorily with the form and the wording of the Sutra, the latter +merely furnishes an additional argument for the conclusion arrived at in +the preceding adhikara/n/a.--Adhik. V (10) determines the unity of the +so-called pra/n/a-vidyas and the consequent comprehension of the +different qualities of the pra/n/a, which are mentioned in the different +texts, within one meditation. + +Adhik. VI comprises, according to /S/a@nkara, the Sutras 11-13. The +point to be settled is whether in all the meditations on Brahman all its +qualities are to be included or only those mentioned in the special +vidya. The decision is that the essential and unalterable attributes of +Brahman, such as bliss and knowledge, are to be taken into account +everywhere, while those which admit of a more or less (as, for instance, +the attribute of having joy for its head, mentioned in the Taitt. Up.) +are confined to special meditations.--Adhik. VII (14, 15), according to +/S/a@nkara, aims at proving that the object of Ka/th/a. Up. III, 10, 11 +is one only, viz. to show that the highest Self is higher than +everything, so that the passage constitutes one vidya only.--Adhik. VIII +(16, 17) determines, according to /S/a@nkara, that the Self spoken of in +Ait. Ar. II, 4, 1, 1 is not a lower form of the Self (the so-called +sutratman), but the highest Self; the discussion of that point in this +place being due to the wish to prove that the attributes of the highest +Self have to be comprehended in the Aitarcyaka meditation. + +According to Ramanuja the Sutras 11-17 constitute a single adhikara/n/a +whose subject is the same as that of /S/a@nkara's sixth adhikar/n/a. +Sutras 11-13 are, on the whole, explained as by /S/a@nkara; Sutra 12, +however, is said to mean, 'Such attributes as having joy for its head, +&c. are not to be viewed as qualities of Brahman, and therefore not to +be included in every meditation; for if they were admitted as qualities, +difference would be introduced into Brahman's nature, and that would +involve a more or less on Brahman's part.' Sutras 14-17 continue the +discussion of the passage about the priya/s/irastva.--If +priya/s/irastva, &c. are not to be viewed as real qualities of Brahman, +for what purpose does the text mention them?--'Because,' Sutra 14 +replies, 'there is no other purpose, Scripture mentions them for the +purpose of pious meditation.'--But how is it known that the Self of +delight is the highest Self? (owing to which you maintain that having +limbs, head, &c. cannot belong to it as attributes.)--'Because,' Sutra +15 replies, 'the term "Self" (atma anandamaya) is applied to it.'--But +in the previous parts of the chapter the term Self (in atma pra/n/amaya, +&c.) is applied to non-Selfs also; how then do you know that in atma +anandamaya it denotes the real Self?--'The term Self,' Sutra 16 replies, +'is employed here to denote the highest Self as in many other passages +(atmaa va idam eka, &c.), as we conclude from the subsequent passage, +viz. he wished, May I be many.'--But, an objection is raised, does not +the context show that the term 'Self,' which in all the preceding +clauses about the pra/n/amaya, &c. denoted something other than the +Self, does the same in anandamaya atman, and is not the context of +greater weight than a subsequent passage?--To this question asked in the +former half of 17 (anvayad iti /k/et) the latter half replies, 'Still it +denotes the Self, owing to the affirmatory statement,' i.e. the fact of +the highest Self having been affirmed in a previous passage also, viz. +II, 1, 'From that Self sprang ether.' + +Adhik. IX (18) discusses a minor point connected with the +pra/n/asa/m/vada.--The subject of Adhik. X (19) has been indicated +already above under Adhik. I.--Adhik. XI (20-22) treats of a case of a +contrary nature; in B/ri/. Up. V, 5, Brahman is represented first as +abiding in the sphere of the sun, and then as abiding within the eye; we +therefore, in spite of certain counter-indications, have to do with two +separate vidyas.--Adhik. XII (23) refers to a similar case; certain +attributes of Brahman mentioned in the Ra/n/ayaniya-khila have not to be +introduced into the corresponding Chandogya vidya, because the stated +difference of Brahman's abode involves difference of vidya.--Adhik. XIII +(24) treats of another instance of two vidyas having to be held apart. + +Adhik. XIV (25) decides that certain detached mantras and brahma/n/a +passages met with in the beginning of some Upanishads--as, for instance, +a brahma/n/a about the mahavrata ceremony at the beginning of the +Aitareya-ara/n/yaka--do, notwithstanding their position which seems to +connect them with the brahmavidya, not belong to the latter, since they +show unmistakable signs of being connected with sacrificial acts. + +Adhik. XV (26) treats of the passages stating that the man dying in the +possession of true knowledge shakes off all his good and evil deeds, and +affirms that a statement, made in some of those passages only, to the +effect that the good and evil deeds pass over to the friends and enemies +of the deceased, is valid for all the passages. + +Sutras 27-30 constitute, according to /S/a@nkara, two adhikara/n/as of +which the former (XVI; 27, 28) decides that the shaking off of the good +and evil deeds takes place--not, as the Kaush. Up. states, on the road +to Brahman's world--but at the moment of the soul's departure from the +body; the Kaushitaki statement is therefore not to be taken +literally.--The latter adhikara/n/a (XVII; 29, 30) treats of the cognate +question whether the soul that has freed itself from its deeds proceeds +in all cases on the road of the gods (as said in the Kaush. Up.), or +not. The decision is that he only whose knowledge does not pass beyond +the sagu/n/am brahma proceeds on that road, while the soul of him who +knows the nirgu/n/am brahma becomes one with it without moving to any +other place. + +The /S/ri-bhashya treats the four Sutras as one adhikara/n/a whose two +first Sutras are explained as by /S/a@nkara, while Sutra 29 raises an +objection to the conclusion arrived at, 'the going (of the soul on the +path of the gods) has a sense only if the soul's freeing itself from its +works takes place in both ways, i.e. partly at the moment of death, +partly on the road to Brahman; for otherwise there would be a +contradiction' (the contradiction being that, if the soul's works were +all shaken off at the moment of death, the subtle body would likewise +perish at that moment, and then the bodiless soul would be unable to +proceed on the path of the gods). To this Sutra 30 replies, 'The +complete shaking off of the works at the moment of death is possible, +since matters of that kind are observed in Scripture,' i.e. since +scriptural passages show that even he whose works are entirely +annihilated, and who has manifested himself in his true shape, is yet +connected with some kind of body; compare the passage, 'para/m/ jyotir +upasampadya svena rupe/n/abhinishpadyate sa tatra paryeti kri/d/an +ramamana/h/ sa svara/d/ bhavati tasya sarveshu lokeshu kama/k/aro +bhavati.' That subtle body is not due to karman, but to the soul's +vidyamahatmya.--That the explanation of the /S/ri-bhashya agrees with +the text as well as /S/a@nkara's, a comparison of the two will show; +especially forced is /S/a@nkara's explanation of 'arthavattvam +ubhayatha,' which is said to mean that there is arthavattva in one case, +and non-arthavattva in the other case. + +The next Sutra (31) constitutes an adhikara/n/a (XVIII) deciding that +the road of the gods is followed not only by those knowing the vidyas +which specially mention the going on that road, but by all who are +acquainted with the sagu/n/a-vidyas of Brahman.--The explanation given +in the /S/ri-bhashya (in which Sutras 31 and 32 have exchanged places) +is similar, with the difference however that all who meditate on +Brahman--without any reference to the distinction of nirgu/n/a and +sagu/n/a--proceed after death on the road of the gods. (The +/S/ri-bhashya reads 'sarvesham,' i.e. all worshippers, not 'sarvasam,' +all sagu/n/a-vidyas.) + +Adhik. XIX (32) decides that, although the general effect of true +knowledge is release from all forms of body, yet even such beings as +have reached perfect knowledge may retain a body for the purpose of +discharging certain offices.--In the /S/ri-bhashya, where the Sutra +follows immediately on Sutra 30, the adhikara/n/a determines, in close +connexion with 30, that, although those who know Brahman as a rule +divest themselves of the gross body--there remaining only a subtle body +which enables them to move--and no longer experience pleasure and pain, +yet certain beings, although having reached the cognition of Brahman, +remain invested with a gross body, and hence liable to pleasure and pain +until they have fully performed certain duties. + +Adhik. XX (33) teaches that the negative attributes of Brahman mentioned +in some vidyas--such as its being not gross, not subtle, &c.--are to be +included in all meditations on Brahman.--Adhik. XXI (34) determines that +Ka/th/a Up. III, 1, and Mu. Up. III, 1, constitute one vidya only, +because both passages refer to the highest Brahman. According to +Ramanuja the Sutra contains a reply to an objection raised against the +conclusion arrived at in the preceding Sutra.--Adhik. XXII (35, 36) +maintains that the two passages, B/ri/. Up. III, 4 and III, 5, +constitute one vidya only, the object of knowledge being in both cases +Brahman viewed as the inner Self of all.--Adhik. XXIII (37) on the +contrary decides that the passage Ait. Ar. II, 2, 4, 6 constitutes not +one but two meditations.--Adhik. XXIV (38) again determines that the +vidya of the True contained in B/ri/. Up. V, 4, 5, is one +only--According to Ramanuja, Sutras 35-38 constitute one adhikara/n/a +only whose subject is the same as that of XXII according to /S/a@nkara. + +Adhik. XXV (39) proves that the passages Ch. Up. VIII, 1 and B/ri/. Up. +IV, 4, 22 cannot constitute one vidya, since the former refers to +Brahman as possessing qualities, while the latter is concerned with +Brahman as destitute of qualities.--Adhik. XXVI (40, 41) treats, +according to /S/a@nkara, of a minor question connected with Ch. Up. V, +11 ff.--According to the /S/ri-bhashya, Sutras 39-41 form one +adhikara/n/a whose first Sutra reaches essentially the same conclusion +as /S/a@nkara under 39. Sutras 40, 41 thereupon discuss a general +question concerning the meditations on Brahman. The qualities, an +opponent is supposed to remark, which in the two passages discussed are +predicated of Brahman--such as va/s/itva, satyakamatva, &c.--cannot be +considered real (paramarthika), since other passages (sa esha neti neti, +and the like) declare Brahman to be devoid of all qualities. Hence those +qualities cannot be admitted into meditations whose purpose is final +release.--To this objection Sutra 40 replies, '(Those qualities) are not +to be left off (from the meditations on Brahman), since (in the passage +under discussion as well as in other passages) they are stated with +emphasis[17].'--But, another objection is raised, Scripture says that he +who meditates on Brahman as satyakama, &c. obtains a mere perishable +reward, viz. the world of the fathers, and similar results specified in +Ch. Up. VIII, 2; hence, he who is desirous of final release, must not +include those qualities of Brahman in his meditation.--To this objection +Sutra 41 replies, 'Because that (i.e. the free roaming in all the +worlds, the world of the fathers, &c.) is stated as proceeding therefrom +(i.e. the approach to Brahman which is final release) in the case of +(the soul) which has approached Brahman;' (therefore a person desirous +of release, may include satyakamatva, &c. in his meditations.) + +Adhik. XXVII (42) decides that those meditations which are connected +with certain matters forming constituent parts of sacrificial actions, +are not to be considered as permanently requisite parts of the +latter.--Adhik. XXVIII (43) teaches that, in a B/ri/. Up. passage and a +similar Ch. Up. passage, Vayu and Pra/n/a are not to be identified, but +to be held apart.--Adhik. XXIX (44-52) decides that the firealtars made +of mind, &c., which are mentioned in the Agnirahasya, do not constitute +parts of the sacrificial action (so that the mental, &c. construction of +the altar could optionally be substituted for the actual one), but +merely subjects of meditations. + +Adhik. XXX (53, 54) treats, according to /S/a@nkara, in the way of +digression, of the question whether to the Self an existence independent +of the body can be assigned, or not (as the Materialists +maintain).--According to the /S/ri-bhashya the adhikara/n/a does not +refer to this wide question, but is concerned with a point more +immediately connected with the meditations on Brahman, viz. the question +as to the form under which, in those meditations, the Self of the +meditating devotee has to be viewed. The two Sutras then have to be +translated as follows: 'Some (maintain that the soul of the devotee has, +in meditations, to be viewed as possessing those attributes only which +belong to it in its embodied state, such as j/n/at/ri/tva and the like), +because the Self is (at the time of meditation) in the body.'--The next +Sutra rejects this view, 'This is not so, but the separatedness (i.e. +the pure isolated state in which the Self is at the time of final +release when it is freed from all evil, &c.) (is to be transferred to +the meditating Self), because that will be[18] the state (of the Self in +the condition of final release).' + +Adhik. XXXI (55, 56) decides that meditations connected with constituent +elements of the sacrifice, such as the udgitha, are, in spite of +difference of svara in the udgitha, &c., valid, not only for that +/s/akha in which the meditation actually is met with, but for all +/s/akhas.--Adhik. XXXII (57) decides that the Vai/s/vanara Agni of Ch. +Up. V, 11 ff. is to be meditated upon as a whole, not in his single +parts.--Adhik. XXXIII (58) teaches that those meditations which refer to +one subject, but as distinguished by different qualities, have to be +held apart as different meditations. Thus the daharavidya, +/S/a/nd/ilyavidya, &c. remain separate. + +Adhik. XXXIV (59) teaches that those meditations on Brahman for which +the texts assign one and the same fruit are optional, there being no +reason for their being cumulated.--Adhik. XXXV (60) decides that those +meditations, on the other hand, which refer to special wishes may be +cumulated or optionally employed according to choice.--Adhik. XXXVI +(61-66) extends this conclusion to the meditations connected with +constituent elements of action, such as the udgitha. + + +PADA IV. + + +Adhik. I (1-17) proves that the knowledge of Brahman is not kratvartha, +i.e. subordinate to action, but independent.--Adhik. II (18-20) confirms +this conclusion by showing that the state of the pravrajins is enjoined +by the sacred law, and that for them vidya only is prescribed, not +action.--Adhik. III (21, 22) decides that certain clauses forming part +of vidyas are not mere stutis (arthavadas), but themselves enjoin the +meditation.--The legends recorded in the Vedanta-texts are not to be +used as subordinate members of acts, but have the purpose of +glorifying--as arthavadas--the injunctions with which they are connected +(Adhik. IV, 23, 24).--For all these reasons the urdhvaretasa/h/ require +no actions but only knowledge (Adhik. V, 25).--Nevertheless the actions +enjoined by Scripture, such as sacrifices, conduct of certain kinds, +&c., are required as conducive to the rise of vidya in the mind (Adhik. +VI, 26, 27).--Certain relaxations, allowed by Scripture, of the laws +regarding food, are meant only for cases of extreme need (Adhik. VII, +28-3l).--The a/s/ramakarma/n/i are obligatory on him also who does not +strive after mukti (Adhik. VIII, 32-35).--Those also who, owing to +poverty and so on, are ana/s/rama have claims to vidya (Adhik. IX, +36-39).--An urdhvaretas cannot revoke his vow (Adhik. X, 40).--Expiation +of the fall of an urdhvaretas (Adhik. XI, 41, 42).--Exclusion of the +fallen urdhvaretas in certain cases (Adhik. XII, 43).--Those +meditations, which are connected with subordinate members of the +sacrifice, are the business of the priest, not of the yajamana (Adhik. +XIII, 44-46).--B/ri/. Up. III, 5, 1 enjoins mauna as a third in addition +to balya and pa/nd/itya (Adhik. XIV, 47-49).--By balya is to be +understood a childlike innocent state of mind (Adhik. XV, 50). + +Sutras 51 and 52 discuss, according to Ramanuja, the question when the +vidya, which is the result of the means described in III, 4, arises. +Sutra 51 treats of that vidya whose result is mere exaltation +(abhyudaya), and states that 'it takes place in the present life, if +there is not present an obstacle in the form of a prabalakarmantara (in +which latter case the vidya arises later only), on account of Scripture +declaring this (in various passages).'--Sutra 52, 'Thus there is also +absence of a definite rule as to (the time of origination of) that +knowledge whose fruit is release, it being averred concerning that one +also that it is in the same condition (i.e. of sometimes having an +obstacle, sometimes not).'--/S/a@nkara, who treats the two Sutras as two +adhikara/n/as, agrees as to the explanation of 51, while, putting a +somewhat forced interpretation on 52, he makes it out to mean that a +more or less is possible only in the case of the sagu/n/a-vidyas. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 16: All the mentioned modes of Brahman are known from +Scripture only, not from ordinary experience. If the latter were the +case, then, and then only, Scripture might at first refer to them +'anuvadena,' and finally negative them.] + +[Footnote 17: Ramanuja has here some strong remarks on the improbability +of qualities emphatically attributed to Brahman, in more than one +passage, having to be set aside in any meditation: 'Na /k/a +matapit/ri/sahasrebhyo-pi vatsalatara/m/ sastra/m/ pratarakavad +aparamarthikau nirasaniyau gu/n/au prama/n/antarapratipannau +adare/n/opadi/s/ya sa/m/sara/k/akraparivartanena purvam eva +bambhramyamanan mumukshun bhuyo-pi bhramayitum alam.'] + +[Footnote 18: The /S/ri-bh-ashya as well as several other commentaries +reads tadbhavabhavitvat for /S/an@kara's tadbhavabhavitvat.] + + +FOURTH ADHYAYA. +PADA I. + + +Adhikara/n/a I (1, 2).--The meditation on the Atman enjoined by +Scripture is not an act to be accomplished once only, but is to be +repeated again and again. + +Adhik. II (3).--The devotee engaged in meditation on Brahman is to view +it as constituting his own Self. + +Adhik. III (4).--To the rule laid down in the preceding adhikara/n/a the +so-called pratikopasanas, i.e. those meditations in which Brahman is +viewed under a symbol or outward manifestation (as, for instance, mano +brahmety upasita) constitute an exception, i.e. the devotee is not to +consider the pratika as constituting his own Self. + +Adhik. IV (5).--In the pratikopasanas the pratika is to be meditatively +viewed as being one with Brahman, not Brahman as being one with the +pratika.--Ramanuja takes Sutra 5 as simply giving a reason for the +decision arrived at under Sutra 4, and therefore as not constituting a +new adhikara/n/a. + +Adhik. V (6).--In meditations connected with constitutives of +sacrificial works (as, for instance, ya evasau tapati tam udgitham +upasita) the idea of the divinity, &c. is to be transferred to the +sacrificial item, not vice versa. In the example quoted, for instance, +the udgitha is to be viewed as Aditya, not Aditya as the udgitha. + +Adhik. VI (7-10).--The devotee is to carry on his meditations in a +sitting posture.--/S/a@nkara maintains that this rule does not apply to +those meditations whose result is sa/m/yagdar/s/ana; but the Sutra gives +no hint to that effect. + +Adhik. VII (11).--The meditations may be carried on at any time, and in +any place, favourable to concentration of mind. + +Adhik. VIII (12).--The meditations are to be continued until +death.--/S/a@nkara again maintains that those meditations which lead to +sa/m/yagdar/s/ana are excepted. + +Adhik. IX (13).--When through those meditations the knowledge of Brahman +has been reached, the vidvan is no longer affected by the consequences +of either past or future evil deeds. + +Adhik. X (14).--Good deeds likewise lose their efficiency.--The literal +translation of the Sutra is, 'There is likewise non-attachment (to the +vidvan) of the other (i.e. of the deeds other than the evil ones, i.e. +of good deeds), but on the fall (of the body, i.e. when death takes +place).' The last words of the Sutra, 'but on the fall,' are separated +by /S/a@nkara from the preceding part of the Sutra and interpreted to +mean, 'when death takes place (there results mukti of the vidvan, who +through his knowledge has freed himself from the bonds of +works).'--According to Ramanuja the whole Sutra simply means, 'There is +likewise non-attachment of good deeds (not at once when knowledge is +reached), but on the death of the vidvan[19].' + +Adhik. XI (15).--The non-operation of works stated in the two preceding +adhikara/n/as holds good only in the case of anarabdhakarya works, i.e. +those works which have not yet begun to produce their effects, while it +does not extend to the arabdhakarya works on which the present existence +of the devotee depends. + +Adhik. XII (16, 17).--From the rule enunciated in Adhik. X are excepted +such sacrificial performances as are enjoined permanently (nitya): so, +for instance, the agnihotra, for they promote the origination of +knowledge. + +Adhik. XIII (18).--The origination of knowledge is promoted also by such +sacrificial works as are not accompanied with the knowledge of the +upasanas referring to the different members of those works. + +Adhik. XIV (19).--The arabdhakarya works have to be worked out fully by +the fruition of their effects; whereupon the vidvan becomes united with +Brahman.--The 'bhoga' of the Sutra is, according to /S/a@nkara, +restricted to the present existence of the devotee, since the complete +knowledge obtained by him destroys the nescience which otherwise would +lead to future embodiments. According to Ramanuja a number of embodied +existences may have to be gone through before the effects of the +arabdhakarya works are exhausted. + + +PADA II. + + +This and the two remaining padas of the fourth adhyaya describe the fate +of the vidvan after death. According to /S/a@nkara we have to +distinguish the vidvan who possesses the highest knowledge, viz. that he +is one with the highest Brahman, and the vidvan who knows only the lower +Brahman, and have to refer certain Sutras to the former and others to +the latter. According to Ramanuja the vidvan is one only. + +Adhik. I, II, III (1-6).--On the death of the vidvan (i.e. of him who +possesses the lower knowledge, according to /S/a@nkara) his senses are +merged in the manas, the manas in the chief vital air (pra/n/a), the +vital air in the individual soul (jiva), the soul in the subtle +elements.--According to Ramanuja the combination (sampatti) of the +senses with the manas, &c. is a mere conjunction (sa/m/yoga), not a +merging (laya). + +Adhik. IV (7).--The vidvan (i.e. according to /S/a@nkara, he who +possesses the lower knowledge) and the avidvan, i.e. he who does not +possess any knowledge of Brahman, pass through the same stages (i.e. +those described hitherto) up to the entrance of the soul, together with +the subtle elements, and so on into the na/d/is.--The vidvan also +remains connected with the subtle elements because he has not yet +completely destroyed avidya, so that the immortality which Scripture +ascribes to him (am/ri/tatva/m/ hi vidvan abhya/s/nute) is only a +relative one.--Ramanuja quotes the following text regarding the +immortality of the vidvan: + + 'Yada sarve pramu/k/yante kama yessya h/ri/di sthita/h/ atha + martyosm/ri/to bhavaty atra brahma sama/s/nute,' + +and explains that the immortality which is here ascribed to the vidvan +as soon as he abandons all desires can only mean the +destruction--mentioned in the preceding pada--of all the effects of good +and evil works, while the 'reaching of Brahman' can only refer to the +intuition of Brahman vouchsafed to the meditating devotee. + +Adhik. V (8-11) raises; according to /S/a@nkara, the question whether +the subtle elements of which Scripture says that they are combined with +the highest deity (teja/h/ parasya/m/ devatayam) are completely merged +in the latter or not. The answer is that a complete absorption of the +elements takes place only when final emancipation is reached; that, on +the other hand, as long as the sa/m/sara state lasts, the elements, +although somehow combined with Brahman, remain distinct so as to be able +to form new bodies for the soul. + +According to Ramanuja the Sutras 8-11 do not constitute a new +adhikara/n/a, but continue the discussion of the point mooted in 7. The +immortality there spoken of does not imply the separation of the soul +from the body, 'because Scripture declares sa/m/sara, i.e. embodiedness +up to the reaching of Brahman' (tasya tavad eva /k/ira/m/ yavan na +vimokshye atha sampatsye) (8).--That the soul after having departed from +the gross body is not disconnected from the subtle elements, is also +proved hereby, that the subtle body accompanies it, as is observed from +authority[20] (9).--Hence the immortality referred to in the scriptural +passage quoted is not effected by means of the total destruction of the +body (10). + +Adhik. VI (12-14) is of special importance.--According to /S/a@nkara the +Sutras now turn from the discussion of the departure of him who +possesses the lower knowledge only to the consideration of what becomes +of him who has reached the higher knowledge. So far it has been taught +that in the case of relative immortality (ensuing on the apara vidya) +the subtle elements, together with the senses and so on, depart from the +body of the dying devotee; this implies at the same time that they do +not depart from the body of the dying sage who knows himself to be one +with Brahman.--Against this latter implied doctrine Sutra 12 is supposed +to formulate an objection. 'If it be said that the departure of the +pra/n/as from the body of the dying sage is denied (viz. in B/ri/. Up. +IV, 4, 5, na tasya pra/n/a utkramanti, of him the pra/n/as do not pass +out); we reply that in that passage the genitive "tasya" has the sense +of the ablative "tasmat," so that the sense of the passage is, "from +him, i.e. from the jiva of the dying sage, the pra/n/as do not depart, +but remain with it."'--This objection /S/a@nkara supposes to be disposed +of in Sutra 13. 'By some there is given a clear denial of the departure +of the pra/n/as in the case of the dying sage,' viz. in the passage +B/ri/. Up. III, 2, 11, where Yaj/n/avalkya instructs Artabhaga that, +when this man dies, the pra/n/as do not depart from it (asmat; the +context showing that asmat means 'from it,' viz. from the body, and not +'from him,' viz. the jiva).--The same view is, moreover, confirmed by +Sm/ri/ti passages. + +According to Ramanuja the three Sutras forming /S/a@nkara's sixth +adhikara/n/a do not constitute a new adhikara/n/a at all, and, moreover, +have to be combined into two Sutras. The topic continuing to be +discussed is the utkranti of the vidvan. If, Sutra 12 says, the utkranti +of the pra/n/as is not admitted, on the ground of the denial supposed to +be contained in B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 5; the reply is that the sense of the +tasya there is '/s/arirat' (so that the passage means, 'from him, i.e. +the jiva, the pra/n/as do not depart'); for this is clearly shown by the +reading of some, viz. the Madhyandinas, who, in their text of the +passage, do not read 'tasya' but 'tasmat.'--With reference to the +instruction given by Yaj/n/avalkya to Artabhaga, it is to be remarked +that nothing there shows the 'ayam purusha' to be the sage who knows +Brahman.--And, finally, there are Sm/ri/ti passages declaring that the +sage also when dying departs from the body. + +Adhik. VII and VIII (15, 16) teach, according to /S/a@nkara, that, on +the death of him who possesses the higher knowledge, his pra/n/as, +elements, &c. are merged in Brahman, so as to be no longer distinct from +it in any way. + +According to Ramanuja the two Sutras continue the teaching about the +pra/n/as, bhutas, &c. of the vidvan in general, and declare that they +are finally merged in Brahman, not merely in the way of conjunction +(sa/m/yoga), but completely.[21] + +Adhik. IX (17).--/S/a@nkara here returns to the owner of the apara +vidya, while Ramanuja continues the description of the utkranti of his +vidvan.--The jiva of the dying man passes into the heart, and thence +departs out of the body by means of the na/d/is; the vidvan by means of +the na/d/i called sushum/n/a, the avidvan by means of some other na/d/i. + +Adhik. X (18, 19).--The departing soul passes up to the sun by means of +a ray of light which exists at night as well as during day. + +Adhik. XI (20, 21).--Also that vidvan who dies during the dakshi/n/ayana +reaches Brahman. + + +PADA III. + + +Adhik. I, II, III (1-3) reconcile the different accounts given in the +Upanishads as to the stations of the way which leads the vidvan up to +Brahman. + +Adhik. IV (4-6)--By the 'stations' we have, however, to understand not +only the subdivisions of the way but also the divine beings which lead +the soul on. + +The remaining part of the pada is by /S/a@nkara divided into two +adhikara/n/as. Of these the former one (7-14) teaches that the Brahman +to which the departed soul is led by the guardians of the path of the +gods is not the highest Brahman, but the effected (karya) or qualified +(/s/agu/n/a) Brahman. This is the opinion propounded in Sutras 7-11 by +Badari, and, finally, accepted by /S/a@nkara in his commentary on Sutra +14. In Sutras 12-14 Jaimini defends the opposite view, according to +which the soul of the vidvan goes to the highest Brahman, not to the +karyam brahma. But Jaimini's view, although set forth in the latter part +of the adhikara/n/a, is, according to /S/a@nkara, a mere purvapaksha, +while Badari's opinion represents the siddhanta.--The latter of the two +adhikara/n/as (VI of the whole pada; 15, 16) records the opinion of +Badaraya/n/a on a collateral question, viz. whether, or not, all those +who worship the effected Brahman are led to it. The decision is that +those only are guided to Brahman who have not worshipped it under a +pratika form. + +According to Ramanuja, Sutras 7-16 form one adhikara/n/a only, in which +the views of Badari and of Jaimini represent two purvapakshas, while +Badaraya/n/a's opinion is adopted as the siddhanta. The question is +whether the guardians of the path lead to Brahman only those who worship +the effected Brahman, i.e. Hira/n/yagarbha, or those who worship the +highest Brahman, or those who worship the individual soul as free from +Prak/ri/ti, and having Brahman for its Self (ye pratyagatmana/m/ +prak/ri/tiviyukta/m/ brahmatmakam upasate).--The first view is +maintained by Badari in Sutra 7, 'The guardians lead to Brahman those +who worship the effected Brahman, because going is possible towards the +latter only;' for no movement can take place towards the highest and as +such omnipresent Brahman.--The explanation of Sutra 9 is similar to that +of /S/a@nkara; but more clearly replies to the objection (that, if +Hira/n/yagarbha were meant in the passage, 'purusho /s/a manava/h/ sa +etan brahma gamayati,' the text would read 'sa etan brahma/n/am +gamayati') that Hira/n/yagarbha is called Brahman on account of his +nearness to Brahman, i.e. on account of his prathamajatva.--The +explanation of 10, 11 is essentially the same as in /S/a@nkara; so also +of l2-l4.--The siddhanta view is established in Sutra 13, 'It is the +opinion of Badaraya/n/a that it, i.e. the ga/n/a of the guardians, leads +to Brahman those who do not take their stand on what is pratika, i.e. +those who worship the highest Brahman, and those who meditate on the +individual Self as dissociated from prak/ri/ti, and having Brahman for +its Self, but not those who worship Brahman under pratikas. For both +views--that of Jaimini as well as that of Badari--are faulty.' The karya +view contradicts such passages as 'asma/k/ charirat samutthaya para/m/ +jyotir upasampadya,' &c.; the para view, such passages as that in the +pa/nk/agni-vidya, which declares that ya ittha/m/ vidu/h/, i.e. those +who know the pa/nk/agni-vidya, are also led up to Brahman. + + +PADA IV. + + +Adhik. I (1-3) returns, according to /S/a@nkara, to the owner of the +para vidya, and teaches that, when on his death his soul obtains final +release, it does not acquire any new characteristics, but merely +manifests itself in its true nature.--The explanation given by Ramanuja +is essentially the same, but of course refers to that vidvan whose going +to Brahman had been described in the preceding pada. + +Adhik. II (4) determines that the relation in which the released soul +stands to Brahman is that of avibhaga, non-separation. This, on +/S/a@nkara's view, means absolute non-separation, identity.--According +to Ramanuja the question to be considered is whether the released soul +views itself as separate (p/ri/thagbhuta) from Brahman, or as +non-separate because being a mode of Brahman. The former view is +favoured by those /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti passages which speak of the soul +as being with, or equal to, Brahman; the latter by, such passages as tat +tvam asi and the like.[22] + +Adhik. III (5-7) discusses the characteristics of the released soul +(i.e. of the truly released soul, according to /S/a@nkara). According to +Jaimini the released soul, when manifesting itself in its true nature, +possesses all those qualities which in Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1 and other +places are ascribed to Brahman, such as apahatapapmatva, +satyasa/m/kalpatva, &c., ai/s/varya.--According to Au/d/ulomi the only +characteristic of the released soul is /k/aitanya.--According to +Badarayana the two views can be combined (/S/a@nkara remarking that +satyasa/m/kalpatva, &c. are ascribed to the released soul +vyavaharapekshaya). + +Adhik. IV (8-9) returns, according to /S/a@nkara, to the apara vidya, +and discusses the question whether the soul of the pious effects its +desires by its mere determination, or uses some other means. The former +alternative is accepted--According to Ramanuja the adhikara/n/a simply +continues the consideration of the state of the released, begun in the +preceding adhikara/n/a. Of the released soul it is said in Ch. Up. VIII, +12, 3 that after it has manifested itself in its true nature it moves +about playing and rejoicing with women, carriages, and so on. The +question then arises whether it effects all this by its mere sa/m/kalpa +(it having been shown in the preceding adhikara/n/a that the released +soul is, like the Lord, satyasa/m/kalpa), or not. The answer is in +favour of the former alternative, on account of the explicit declaration +made in Ch. Up. VIII, 2, 'By his mere will the fathers come to receive +him.' + +Adhik. V (10-14) decides that the released are embodied or disembodied +according to their wish and will. + +Adhik. VI (11, 12) explains how the soul of the released can animate +several bodies at the same time.--Sutra 12 gives, according to +/S/a@nkara, the additional explanation that those passages which declare +the absence of all specific cognition on the part of the released soul +do not refer to the partly released soul of the devotee, but either to +the soul in the state of deep sleep (svapyaya = sushupti), or to the +fully released soul of the sage (sampatti = kaivalya).--Ramanuja +explains that the passages speaking of absence of consciousness refer +either to the state of deep sleep, or to the time of dying (sampatti = +mata/n/am according to 'van manasi sampadyate,' &c.). + +Adhik. VII (17-21).--The released jivas participate in all the +perfections and powers of the Lord, with the exception of the power of +creating and sustaining the world. They do not return to new forms of +embodied existence. + +After having, in this way, rendered ourselves acquainted with the +contents of the Brahma-sutras according to the views of /S/a@nkara as +well as Ramanuja, we have now to consider the question which of the two +modes of interpretation represents--or at any rate more closely +approximates to the true meaning of the Sutras. That few of the Sutras +are intelligible if taken by themselves, we have already remarked above; +but this does not exclude the possibility of our deciding with a fair +degree of certainty which of the two interpretations proposed agrees +better with the text, at least in a certain number of cases. + +We have to note in the first place that, in spite of very numerous +discrepancies,--of which only the more important ones have been singled +out in the conspectus of contents,--the two commentators are at one as +to the general drift of the Sutras and the arrangement of topics. As a +rule, the adhikara/n/as discuss one or several Vedic passages bearing +upon a certain point of the system, and in the vast majority of cases +the two commentators agree as to which are the special texts referred +to. And, moreover, in a very large number of cases the agreement extends +to the interpretation to be put on those passages and on the Sutras. +This far-reaching agreement certainly tends to inspire us with a certain +confidence as to the existence of an old tradition concerning the +meaning of the Sutras on which the bulk of the interpretations of +/S/a@nkara as well as of Ramanuja are based. + +But at the same time we have seen that, in a not inconsiderable number +of cases, the interpretations of /S/a@nkara and Ramanuja diverge more or +less widely, and that the Sutras affected thereby are, most of them, +especially important because bearing on fundamental points of the +Vedanta system. The question then remains which of the two +interpretations is entitled to preference. + +Regarding a small number of Sutras I have already (in the conspectus of +contents) given it as my opinion that Ramanuja's explanation appears to +be more worthy of consideration. We meet, in the first place, with a +number of cases in which the two commentators agree as to the literal +meaning of a Sutra, but where /S/a@nkara sees himself reduced to the +necessity of supplementing his interpretation by certain additions and +reservations of his own for which the text gives no occasion, while +Ramanuja is able to take the Sutra as it stands. To exemplify this +remark, I again direct attention to all those Sutras which in clear +terms represent the individual soul as something different from the +highest soul, and concerning which /S/a@nkara is each time obliged to +have recourse to the plea of the Sutra referring, not to what is true in +the strict sense of the word, but only to what is conventionally looked +upon as true. It is, I admit, not altogether impossible that +/S/a@nkara's interpretation should represent the real meaning of the +Sutras; that the latter, indeed, to use the terms employed by Dr. +Deussen, should for the nonce set forth an exoteric doctrine adapted to +the common notions of mankind, which, however, can be rightly understood +by him only to whose mind the esoteric doctrine is all the while +present. This is not impossible, I say; but it is a point which requires +convincing proofs before it can be allowed.--We have had, in the second +place, to note a certain number of adhikara/n/as and Sutras concerning +whose interpretation /S/a@nkara and Ramanuja disagree altogether; and we +have seen that not unfrequently the explanations given by the latter +commentator appear to be preferable because falling in more easily with +the words of the text. The most striking instance of this is afforded by +the 13th adhikara/n/a of II, 3, which treats of the size of the jiva, +and where Ramanuja's explanation seems to be decidedly superior to +/S/a@nkara's, both if we look to the arrangement of the whole +adhikara/n/a and to the wording of the single Sutras. The adhikara/n/a +is, moreover, a specially important one, because the nature of the view +held as to the size of the individual soul goes far to settle the +question what kind of Vedanta is embodied in Badaraya/n/a's work. + +But it will be requisite not only to dwell on the interpretations of a +few detached Sutras, but to make the attempt at least of forming some +opinion as to the relation of the Vedanta-sutras as a whole to the chief +distinguishing doctrines of /S/a@nkara as well as Ramanuja. Such an +attempt may possibly lead to very slender positive results; but in the +present state of the enquiry even a merely negative result, viz. the +conclusion that the Sutras do not teach particular doctrines found in +them by certain commentators, will not be without its value. + +The first question we wish to consider in some detail is whether the +Sutras in any way favour /S/a@nkara's doctrine that we have to +distinguish a twofold knowledge of Brahman, a higher knowledge which +leads to the immediate absorption, on death, of the individual soul in +Brahman, and a lower knowledge which raises its owner merely to an +exalted form of individual existence. The adhyaya first to be considered +in this connexion is the fourth one. According to /S/a@nkara the three +latter padas of that adhyaya are chiefly engaged in describing the fate +of him who dies in the possession of the lower knowledge, while two +sections (IV, 2, 12-14; IV, 4, 1-7) tell us what happens to him who, +before his death, had risen to the knowledge of the highest Brahman. +According to Ramanuja, on the other hand, the three padas, referring +throughout to one subject only, give an uninterrupted account of the +successive steps by which the soul of him who knows the Lord through the +Upanishads passes, at the time of death, out of the gross body which it +had tenanted, ascends to the world of Brahman, and lives there for ever +without returning into the sa/m/sara. + +On an a priori view of the matter it certainly appears somewhat strange +that the concluding section of the Sutras should be almost entirely +taken up with describing the fate of him who has after all acquired an +altogether inferior knowledge only, and has remained shut out from the +true sanctuary of Vedantic knowledge, while the fate of the fully +initiated is disposed of in a few occasional Sutras. It is, I think, not +too much to say that no unbiassed student of the Sutras would--before +having allowed himself to be influenced by /S/a@nkara's +interpretations--imagine for a moment that the solemn words, 'From +thence is no return, from thence is no return,' with which the Sutras +conclude, are meant to describe, not the lasting condition of him who +has reached final release, the highest aim of man, but merely a stage on +the way of that soul which is engaged in the slow progress of gradual +release, a stage which is indeed greatly superior to any earthly form of +existence, but yet itself belongs to the essentially fictitious +sa/m/sara, and as such remains infinitely below the bliss of true mukti. +And this a priori impression--which, although no doubt significant, +could hardly be appealed to as decisive--is confirmed by a detailed +consideration of the two sets of Sutras which /S/a@nkara connects with +the knowledge of the higher Brahman. How these Sutras are interpreted by +/S/a@nkara and Ramanuja has been stated above in the conspectus of +contents; the points which render the interpretation given by Ramanuja +more probable are as follows. With regard to IV, 2, 12-14, we have to +note, in the first place, the circumstance--relevant although not +decisive in itself--that Sutra 12 does not contain any indication of a +new topic being introduced. In the second place, it can hardly be +doubted that the text of Sutra 13, 'spash/t/o hy ekesham,' is more +appropriately understood, with Ramanuja, as furnishing a reason for the +opinion advanced in the preceding Sutra, than--with /S/a@nkara--as +embodying the refutation of a previous statement (in which latter case +we should expect not 'hi' but 'tu'). And, in the third place, the 'eke,' +i.e. 'some,' referred to in Sutra 13 would, on /S/a@nkara's +interpretation, denote the very same persons to whom the preceding Sutra +had referred, viz. the followers of the Ka/n/va-/s/akha (the two Vedic +passages referred to in 12 and 13 being B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 5, and III, 2, +11, according to the Ka/n/va recension); while it is the standing +practice of the Sutras to introduce, by means of the designation 'eke,' +members of Vedic /s/akhas, teachers, &c. other than those alluded to in +the preceding Sutras. With this practice Ramanuja's interpretation, on +the other hand, fully agrees; for, according to him, the 'eke' are the +Madhyandinas, whose reading in B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 5, viz. 'tasmat,' +clearly indicates that the 'tasya' in the corresponding passage of the +Ka/n/vas denotes the /s/arira, i.e. the jiva. I think it is not saying +too much that /S/a@nkara's explanation, according to which the 'eke' +would denote the very same Ka/n/vas to whom the preceding Sutra had +referred--so that the Ka/n/vas would be distinguished from themselves as +it were--is altogether impossible. + +The result of this closer consideration of the first set of Sutras, +alleged by /S/a@nkara to concern the owner of the higher knowledge of +Brahman, entitles us to view with some distrust /S/a@nkara's assertion +that another set also--IV, 4, 1-7--has to be detached from the general +topic of the fourth adhyaya, and to be understood as depicting the +condition of those who have obtained final absolute release. And the +Sutras themselves do not tend to weaken this preliminary want of +confidence. In the first place their wording also gives no indication +whatever of their having to be separated from what precedes as well as +what follows. And, in the second place, the last Sutra of the set (7) +obliges /S/a@nkara to ascribe to his truly released souls qualities +which clearly cannot belong to them; so that he finally is obliged to +make the extraordinary statement that those qualities belong to them +'vyavaharapekshaya,' while yet the purport of the whole adhikara/n/a is +said to be the description of the truly released soul for which no +vyavahara exists! Very truly /S/a@nkara's commentator here remarks, +'atra ke/k/in muhyanti akha/n/da/k/inmatrajanan muktasyajnanabhavat kuta +aj/n/anika-dharmayoga/h/,' and the way in which thereupon he himself +attempts to get over the difficulty certainly does not improve matters. + +In connexion with the two passages discussed, we meet in the fourth +adhyaya with another passage, which indeed has no direct bearing on the +distinction of apara and para vidya, but may yet be shortly referred to +in this place as another and altogether undoubted instance of +/S/a@nkara's interpretations not always agreeing with the text of the +Sutras. The Sutras 7-16 of the third pada state the opinions of three +different teachers on the question to which Brahman the soul of the +vidvan repairs on death, or--according to Ramanuja--the worshippers of +which Brahman repair to (the highest) Brahman. Ramanuja treats the views +of Badari and Jaimini as two purvapakshas, and the opinion of +Badaraya/n/a--which is stated last--as the siddhanta. /S/a@nkara, on the +other hand, detaching the Sutras in which Badaraya/n/a's view is set +forth from the preceding part of the adhikara/n/a (a proceeding which, +although not plausible, yet cannot be said to be altogether +illegitimate), maintains that Badari's view, which is expounded first, +represents the siddhanta, while Jaimini's view, set forth subsequently, +is to be considered a mere purvapaksha. This, of course, is altogether +inadmissible, it being the invariable practice of the Vedanta-sutras as +well as the Purva Mima/m/sa-sutras to conclude the discussion of +contested points with the statement of that view which is to be accepted +as the authoritative one. This is so patent that /S/a@nkara feels +himself called upon to defend his deviation from the general rule +(Commentary on IV, 4, 13), without, however, bringing forward any +arguments but such as are valid only if /S/a@nkara's system itself is +already accepted. + +The previous considerations leave us, I am inclined to think, no choice +but to side with Ramanuja as to the general subject-matter of the fourth +adhyaya of the Sutras. We need not accept him as our guide in all +particular interpretations, but we must acknowledge with him that the +Sutras of the fourth adhyaya describe the ultimate fate of one and the +same vidvan, and do not afford any basis for the distinction of a higher +and lower knowledge of Brahman in /S/a@nkara's sense. + +If we have not to discriminate between a lower and a higher knowledge of +Brahman, it follows that the distinction of a lower and a higher Brahman +is likewise not valid. But this is not a point to be decided at once on +the negative evidence of the fourth adhyaya, but regarding which the +entire body of the Vedanta-sutras has to be consulted. And intimately +connected with this investigation--in fact, one with it from a certain +point of view--is the question whether the Sutras afford any evidence of +their author having held the doctrine of Maya, the principle of +illusion, by the association with which the highest Brahman, in itself +transcending all qualities, appears as the lower Brahman or I/s/vara. +That Ramanuja denies the distinction of the two Brahmans and the +doctrine of Maya we have seen above; we shall, however, in the +subsequent investigation, pay less attention to his views and +interpretations than to the indications furnished by the Sutras +themselves. + +Placing myself at the point of view of a /S/a@nkara, I am startled at +the outset by the second Sutra of the first adhyaya, which undertakes to +give a definition of Brahman. 'Brahman is that whence the origination +and so on (i.e. the sustentation and reabsorption) of this world +proceed.' What, we must ask, is this Sutra meant to define?--That +Brahman, we are inclined to answer, whose cognition the first Sutra +declares to constitute the task of the entire Vedanta; that Brahman +whose cognition is the only road to final release; that Brahman in fact +which /S/a@nkara calls the highest.--But, here we must object to +ourselves, the highest Brahman is not properly defined as that from +which the world originates. In later Vedantic writings, whose authors +were clearly conscious of the distinction of the higher absolute Brahman +and the lower Brahman related to Maya or the world, we meet with +definitions of Brahman of an altogether different type. I need only +remind the reader of the current definition of Brahman as +sa/k/-/k/id-ananda, or, to mention one individual instance, refer to the +introductory /s/lokas of the Pa/nk/ada/s/i dilating on the sa/m/vid +svayam-prabha, the self-luminous principle of thought which in all time, +past or future, neither starts into being nor perishes (P.D. I, 7). +'That from which the world proceeds' can by a /S/a@nkara be accepted +only as a definition of I/s/vara, of Brahman which by its association +with Maya is enabled to project the false appearance of this world, and +it certainly is as improbable that the Sutras should open with a +definition of that inferior principle, from whose cognition there can +accrue no permanent benefit, as, according to a remark made above, it is +unlikely that they should conclude with a description of the state of +those who know the lower Brahman only, and thus are debarred from +obtaining true release. As soon, on the other hand, as we discard the +idea of a twofold Brahman and conceive Brahman as one only, as the +all-enfolding being which sometimes emits the world from its own +substance and sometimes again retracts it into itself, ever remaining +one in all its various manifestations--a conception which need not by +any means be modelled in all its details on the views of the +Ramanujas--the definition of Brahman given in the second Sutra becomes +altogether unobjectionable. + +We next enquire whether the impression left on the mind by the manner in +which Badaraya/n/a defines Brahman, viz. that he does not distinguish +between an absolute Brahman and a Brahman associated with Maya, is +confirmed or weakened by any other parts of his work. The Sutras being +throughout far from direct in their enunciations, we shall have to look +less to particular terms and turns of expression than to general lines +of reasoning. What in this connexion seems specially worthy of being +taken into account, is the style of argumentation employed by the +Sutrakara against the Sa@nkhya doctrine, which maintains that the world +has originated, not from an intelligent being, but from the +non-intelligent pradhana. The most important Sutras relative to this +point are to be met with in the first pada of the second adhyaya. Those +Sutras are indeed almost unintelligible if taken by themselves, but the +unanimity of the commentators as to their meaning enables us to use them +as steps in our investigation. The sixth Sutra of the pada mentioned +replies to the Sa@nkhya objection that the non-intelligent world cannot +spring from an intelligent principle, by the remark that 'it is thus +seen,' i.e. it is a matter of common observation that non-intelligent +things are produced from beings endowed with intelligence; hair and +nails, for instance, springing from animals, and certain insects from +dung.--Now, an argumentation of this kind is altogether out of place +from the point of view of the true /S/a@nkara. According to the latter +the non-intelligent world does not spring from Brahman in so far as the +latter is intelligence, but in so far as it is associated with Maya. +Maya is the upadana of the material world, and Maya itself is of a +non-intelligent nature, owing to which it is by so many Vedantic writers +identified with the prak/ri/ti of the Sa@nkhyas. Similarly the +illustrative instances, adduced under Sutra 9 for the purpose of showing +that effects when being reabsorbed into their causal substances do not +impart to the latter their own qualities, and that hence the material +world also, when being refunded into Brahman, does not impart to it its +own imperfections, are singularly inappropriate if viewed in connexion +with the doctrine of Maya, according to which the material world is no +more in Brahman at the time of a pralaya than during the period of its +subsistence. According to /S/a@nkara the world is not merged in Brahman, +but the special forms into which the upadana of the world, i.e. Maya, +had modified itself are merged in non-distinct Maya, whose relation to +Brahman is not changed thereby.--The illustration, again, given in Sutra +24 of the mode in which Brahman, by means of its inherent power, +transforms itself into the world without employing any extraneous +instruments of action, 'kshiravad dhi,' 'as milk (of its own accord +turns into curds),' would be strangely chosen indeed if meant to bring +nearer to our understanding the mode in which Brahman projects the +illusive appearance of the world; and also the analogous instance given +in the Sutra next following, 'as Gods and the like (create palaces, +chariots, &c. by the mere power of their will)'--which refers to the +real creation of real things--would hardly be in its place if meant to +illustrate a theory which considers unreality to be the true character +of the world. The mere cumulation of the two essentially heterogeneous +illustrative instances (kshiravad dhi; devadivat), moreover, seems to +show that the writer who had recourse to them held no very definite +theory as to the particular mode in which the world springs from +Brahman, but was merely concerned to render plausible in some way or +other that an intelligent being can give rise to what is non-intelligent +without having recourse to any extraneous means.[23] + +That the Maya doctrine was not present to the mind of the Sutrakara, +further appears from the latter part of the fourth pada of the first +adhyaya, where it is shown that Brahman is not only the operative but +also the material cause of the world. If anywhere, there would have been +the place to indicate, had such been the author's view, that Brahman is +the material cause of the world through Maya only, and that the world is +unreal; but the Sutras do not contain a single word to that effect. +Sutra 26, on the other hand, exhibits the significant term +'pari/n/amat;' Brahman produces the world by means of a modification of +itself. It is well known that later on, when the terminology of the +Vedanta became definitely settled, the term 'pari/n/avada' was used to +denote that very theory to which the followers of /S/a@nkara are most +violently opposed, viz. the doctrine according to which the world is not +a mere vivarta, i.e. an illusory manifestation of Brahman, but the +effect of Brahman undergoing a real change, may that change be conceived +to take place in the way taught by Ramanuja or in some other +manner.--With regard to the last-quoted Sutra, as well as to those +touched upon above, the commentators indeed maintain that whatever terms +and modes of expression are apparently opposed to the vivartavada are in +reality reconcilable with it; to Sutra 26, for instance, Govindananda +remarks that the term 'pari/n/ama' only denotes an effect in general +(karyamatra), without implying that the effect is real. But in cases of +this nature we are fully entitled to use our own judgment, even if we +were not compelled to do so by the fact that other commentators, such as +Ramanuja, are satisfied to take 'pari/n/ama' and similar terms in their +generally received sense. + +A further section treating of the nature of Brahman is met with in III, +2, 11 ff. It is, according to /S/a@nkara's view, of special importance, +as it is alleged to set forth that Brahman is in itself destitute of all +qualities, and is affected with qualities only through its limiting +adjuncts (upadhis), the offspring of Maya. I have above (in the +conspectus of contents) given a somewhat detailed abstract of the whole +section as interpreted by /S/a@nkara on the one hand, and Ramanuja on +the other hand, from which it appears that the latter's opinion as to +the purport of the group of Sutras widely diverges from that of +/S/a@nkara. The wording of the Sutras is so eminently concise and vague +that I find it impossible to decide which of the two commentators--if +indeed either--is to be accepted as a trustworthy guide; regarding the +sense of some Sutras /S/a@nkara's explanation seems to deserve +preference, in the case of others Ramanuja seems to keep closer to the +text. I decidedly prefer, for instance, Ramanuja's interpretation of +Sutra 22, as far as the sense of the entire Sutra is concerned, and more +especially with regard to the term 'prak/ri/taitavattvam,' whose proper +force is brought out by Ramanuja's explanation only. So much is certain +that none of the Sutras decidedly favours the interpretation proposed by +/S/a@nkara. Whichever commentator we follow, we greatly miss coherence +and strictness of reasoning, and it is thus by no means improbable that +the section is one of those--perhaps not few in number--in which both +interpreters had less regard to the literal sense of the words and to +tradition than to their desire of forcing Badaraya/n/a's Sutras to bear +testimony to the truth of their own philosophic theories. + +With special reference to the Maya doctrine one important Sutra has yet +to be considered, the only one in which the term 'maya' itself occurs, +viz. III, 2, 3. According to /S/a@nkara the Sutra signifies that the +environments of the dreaming soul are not real but mere Maya, i.e. +unsubstantial illusion, because they do not fully manifest the character +of real objects. Ramanuja (as we have seen in the conspectus) gives a +different explanation of the term 'maya,' but in judging of /S/a@nkara's +views we may for the time accept /S/a@nkara's own interpretation. Now, +from the latter it clearly follows that if the objects seen in dreams +are to be called Maya, i.e. illusion, because not evincing the +characteristics of reality, the objective world surrounding the waking +soul must not be called Maya. But that the world perceived by waking men +is Maya, even in a higher sense than the world presented to the dreaming +consciousness, is an undoubted tenet of the /S/a@nkara Vedanta; and the +Sutra therefore proves either that Badaraya/n/a did not hold the +doctrine of the illusory character of the world, or else that, if after +all he did hold that doctrine, he used the term 'maya' in a sense +altogether different from that in which /S/a@nkara employs it.--If, on +the other hand, we, with Ramanuja, understand the word 'maya' to denote +a wonderful thing, the Sutra of course has no bearing whatever on the +doctrine of Maya in its later technical sense. + +We now turn to the question as to the relation of the individual soul to +Brahman. Do the Sutras indicate anywhere that their author held +/S/a@nkara's doctrine, according to which the jiva is in reality +identical with Brahman, and separated from it, as it were, only by a +false surmise due to avidya, or do they rather favour the view that the +souls, although they have sprung from Brahman, and constitute elements +of its nature, yet enjoy a kind of individual existence apart from it? +This question is in fact only another aspect of the Maya question, but +yet requires a short separate treatment. + +In the conspectus I have given it as my opinion that the Sutras in which +the size of the individual soul is discussed can hardly be understood in +/S/a@nkara's sense, and rather seem to favour the opinion, held among +others by Ramanuja, that the soul is of minute size. We have further +seen that Sutra 18 of the third pada of the second adhyaya, which +describes the soul as 'j/n/a,' is more appropriately understood in the +sense assigned to it by Ramanuja; and, again, that the Sutras which +treat of the soul being an agent, can be reconciled with /S/a@nkara's +views only if supplemented in a way which their text does not appear to +authorise.--We next have the important Sutra II, 3, 43 in which the soul +is distinctly said to be a part (a/ms/a) of Brahman, and which, as we +have already noticed, can be made to fall in with /S/a@nkara's views +only if a/ms/a is explained, altogether arbitrarily, by 'a/ms/a iva,' +while Ramanuja is able to take the Sutra as it stands.--We also have +already referred to Sutra 50, 'abhasa eva /k/a,' which /S/a@nkara +interprets as setting forth the so-called pratibimbavada according to +which the individual Self is merely a reflection of the highest Self. +But almost every Sutra--and Sutra 50 forms no exception--being so +obscurely expressed, that viewed by itself it admits of various, often +totally opposed, interpretations, the only safe method is to keep in +view, in the case of each ambiguous aphorism, the general drift and +spirit of the whole work, and that, as we have seen hitherto, is by no +means favourable to the pratibimba doctrine. How indeed could Sutra 50, +if setting forth that latter doctrine, be reconciled with Sutra 43, +which says distinctly that the soul is a part of Brahman? For that 43 +contains, as /S/a@nkara and his commentators aver, a statement of the +ava/kkh/edavada, can itself be accepted only if we interpret a/ms/a by +a/ms/a iva, and to do so there is really no valid reason whatever. I +confess that Ramanuja's interpretation of the Sutra (which however is +accepted by several other commentators also) does not appear to me +particularly convincing; and the Sutras unfortunately offer us no other +passages on the ground of which we might settle the meaning to be +ascribed to the term abhasa, which may mean 'reflection,' but may mean +hetvabhasa, i.e. fallacious argument, as well. But as things stand, this +one Sutra cannot, at any rate, be appealed to as proving that the +pratibimbavada which, in its turn, presupposes the mayavada, is the +teaching of the Sutras. + +To the conclusion that the Sutrakara did not hold the doctrine of the +absolute identity of the highest and the individual soul in the sense of +/S/a@nkara, we are further led by some other indications to be met with +here and there in the Sutras. In the conspectus of contents we have had +occasion to direct attention to the important Sutra II, 1, 22, which +distinctly enunciates that the Lord is adhika, i.e. additional to, or +different from, the individual soul, since Scripture declares the two to +be different. Analogously I, 2, 20 lays stress on the fact that the +/s/arira is not the antaryamin, because the Madhyandinas, as well as the +Ka/n/vas, speak of him in their texts as different (bhedena enam +adhiyate), and in 22 the /s/arira and the pradhana are referred to as +the two 'others' (itarau) of whom the text predicates distinctive +attributes separating them from the highest Lord. The word 'itara' (the +other one) appears in several other passages (I, 1, 16; I, 3, 16; II, 1, +21) as a kind of technical term denoting the individual soul in +contradistinction from the Lord. The /S/a@nkaras indeed maintain that +all those passages refer to an unreal distinction due to avidya. But +this is just what we should like to see proved, and the proof offered in +no case amounts to more than a reference to the system which demands +that the Sutras should be thus understood. If we accept the +interpretations of the school of /S/a@nkara, it remains altogether +unintelligible why the Sutrakara should never hint even at what +/S/a@nkara is anxious again and again to point out at length, viz. that +the greater part of the work contains a kind of exoteric doctrine only, +ever tending to mislead the student who does not keep in view what its +nature is. If other reasons should make it probable that the Sutrakara +was anxious to hide the true doctrine of the Upanishads as a sort of +esoteric teaching, we might be more ready to accept /S/a@nkara's mode of +interpretation. But no such reasons are forthcoming; nowhere among the +avowed followers of the /S/a@nkara system is there any tendency to treat +the kernel of their philosophy as something to be jealously guarded and +hidden. On the contrary, they all, from Gau/d/apada down to the most +modern writer, consider it their most important, nay, only task to +inculcate again and again in the clearest and most unambiguous language +that all appearance of multiplicity is a vain illusion, that the Lord +and the individual souls are in reality one, and that all knowledge but +this one knowledge is without true value. + +There remains one more important passage concerning the relation of the +individual soul to the highest Self, a passage which attracted our +attention above, when we were reviewing the evidence for early +divergence of opinion among the teachers of the Vedanta. I mean I, 4, +20-22, which three Sutras state the views of A/s/marathya, Au/d/ulomi, +and Ka/s/akr/ri/tsna as to the reason why, in a certain passage of the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka, characteristics of the individual soul are ascribed +to the highest Self. The siddhanta view is enounced in Sutra 22, +'avasthiter iti Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna/h/' i.e. Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna (accounts for +the circumstance mentioned) on the ground of the 'permanent abiding or +abode.' By this 'permanent abiding' /S/a@nkara understands the Lord's +abiding as, i.e. existing as--or in the condition of--the individual +soul, and thus sees in the Sutra an enunciation of his own view that the +individual soul is nothing but the highest Self, 'avik/ri/ta/h/ +parame/s/varo jivo nanya/h/.' Ramanuja on the other hand, likewise +accepting Ka/saak/ri/tsna's opinion as the siddhanta view, explains +'avasthiti' as the Lord's permanent abiding within the individual soul, +as described in the antaryamin-brahma/n/a.--We can hardly maintain that +the term 'avasthiti' cannot have the meaning ascribed to it by +Sa@/n/kara, viz. special state or condition, but so much must be urged +in favour of Ramanuja's interpretation that in the five other places +where avasthiti (or anavasthiti) is met with in the Sutras (I, 2, 17; +II, 2, 4; II, 2, 13; II, 3, 24; III, 3, 32) it regularly means permanent +abiding or permanent abode within something. + +If, now, I am shortly to sum up the results of the preceding enquiry as +to the teaching of the Sutras, I must give it as my opinion that they do +not set forth the distinction of a higher and lower knowledge of +Brahman; that they do not acknowledge the distinction of Brahman and +I/s/vara in /S/a@nkara's sense; that they do not hold the doctrine of +the unreality of the world; and that they do not, with /S/a@nkara, +proclaim the absolute identity of the individual and the highest Self. I +do not wish to advance for the present beyond these negative results. +Upon Ramanuja's mode of interpretation--although I accept it without +reserve in some important details--I look on the whole as more useful in +providing us with a powerful means of criticising /S/a@nkara's +explanations than in guiding us throughout to the right understanding of +the text. The author of the Sutras may have held views about the nature +of Brahman, the world, and the soul differing from those of /S/a@nkara, +and yet not agreeing in all points with those of Ramanuja. If, however, +the negative conclusions stated above should be well founded, it would +follow even from them that the system of Badaraya/n/a had greater +affinities with that of the Bhagavatas and Ramanuja than with the one of +which the /S/a@nkara-bhashya is the classical exponent. + +It appears from the above review of the teaching of the Sutras that only +a comparatively very small proportion of them contribute matter enabling +us to form a judgment as to the nature of the philosophical doctrine +advocated by Badaraya/n/a. The reason of this is that the greater part +of the work is taken up with matters which, according to /S/a@nkara's +terminology, form part of the so-called lower knowledge, and throw no +light upon philosophical questions in the stricter sense of the word. +This circumstance is not without significance. In later works belonging +to /S/a@nkara's school in which the distinction of a higher and lower +vidya is clearly recognised, the topics constituting the latter are +treated with great shortness; and rightly so, for they are unable to +accomplish the highest aim of man, i.e. final release. When we +therefore, on the other hand, find that the subjects of the so-called +lower vidya are treated very fully in the Vedanta-sutras, when we +observe, for instance, the almost tedious length to which the +investigation of the unity of vidyas (most of which are so-called +sagu/n/a, i.e. lower vidyas) is carried in the third adhyaya, or the +fact of almost the whole fourth adhyaya being devoted to the ultimate +fate of the possessor of the lower vidya; we certainly feel ourselves +confirmed in our conclusion that what /S/a@nkara looked upon as +comparatively unimportant formed in Badaraya/n/a's opinion part of that +knowledge higher than which there is none, and which therefore is +entitled to the fullest and most detailed exposition. + +The question as to what kind of system is represented by the +Vedanta-sutras may be approached in another way also. While hitherto we +have attempted to penetrate to the meaning of the Sutras by means of the +different commentaries, we might try the opposite road, and, in the +first place, attempt to ascertain independently of the Sutras what +doctrine is set forth in the Upanishads, whose teaching the Sutras +doubtless aim at systematising. If, it might be urged, the Upanishads +can be convincingly shown to embody a certain settled doctrine, we must +consider it at the least highly probable that that very same +doctrine--of whatever special nature it may be--is hidden in the +enigmatical aphorisms of Badaraya/n/a.[24] + +I do not, however, consider this line of argumentation a safe one. Even +if it could be shown that the teaching of all the chief Upanishads +agrees in all essential points (a subject to which some attention will +be paid later on), we should not on that account be entitled +unhesitatingly to assume that the Sutras set forth the same doctrine. +Whatever the true philosophy of the Upanishads may be, there remains the +undeniable fact that there exist and have existed since very ancient +times not one but several essentially differing systems, all of which +lay claim to the distinction of being the true representatives of the +teaching of the Upanishads as well as of the Sutras. Let us suppose, for +argument's sake, that, for instance, the doctrine of Maya is distinctly +enunciated in the Upanishads; nevertheless Ramanuja and, for all we know +to the contrary, the whole series of more ancient commentators on whom +he looked as authorities in the interpretation of the Sutras, denied +that the Upanishads teach Maya, and it is hence by no means impossible +that Badaraya/n/a should have done the same. The a priori style of +reasoning as to the teaching of the Sutras is therefore without much +force. + +But apart from any intention of arriving thereby at the meaning of the +Sutras there, of course, remains for us the all-important question as to +the true teaching of the Upanishads, a question which a translator of +the Sutras and /S/a@nkara cannot afford to pass over in silence, +especially after reason has been shown for the conclusion that the +Sutras and the /S/a@nkara-bhashya do not agree concerning most important +points of Vedantic doctrine. The Sutras as well as the later +commentaries claim, in the first place, to be nothing more than +systematisations of the Upanishads, and for us a considerable part at +least of their value and interest lies in this their nature. Hence the +further question presents itself by whom the teaching of the Upanishads +has been most adequately systematised, whether by Badaraya/n/a, or +/S/a@nkara, or Ramanuja, or some other commentator. This question +requires to be kept altogether separate from the enquiry as to which +commentator most faithfully renders the contents of the Sutras, and it +is by no means impossible that /S/a@nkara, for instance, should in the +end have to be declared a more trustworthy guide with regard to the +teaching of the Upanishads than concerning the meaning of the Sutras. + +We must remark here at once that, whatever commentator may be found to +deserve preference on the whole, it appears fairly certain already at +the outset that none of the systems which Indian ingenuity has succeeded +in erecting on the basis of the Upanishads can be accepted in its +entirety. The reason for this lies in the nature of the Upanishads +themselves. To the Hindu commentator and philosopher the Upanishads came +down as a body of revealed truth whose teaching had, somehow or other, +to be shown to be thoroughly consistent and free from contradictions; a +system had to be devised in which a suitable place could be allotted to +every one of the multitudinous statements which they make on the various +points of Vedantic doctrine. But to the European scholar, or in fact to +any one whose mind is not bound by the doctrine of /S/ruti, it will +certainly appear that all such attempts stand self-condemned. If +anything is evident even on a cursory review of the Upanishads--and the +impression so created is only strengthened by a more careful +investigation--it is that they do not constitute a systematic whole. +They themselves, especially the older ones, give the most unmistakable +indications on that point. Not only are the doctrines expounded in the +different Upanishads ascribed to different teachers, but even the +separate sections of one and the same Upanishad are assigned to +different authorities. It would be superfluous to quote examples of what +a mere look at the Chandogya Upanishad, for instance, suffices to prove. +It is of course not impossible that even a multitude of teachers should +agree in imparting precisely the same doctrine; but in the case of the +Upanishads that is certainly not antecedently probable. For, in the +first place, the teachers who are credited with the doctrines of the +Upanishads manifestly belonged to different sections of Brahminical +society, to different Vedic /s/akhas; nay, some of them the tradition +makes out to have been kshattriyas. And, in the second place, the +period, whose mental activity is represented in the Upanishads, was a +creative one, and as such cannot be judged according to the analogy of +later periods of Indian philosophic development. The later philosophic +schools as, for instance, the one of which /S/a@nkara is the great +representative, were no longer free in their speculations, but strictly +bound by a traditional body of texts considered sacred, which could not +be changed or added to, but merely systematised and commented upon. +Hence the rigorous uniformity of doctrine characteristic of those +schools. But there had been a time when, what later writers received as +a sacred legacy, determining and confining the whole course of their +speculations, first sprang from the minds of creative thinkers not +fettered by the tradition of any school, but freely following the +promptings of their own heads and hearts. By the absence of school +traditions, I do not indeed mean that the great teachers who appear in +the Upanishads were free to make an entirely new start, and to assign to +their speculations any direction they chose; for nothing can be more +certain than that, at the period as the outcome of whose philosophical +activity the Upanishads have to be considered, there were in circulation +certain broad speculative ideas overshadowing the mind of every member +of Brahminical society. But those ideas were neither very definite nor +worked out in detail, and hence allowed themselves to be handled and +fashioned in different ways by different individuals. With whom the few +leading conceptions traceable in the teaching of all Upanishads first +originated, is a point on which those writings themselves do not +enlighten us, and which we have no other means for settling; most +probably they are to be viewed not as the creation of any individual +mind, but as the gradual outcome of speculations carried on by +generations of Vedic theologians. In the Upanishads themselves, at any +rate, they appear as floating mental possessions which may be seized and +moulded into new forms by any one who feels within himself the required +inspiration. A certain vague knowledge of Brahman, the great hidden +being in which all this manifold world is one, seems to be spread +everywhere, and often issues from the most unexpected sources. +/S/vetaketu receives instruction from his father Uddalaka; the proud +Gargya has to become the pupil of Ajata/s/atru, the king of Ka/s/i; +Bhujyu Sahyayani receives answers to his questions from a Gandharva +possessing a maiden; Satyakama learns what Brahman is from the bull of +the herd he is tending, from Agni and from a flamingo; and Upako/s/ala +is taught by the sacred fires in his teacher's house. All this is of +course legend, not history; but the fact that the philosophic and +theological doctrines of the Upanishads are clothed in this legendary +garb certainly does not strengthen the expectation of finding in them a +rigidly systematic doctrine. + +And a closer investigation of the contents of the Upanishads amply +confirms this preliminary impression. If we avail ourselves, for +instance, of M. Paul Regnaud's Materiaux pour servir a l'Histoire de la +Philosophie de l'Inde, in which the philosophical lucubrations of the +different Upanishads are arranged systematically according to topics, we +can see with ease how, together with a certain uniformity of general +leading conceptions, there runs throughout divergence in details, and +very often not unimportant details. A look, for instance, at the +collection of passages relative to the origination of the world from the +primitive being, suffices to show that the task of demonstrating that +whatever the Upanishads teach on that point can be made to fit into a +homogeneous system is an altogether hopeless one. The accounts there +given of the creation belong, beyond all doubt to different stages of +philosophic and theological development or else to different sections of +priestly society. None but an Indian commentator would, I suppose, be +inclined and sufficiently courageous to attempt the proof that, for +instance, the legend of the atman purushavidha, the Self in the shape of +a person which is as large as man and woman together, and then splits +itself into two halves from which cows, horses, asses, goats, &c. are +produced in succession (B/ri/. Up. I, 1, 4), can be reconciled with the +account given of the creation in the Chandogya Upanishad, where it is +said that in the beginning there existed nothing but the sat, 'that +which is,' and that feeling a desire of being many it emitted out of +itself ether, and then all the other elements in due succession. The +former is a primitive cosmogonic myth, which in its details shows +striking analogies with the cosmogonic myths of other nations; the +latter account is fairly developed Vedanta (although not Vedanta +implying the Maya doctrine). We may admit that both accounts show a +certain fundamental similarity in so far as they derive the manifold +world from one original being; but to go beyond this and to maintain, as +/S/a@nkara does, that the atman purushavidha of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka +is the so-called Virag of the latter Vedanta--implying thereby that that +section consciously aims at describing only the activity of one special +form of I/s/vara, and not simply the whole process of creation--is the +ingenious shift of an orthodox commentator in difficulties, but nothing +more. + +How all those more or less conflicting texts came to be preserved and +handed down to posterity, is not difficult to understand. As mentioned +above, each of the great sections of Brahminical priesthood had its own +sacred texts, and again in each of those sections there existed more +ancient texts which it was impossible to discard when deeper and more +advanced speculations began in their turn to be embodied in literary +compositions, which in the course of time likewise came to be looked +upon as sacred. When the creative period had reached its termination, +and the task of collecting and arranging was taken in hand, older and +newer pieces were combined into wholes, and thus there arose collections +of such heterogeneous character as the Chandogya and B/ri/hadara/n/yaka +Upanishads. On later generations, to which the whole body of texts came +down as revealed truth, there consequently devolved the inevitable task +of establishing systems on which no exception could be taken to any of +the texts; but that the task was, strictly speaking, an impossible one, +i.e. one which it was impossible to accomplish fairly and honestly, +there really is no reason to deny. + +For a comprehensive criticism of the methods which the different +commentators employ in systematizing the contents of the Upanishads +there is no room in this place. In order, however, to illustrate what is +meant by the 'impossibility,' above alluded to, of combining the various +doctrines of the Upanishads into a whole without doing violence to a +certain number of texts, it will be as well to analyse in detail some +few at least of /S/a@nkara's interpretations, and to render clear the +considerations by which he is guided. + +We begin with a case which has already engaged our attention when +discussing the meaning of the Sutras, viz. the question concerning the +ultimate fate of those who have attained the knowledge of Brahman. As we +have seen, /S/a@nkara teaches that the soul of him who has risen to an +insight into the nature of the higher Brahman does not, at the moment of +death, pass out of the body, but is directly merged in Brahman by a +process from which all departing and moving, in fact all considerations +of space, are altogether excluded. The soul of him, on the other hand, +who has not risen above the knowledge of the lower qualified Brahman +departs from the body by means of the artery called sushum/n/a, and +following the so-called devayana, the path of the gods, mounts up to the +world of Brahman. A review of the chief Upanishad texts on which +/S/a@nkara founds this distinction will show how far it is justified. + +In a considerable number of passages the Upanishads contrast the fate of +two classes of men, viz. of those who perform sacrifices and meritorious +works only, and of those who in addition possess a certain kind of +knowledge. Men of the former kind ascend after death to the moon, where +they live for a certain time, and then return to the earth into new +forms of embodiment; persons of the latter kind proceed on the path of +the gods--on which the sun forms one stage--up to the world of Brahman, +from which there is no return. The chief passages to that effect are Ch. +Up. V, 10; Kaush. Up. I, 2 ff.; Mu/nd/. Up. I, 2, 9 ff.; B/ri/. Up. VI, +2, 15 ff.; Pra/s/na Up. I, 9 ff.--In other passages only the latter of +the two paths is referred to, cp. Ch. Up. IV, 15; VIII 6, 5; Taitt. Up. +I, 6; B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 8, 9; V, 10; Maitr. Up. VI, 30, to mention only +the more important ones. + +Now an impartial consideration of those passages shows I think, beyond +any doubt, that what is meant there by the knowledge which leads through +the sun to the world of Brahman is the highest knowledge of which the +devotee is capable, and that the world of Brahman to which his knowledge +enables him to proceed denotes the highest state which he can ever +reach, the state of final release, if we choose to call it by that +name.--Ch. Up. V, 10 says, 'Those who know this (viz. the doctrine of +the five fires), and those who in the forest follow faith and +austerities go to light,' &c.--Ch. Up. IV, 15 is manifestly intended to +convey the true knowledge of Brahman; Upako/s/ala's teacher himself +represents the instruction given by him as superior to the teaching of +the sacred fires.--Ch. Up. VIII, 6, 5 quotes the old /s/loka which says +that the man moving upwards by the artery penetrating the crown of the +head reaches the Immortal.--Kaush. Up. I, 2--which gives the most +detailed account of the ascent of the soul--contains no intimation +whatever of the knowledge of Brahman, which leads up to the Brahman +world, being of an inferior nature.--Mu/nd/. Up. I, 2, 9 agrees with the +Chandogya in saying that 'Those who practise penance and faith in the +forest, tranquil, wise, and living on alms, depart free from passion, +through the sun, to where that immortal Person dwells whose nature is +imperishable,' and nothing whatever in the context countenances the +assumption that not the highest knowledge and the highest Person are +there referred to.--B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 8 quotes old /s/lokas clearly +referring to the road of the gods ('the small old path'), on which +'sages who know Brahman move on to the svargaloka and thence higher on +as entirely free.--That path was found by Brahman, and on it goes +whoever knows Brahman.'--B/ri/. Up. VI, 2, 15 is another version of the +Pa/nk/agnividya, with the variation, 'Those who know this, and those who +in the forest worship faith and the True, go to light,' &c.--Pra/s/na +Up. 1, 10 says, 'Those who have sought the Self by penance, abstinence, +faith, and knowledge gain by the northern path Aditya, the sun. There is +the home of the spirits, the immortal free from danger, the highest. +From thence they do not return, for it is the end.'--Maitr. Up. VI, 30 +quotes /s/lokas, 'One of them (the arteries) leads upwards, piercing the +solar orb: by it, having stepped beyond the world of Brahman, they go to +the highest path.' + +All these passages are as clear as can be desired. The soul of the sage +who knows Brahman passes out by the sushum/n/a, and ascends by the path +of the gods to the world of Brahman, there to remain for ever in some +blissful state. But, according to /S/a@nkara, all these texts are meant +to set forth the result of a certain inferior knowledge only, of the +knowledge of the conditioned Brahman. Even in a passage apparently so +entirely incapable of more than one interpretation as B/ri/. Up. VI, 2, +15, the 'True,' which the holy hermits in the forest are said to +worship, is not to be the highest Brahman, but only +Hira/n/yagarbha!--And why?--Only because the system so demands it, the +system which teaches that those who know the highest Brahman become on +their death one with it, without having to resort to any other place. +The passage on which this latter tenet is chiefly based is B/ri/. Up. +IV, 4, 6, 7, where, with the fate of him who at his death has desires, +and whose soul therefore enters a new body after having departed from +the old one, accompanied by all the pra/n/as, there is contrasted the +fate of the sage free from all desires. 'But as to the man who does not +desire, who not desiring, freed from desires is satisfied in his +desires, or desires the Self only, the vital spirits of him (tasya) do +not depart--being Brahman he goes to Brahman.' + +We have seen above (p. lxxx) that this passage is referred to in the +important Sutras on whose right interpretation it, in the first place, +depends whether or not we must admit the Sutrakara to have acknowledged +the distinction of a para and an apara vidya. Here the passage interests +us as throwing light on the way in which /S/a@nkara systematises. He +looks on the preceding part of the chapter as describing what happens to +the souls of all those who do not know the highest Brahman, inclusive of +those who know the lower Brahman only. They pass out of the old bodies +followed by all pra/n/as and enter new bodies. He, on the other hand, +section 6 continues, who knows the true Brahman, does not pass out of +the body, but becomes one with Brahman then and there. This +interpretation of the purport of the entire chapter is not impossibly +right, although I am rather inclined to think that the chapter aims at +setting forth in its earlier part the future of him who does not know +Brahman at all, while the latter part of section 6 passes on to him who +does know Brahman (i.e. Brahman pure and simple, the text knowing of no +distinction of the so-called lower and higher Brahman). In explaining +section 6 /S/a@nkara lays stress upon the clause 'na tasya pra/n/a +utkramanti,' 'his vital spirits do not pass out,' taking this to signify +that the soul with the vital spirits does not move at all, and thus does +not ascend to the world of Brahman; while the purport of the clause may +simply be that the soul and vital spirits do not go anywhere else, i.e. +do not enter a new body, but are united, somehow or other, with Brahman. +On /S/a@nkara's interpretation there immediately arises a new +difficulty. In the /s/lokas, quoted under sections 8 and 9, the +description of the small old path which leads to the svargaloka and +higher on clearly refers--as noticed already above--to the path through +the veins, primarily the sushum/n/a, on which, according to so many +other passages, the soul of the wise mounts upwards. But that path is, +according to /S/a@nkara, followed by him only who has not risen above +the lower knowledge, and yet the /s/lokas have manifestly to be +connected with what is said in the latter half of 6 about the owner of +the para vidya. Hence /S/a@nkara sees himself driven to explain the +/s/lokas in 8 and 9 (of which a faithful translation is given in +Professor Max Mueller's version) as follows: + +8. 'The subtle old path (i.e. the path of knowledge on which final +release is reached; which path is subtle, i.e. difficult to know, and +old, i.e. to be known from the eternal Veda) has been obtained and fully +reached by me. On it the sages who know Brahman reach final release +(svargaloka/s/abda/h/ samnihitaprakara/n/at mokshabhidhayaka/h/). + +9. 'On that path they say that there is white or blue or yellow or green +or red (i.e. others maintain that the path to final release is, in +accordance with the colour of the arteries, either white or blue, &c.; +but that is false, for the paths through the arteries lead at the best +to the world of Brahman, which itself forms part of the sa/m/sara); that +path (i.e. the only path to release, viz. the path of true knowledge) is +found by Brahman, i.e. by such Brahma/n/as as through true knowledge +have become like Brahman,' &c. + +A significant instance in truth of the straits to which thorough-going +systematisers of the Upanishads see themselves reduced occasionally! + +But we return to the point which just now chiefly interests us. Whether +/S/a@nkara's interpretation of the chapter, and especially of section 6, +be right or wrong, so much is certain that we are not entitled to view +all those texts which speak of the soul going to the world of Brahman as +belonging to the so-called lower knowledge, because a few other passages +declare that the sage does not go to Brahman. The text which declares +the sage free from desires to become one with Brahman could not, without +due discrimination, be used to define and limit the meaning of other +passages met with in the same Upanishad even--for as we have remarked +above the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka contains pieces manifestly belonging to +different stages of development;--much less does it entitle us to put +arbitrary constructions on passages forming part of other Upanishads. +Historically the disagreement of the various accounts is easy to +understand. The older notion was that the soul of the wise man proceeds +along the path of the gods to Brahman's abode. A later--and, if we like, +more philosophic--conception is that, as Brahman already is a man's +Self, there is no need of any motion on man's part to reach Brahman. We +may even apply to those two views the terms apara and para--lower and +higher--knowledge. But we must not allow any commentator to induce us to +believe that what he from his advanced standpoint looks upon as an +inferior kind of cognition, was viewed in the same light by the authors +of the Upanishads. + +We turn to another Upanishad text likewise touching upon the point +considered in what precedes, viz. the second Brahma/n/a of the third +adhyaya of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka. The discussion there first turns upon +the grahas and atigrahas, i.e. the senses and organs and their objects, +and Yajnavalkya thereupon explains that death, by which everything is +overcome, is itself overcome by water; for death is fire. The colloquy +then turns to what we must consider an altogether new topic, Artabhaga +asking, 'When this man (ayam purusha) dies, do the vital spirits depart +from him or not?' and Yajnavalkya answering, 'No, they are gathered up +in him; he swells, he is inflated; inflated the dead (body) is +lying.'--Now this is for /S/a@nkara an important passage, as we have +already seen above (p. lxxxi); for he employs it, in his comment on +Ved.-sutra IV, 2, 13, for the purpose of proving that the passage B/ri/. +Up. IV, 4, 6 really means that the vital spirits do not, at the moment +of death, depart from the true sage. Hence the present passage also must +refer to him who possesses the highest knowledge; hence the 'ayam +purusha' must be 'that man,' i.e. the man who possesses the highest +knowledge, and the highest knowledge then must be found in the preceding +clause which says that death itself may be conquered by water. But, as +Ramanuja also remarks, neither does the context favour the assumption +that the highest knowledge is referred to, nor do the words of section +11 contain any indication that what is meant is the merging of the Self +of the true Sage in Brahman. With the interpretation given by Ramanuja +himself, viz. that the pra/n/as do not depart from the jiva of the dying +man, but accompany it into a new body, I can agree as little (although +he no doubt rightly explains the 'ayam purusha' by 'man' in general), +and am unable to see in the passage anything more than a crude attempt +to account for the fact that a dead body appears swollen and +inflated.--A little further on (section 13) Artabhaga asks what becomes +of this man (ayam purusha) when his speech has entered into the fire, +his breath into the air, his eye into the sun, &c. So much here is clear +that we have no right to understand by the 'ayam purusha' of section 13 +anybody different from the 'ayam purusha' of the two preceding sections; +in spite of this /S/a@nkara--according to whose system the organs of the +true sage do not enter into the elements, but are directly merged in +Brahman--explains the 'ayam purusha' of section 13 to be the +'asa/m/yagdar/s/in,' i.e. the person who has not risen to the cognition +of the highest Brahman. And still a further limiting interpretation is +required by the system. The asa/m/yagdar/s/in also--who as such has to +remain in the sa/m/sara--cannot do without the organs, since his jiva +when passing out of the old body into a new one is invested with the +subtle body; hence section 13 cannot be taken as saying what it clearly +does say, viz. that at death the different organs pass into the +different elements, but as merely indicating that the organs are +abandoned by the divinities which, during lifetime, presided over them! + +The whole third adhyaya indeed of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka affords ample +proof of the artificial character of /S/a@nkara's attempts to show that +the teaching of the Upanishads follows a definite system. The eighth +brahma/n/a, for instance, is said to convey the doctrine of the highest +non-related Brahman, while the preceding brahma/n/as had treated only of +I/s/vara in his various aspects. But, as a matter of fact, brahma/n/a 8, +after having, in section 8, represented Brahman as destitute of all +qualities, proceeds, in the next section, to describe that very same +Brahman as the ruler of the world, 'By the command of that Imperishable +sun and moon stand apart,' &c.; a clear indication that the author of +the Upanishad does not distinguish a higher and lower Brahman +in--/S/a@nkara's sense.--The preceding brahma/n/a (7) treats of the +antaryamin, i.e. Brahman viewed as the internal ruler of everything. +This, according to /S/a@nkara, is the lower form of Brahman called +I/s/vara; but we observe that the antaryamin as well as the so-called +highest Brahman described in section 8 is, at the termination of the two +sections, characterised by means of the very same terms (7, 23: Unseen +but seeing, unheard but hearing, &c. There is no other seer but he, +there is no other hearer but he, &c.; and 8, 11: That Brahman is unseen +but seeing, unheard but hearing, &c. There is nothing that sees but it, +nothing that hears but it, &c.).--Nothing can be clearer than that all +these sections aim at describing one and the same being, and know +nothing of the distinctions made by the developed Vedanta, however valid +the latter may be from a purely philosophic point of view. + +We may refer to one more similar instance from the Chandogya Upanishad. +We there meet in III, 14 with one of the most famous vidyas describing +the nature of Brahman, called after its reputed author the +Sa/nd/ilya-vidya. This small vidya is decidedly one of the finest and +most characteristic texts; it would be difficult to point out another +passage setting forth with greater force and eloquence and in an equally +short compass the central doctrine of the Upanishads. Yet this text, +which, beyond doubt, gives utterance to the highest conception of +Brahman's nature that Sa/nd/ilya's thought was able to reach, is by +/S/a@nkara and his school again declared to form part of the lower vidya +only, because it represents Brahman as possessing qualities. It is, +according to their terminology, not j/n/ana, i.e. knowledge, but the +injunction of a mere upasana, a devout meditation on Brahman in so far +as possessing certain definite attributes such as having light for its +form, having true thoughts, and so on. The Ramanujas, on the other hand, +quote this text with preference as clearly describing the nature of +their highest, i.e. their one Brahman. We again allow that /S/a@nkara is +free to deny that any text which ascribes qualities to Brahman embodies +absolute truth; but we also again remark that there is no reason +whatever for supposing that Sa/nd/ilya, or whoever may have been the +author of that vidya, looked upon it as anything else but a statement of +the highest truth accessible to man. + +We return to the question as to the true philosophy of the Upanishads, +apart from the systems of the commentators.--From what precedes it will +appear with sufficient distinctness that, if we understand by philosophy +a philosophical system coherent in all its parts, free from all +contradictions and allowing room for all the different statements made +in all the chief Upanishads, a philosophy of the Upanishads cannot even +be spoken of. The various lucubrations on Brahman, the world, and the +human soul of which the Upanishads consist do not allow themselves to be +systematised simply because they were never meant to form a system. +/S/a/nd/ilya's views as to the nature of Brahman did not in all details +agree with those of Yaj/n/avalkya, and Uddalaka differed from both. In +this there is nothing to wonder at, and the burden of proof rests +altogether with those who maintain that a large number of detached +philosophic and theological dissertations, ascribed to different +authors, doubtless belonging to different periods, and not seldom +manifestly contradicting each other, admit of being combined into a +perfectly consistent whole. + +The question, however, assumes a different aspect, if we take the terms +'philosophy' and 'philosophical system,' not in the strict sense in +which /S/a@nkara and other commentators are not afraid of taking them, +but as implying merely an agreement in certain fundamental features. In +this latter sense we may indeed undertake to indicate the outlines of a +philosophy of the Upanishads, only keeping in view that precision in +details is not to be aimed at. And here we finally see ourselves driven +back altogether on the texts themselves, and have to acknowledge that +the help we receive from commentators, to whatever school they may +belong, is very inconsiderable. Fortunately it cannot be asserted that +the texts on the whole oppose very serious difficulties to a right +understanding, however obscure the details often are. Concerning the +latter we occasionally depend entirely on the explanations vouchsafed by +the scholiasts, but as far as the general drift and spirit of the texts +are concerned, we are quite able to judge by ourselves, and are even +specially qualified to do so by having no particular system to advocate. + +The point we will first touch upon is the same from which we started +when examining the doctrine of the Sutras, viz. the question whether the +Upanishads acknowledge a higher and lower knowledge in /S/a@nkara's +sense, i.e. a knowledge of a higher and a lower Brahman. Now this we +find not to be the case. Knowledge is in the Upanishads frequently +opposed to avidya, by which latter term we have to understand ignorance +as to Brahman, absence of philosophic knowledge; and, again, in several +places we find the knowledge of the sacrificial part of the Veda with +its supplementary disciplines contrasted as inferior with the knowledge +of the Self; to which latter distinction the Mu/nd/aka Up. (I, 4) +applies the terms apara and para vidya. But a formal recognition of the +essential difference of Brahman being viewed, on the one hand, as +possessing distinctive attributes, and, on the other hand, as devoid of +all such attributes is not to be met with anywhere. Brahman is indeed +sometimes described as sagu/n/a and sometimes as nirgu/n/a (to use later +terms); but it is nowhere said that thereon rests a distinction of two +different kinds of knowledge leading to altogether different results. +The knowledge of Brahman is one, under whatever aspects it is viewed; +hence the circumstance (already exemplified above) that in the same +vidyas it is spoken of as sagu/n/a as well as nirgu/n/a. When the mind +of the writer dwells on the fact that Brahman is that from which all +this world originates, and in which it rests, he naturally applies to it +distinctive attributes pointing at its relation to the world; Brahman, +then, is called the Self and life of all, the inward ruler, the +omniscient Lord, and so on. When, on the other hand, the author follows +out the idea that Brahman may be viewed in itself as the mysterious +reality of which the whole expanse of the world is only an outward +manifestation, then it strikes him that no idea or term derived from +sensible experience can rightly be applied to it, that nothing more may +be predicated of it but that it is neither this nor that. But these are +only two aspects of the cognition of one and the same entity. + +Closely connected with the question as to the double nature of the +Brahman of the Upanishads is the question as to their teaching +Maya.--From Colebrooke downwards the majority of European writers have +inclined towards the opinion that the doctrine of Maya, i.e. of the +unreal illusory character of the sensible world, does not constitute a +feature of the primitive philosophy of the Upanishads, but was +introduced into the system at some later period, whether by Badaraya/n/a +or /S/a@nkara or somebody else. The opposite view, viz. that the +doctrine of Maya forms an integral element of the teaching of the +Upanishads, is implied in them everywhere, and enunciated more or less +distinctly in more than one place, has in recent times been advocated +with much force by Mr. Gough in the ninth chapter of his Philosophy of +the Upanishads. + +In his Materiaux, &c. M. Paul Regnaud remarks that 'the doctrine of +Maya, although implied in the teaching of the Upanishads, could hardly +become clear and explicit before the system had reached a stage of +development necessitating a choice between admitting two co-existent +eternal principles (which became the basis of the Sa@nkhya philosophy), +and accepting the predominance of the intellectual principle, which in +the end necessarily led to the negation of the opposite principle.'--To +the two alternatives here referred to as possible we, however, have to +add a third one, viz. that form of the Vedanta of which the theory of +the Bhagavatas or Ramanujas is the most eminent type, and according to +which Brahman carries within its own nature an element from which the +material universe originates; an element which indeed is not an +independent entity like the pradhana of the Sa@nkhyas, but which at the +same time is not an unreal Maya but quite as real as any other part of +Brahman's nature. That a doctrine of this character actually developed +itself on the basis of the Upanishads, is a circumstance which we +clearly must not lose sight of, when attempting to determine what the +Upanishads themselves are teaching concerning the character of the +world. + +In enquiring whether the Upanishads maintain the Maya doctrine or not, +we must proceed with the same caution as regards other parts of the +system, i.e. we must refrain from using unhesitatingly, and without +careful consideration of the merits of each individual case, the +teaching--direct or inferred--of any one passage to the end of +determining the drift of the teaching of other passages. We may admit +that some passages, notably of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka, contain at any +rate the germ of the later developed Maya doctrine[25], and thus render +it quite intelligible that a system like /S/a@nkara's should evolve +itself, among others, out of the Upanishads; but that affords no valid +reason for interpreting Maya into other texts which give a very +satisfactory sense without that doctrine, or are even clearly repugnant +to it. This remark applies in the very first place to all the accounts +of the creation of the physical universe. There, if anywhere, the +illusional character of the world should have been hinted at, at least, +had that theory been held by the authors of those accounts; but not a +word to that effect is met with anywhere. The most important of those +accounts--the one given in the sixth chapter of the Chandogya +Upanishad--forms no exception. There is absolutely no reason to assume +that the 'sending forth' of the elements from the primitive Sat, which +is there described at length, was by the writer of that passage meant to +represent a vivarta rather than a pari/n/ama that the process of the +origination of the physical universe has to be conceived as anything +else but a real manifestation of real powers hidden in the primeval +Self. The introductory words, addressed to /S/vetaketu by Uddalaka, +which are generally appealed to as intimating the unreal character of +the evolution about to be described, do not, if viewed impartially, +intimate any such thing[26]. For what is capable of being proved, and +manifestly meant to be proved, by the illustrative instances of the lump +of clay and the nugget of gold, through which there are known all things +made of clay and gold? Merely that this whole world has Brahman for its +causal substance, just as clay is the causal matter of every earthen +pot, and gold of every golden ornament, but not that the process through +which any causal substance becomes an effect is an unreal one. +We--including Uddalaka--may surely say that all earthen pots are in +reality nothing but earth--the earthen pot being merely a special +modification (vikara) of clay which has a name of its own--without +thereby committing ourselves to the doctrine that the change of form, +which a lump of clay undergoes when being fashioned into a pot, is not +real but a mere baseless illusion. + +In the same light we have to view numerous other passages which set +forth the successive emanations proceeding from the first principle. +When, for instance, we meet in the Ka/th/a Up. I, 3, 10, in the serial +enumeration of the forms of existence intervening between the gross +material world and the highest Self (the Person), with the +'avyak/ri/ta,' the Undeveloped, immediately below the purusha; and when +again the Mu/nd/aka Up. II, 1, 2, speaks of the 'high Imperishable' +higher than which is the heavenly Person; there is no reason whatever to +see in that 'Undeveloped' and that 'high Imperishable' anything but that +real element in Brahman from which, as in the Ramanuja system, the +material universe springs by a process of real development. We must of +course render it quite clear to ourselves in what sense the terms 'real' +and 'unreal' have to be understood. The Upanishads no doubt teach +emphatically that the material world does not owe its existence to any +principle independent from the Lord like the pradhana of the Sa@nkhyas; +the world is nothing but a manifestation of the Lord's wonderful power, +and hence is unsubstantial, if we take the term 'substance' in its +strict sense. And, again, everything material is immeasurably inferior +in nature to the highest spiritual principle from which it has emanated, +and which it now hides from the individual soul. But neither +unsubstantiality nor inferiority of the kind mentioned constitutes +unreality in the sense in which the Maya of /S/a@nkara is unreal. +According to the latter the whole world is nothing but an erroneous +appearance, as unreal as the snake, for which a piece of rope is +mistaken by the belated traveller, and disappearing just as the imagined +snake does as soon as the light of true knowledge has risen. But this is +certainly not the impression left on the mind by a comprehensive review +of the Upanishads which dwells on their general scope, and does not +confine itself to the undue urging of what may be implied in some +detached passages. The Upanishads do not call upon us to look upon the +whole world as a baseless illusion to be destroyed by knowledge; the +great error which they admonish us to relinquish is rather that things +have a separate individual existence, and are not tied together by the +bond of being all of them effects of Brahman, or Brahman itself. They do +not say that true knowledge sublates this false world, as /S/a@nkara +says, but that it enables the sage to extricate himself from the +world--the inferior murta rupa of Brahman, to use an expression of the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka--and to become one with Brahman in its highest form. +'We are to see everything in Brahman, and Brahman in everything;' the +natural meaning of this is, 'we are to look upon this whole world as a +true manifestation of Brahman, as sprung from it and animated by it.' +The mayavadin has indeed appropriated the above saying also, and +interpreted it so as to fall in with his theory; but he is able to do so +only by perverting its manifest sense. For him it would be appropriate +to say, not that everything we see is in Brahman, but rather that +everything we see is out of Brahman, viz. as a false appearance spread +over it and hiding it from us. + +Stress has been laid[27] upon certain passages of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka +which seem to hint at the unreality of this world by qualifying terms, +indicative of duality or plurality of existence, by means of an added +'iva,' i.e. 'as it were' (yatranyad iva syat; yatra dvaitam iva bhavati; +atma dhyayativa lelayativa). Those passages no doubt readily lend +themselves to Maya interpretations, and it is by no means impossible +that in their author's mind there was something like an undeveloped Maya +doctrine. I must, however, remark that they, on the other hand, also +admit of easy interpretations not in any way presupposing the theory of +the unreality of the world. If Yaj/n/avalkya refers to the latter as +that 'where there is something else as it were, where there is duality +as it were,' he may simply mean to indicate that the ordinary opinion, +according to which the individual forms of existence of the world are +opposed to each other as altogether separate, is a mistaken one, all +things being one in so far as they spring from--and are parts +of--Brahman. This would in no way involve duality or plurality being +unreal in /S/a@nkara's sense, not any more than, for instance, the modes +of Spinoza are unreal because, according to that philosopher, there is +only one universal substance. And with regard to the clause 'the Self +thinks as it were' it has to be noted that according to the commentators +the 'as it were' is meant to indicate that truly not the Self is +thinking, but the upadhis, i.e. especially the manas with which the Self +is connected. But whether these upadhis are the mere offspring of Maya, +as /S/a@nkara thinks, or real forms of existence, as Ramanuja teaches, +is an altogether different question. + +I do not wish, however, to urge these last observations, and am ready to +admit that not impossibly those iva's indicate that the thought of the +writer who employed them was darkly labouring with a conception akin +to--although much less explicit than--the Maya of /S/a@nkara. But what I +object to is, that conclusions drawn from a few passages of, after all, +doubtful import should be employed for introducing the Maya doctrine +into other passages which do not even hint at it, and are fully +intelligible without it.[28] + +The last important point in the teaching of the Upanishads we have to +touch upon is the relation of the jivas, the individual souls to the +highest Self. The special views regarding that point held by /S/a@nkara +and Ramanuja, as have been stated before. Confronting their theories +with the texts of the Upanishads we must, I think, admit without +hesitation, that /S/a@nkara's doctrine faithfully represents the +prevailing teaching of the Upanishads in one important point at least, +viz. therein that the soul or Self of the sage--whatever its original +relation to Brahman may be--is in the end completely merged and +indistinguishably lost in the universal Self. A distinction, repeatedly +alluded to before, has indeed to be kept in view here also. Certain +texts of the Upanishads describe the soul's going upwards, on the path +of the gods, to the world of Brahman, where it dwells for unnumbered +years, i.e. for ever. Those texts, as a type of which we may take, the +passage Kaushit. Up. I--the fundamental text of the Ramanujas concerning +the soul's fate after death--belong to an earlier stage of philosophic +development; they manifestly ascribe to the soul a continued individual +existence. But mixed with texts of this class there are others in which +the final absolute identification of the individual Self with the +universal Self is indicated in terms of unmistakable plainness. 'He who +knows Brahman and becomes Brahman;' 'he who knows Brahman becomes all +this;' 'as the flowing rivers disappear in the sea losing their name and +form, thus a wise man goes to the divine person.' And if we look to the +whole, to the prevailing spirit of the Upanishads, we may call the +doctrine embodied in passages of the latter nature the doctrine of the +Upanishads. It is, moreover, supported by the frequently and clearly +stated theory of the individual souls being merged in Brahman in the +state of deep dreamless sleep. + +It is much more difficult to indicate the precise teaching of the +Upanishads concerning the original relation of the individual soul to +the highest Self, although there can be no doubt that it has to be +viewed as proceeding from the latter, and somehow forming a part of it. +Negatively we are entitled to say that the doctrine, according to which +the soul is merely brahma bhrantam or brahma mayopadhikam, is in no way +countenanced by the majority of the passages bearing on the question. If +the emission of the elements, described in the Chandogya and referred to +above, is a real process--of which we saw no reason to doubt--the jiva +atman with which the highest Self enters into the emitted elements is +equally real, a true part or emanation of Brahman itself. + +After having in this way shortly reviewed the chief elements of Vedantic +doctrine according to the Upanishads, we may briefly consider +/S/a@nkara's system and mode of interpretation--with whose details we +had frequent opportunities of finding fault--as a whole. It has been +said before that the task of reducing the teaching of the whole of the +Upanishads to a system consistent and free from contradictions is an +intrinsically impossible one. But the task once being given, we are +quite ready to admit that /S/a@nkara's system is most probably the best +which can be devised. While unable to allow that the Upanishads +recognise a lower and higher knowledge of Brahman, in fact the +distinction of a lower and higher Brahman, we yet acknowledge that the +adoption of that distinction furnishes the interpreter with an +instrument of extraordinary power for reducing to an orderly whole the +heterogeneous material presented by the old theosophic treatises. This +becomes very manifest as soon as we compare /S/a@nkara's system with +that of Ramanuja. The latter recognises only one Brahman which is, as we +should say, a personal God, and he therefore lays stress on all those +passages of the Upanishads which ascribe to Brahman the attributes of a +personal God, such as omniscience and omnipotence. Those passages, on +the other hand, whose decided tendency it is to represent Brahman as +transcending all qualities, as one undifferenced mass of impersonal +intelligence, Ramanuja is unable to accept frankly and fairly, and has +to misinterpret them more or less to make them fall in with his system. +The same remark holds good with regard to those texts which represent +the individual soul as finally identifying itself with Brahman; Ramanuja +cannot allow a complete identification but merely an assimilation +carried as far as possible. /S/a@nkara, on the other hand, by skilfully +ringing the changes on a higher and a lower doctrine, somehow manages to +find room for whatever the Upanishads have to say. Where the text speaks +of Brahman as transcending all attributes, the highest doctrine is set +forth. Where Brahman is called the All-knowing ruler of the world, the +author means to propound the lower knowledge of the Lord only. And where +the legends about the primary being and its way of creating the world +become somewhat crude and gross, Hira/n/yagarbha and Viraj are summoned +forth and charged with the responsibility. Of Viraj Mr. Gough remarks +(p. 55) that in him a place is provided by the poets of the Upanishads +for the purusha of the ancient /ri/shis, the divine being out of whom +the visible and tangible world proceeded. This is quite true if only we +substitute for the 'poets of the Upanishads' the framers of the orthodox +Vedanta system--for the Upanishads give no indication whatever that by +their purusha they understand not the simple old purusha but the Viraj +occupying a definite position in a highly elaborate system;--but the +mere phrase, 'providing a place' intimates with sufficient clearness the +nature of the work in which systematisers of the Vedantic doctrine are +engaged. + +/S/a@nkara's method thus enables him in a certain way to do justice to +different stages of historical development, to recognise clearly +existing differences which other systematisers are intent on +obliterating. And there has yet to be made a further and even more +important admission in favour of his system. It is not only more +pliable, more capable of amalgamating heterogeneous material than other +systems, but its fundamental doctrines are manifestly in greater harmony +with the essential teaching of the Upanishads than those of other +Vedantic systems. Above we were unable to allow that the distinction +made by /S/a@nkara between Brahman and I/s/vara is known to the +Upanishads; but we must now admit that if, for the purpose of +determining the nature of the highest being, a choice has to be made +between those texts which represent Brahman as nirgu/n/a, and those +which ascribe to it personal attributes, /S/a@nkara is right in giving +preference to texts of the former kind. The Brahman of the old +Upanishads, from which the souls spring to enjoy individual +consciousness in their waking state, and into which they sink back +temporarily in the state of deep dreamless sleep and permanently in +death, is certainly not represented adequately by the strictly personal +I/s/vara of Ramanuja, who rules the world in wisdom and mercy. The older +Upanishads, at any rate, lay very little stress upon personal attributes +of their highest being, and hence /S/a@nkara is right in so far as he +assigns to his hypostatised personal I/s/vara[29] a lower place than to +his absolute Brahman. That he also faithfully represents the prevailing +spirit of the Upanishads in his theory of the ultimate fate of the soul, +we have already remarked above. And although the Maya doctrine cannot, +in my opinion, be said to form part of the teaching of the Upanishads, +it cannot yet be asserted to contradict it openly, because the very +point which it is meant to elucidate, viz. the mode in which the +physical universe and the multiplicity of individual souls originate, is +left by the Upanishads very much in the dark. The later growth of the +Maya doctrine on the basis of the Upanishads is therefore quite +intelligible, and I fully agree with Mr. Gough when he says regarding it +that there has been no addition to the system from without but only a +development from within, no graft but only growth. The lines of thought +which finally led to the elaboration of the full-blown Maya theory may +be traced with considerable certainty. In the first place, deepening +speculation on Brahman tended to the notion of advaita being taken in a +more and more strict sense, as implying not only the exclusion of any +second principle external to Brahman, but also the absence of any +elements of duality or plurality in the nature of the one universal +being itself; a tendency agreeing with the spirit of a certain set of +texts from the Upanishads. And as the fact of the appearance of a +manifold world cannot be denied, the only way open to thoroughly +consistent speculation was to deny at any rate its reality, and to call +it a mere illusion due to an unreal principle, with which Brahman is +indeed associated, but which is unable to break the unity of Brahman's +nature just on account of its own unreality. And, in the second place, a +more thorough following out of the conception that the union with +Brahman is to be reached through true knowledge only, not unnaturally +led to the conclusion that what separates us in our unenlightened state +from Brahman is such as to allow itself to be completely sublated by an +act of knowledge; is, in other words, nothing else but an erroneous +notion, an illusion.--A further circumstance which may not impossibly +have co-operated to further the development of the theory of the world's +unreality will be referred to later on.[30] + +We have above been obliged to leave it an open question what kind of +Vedanta is represented by the Vedanta-sutras, although reason was shown +for the supposition that in some important points their teaching is more +closely related to the system of Ramanuja than to that of /S/a@nkara. If +so, the philosophy of /S/a@nkara would on the whole stand nearer to the +teaching of the Upanishads than the Sutras of Badaraya/n/a. This would +indeed be a somewhat unexpected conclusion--for, judging a priori, we +should be more inclined to assume a direct propagation of the true +doctrine of the Upanishads through Badaraya/n/a to /S/a@nkara--but a +priori considerations have of course no weight against positive evidence +to the contrary. There are, moreover, other facts in the history of +Indian philosophy and theology which help us better to appreciate the +possibility of Badaraya/n/a's Sutras already setting forth a doctrine +that lays greater stress on the personal character of the highest being +than is in agreement with the prevailing tendency of the Upanishads. +That the pure doctrine of those ancient Brahminical treatises underwent +at a rather early period amalgamations with beliefs which most probably +had sprung up in altogether different--priestly or +non-priestly--communities is a well-known circumstance; it suffices for +our purposes to refer to the most eminent of the early literary +monuments in which an amalgamation of the kind mentioned is observable, +viz. the Bhagavadgita. The doctrine of the Bhagavadgita represents a +fusion of the Brahman theory of the Upanishads with the belief in a +personal highest being--K/ri/sh/n/a or Vish/n/u--which in many respects +approximates very closely to the system of the Bhagavatas; the attempts +of a certain set of Indian commentators to explain it as setting forth +pure Vedanta, i.e. the pure doctrine of the Upanishads, may simply be +set aside. But this same Bhagavadgita is quoted in Badaraya/n/a's Sutras +(at least according to the unanimous explanations of the most eminent +scholiasts of different schools) as inferior to /S/ruti only in +authority. The Sutras, moreover, refer in different places to certain +Vedantic portions of the Mahabharata, especially the twelfth book, +several of which represent forms of Vedanta distinctly differing from +/S/a@nkara's teaching, and closely related to the system of the +Bhagavatas. + +Facts of this nature--from entering into the details of which we are +prevented by want of space--tend to mitigate the prima facie strangeness +of the assumption that the Vedanta-sutras, which occupy an intermediate +position between the Upanishads and /S/a@nkara, should yet diverge in +their teaching from both. The Vedanta of Gau/d/apada and /S/a@nkara +would in that case mark a strictly orthodox reaction against all +combinations of non-Vedic elements of belief and doctrine with the +teaching of the Upanishads. But although this form of doctrine has ever +since /S/a@nkara's time been the one most generally accepted by +Brahminic students of philosophy, it has never had any wide-reaching +influence on the masses of India. It is too little in sympathy with the +wants of the human heart, which, after all, are not so very different in +India from what they are elsewhere. Comparatively few, even in India, +are those who rejoice in the idea of a universal non-personal essence in +which their own individuality is to be merged and lost for ever, who +think it sweet 'to be wrecked on the ocean of the Infinite.'[31] The +only forms of Vedantic philosophy which are--and can at any time have +been--really popular, are those in which the Brahman of the Upanishads +has somehow transformed itself into a being, between which and the +devotee there can exist a personal relation, love and faith on the part +of man, justice tempered by mercy on the part of the divinity. The only +religious books of widespread influence are such as the Ramayan of +Tulsidas, which lay no stress on the distinction between an absolute +Brahman inaccessible to all human wants and sympathies, and a shadowy +Lord whose very conception depends on the illusory principle of Maya, +but love to dwell on the delights of devotion to one all-wise and +merciful ruler, who is able and willing to lend a gracious ear to the +supplication of the worshipper. + + * * * * * + +The present translation of the Vedanta-sutras does not aim at rendering +that sense which their author may have aimed at conveying, but strictly +follows /S/a@nkara's interpretation. The question as to how far the +latter agrees with the views held by Badaraya/n/a has been discussed +above, with the result that for the present it must, on the whole, be +left an open one. In any case it would not be feasible to combine a +translation of /S/a@nkara's commentary with an independent version of +the Sutras which it explains. Similar considerations have determined the +method followed in rendering the passages of the Upanishads referred to +in the Sutras and discussed at length by /S/a@nkara. There also the +views of the commentator have to be followed closely; otherwise much of +the comment would appear devoid of meaning. Hence, while of course +following on the whole the critical translation published by Professor +Max Mueller in the earlier volumes of this Series, I had, in a not +inconsiderable number of cases, to modify it so as to render +intelligible /S/a@nkara's explanations and reasonings. I hope to find +space in the introduction to the second volume of this translation for +making some general remarks on the method to be followed in translating +the Upanishads. + +I regret that want of space has prevented me from extracting fuller +notes from later scholiasts. The notes given are based, most of them, on +the /t/ikas composed by Anandagiri and Govindananda (the former of which +is unpublished as yet, so far as I know), and on the Bhamati. + +My best thanks are due to Pa/nd/its Rama Mi/s/ra /S/astrin and +Ga@ngadhara /S/astrin of the Benares Sanskrit College, whom I have +consulted on several difficult passages. Greater still are my +obligations to Pa/nd/it Ke/s/ava /S/astrin, of the same institution, who +most kindly undertook to read a proof of the whole of the present +volume, and whose advice has enabled me to render my version of more +than one passage more definite or correct. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 19: Nanu vidusho z pi setikartavyatakopasananirv/ri/ttaye +v/ri/shyannadiphalanish/t/any eva katha/m/ tesha/m/ virodhad vina/s/a +u/k/yate. Tatraha pate tv iti. /S/arirapate tu tesha/m/ vina/s/a/h/ +/s/arirapatad urdhv/m/ tu vidyanugu/n/ad/ri/sh/t/aphalani suk/ri/tani +na/s/yantity artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 20: Upalabhyate hi devayanena pantha ga/kkh/ato vidushas tam +pratibruuyat satyam bruyad iti /k/andramasa sa/m/vadava/k/anena +/s/arirasadbhava/h/, ata/h/ sukshma/s/ariram anuvartate.] + +[Footnote 21: When the jiva has passed out of the body and ascends to +the world of Brahman, it remains enveloped by the subtle body until it +reaches the river Vijara. There it divests itself of the subtle body, +and the latter is merged in Brahman.]. + +[Footnote 22: Kim aya/m/ para/m/, yotir upasampanna/h/ +saivabandhavinirmukta/h/ pratyagatma svatmana/m/ paramatmana/h/ +p/rit/hagbhutam anubhavati uta tatpraharataya tadavibhaktam iti visnye +so, /s/nate sarvan kaman saha brahma/n/a vipas/k/ita pasya/h/ pasyate +rukmavar/n/a/m/ kartaram isa/m/ purusha/m/ brahmayoni/m/ tada vidvin +pu/n/yapape vidhuya nirangana/h/ parama/m/ samyam upaiti ida/m/ jnanam +upasritya mama sadharinyam agata/h/ sarve, punopajayante pralayena +vyathanti /k/etyadysruysm/nt/ibhyo muktasta pare/n/a +sahityasamyasadharmyavagamat p/ri/thagbhutam anubhavatiu prapte +u/k/yate. Avibhageneti. Parasmad brahmana/h/ svatmanam +avibhagenanubhavati mukta/h/. Kuta/h/. D/ri/shtatvat. Para/m/ +brahmopasampadya niv/ri/ttavidyanrodhanasya yathatathyena svatamano +d/ri/sh/ta/tvat. Svatmana/h/ ssvarupa/m/ hi tat tvam asy ayam atma +brahma aitadatmyam ida/m/ sarva/m/ sarva/m/ khalv ida/m/ +brahnetyadisamanadhikara/n/yanirdesai/h/ ya atmani tishtan atmano ntaro +yam atma na veda yastatma sarira/m/ ya atmanam antaro yamayati +atmantaryamy am/ri/tah anta/h/ pravishta/h/ sasta ananam ityadibhis /k/a +paramatmatmaka/m/ ta/kk/haritataya tatprakatabhutam iti pratipaditam +avashitei iti kasak/ri/stnety atrato vibhagenaha/m/ brahmasmity +cvanubhavati.] + +[Footnote 23: /S/a@nkara's favourite illustrative instance of the +magician producing illusive sights is--significantly enough--not known +to the Sutras.] + +[Footnote 24: Cp. Gough's Philosophy of the Upanishads, pp. 240 ff.] + +[Footnote 25: It is well known that, with the exception of the +/S/vitasvatara and Maitrayaniya, none of the chief Upanishads exhibits +the word 'maya.' The term indeed occurs in one place in the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka; but that passage is a quotation from the /Ri/k +Sa/m/bita in which maya means 'creative power.' Cp. P. Regnaud, La Maya, +in the Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, tome xii, No. 3, 1885.] + +[Footnote 26: As is demonstrated very satisfactorily by Ramanuja.] + +[Footnote 27: Gough, Philosophy of the Upanishads pp. 213 ff.] + +[Footnote 28: I cannot discuss in this place the Maya passages of the +Svetasvatara and the Maitrayaniya Upanishads. Reasons which want of +space prevents me from setting forth in detail induce me to believe that +neither of those two treatises deserves to be considered by us when +wishing to ascertain the true immixed doctrine of the Upanishads.] + +[Footnote 29: The I/s/vara who allots to the individual souls their new +forms of embodiment in strict accordance with their merit or demerit +cannot be called anything else but a personal God. That this personal +conscious being is at the same time identified with the totality of the +individual souls in the unconscious state of deep dreamless sleep, is +one of those extraordinary contradictions which thorough-going +systematisers of Vedantic doctrine are apparently unable to avoid +altogether.] + +[Footnote 30: That section of the introduction in which the point +referred to in the text is touched upon will I hope form part of the +second volume of the translation. The same remark applies to a point +concerning which further information had been promised above on page v.] + +[Footnote 31: + + Cosi tra questa + Immensita s'annega il pensier mio, + E il naufrago m' e dolce in qnesto mare. + LEOPARDI. +] + + + + +VEDANTA-SUTRAS + +WITH + +/S/A@NKARA BHASHYA. + +/S/A@NKARA'S INTRODUCTION + + +FIRST ADHYAYA. + +FIRST PADA. + + +REVERENCE TO THE AUGUST VASUDEVA! + +It is a matter not requiring any proof that the object and the +subject[32] whose respective spheres are the notion of the 'Thou' (the +Non-Ego[33]) and the 'Ego,' and which are opposed to each other as much +as darkness and light are, cannot be identified. All the less can their +respective attributes be identified. Hence it follows that it is wrong +to superimpose[34] upon the subject--whose Self is intelligence, and +which has for its sphere the notion of the Ego--the object whose sphere +is the notion of the Non-Ego, and the attributes of the object, and +_vice versa_ to superimpose the subject and the attributes of the +subject on the object. In spite of this it is on the part of man a +natural[35] procedure--which which has its cause in wrong knowledge--not +to distinguish the two entities (object and subject) and their +respective attributes, although they are absolutely distinct, but to +superimpose upon each the characteristic nature and the attributes of +the other, and thus, coupling the Real and the Unreal[36], to make use +of expressions such as 'That am I,' 'That is mine.[37]'--But what have +we to understand by the term 'superimposition?'--The apparent +presentation, in the form of remembrance, to consciousness of something +previously observed, in some other thing.[38] + +Some indeed define the term 'superimposition' as the superimposition of +the attributes of one thing on another thing.[39] Others, again, define +superimposition as the error founded on the non-apprehension of the +difference of that which is superimposed from that on which it is +superimposed.[40] Others[41], again, define it as the fictitious +assumption of attributes contrary to the nature of that thing on which +something else is superimposed. But all these definitions agree in so +far as they represent superimposition as the apparent presentation of +the attributes of one thing in another thing. And therewith agrees also +the popular view which is exemplified by expressions such as the +following: 'Mother-of-pearl appears like silver,' 'The moon although one +only appears as if she were double.' But how is it possible that on the +interior Self which itself is not an object there should be superimposed +objects and their attributes? For every one superimposes an object only +on such other objects as are placed before him (i.e. in contact with his +sense-organs), and you have said before that the interior Self which is +entirely disconnected from the idea of the Thou (the Non-Ego) is never +an object. It is not, we reply, non-object in the absolute sense. For it +is the object of the notion of the Ego[42], and the interior Self is +well known to exist on account of its immediate (intuitive) +presentation.[43] Nor is it an exceptionless rule that objects can be +superimposed only on such other objects as are before us, i.e. in +contact with our sense-organs; for non-discerning men superimpose on the +ether, which is not the object of sensuous perception, dark-blue colour. + +Hence it follows that the assumption of the Non-Self being superimposed +on the interior Self is not unreasonable. + +This superimposition thus defined, learned men consider to be Nescience +(avidya), and the ascertainment of the true nature of that which is (the +Self) by means of the discrimination of that (which is superimposed on +the Self), they call knowledge (vidya). There being such knowledge +(neither the Self nor the Non-Self) are affected in the least by any +blemish or (good) quality produced by their mutual superimposition[44]. +The mutual superimposition of the Self and the Non-Self, which is termed +Nescience, is the presupposition on which there base all the practical +distinctions--those made in ordinary life as well as those laid down by +the Veda--between means of knowledge, objects of knowledge (and knowing +persons), and all scriptural texts, whether they are concerned with +injunctions and prohibitions (of meritorious and non-meritorious +actions), or with final release[45].--But how can the means of right +knowledge such as perception, inference, &c., and scriptural texts have +for their object that which is dependent on Nescience[46]?--Because, we +reply, the means of right knowledge cannot operate unless there be a +knowing personality, and because the existence of the latter depends on +the erroneous notion that the body, the senses, and so on, are identical +with, or belong to, the Self of the knowing person. For without the +employment of the senses, perception and the other means of right +knowledge cannot operate. And without a basis (i.e. the body[47]) the +senses cannot act. Nor does anybody act by means of a body on which the +nature of the Self is not superimposed[48]. Nor can, in the absence of +all that[49], the Self which, in its own nature is free from all +contact, become a knowing agent. And if there is no knowing agent, the +means of right knowledge cannot operate (as said above). Hence +perception and the other means of right knowledge, and the Vedic texts +have for their object that which is dependent on Nescience. (That human +cognitional activity has for its presupposition the superimposition +described above), follows also from the non-difference in that respect +of men from animals. Animals, when sounds or other sensible qualities +affect their sense of hearing or other senses, recede or advance +according as the idea derived from the sensation is a comforting or +disquieting one. A cow, for instance, when she sees a man approaching +with a raised stick in his hand, thinks that he wants to beat her, and +therefore moves away; while she walks up to a man who advances with some +fresh grass in his hand. Thus men also--who possess a higher +intelligence--run away when they see strong fierce-looking fellows +drawing near with shouts and brandishing swords; while they confidently +approach persons of contrary appearance and behaviour. We thus see that +men and animals follow the same course of procedure with reference to +the means and objects of knowledge. Now it is well known that the +procedure of animals bases on the non-distinction (of Self and +Non-Self); we therefore conclude that, as they present the same +appearances, men also--although distinguished by superior +intelligence--proceed with regard to perception and so on, in the same +way as animals do; as long, that is to say, as the mutual +superimposition of Self and Non-Self lasts. With reference again to that +kind of activity which is founded on the Veda (sacrifices and the like), +it is true indeed that the reflecting man who is qualified to enter on +it, does so not without knowing that the Self has a relation to another +world; yet that qualification does not depend on the knowledge, +derivable from the Vedanta-texts, of the true nature of the Self as free +from all wants, raised above the distinctions of the Brahma/n/a and +Kshattriya-classes and so on, transcending transmigratory existence. For +such knowledge is useless and even contradictory to the claim (on the +part of sacrificers, &c. to perform certain actions and enjoy their +fruits). And before such knowledge of the Self has arisen, the Vedic +texts continue in their operation, to have for their object that which +is dependent on Nescience. For such texts as the following, 'A +Brahma/n/a is to sacrifice,' are operative only on the supposition that +on the Self are superimposed particular conditions such as caste, stage +of life, age, outward circumstances, and so on. That by superimposition +we have to understand the notion of something in some other thing we +have already explained. (The superimposition of the Non-Self will be +understood more definitely from the following examples.) Extra-personal +attributes are superimposed on the Self, if a man considers himself +sound and entire, or the contrary, as long as his wife, children, and so +on are sound and entire or not. Attributes of the body are superimposed +on the Self, if a man thinks of himself (his Self) as stout, lean, fair, +as standing, walking, or jumping. Attributes of the sense-organs, if he +thinks 'I am mute, or deaf, or one-eyed, or blind.' Attributes of the +internal organ when he considers himself subject to desire, intention, +doubt, determination, and so on. Thus the producer of the notion of the +Ego (i.e. the internal organ) is superimposed on the interior Self, +which, in reality, is the witness of all the modifications of the +internal organ, and vice versa the interior Self, which is the witness +of everything, is superimposed on the internal organ, the senses, and so +on. In this way there goes on this natural beginning--and endless +superimposition, which appears in the form of wrong conception, is the +cause of individual souls appearing as agents and enjoyers (of the +results of their actions), and is observed by every one. + +With a view to freeing one's self from that wrong notion which is the +cause of all evil and attaining thereby the knowledge of the absolute +unity of the Self the study of the Vedanta-texts is begun. That all the +Vedanta-texts have the mentioned purport we shall show in this so-called +/S/ariraka-mima/m/sa.[50] + +Of this Vedanta-mima/m/sa about to be explained by us the first Sutra is +as follows. + +1. Then therefore the enquiry into Brahman. + +The word 'then' is here to be taken as denoting immediate consecution; +not as indicating the introduction of a new subject to be entered upon; +for the enquiry into Brahman (more literally, the desire of knowing +Brahman) is not of that nature[51]. Nor has the word 'then' the sense of +auspiciousness (or blessing); for a word of that meaning could not be +properly construed as a part of the sentence. The word 'then' rather +acts as an auspicious term by being pronounced and heard merely, while +it denotes at the same time something else, viz. immediate consecution +as said above. That the latter is its meaning follows moreover from the +circumstance that the relation in which the result stands to the +previous topic (viewed as the cause of the result) is non-separate from +the relation of immediate consecution.[52] + +If, then, the word 'then' intimates immediate consecution it must be +explained on what antecedent the enquiry into Brahman specially depends; +just as the enquiry into active religious duty (which forms the subject +of the Purva Mima/m/sa) specially depends on the antecedent reading of +the Veda. The reading of the Veda indeed is the common antecedent (for +those who wish to enter on an enquiry into religious duty as well as for +those desirous of knowing Brahman). The special question with regard to +the enquiry into Brahman is whether it presupposes as its antecedent the +understanding of the acts of religious duty (which is acquired by means +of the Purva Mima/m/sa). To this question we reply in the negative, +because for a man who has read the Vedanta-parts of the Veda it is +possible to enter on the enquiry into Brahman even before engaging in +the enquiry into religious duty. Nor is it the purport of the word +'then' to indicate order of succession; a purport which it serves in +other passages, as, for instance, in the one enjoining the cutting off +of pieces from the heart and other parts of the sacrificial animal.[53] +(For the intimation of order of succession could be intended only if the +agent in both cases were the same; but this is not the case), because +there is no proof for assuming the enquiry into religious duty and the +enquiry into Brahman to stand in the relation of principal and +subordinate matter or the relation of qualification (for a certain act) +on the part of the person qualified[54]; and because the result as well +as the object of the enquiry differs in the two cases. The knowledge of +active religious duty has for its fruit transitory felicity, and that +again depends on the performance of religious acts. The enquiry into +Brahman, on the other hand, has for its fruit eternal bliss, and does +not depend on the performance of any acts. Acts of religious duty do not +yet exist at the time when they are enquired into, but are something to +be accomplished (in the future); for they depend on the activity of man. +In the Brahma-mima/m/sa, on the other hand, the object of enquiry, i.e. +Brahman, is something already accomplished (existent),--for it is +eternal,--and does not depend on human energy. The two enquiries differ +moreover in so far as the operation of their respective fundamental +texts is concerned. For the fundamental texts on which active religious +duty depends convey information to man in so far only as they enjoin on +him their own particular subjects (sacrifices, &c.); while the +fundamental texts about Brahman merely instruct man, without laying on +him the injunction of being instructed, instruction being their +immediate result. The case is analogous to that of the information +regarding objects of sense which ensues as soon as the objects are +approximated to the senses. It therefore is requisite that something +should be stated subsequent to which the enquiry into Brahman is +proposed.--Well, then, we maintain that the antecedent conditions are +the discrimination of what is eternal and what is non-eternal; the +renunciation of all desire to enjoy the fruit (of one's actions) both +here and hereafter; the acquirement of tranquillity, self-restraint, and +the other means[55], and the desire of final release. If these +conditions exist, a man may, either before entering on an enquiry into +active religious duty or after that, engage in the enquiry into Brahman +and come to know it; but not otherwise. The word 'then' therefore +intimates that the enquiry into Brahman is subsequent to the acquisition +of the above-mentioned (spiritual) means. + +The word 'therefore' intimates a reason. Because the Veda, while +declaring that the fruit of the agnihotra and similar performances which +are means of happiness is non-eternal (as, for instance. Ch. Up. VIII, +1, 6, 'As here on earth whatever has been acquired by action perishes so +perishes in the next world whatever is acquired by acts of religious +duty'), teaches at the same time that the highest aim of man is realised +by the knowledge of Brahman (as, for instance, Taitt. Up. II, 1, 'He who +knows Brahman attains the highest'); therefore the enquiry into Brahman +is to be undertaken subsequently to the acquirement of the mentioned +means. + +By Brahman is to be understood that the definition of which will be +given in the next Sutra (I, 1, 2); it is therefore not to be supposed +that the word Brahman may here denote something else, as, for instance, +the brahminical caste. In the Sutra the genitive case ('of Brahman;' the +literal translation of the Sutra being 'then therefore the desire of +knowledge of Brahman') denotes the object, not something generally +supplementary (/s/esha[56]); for the desire of knowledge demands an +object of desire and no other such object is stated.--But why should not +the genitive case be taken as expressing the general complementary +relation (to express which is its proper office)? Even in that case it +might constitute the object of the desire of knowledge, since the +general relation may base itself on the more particular one.--This +assumption, we reply, would mean that we refuse to take Brahman as the +direct object, and then again indirectly introduce it as the object; an +altogether needless procedure.--Not needless; for if we explain the +words of the Sutra to mean 'the desire of knowledge connected with +Brahman' we thereby virtually promise that also all the heads of +discussion which bear on Brahman will be treated.--This reason also, we +reply, is not strong enough to uphold your interpretation. For the +statement of some principal matter already implies all the secondary +matters connected therewith. Hence if Brahman, the most eminent of all +objects of knowledge, is mentioned, this implies already all those +objects of enquiry which the enquiry into Brahman presupposes, and those +objects need therefore not be mentioned, especially in the Sutra. +Analogously the sentence 'there the king is going' implicitly means that +the king together with his retinue is going there. Our interpretation +(according to which the Sutra represents Brahman as the direct object of +knowledge) moreover agrees with Scripture, which directly represents +Brahman as the object of the desire of knowledge; compare, for instance, +the passage, 'That from whence these beings are born, &c., desire to +know that. That is Brahman' (Taitt. Up. III, 1). With passages of this +kind the Sutra only agrees if the genitive case is taken to denote the +object. Hence we do take it in that sense. The object of the desire is +the knowledge of Brahman up to its complete comprehension, desires +having reference to results[57]. Knowledge thus constitutes the means by +which the complete comprehension of Brahman is desired to be obtained. +For the complete comprehension of Brahman is the highest end of man, +since it destroys the root of all evil such as Nescience, the seed of +the entire Sa/m/sara. Hence the desire of knowing Brahman is to be +entertained. + +But, it may be asked, is Brahman known or not known (previously to the +enquiry into its nature)? If it is known we need not enter on an enquiry +concerning it; if it is not known we can not enter on such an enquiry. + +We reply that Brahman is known. Brahman, which is all-knowing and +endowed with all powers, whose essential nature is eternal purity, +intelligence, and freedom, exists. For if we consider the derivation of +the word 'Brahman,' from the root b/ri/h, 'to be great,' we at once +understand that eternal purity, and so on, belong to Brahman[58]. +Moreover the existence of Brahman is known on the ground of its being +the Self of every one. For every one is conscious of the existence of +(his) Self, and never thinks 'I am not.' If the existence of the Self +were not known, every one would think 'I am not.' And this Self (of +whose existence all are conscious) is Brahman. But if Brahman is +generally known as the Self, there is no room for an enquiry into it! +Not so, we reply; for there is a conflict of opinions as to its special +nature. Unlearned people and the Lokayatikas are of opinion that the +mere body endowed with the quality of intelligence is the Self; others +that the organs endowed with intelligence are the Self; others maintain +that the internal organ is the Self; others, again, that the Self is a +mere momentary idea; others, again, that it is the Void. Others, again +(to proceed to the opinion of such as acknowledge the authority of the +Veda), maintain that there is a transmigrating being different from the +body, and so on, which is both agent and enjoyer (of the fruits of +action); others teach that that being is enjoying only, not acting; +others believe that in addition to the individual souls, there is an +all-knowing, all-powerful Lord[59]. Others, finally, (i.e. the +Vedantins) maintain that the Lord is the Self of the enjoyer (i.e. of +the individual soul whose individual existence is apparent only, the +product of Nescience). + +Thus there are many various opinions, basing part of them on sound +arguments and scriptural texts, part of them on fallacious arguments and +scriptural texts misunderstood[60]. If therefore a man would embrace +some one of these opinions without previous consideration, he would bar +himself from the highest beatitude and incur grievous loss. For this +reason the first Sutra proposes, under the designation of an enquiry +into Brahman, a disquisition of the Vedanta-texts, to be carried on with +the help of conformable arguments, and having for its aim the highest +beatitude. + +So far it has been said that Brahman is to be enquired into. The +question now arises what the characteristics of that Brahman are, and +the reverend author of the Sutras therefore propounds the following +aphorism. + +2. (Brahman is that) from which the origin, &c. (i.e. the origin, +subsistence, and dissolution) of this (world proceed). + +The term, &c. implies subsistence and re-absorption. That the origin is +mentioned first (of the three) depends on the declaration of Scripture +as well as on the natural development of a substance. Scripture declares +the order of succession of origin, subsistence, and dissolution in the +passage, Taitt. Up. III, 1, 'From whence these beings are born,' &c. And +with regard to the second reason stated, it is known that a substrate of +qualities can subsist and be dissolved only after it has entered, +through origination, on the state of existence. The words 'of this' +denote that substrate of qualities which is presented to us by +perception and the other means of right knowledge; the genitive case +indicates it to be connected with origin, &c. The words 'from which' +denote the cause. The full sense of the Sutra therefore is: That +omniscient omnipotent cause from which proceed the origin, subsistence, +and dissolution of this world--which world is differentiated by names +and forms, contains many agents and enjoyers, is the abode of the fruits +of actions, these fruits having their definite places, times, and +causes[61], and the nature of whose arrangement cannot even be conceived +by the mind,--that cause, we say, is Brahman. Since the other forms of +existence (such as increase, decline, &c.) are included in origination, +subsistence, and dissolution, only the three latter are referred to in +the Sutra. As the six stages of existence enumerated by Yaska[62] are +possible only during the period of the world's subsistence, it +might--were they referred to in the Sutra--be suspected that what is +meant are not the origin, subsistence, and dissolution (of the world) as +dependent on the first cause. To preclude this suspicion the Sutra is to +be taken as referring, in addition to the world's origination from +Brahman, only to its subsistence in Brahman, and final dissolution into +Brahman. + +The origin, &c. of a world possessing the attributes stated above cannot +possibly proceed from anything else but a Lord possessing the stated +qualities; not either from a non-intelligent pradhana[63], or from +atoms, or from non-being, or from a being subject to transmigration[64]; +nor, again, can it proceed from its own nature (i.e. spontaneously, +without a cause), since we observe that (for the production of effects) +special places, times, and causes have invariably to be employed. + +(Some of) those who maintain a Lord to be the cause of the world[65], +think that the existence of a Lord different from mere transmigrating +beings can be inferred by means of the argument stated just now (without +recourse being had to Scripture at all).--But, it might be said, you +yourself in the Sutra under discussion have merely brought forward the +same argument!--By no means, we reply. The Sutras (i.e. literally 'the +strings') have merely the purpose of stringing together the flowers of +the Vedanta-passages. In reality the Vedanta-passages referred to by the +Sutras are discussed here. For the comprehension of Brahman is effected +by the ascertainment, consequent on discussion, of the sense of the +Vedanta-texts, not either by inference or by the other means of right +knowledge. While, however, the Vedanta-passages primarily declare the +cause of the origin, &c., of the world, inference also, being an +instrument of right knowledge in so far as it does not contradict the +Vedanta-texts, is not to be excluded as a means of confirming the +meaning ascertained. Scripture itself, moreover, allows argumentation; +for the passages, B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5 ('the Self is to be heard, to be +considered'), and Ch. Up. VI, 14, 2 ('as the man, &c., having been +informed, and being able to judge for himself, would arrive at Gandhara, +in the same way a man who meets with a teacher obtains knowledge'), +declare that human understanding assists Scripture[66]. + +Scriptural text, &c.[67], are not, in the enquiry into Brahman, the only +means of knowledge, as they are in the enquiry into active duty (i.e. in +the Purva Mima/m/sa), but scriptural texts on the one hand, and +intuition[68], &c., on the other hand, are to be had recourse to +according to the occasion: firstly, because intuition is the final +result of the enquiry into Brahman; secondly, because the object of the +enquiry is an existing (accomplished) substance. If the object of the +knowledge of Brahman were something to be accomplished, there would be +no reference to intuition, and text, &c., would be the only means of +knowledge. The origination of something to be accomplished depends, +moreover, on man since any action either of ordinary life, or dependent +on the Veda may either be done or not be done, or be done in a different +way. A man, for instance, may move on either by means of a horse, or by +means of his feet, or by some other means, or not at all. And again (to +quote examples of actions dependent on the Veda), we meet in Scripture +with sentences such as the following: 'At the atiratra he takes the +sho/d/asin cup,' and 'at the atiratra he does not take the sho/d/asin +cup;' or, 'he makes the oblation after the sun has risen,' and, 'he +makes the oblation when the sun has not yet risen.' Just as in the +quoted instances, injunctions and prohibitions, allowances of optional +procedure, general rules and exceptions have their place, so they would +have their place with regard to Brahman also (if the latter were a thing +to be accomplished). But the fact is that no option is possible as to +whether a substance is to be thus or thus, is to be or not to be. All +option depends on the notions of man; but the knowledge of the real +nature of a thing does not depend on the notions of man, but only on the +thing itself. For to think with regard to a post, 'this is a post or a +man, or something else,' is not knowledge of truth; the two ideas, 'it +is a man or something else,' being false, and only the third idea, 'it +is a post,' which depends on the thing itself, falling under the head of +true knowledge. Thus true knowledge of all existing things depends on +the things themselves, and hence the knowledge of Brahman also depends +altogether on the thing, i.e. Brahman itself.--But, it might be said, as +Brahman is an existing substance, it will be the object of the other +means of right knowledge also, and from this it follows that a +discussion of the Vedanta-texts is purposeless.--This we deny; for as +Brahman is not an object of the senses, it has no connection with those +other means of knowledge. For the senses have, according to their +nature, only external things for their objects, not Brahman. If Brahman +were an object of the senses, we might perceive that the world is +connected with Brahman as its effect; but as the effect only (i.e. the +world) is perceived, it is impossible to decide (through perception) +whether it is connected with Brahman or something else. Therefore the +Sutra under discussion is not meant to propound inference (as the means +of knowing Brahman), but rather to set forth a Vedanta-text.--Which, +then, is the Vedanta-text which the Sutra points at as having to be +considered with reference to the characteristics of Brahman?--It is the +passage Taitt. Up. III, 1, 'Bh/ri/gu Varu/n/i went to his father +Varu/n/a, saying, Sir, teach me Brahman,' &c., up to 'That from whence +these beings are born, that by which, when born, they live, that into +which they enter at their death, try to know that. That is Brahman.' The +sentence finally determining the sense of this passage is found III, 6: +'From bliss these beings are born; by bliss, when born, they live; into +bliss they enter at their death.' Other passages also are to be adduced +which declare the cause to be the almighty Being, whose essential nature +is eternal purity, intelligence, and freedom. + +That Brahman is omniscient we have been made to infer from it being +shown that it is the cause of the world. To confirm this conclusion, the +Sutrakara continues as follows: + +3. (The omniscience of Brahman follows) from its being the source of +Scripture. + +Brahman is the source, i.e. the cause of the great body of Scripture, +consisting of the /Ri/g-veda and other branches, which is supported by +various disciplines (such as grammar, nyaya, pura/n/a, &c.); which +lamp-like illuminates all things; which is itself all-knowing as it +were. For the origin of a body of Scripture possessing the quality of +omniscience cannot be sought elsewhere but in omniscience itself. It is +generally understood that the man from whom some special body of +doctrine referring to one province of knowledge only originates, as, for +instance, grammar from Pa/n/ini possesses a more extensive knowledge +than his work, comprehensive though it be; what idea, then, shall we +have to form of the supreme omniscience and omnipotence of that great +Being, which in sport as it were, easily as a man sends forth his +breath, has produced the vast mass of holy texts known as the +/Ri/g-veda, &c., the mine of all knowledge, consisting of manifold +branches, the cause of the distinction of all the different classes and +conditions of gods, animals, and men! See what Scripture says about him, +'The /Ri/g-veda, &c., have been breathed forth from that great Being' +(B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 10). + +Or else we may interpret the Sutra to mean that Scripture consisting of +the /Ri/g-veda, &c., as described above, is the source or cause, i.e. +the means of right knowledge through which we understand the nature of +Brahman. So that the sense would be: through Scripture only as a means +of knowledge Brahman is known to be the cause of the origin, &c., of the +world. The special scriptural passage meant has been quoted under the +preceding Sutra 'from which these beings are born,' &c.--But as the +preceding Sutra already has pointed out a text showing that Scripture is +the source of Brahman, of what use then is the present Sutra?--The words +of the preceding Sutra, we reply, did not clearly indicate the +scriptural passage, and room was thus left for the suspicion that the +origin, &c., of the world were adduced merely as determining an +inference (independent of Scripture). To obviate this suspicion the +Sutra under discussion has been propounded. + +But, again, how can it be said that Scripture is the means of knowing +Brahman? Since it has been declared that Scripture aims at action +(according to the Purva Mima/m/sa Sutra I, 2, 1, 'As the purport of +Scripture is action, those scriptural passages whose purport is not +action are purportless'), the Vedanta-passages whose purport is not +action are purportless. Or else if they are to have some sense, they +must either, by manifesting the agent, the divinity or the fruit of the +action, form supplements to the passages enjoining actions, or serve the +purpose of themselves enjoining a new class of actions, such as devout +meditation and the like. For the Veda cannot possibly aim at conveying +information regarding the nature of accomplished substances, since the +latter are the objects of perception and the other means of proof (which +give sufficient information about them; while it is the recognised +object of the Veda to give information about what is not known from +other sources). And if it did give such information, it would not be +connected with things to be desired or shunned, and thus be of no use to +man. For this very reason Vedic passages, such as 'he howled, &c.,' +which at first sight appear purposeless, are shown to have a purpose in +so far as they glorify certain actions (cp. Pu. Mi. Su. I, 2, 7, +'Because they stand in syntactical connection with the injunctions, +therefore their purport is to glorify the injunctions'). In the same way +mantras are shown to stand in a certain relation to actions, in so far +as they notify the actions themselves and the means by which they are +accomplished. So, for instance, the mantra, 'For strength thee (I cut;' +which accompanies the cutting of a branch employed in the +dar/s/apur/n/amasa-sacrifice). In short, no Vedic passage is seen or can +be proved to have a meaning but in so far as it is related to an action. +And injunctions which are defined as having actions for their objects +cannot refer to accomplished existent things. Hence we maintain that the +Vedanta-texts are mere supplements to those passages which enjoin +actions; notifying the agents, divinities, and results connected with +those actions. Or else, if this be not admitted, on the ground of its +involving the introduction of a subject-matter foreign to the +Vedanta-texts (viz. the subject-matter of the Karmaka/nd/a of the Veda), +we must admit (the second of the two alternatives proposed above viz.) +that the Vedanta-texts refer to devout meditation (upasana) and similar +actions which are mentioned in those very (Vedanta) texts. The result of +all of which is that Scripture is not the source of Brahman. + +To this argumentation the Sutrakara replies as follows: + +4. But that (Brahman is to be known from Scripture), because it is +connected (with the Vedanta-texts) as their purport. + +The word 'but' is meant to rebut the purva-paksha (the prima facie view +as urged above). That all-knowing, all-powerful Brahman, which is the +cause of the origin, subsistence, and dissolution of the world, is known +from the Vedanta-part of Scripture. How? Because in all the +Vedanta-texts the sentences construe in so far as they have for their +purport, as they intimate that matter (viz. Brahman). Compare, for +instance, 'Being only this was in the beginning, one, without a second' +(Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1); 'In the beginning all this was Self, one only' (Ait. +Ar. II, 4, 1, 1); 'This is the Brahman without cause and without effect, +without anything inside or outside; this Self is Brahman perceiving +everything' (B/ri/. Up. II, 5, 19); 'That immortal Brahman is before' +(Mu. Up. II, 2, 11); and similar passages. If the words contained in +these passages have once been determined to refer to Brahman, and their +purport is understood thereby, it would be improper to assume them to +have a different sense; for that would involve the fault of abandoning +the direct statements of the text in favour of mere assumptions. Nor can +we conclude the purport of these passages to be the intimation of the +nature of agents, divinities, &c. (connected with acts of religious +duty); for there are certain scriptural passages which preclude all +actions, actors, and fruits, as, for instance, B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 13, +'Then by what should he see whom?' (which passage intimates that there +is neither an agent, nor an object of action, nor an instrument.) Nor +again can Brahman, though it is of the nature of an accomplished thing, +be the object of perception and the other means of knowledge; for the +fact of everything having its Self in Brahman cannot be grasped without +the aid of the scriptural passage 'That art thou' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 7). +Nor can it rightly be objected that instruction is purportless if not +connected with something either to be striven after or shunned; for from +the mere comprehension of Brahman's Self, which is not something either +to be avoided or endeavoured after, there results cessation of all pain, +and thereby the attainment of man's highest aim. That passages notifying +certain divinities, and so on, stand in subordinate relation to acts of +devout meditation mentioned in the same chapters may readily be +admitted. But it is impossible that Brahman should stand in an analogous +relation to injunctions of devout meditation, for if the knowledge of +absolute unity has once arisen there exists no longer anything to be +desired or avoided, and thereby the conception of duality, according to +which we distinguish actions, agents, and the like, is destroyed. If the +conception of duality is once uprooted by the conception of absolute +unity, it cannot arise again, and so no longer be the cause of Brahman +being looked upon as the complementary object of injunctions of +devotion. Other parts of the Veda may have no authority except in so far +as they are connected with injunctions; still it is impossible to impugn +on that ground the authoritativeness of passages conveying the knowledge +of the Self; for such passages have their own result. Nor, finally, can +the authoritativeness of the Veda be proved by inferential reasoning so +that it would be dependent on instances observed elsewhere. From all +which it follows that the Veda possesses authority as a means of right +knowledge of Brahman. + +Here others raise the following objection:--Although the Veda is the +means of gaining a right knowledge of Brahman, yet it intimates Brahman +only as the object of certain injunctions, just as the information which +the Veda gives about the sacrificial post, the ahavaniya-fire and other +objects not known from the practice of common life is merely +supplementary to certain injunctions[69]. Why so? Because the Veda has +the purport of either instigating to action or restraining from it. For +men fully acquainted with the object of the Veda have made the following +declaration, 'The purpose of the Veda is seen to be the injunction of +actions' (Bhashya on Jaimini Sutra I, 1, 1); 'Injunction means passages +impelling to action' (Bh. on Jaim. Su. I, 1, 2); 'Of this (viz. active +religious duty) the knowledge comes from injunction' (part of Jaim. Su. +I, 1, 5); 'The (words) denoting those (things) are to be connected with +(the injunctive verb of the vidhi-passage) whose purport is action' +(Jaim. Su. I, 1, 25); 'As action is the purport of the Veda, whatever +does not refer to action is purportless' (Jaim. Su. I, 2, 1). Therefore +the Veda has a purport in so far only as it rouses the activity of man +with regard to some actions and restrains it with regard to others; +other passages (i.e. all those passages which are not directly +injunctive) have a purport only in so far as they supplement injunctions +and prohibitions. Hence the Vedanta-texts also as likewise belonging to +the Veda can have a meaning in the same way only. And if their aim is +injunction, then just as the agnihotra-oblation and other rites are +enjoined as means for him who is desirous of the heavenly world, so the +knowledge of Brahman is enjoined as a means for him who is desirous of +immortality.--But--somebody might object--it has been declared that +there is a difference in the character of the objects enquired into, the +object of enquiry in the karma-ka/nd/a (that part of the Veda which +treats of active religious duty) being something to be accomplished, +viz. duty, while here the object is the already existent absolutely +accomplished Brahman. From this it follows that the fruit of the +knowledge of Brahman must be of a different nature from the fruit of the +knowledge of duty which depends on the performance of actions[70].--We +reply that it must not be such because the Vedanta-texts give +information about Brahman only in so far as it is connected with +injunctions of actions. We meet with injunctions of the following kind, +'Verily the Self is to be seen' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5); 'The Self which +is free from sin that it is which we must search out, that it is which +we must try to understand' (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1); 'Let a man worship him +as Self' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 7); 'Let a man worship the Self only as his +true state' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 15); 'He who knows Brahman becomes +Brahman' (Mu. Up. III, 2, 9). These injunctions rouse in us the desire +to know what that Brahman is. It, therefore, is the task of the +Vedanta-texts to set forth Brahman's nature, and they perform that task +by teaching us that Brahman is eternal, all-knowing, absolutely +self-sufficient, ever pure, intelligent and free, pure knowledge, +absolute bliss. From the devout meditation on this Brahman there results +as its fruit, final release, which, although not to be discerned in the +ordinary way, is discerned by means of the /s/astra. If, on the other +hand, the Vedanta-texts were considered to have no reference to +injunctions of actions, but to contain statements about mere +(accomplished) things, just as if one were saying 'the earth comprises +seven dvipas,' 'that king is marching on,' they would be purportless, +because then they could not possibly be connected with something to be +shunned or endeavoured after.--Perhaps it will here be objected that +sometimes a mere statement about existent things has a purpose, as, for +instance, the affirmation, 'This is a rope, not a snake,' serves the +purpose of removing the fear engendered by an erroneous opinion, and +that so likewise the Vedanta-passages making statements about the +non-transmigrating Self, have a purport of their own (without reference +to any action), viz. in so far as they remove the erroneous opinion of +the Self being liable to transmigration.--We reply that this might be so +if just as the mere hearing of the true nature of the rope dispels the +fear caused by the imagined snake, so the mere hearing of the true +nature of Brahman would dispel the erroneous notion of one's being +subject to transmigration. But this is not the case; for we observe that +even men to whom the true nature of Brahman has been stated continue to +be affected by pleasure, pain, and the other qualities attaching to the +transmigratory condition. Moreover, we see from the passage, /Bri/. Up. +II, 4, 5, 'The Self is to be heard, to be considered, to be reflected +upon,' that consideration and reflection have to follow the mere +hearing. From all this it results that the sastra can be admitted as a +means of knowing Brahman in so far only as the latter is connected with +injunctions. + +To all this, we, the Vedantins, make the following reply:--The preceding +reasoning is not valid, on account of the different nature of the fruits +of actions on the one side, and of the knowledge of Brahman on the other +side. The enquiry into those actions, whether of body, speech, or mind, +which are known from /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti, and are comprised under the +name 'religious duty' (dharma), is carried on in the Jaimini Sutra, +which begins with the words 'then therefore the enquiry into duty;' the +opposite of duty also (adharma), such as doing harm, &c., which is +defined in the prohibitory injunctions, forms an object of enquiry to +the end that it may be avoided. The fruits of duty, which is good, and +its opposite, which is evil, both of which are defined by original Vedic +statements, are generally known to be sensible pleasure and pain, which +make themselves felt to body, speech, and mind only, are produced by the +contact of the organs of sense with the objects, and affect all animate +beings from Brahman down to a tuft of grass. Scripture, agreeing with +observation, states that there are differences in the degree of pleasure +of all embodied creatures from men upward to Brahman. From those +differences it is inferred that there are differences in the degrees of +the merit acquired by actions in accordance with religious duty; +therefrom again are inferred differences in degree between those +qualified to perform acts of religious duty. Those latter differences +are moreover known to be affected by the desire of certain results +(which entitles the man so desirous to perform certain religious acts), +worldly possessions, and the like. It is further known from Scripture +that those only who perform sacrifices proceed, in consequence of the +pre-eminence of their knowledge and meditation, on the northern path (of +the sun; Ch. Up. V, 10, 1), while mere minor offerings, works of public +utility and alms, only lead through smoke and the other stages to the +southern path. And that there also (viz. in the moon which is finally +reached by those who have passed along the southern path) there are +degrees of pleasure and the means of pleasure is understood from the +passage 'Having dwelt there till their works are consumed.' Analogously +it is understood that the different degrees of pleasure which are +enjoyed by the embodied creatures, from man downward to the inmates of +hell and to immovable things, are the mere effects of religious merit as +defined in Vedic injunctions. On the other hand, from the different +degrees of pain endured by higher and lower embodied creatures, there is +inferred difference of degree in its cause, viz. religious demerit as +defined in the prohibitory injunctions, and in its agents. This +difference in the degree of pain and pleasure, which has for its +antecedent embodied existence, and for its cause the difference of +degree of merit and demerit of animated beings, liable to faults such as +ignorance and the like, is well known--from /S/ruti, Sm/ri/ti, and +reasoning--to be non-eternal, of a fleeting, changing nature +(sa/m/sara). The following text, for instance, 'As long as he is in the +body he cannot get free from pleasure and pain' (Ch. Up. VIII, 12, 1), +refers to the sa/m/sara-state as described above. From the following +passage, on the other hand, 'When he is free from the body then neither +pleasure nor pain touches him,' which denies the touch of pain or +pleasure, we learn that the unembodied state called 'final release' +(moksha) is declared not to be the effect of religious merit as defined +by Vedic injunctions. For if it were the effect of merit it would not be +denied that it is subject to pain and pleasure. Should it be said that +the very circumstance of its being an unembodied state is the effect of +merit, we reply that that cannot be, since Scripture declares that state +to be naturally and originally an unembodied one. 'The wise who knows +the Self as bodiless within the bodies, as unchanging among changing +things, as great and omnipresent does never grieve' (Ka. Up. II, 22); +'He is without breath, without mind, pure' (Mu. Up. II, 1, 2); 'That +person is not attached to anything' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 15)[71]. All +which passages establish the fact that so-called release differs from +all the fruits of action, and is an eternally and essentially +disembodied state. Among eternal things, some indeed may be 'eternal, +although changing' (pari/n/aminitya), viz. those, the idea of whose +identity is not destroyed, although they may undergo changes; such, for +instance, are earth and the other elements in the opinion of those who +maintain the eternity of the world, or the three gu/n/as in the opinion +of the Sa@nkhyas. But this (moksha) is eternal in the true sense, i.e. +eternal without undergoing any changes (ku/ta/sthanitya), omnipresent as +ether, free from all modifications, absolutely self-sufficient, not +composed of parts, of self-luminous nature. That bodiless entity in +fact, to which merit and demerit with their consequences and threefold +time do not apply, is called release; a definition agreeing with +scriptural passages, such as the following: 'Different from merit and +demerit, different from effect and cause, different from past and +future' (Ka. Up. I, 2, 14). It[72] (i.e. moksha) is, therefore, the same +as Brahman in the enquiry into which we are at present engaged. If +Brahman were represented as supplementary to certain actions, and +release were assumed to be the effect of those actions, it would be +non-eternal, and would have to be considered merely as something holding +a pre-eminent position among the described non-eternal fruits of actions +with their various degrees. But that release is something eternal is +acknowledged by whoever admits it at all, and the teaching concerning +Brahman can therefore not be merely supplementary to actions. + +There are, moreover, a number of scriptural passages which declare +release to follow immediately on the cognition of Brahman, and which +thus preclude the possibility of an effect intervening between the two; +for instance, 'He who knows Brahman becomes Brahman' (Mu. Up. III, 2, +9); 'All his works perish when He has been beheld, who is the higher and +the lower' (Mu. Up. II, 2, 8); 'He who knows the bliss of Brahman fears +nothing' (Taitt. Up. II, 9); 'O Janaka, you have indeed reached +fearlessness' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 2, 4); 'That Brahman knew its Self only, +saying, I am Brahman. From it all this sprang' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 10); +'What sorrow, what trouble can there be to him who beholds that unity?' +(Is. Up. 7.) We must likewise quote the passage,--B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 10, +('Seeing this the /Ri/shi Vamadeva understood: I was Manu, I was the +sun,') in order to exclude the idea of any action taking place between +one's seeing Brahman and becoming one with the universal Self; for that +passage is analogous to the following one, 'standing he sings,' from +which we understand that no action due to the same agent intervenes +between the standing and the singing. Other scriptural passages show +that the removal of the obstacles which lie in the way of release is the +only fruit of the knowledge of Brahman; so, for instance, 'You indeed +are our father, you who carry us from our ignorance to the other shore' +(Pr. Up. VI, 8); 'I have heard from men like you that he who knows the +Self overcomes grief. I am in grief. Do, Sir, help me over this grief of +mine' (Ch. Up. VII, 1, 3); 'To him after his faults had been rubbed out, +the venerable Sanatkumara showed the other side of darkness' (Ch. Up. +VII, 26, 2). The same is the purport of the Sutra, supported by +arguments, of (Gautama) Akarya, 'Final release results from the +successive removal of wrong knowledge, faults, activity, birth, pain, +the removal of each later member of the series depending on the removal +of the preceding member' (Nyay. Su. I, i, 2); and wrong knowledge itself +is removed by the knowledge of one's Self being one with the Self of +Brahman. + +Nor is this knowledge of the Self being one with Brahman a mere +(fanciful) combination[73], as is made use of, for instance, in the +following passage, 'For the mind is endless, and the Vi/s/vedevas are +endless, and he thereby gains the endless world' (B/ri/. Up. III, 1, +9)[74]; nor is it an (in reality unfounded) ascription +(superimposition)[75], as in the passages, 'Let him meditate on mind as +Brahman,' and 'Aditya is Brahman, this is the doctrine' (Ch. Up. III, +18, 1; 19, 1), where the contemplation as Brahman is superimposed on the +mind, Aditya and so on; nor, again, is it (a figurative conception of +identity) founded on the connection (of the things viewed as identical) +with some special activity, as in the passage, 'Air is indeed the +absorber; breath is indeed the absorber[76]' (Ch. Up. IV, 3, 1; 3); nor +is it a mere (ceremonial) purification of (the Self constituting a +subordinate member) of an action (viz. the action of seeing, &c., +Brahman), in the same way as, for instance, the act of looking at the +sacrificial butter[77]. For if the knowledge of the identity of the Self +and Brahman were understood in the way of combination and the like, +violence would be done thereby to the connection of the words whose +object, in certain passages, it clearly is to intimate the fact of +Brahman and the Self being really identical; so, for instance, in the +following passages, 'That art thou' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 7); 'I am Brahman' +(B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 10); 'This Self is Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. II, 5, 19). +And other texts which declare that the fruit of the cognition of Brahman +is the cessation of Ignorance would be contradicted thereby; so, for +instance, 'The fetter of the heart is broken, all doubts are solved' +(Mu. Up. II, 2, 8). Nor, finally, would it be possible, in that case, +satisfactorily to explain the passages which speak of the individual +Self becoming Brahman: such as 'He who knows Brahman becomes Brahman' +(Mu. Up. III, 2, 9). Hence the knowledge of the unity of Brahman and the +Self cannot be of the nature of figurative combination and the like. The +knowledge of Brahman does, therefore, not depend on the active energy of +man, but is analogous to the knowledge of those things which are the +objects of perception, inference, and so on, and thus depends on the +object of knowledge only. Of such a Brahman or its knowledge it is +impossible to establish, by reasoning, any connection with actions. + +Nor, again, can we connect Brahman with acts by representing it as the +object of the action of knowing. For that it is not such is expressly +declared in two passages, viz. 'It is different from the known and again +above (i.e. different from) the unknown' (Ken. Up. I, 3); and 'How +should he know him by whom he knows all this?' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 13.) +In the same way Brahman is expressly declared not to be the object of +the act of devout meditation, viz. in the second half of the verse, Ken. +Up. I, 5, whose first half declares it not to be an object (of speech, +mind, and so on), 'That which is not proclaimed by speech, by which +speech is proclaimed, that only know to be Brahman, not that on which +people devoutly meditate as this.' If it should be objected that if +Brahman is not an object (of speech, mind, &c.) the sastra can +impossibly be its source, we refute this objection by the remark that +the aim of the sastra is to discard all distinctions fictitiously +created by Nescience. The sastra's purport is not to represent Brahman +definitely as this or that object, its purpose is rather to show that +Brahman as the eternal subject (pratyagatman, the inward Self) is never +an object, and thereby to remove the distinction of objects known, +knowers, acts of knowledge, &c., which is fictitiously created by +Nescience. Accordingly the sastra says, 'By whom it is not thought by +him it is thought, by whom it is thought he does not know it; unknown by +those who know it, it is known by those who do not know it' (Ken. Up. +II, 3); and 'Thou couldst not see the seer of sight, thou couldst not +hear the hearer of hearing, nor perceive the perceiver of perception, +nor know the knower of knowledge' (B/ri/. Up. III, 4, 2). As thereby +(i.e. by the knowledge derived from the sastra) the imagination of the +transitoriness of Release which is due to Nescience is discarded, and +Release is shown to be of the nature of the eternally free Self, it +cannot be charged with the imperfection of non-eternality. Those, on the +other hand, who consider Release to be something to be effected properly +maintain that it depends on the action of mind, speech, or body. So, +likewise, those who consider it to be a mere modification. +Non-eternality of Release is the certain consequence of these two +opinions; for we observe in common life that things which are +modifications, such as sour milk and the like, and things which are +effects, such as jars, &c., are non-eternal. Nor, again, can it be said +that there is a dependance on action in consequence of (Brahman or +Release) being something which is to be obtained[78]; for as Brahman +constitutes a person's Self it is not something to be attained by that +person. And even if Brahman were altogether different from a person's +Self still it would not be something to be obtained; for as it is +omnipresent it is part of its nature that it is ever present to every +one, just as the (all-pervading) ether is. Nor, again, can it be +maintained that Release is something to be ceremonially purified, and as +such depends on an activity. For ceremonial purification (sa/m/skara) +results either from the accretion of some excellence or from the removal +of some blemish. The former alternative does not apply to Release as it +is of the nature of Brahman, to which no excellence can be added; nor, +again, does the latter alternative apply, since Release is of the nature +of Brahman, which is eternally pure.--But, it might be said, Release +might be a quality of the Self which is merely hidden and becomes +manifest on the Self being purified by some action; just as the quality +of clearness becomes manifest in a mirror when the mirror is cleaned by +means of the action of rubbing.--This objection is invalid, we reply, +because the Self cannot be the abode of any action. For an action cannot +exist without modifying that in which it abides. But if the Self were +modified by an action its non-eternality would result therefrom, and +texts such as the following, 'unchangeable he is called,' would thus be +stultified; an altogether unacceptable result. Hence it is impossible to +assume that any action should abide in the Self. On the other hand, the +Self cannot be purified by actions abiding in something else as it +stands in no relation to that extraneous something. Nor will it avail to +point out (as a quasi-analogous case) that the embodied Self (dehin, the +individual soul) is purified by certain ritual actions which abide in +the body, such as bathing, rinsing one's mouth, wearing the sacrificial +thread, and the like. For what is purified by those actions is that Self +merely which is joined to the body, i.e. the Self in so far as it is +under the power of Nescience. For it is a matter of perception that +bathing and similar actions stand in the relation of inherence to the +body, and it is therefore only proper to conclude that by such actions +only that something is purified which is joined to the body. If a person +thinks 'I am free from disease,' he predicates health of that entity +only which is connected with and mistakenly identifies itself with the +harmonious condition of matter (i.e. the body) resulting from +appropriate medical treatment applied to the body (i.e. the 'I' +constituting the subject of predication is only the individual embodied +Self). Analogously that I which predicates of itself, that it is +purified by bathing and the like, is only the individual soul joined to +the body. For it is only this latter principle of egoity +(aha/m/kart/ri/), the object of the notion of the ego and the agent in +all cognition, which accomplishes all actions and enjoys their results. +Thus the mantras also declare, 'One of them eats the sweet fruit, the +other looks on without eating' (Mu. Up. III, 1, 1); and 'When he is in +union with the body, the senses, and the mind, then wise people call him +the Enjoyer' (Ka. Up. III, 1, 4). Of Brahman, on the other hand, the two +following passages declare that it is incapable of receiving any +accretion and eternally pure, 'He is the one God, hidden in all beings, +all-pervading, the Self within all beings, watching over all works, +dwelling in all beings, the witness, the perceiver, the only one; free +from qualities' (/S/v. Up. VI, 11); and 'He pervaded all, bright, +incorporeal, scatheless, without muscles, pure, untouched by evil' +(I/s/. Up. 8). But Release is nothing but being Brahman. Therefore +Release is not something to be purified. And as nobody is able to show +any other way in which Release could be connected with action, it is +impossible that it should stand in any, even the slightest, relation to +any action, excepting knowledge. + +But, it will be said here, knowledge itself is an activity of the mind. +By no means, we reply; since the two are of different nature. An action +is that which is enjoined as being independent of the nature of existing +things and dependent on the energy of some person's mind; compare, for +instance, the following passages, 'To whichever divinity the offering is +made on that one let him meditate when about to say vasha/t/' (Ait. +Brahm. III, 8, 1); and 'Let him meditate in his mind on the sandhya.' +Meditation and reflection are indeed mental, but as they depend on the +(meditating, &c.) person they may either be performed or not be +performed or modified. Knowledge, on the other hand, is the result of +the different means of (right) knowledge, and those have for their +objects existing things; knowledge can therefore not be either made or +not made or modified, but depends entirely on existing things, and not +either on Vedic statements or on the mind of man. Although mental it +thus widely differs from meditation and the like. + +The meditation, for instance, on man and woman as fire, which is founded +on Ch. Up. V, 7, 1; 8, 1, 'The fire is man, O Gautama; the fire is +woman, O Gautama,' is on account of its being the result of a Vedic +statement, merely an action and dependent on man; that conception of +fire, on the other hand, which refers to the well-known (real) fire, is +neither dependent on Vedic statements nor on man, but only on a real +thing which is an object of perception; it is therefore knowledge and +not an action. The same remark applies to all things which are the +objects of the different means of right knowledge. This being thus that +knowledge also which has the existent Brahman for its object is not +dependent on Vedic injunction. Hence, although imperative and similar +forms referring to the knowledge of Brahman are found in the Vedic +texts, yet they are ineffective because they refer to something which +cannot be enjoined, just as the edge of a razor becomes blunt when it is +applied to a stone. For they have for their object something which can +neither be endeavoured after nor avoided.--But what then, it will be +asked, is the purport of those sentences which, at any rate, have the +appearance of injunctions; such as, 'The Self is to be seen, to be heard +about?'--They have the purport, we reply, of diverting (men) from the +objects of natural activity. For when a man acts intent on external +things, and only anxious to attain the objects of his desire and to +eschew the objects of his aversion, and does not thereby reach the +highest aim of man although desirous of attaining it; such texts as the +one quoted divert him from the objects of natural activity and turn the +stream of his thoughts on the inward (the highest) Self. That for him +who is engaged in the enquiry into the Self, the true nature of the Self +is nothing either to be endeavoured after or to be avoided, we learn +from texts such as the following: 'This everything, all is that Self' +(B/ri/, Up. II, 4, 6); 'But when the Self only is all this, how should +he see another, how should he know another, how should he know the +knower?' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 15); 'This Self is Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. II, +5, 19). That the knowledge of Brahman refers to something which is not a +thing to be done, and therefore is not concerned either with the pursuit +or the avoidance of any object, is the very thing we admit; for just +that constitutes our glory, that as soon as we comprehend Brahman, all +our duties come to an end and all our work is over. Thus /S/ruti says, +'If a man understands the Self, saying, "I am he," what could he wish or +desire that he should pine after the body?' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 12.) And +similarly Sm/ri/ti declares, 'Having understood this the understanding +man has done with all work, O Bharata' (Bha. Gita XV, 20). Therefore +Brahman is not represented as the object of injunctions. + +We now proceed to consider the doctrine of those who maintain that there +is no part of the Veda which has the purport of making statements about +mere existent things, and is not either an injunction or a prohibition, +or supplementary to either. This opinion is erroneous, because the soul +(purusha), which is the subject of the Upanishads, does not constitute a +complement to anything else. Of that soul which is to be comprehended +from the Upanishads only, which is non-transmigratory, Brahman, +different in nature from the four classes of substances[79], which forms +a topic of its own and is not a complement to anything else; of that +soul it is impossible to say that it is not or is not apprehended; for +the passage, 'That Self is to be described by No, no!' (B/ri/. Up. III, +9, 26) designates it as the Self, and that the Self is cannot be denied. +The possible objection that there is no reason to maintain that the soul +is known from the Upanishads only, since it is the object of +self-consciousness, is refuted by the fact that the soul of which the +Upanishads treat is merely the witness of that (i.e. of the object of +self-consciousness, viz. the jivatman). For neither from that part of +the Veda which enjoins works nor from reasoning, anybody apprehends that +soul which, different from the agent that is the object of +self-consciousness, merely witnesses it; which is permanent in all +(transitory) beings; uniform; one; eternally unchanging; the Self of +everything. Hence it can neither be denied nor be represented as the +mere complement of injunctions; for of that very person who might deny +it it is the Self. And as it is the Self of all, it can neither be +striven after nor avoided. All perishable things indeed perish, because +they are mere modifications, up to (i.e. exclusive of) the soul. But the +soul is imperishable[80], as there is no cause why it should perish; and +eternally unchanging, as there is no cause for its undergoing any +modification; hence it is in its essence eternally pure and free. And +from passages, such as 'Beyond the soul there is nothing; this is the +goal, the highest road' (Ka. Up. I, 3, 11), and 'That soul, taught in +the Upanishads, I ask thee' (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 26), it appears that the +attribute of resting on the Upanishads is properly given to the soul, as +it constitutes their chief topic. To say, therefore, that there is no +portion of the Veda referring to existing things, is a mere bold +assertion. + +With regard to the quotations made of the views of men acquainted with +the purport of the /S/astra (who alone were stated to have declared that +the Veda treats of actions) it is to be understood that they, having to +do with the enquiry into duty, refer to that part of the /S/astra which +consists of injunctions and prohibitions. With regard to the other +passage quoted ('as action is the purport of the Veda, whatever does not +refer to action is purportless') we remark that if that passage were +taken in an absolutely strict sense (when it would mean that only those +words which denote action have a meaning), it would follow that all +information about existent things is meaningless[81]. If, on the other +hand, the Veda--in addition to the injunctions of activity and cessation +of activity--does give information about existent things as being +subservient to some action to be accomplished, why then should it not +give information also about the existent eternally unchangeable Self? +For an existent thing, about which information is given, does not become +an act (through being stated to be subservient to an act).--But, it will +be said, although existent things are not acts, yet, as they are +instrumental to action, the information given about such things is +merely subservient to action.--This, we reply, does not matter; for +although the information may be subservient to action, the things +themselves about which information is given are already intimated +thereby as things which have the power of bringing about certain +actions. Their final end (prayojana) indeed may be subserviency to some +action, but thereby they do not cease to be, in the information given +about them, intimated in themselves.--Well, and if they are thus +intimated, what is gained thereby for your purpose[82]? We reply that +the information about the Self, which is an existing thing not +comprehended from other sources, is of the same nature (as the +information about other existent things); for by the comprehension of +the Self a stop is put to all false knowledge, which is the cause of +transmigration, and thus a purpose is established which renders the +passages relative to Brahman equal to those passages which give +information about things instrumental to actions. Moreover, there are +found (even in that part of the Veda which treats of actions) such +passages as 'a Brahma/n/a is not to be killed,' which teach abstinence +from certain actions. Now abstinence from action is neither action nor +instrumental to action. If, therefore, the tenet that all those passages +which do not express action are devoid of purport were insisted on, it +would follow that all such passages as the one quoted, which teach +abstinence from action, are devoid of purport--a consequence which is of +course unacceptable. Nor, again, can the connexion in which the word +'not' stands with the action expressed by the verb 'is to be +killed'--which action is naturally established[83]--be used as a reason +for assuming that 'not' denotes an action non-established elsewhere[84], +different from the state of mere passivity implied in the abstinence +from the act of killing. For the peculiar function of the particle 'not' +is to intimate the idea of the non-existence of that with which it is +connected, and the conception of the non-existence (of something to be +done) is the cause of the state of passivity. (Nor can it be objected +that, as soon as that momentary idea has passed away, the state of +passivity will again make room for activity; for) that idea itself +passes away (only after having completely destroyed the natural impulse +prompting to the murder of a Brahma/n/a, &c., just as a fire is +extinguished only after having completely consumed its fuel). Hence we +are of opinion that the aim of prohibitory passages, such as 'a +Brahma/n/a is not to be killed,' is a merely passive state, consisting +in the abstinence from some possible action; excepting some special +cases, such as the so-called Prajapati-vow, &c.[85] Hence the charge of +want of purpose is to be considered as referring (not to the +Vedanta-passages, but only) to such statements about existent things as +are of the nature of legends and the like, and do not serve any purpose +of man. + +The allegation that a mere statement about an actually existent thing +not connected with an injunction of something to be done, is purposeless +(as, for instance, the statement that the earth contains seven dvipas) +has already been refuted on the ground that a purpose is seen to exist +in some such statements, as, for instance, 'this is not a snake, but a +rope.'--But how about the objection raised above that the information +about Brahman cannot be held to have a purpose in the same way as the +statement about a rope has one, because a man even after having heard +about Brahman continues to belong to this transmigratory world?--We +reply as follows: It is impossible to show that a man who has once +understood Brahman to be the Self, belongs to the transmigratory world +in the same sense as he did before, because that would be contrary to +the fact of his being Brahman. For we indeed observe that a person who +imagines the body, and so on, to constitute the Self, is subject to fear +and pain, but we have no right to assume that the same person after +having, by means of the Veda, comprehended Brahman to be the Self, and +thus having got over his former imaginings, will still in the same +manner be subject to pain and fear whose cause is wrong knowledge. In +the same way we see that a rich householder, puffed up by the conceit of +his wealth, is grieved when his possessions are taken from him; but we +do not see that the loss of his wealth equally grieves him after he has +once retired from the world and put off the conceit of his riches. And, +again, we see that a person possessing a pair of beautiful earrings +derives pleasure from the proud conceit of ownership; but after he has +lost the earrings and the conceit established thereon, the pleasure +derived from them vanishes. Thus /S/ruti also declares, 'When he is free +from the body, then neither pleasure nor pain touches him' (Ch. Up. +VIII, 12, 1). If it should be objected that the condition of being free +from the body follows on death only, we demur, since the cause of man +being joined to the body is wrong knowledge. For it is not possible to +establish the state of embodiedness upon anything else but wrong +knowledge. And that the state of disembodiedness is eternal on account +of its not having actions for its cause, we have already explained. The +objection again, that embodiedness is caused by the merit and demerit +effected by the Self (and therefore real), we refute by remarking that +as the (reality of the) conjunction of the Self with the body is itself +not established, the circumstance of merit and demerit being due to the +action of the Self is likewise not established; for (if we should try to +get over this difficulty by representing the Self's embodiedness as +caused by merit and demerit) we should commit the logical fault of +making embodiedness dependent on merit and demerit, and again merit and +demerit on embodiedness. And the assumption of an endless retrogressive +chain (of embodied states and merit and demerit) would be no better than +a chain of blind men (who are unable to lead one another). Moreover, the +Self can impossibly become an agent, as it cannot enter into intimate +relation to actions. If it should be said that the Self may be +considered as an agent in the same way as kings and other great people +are (who without acting themselves make others act) by their mere +presence, we deny the appositeness of this instance; for kings may +become agents through their relation to servants whom they procure by +giving them wages, &c., while it is impossible to imagine anything, +analogous to money, which could be the cause of a connexion between the +Self as lord and the body, and so on (as servants). Wrong imagination, +on the other hand, (of the individual Self, considering itself to be +joined to the body,) is a manifest reason of the connexion of the two +(which is not based on any assumption). This explains also in how far +the Self can be considered as the agent in sacrifices and similar +acts[86]. Here it is objected that the Self's imagination as to the +body, and so on, belonging to itself is not false, but is to be +understood in a derived (figurative) sense. This objection we invalidate +by the remark that the distinction of derived and primary senses of +words is known to be applicable only where an actual difference of +things is known to exist. We are, for instance, acquainted with a +certain species of animals having a mane, and so on, which is the +exclusive primary object of the idea and word 'lion,' and we are +likewise acquainted with persons possessing in an eminent degree certain +leonine qualities, such as fierceness, courage, &c.; here, a well +settled difference of objects existing, the idea and the name 'lion' are +applied to those persons in a derived or figurative sense. In those +cases, however, where the difference of the objects is not well +established, the transfer of the conception and name of the one to the +other is not figurative, but simply founded on error. Such is, for +instance, the case of a man who at the time of twilight does not discern +that the object before him is a post, and applies to it the conception +and designation of a man; such is likewise the case of the conception +and designation of silver being applied to a shell of mother-of-pearl +somehow mistaken for silver. How then can it be maintained that the +application of the word and the conception of the Ego to the body, &c., +which application is due to the non-discrimination of the Self and the +Not-Self, is figurative (rather than simply false)? considering that +even learned men who know the difference of the Self and the Not-Self +confound the words and ideas just as common shepherds and goatherds do. + +As therefore the application of the conception of the Ego to the body on +the part of those who affirm the existence of a Self different from the +body is simply false, not figurative, it follows that the embodiedness +of the Self is (not real but) caused by wrong conception, and hence that +the person who has reached true knowledge is free from his body even +while still alive. The same is declared in the /S/ruti passages +concerning him who knows Brahman: 'And as the slough of a snake lies on +an ant-hill, dead and cast away, thus lies this body; but that +disembodied immortal spirit is Brahman only, is only light' (B/ri/. Up. +IV, 4, 7); and 'With eyes he is without eyes as it were, with ears +without ears as it were, with speech without speech as it were, with a +mind without mind as it were, with vital airs without vital airs as it +were.' Sm/ri/ti also, in the passage where the characteristic marks are +enumerated of one whose mind is steady (Bha. Gita II, 54), declares that +he who knows is no longer connected with action of any kind. Therefore +the man who has once comprehended Brahman to be the Self, does not +belong to this transmigratory world as he did before. He, on the other +hand, who still belongs to this transmigratory world as before, has not +comprehended Brahman to be the Self. Thus there remain no unsolved +contradictions. + +With reference again to the assertion that Brahman is not fully +determined in its own nature, but stands in a complementary relation to +injunctions, because the hearing about Brahman is to be followed by +consideration and reflection, we remark that consideration and +reflection are themselves merely subservient to the comprehension of +Brahman. If Brahman, after having been comprehended, stood in a +subordinate relation to some injunctions, it might be said to be merely +supplementary. But this is not the case, since consideration and +reflection no less than hearing are subservient to comprehension. It +follows that the /S/astra cannot be the means of knowing Brahman only in +so far as it is connected with injunctions, and the doctrine that on +account of the uniform meaning of the Vedanta-texts, an independent +Brahman is to be admitted, is thereby fully established. Hence there is +room for beginning the new /S/astra indicated in the first Sutra, 'Then +therefore the enquiry into Brahman.' If, on the other hand, the +Vedanta-texts were connected with injunctions, a new /S/astra would +either not be begun at all, since the /S/astra concerned with +injunctions has already been introduced by means of the first Sutra of +the Purva Mima/m/sa, 'Then therefore the enquiry into duty;' or if it +were begun it would be introduced as follows: 'Then therefore the +enquiry into the remaining duties;' just as a new portion of the Purva +Mima/m/sa Sutras is introduced with the words, 'Then therefore the +enquiry into what subserves the purpose of the sacrifice, and what +subserves the purpose of man' (Pu. Mi. Su. IV, 1, 1). But as the +comprehension of the unity of Brahman and the Self has not been +propounded (in the previous /S/astra), it is quite appropriate that a +new /S/astra, whose subject is Brahman, should be entered upon. Hence +all injunctions and all other means of knowledge end with the cognition +expressed in the words, 'I am Brahman;' for as soon as there supervenes +the comprehension of the non-dual Self, which is not either something to +be eschewed or something to be appropriated, all objects and knowing +agents vanish, and hence there can no longer be means of proof. In +accordance with this, they (i.e. men knowing Brahman) have made the +following declaration:--'When there has arisen (in a man's mind) the +knowledge, "I am that which is, Brahman is my Self," and when, owing to +the sublation of the conceptions of body, relatives, and the like, the +(imagination of) the figurative and the false Self has come to an +end[87]; how should then the effect[88] (of that wrong imagination) +exist any longer? As long as the knowledge of the Self, which Scripture +tells us to search after, has not arisen, so long the Self is knowing +subject; but that same subject is that which is searched after, viz. +(the highest Self) free from all evil and blemish. Just as the idea of +the Self being the body is assumed as valid (in ordinary life), so all +the ordinary sources of knowledge (perception and the like) are valid +only until the one Self is ascertained.' + +(Herewith the section comprising the four Sutras is finished[89].) + +So far it has been declared that the Vedanta-passages, whose purport is +the comprehension of Brahman being the Self, and which have their object +therein, refer exclusively to Brahman without any reference to actions. +And it has further been shown that Brahman is the omniscient omnipotent +cause of the origin, subsistence, and dissolution of the world. But now +the Sa@nkhyas and others being of opinion that an existent substance is +to be known through other means of proof (not through the Veda) infer +different causes, such as the pradhana and the like, and thereupon +interpret the Vedanta-passages as referring to the latter. All the +Vedanta-passages, they maintain, which treat of the creation of the +world distinctly point out that the cause (of the world) has to be +concluded from the effect by inference; and the cause which is to be +inferred is the connexion of the pradhana with the souls (purusha). The +followers of Ka/n/ada again infer from the very same passages that the +Lord is the efficient cause of the world while the atoms are its +material cause. And thus other argumentators also taking their stand on +passages apparently favouring their views and on fallacious arguments +raise various objections. For this reason the teacher +(Vyasa)--thoroughly acquainted as he is with words, passages, and means +of proof--proceeds to state as prima facie views, and afterwards to +refute, all those opinions founded on deceptive passages and fallacious +arguments. Thereby he at the same time proves indirectly that what the +Vedanta-texts aim at is the comprehension of Brahman. + +The Sa@nkhyas who opine that the non-intelligent pradhana consisting of +three constituent elements (gu/n/a) is the cause of the world argue as +follows. The Vedanta-passages which you have declared to intimate that +the all-knowing all-powerful Brahman is the cause of the world can be +consistently interpreted also on the doctrine of the pradhana being the +general cause. Omnipotence (more literally: the possession of all +powers) can be ascribed to the pradhana in so far as it has all its +effects for its objects. All-knowingness also can be ascribed to it, +viz. in the following manner. What you think to be knowledge is in +reality an attribute of the gu/n/a of Goodness[90], according to the +Sm/ri/ti passage 'from Goodness springs knowledge' (Bha. Gita XIV, 17). +By means of this attribute of Goodness, viz. knowledge, certain men +endowed with organs which are effects (of the pradhana) are known as +all-knowing Yogins; for omniscience is acknowledged to be connected with +the very highest degree of 'Goodness.' Now to the soul (purusha) which +is isolated, destitute of effected organs, consisting of pure +(undifferenced) intelligence it is quite impossible to ascribe either +all-knowingness or limited knowledge; the pradhana, on the other hand, +because consisting of the three gu/n/as, comprises also in its pradhana +state the element of Goodness which is the cause of all-knowingness. The +Vedanta-passages therefore in a derived (figurative) sense ascribe +all-knowingness to the pradhana, although it is in itself +non-intelligent. Moreover you (the Vedantin) also who assume an +all-knowing Brahman can ascribe to it all-knowingness in so far only as +that term means capacity for all knowledge. For Brahman cannot always be +actually engaged in the cognition of everything; for from this there +would follow the absolute permanency of his cognition, and this would +involve a want of independence on Brahman's part with regard to the +activity of knowing. And if you should propose to consider Brahman's +cognition as non-permanent it would follow that with the cessation of +the cognition Brahman itself would cease. Therefore all-knowingness is +possible only in the sense of capacity for all knowledge. Moreover you +assume that previously to the origination of the world Brahman is +without any instruments of action. But without the body, the senses, &c. +which are the instruments of knowledge, cognition cannot take place in +any being. And further it must be noted that the pradhana, as consisting +of various elements, is capable of undergoing modifications, and may +therefore act as a (material) cause like clay and other substances; +while the uncompounded homogeneous Brahman is unable to do so. + +To these conclusions he (Vyasa) replies in the following Sutra. + +5. On account of seeing (i.e. thinking being attributed in the +Upanishads to the cause of the world; the pradhana) is not (to be +identified with the cause indicated by the Upanishads; for) it is not +founded on Scripture. + +It is impossible to find room in the Vedanta-texts for the +non-intelligent pradhana, the fiction of the Sa@nkhyas; because it is +not founded on Scripture. How so? Because the quality of seeing, i.e. +thinking, is in Scripture ascribed to the cause. For the passage, Ch. +Up. VI, 2, (which begins: 'Being only, my dear, this was in the +beginning, one only, without a second,' and goes on, 'It thought (saw), +may I be many, may I grow forth. It sent forth fire,') declares that +this world differentiated by name and form, which is there denoted by +the word 'this,' was before its origination identical with the Self of +that which is and that the principle denoted by the term 'the being' (or +'that which is') sent forth fire and the other elements after having +thought. The following passage also ('Verily in the beginning all this +was Self, one only; there was nothing else blinking whatsoever. He +thought, shall I send forth worlds? He sent forth these worlds,' Ait. +Ar. II, 4, 1, 2) declares the creation to have had thought for its +antecedent. In another passage also (Pr. Up. VI, 3) it is said of the +person of sixteen parts, 'He thought, &c. He sent forth Pra/n/a.' By +'seeing' (i.e. the verb 'seeing' exhibited in the Sutra) is not meant +that particular verb only, but any verbs which have a cognate sense; +just as the verb 'to sacrifice' is used to denote any kind of offering. +Therefore other passages also whose purport it is to intimate that an +all-knowing Lord is the cause of the world are to be quoted here, as, +for instance, Mu. Up. I, 1, 9, 'From him who perceives all and who knows +all, whose brooding consists of knowledge, from him is born that +Brahman, name and form and food.' + +The argumentation of the Sa@nkhyas that the pradhana may be called +all-knowing on account of knowledge constituting an attribute of the +gu/n/a Goodness is inadmissible. For as in the pradhana-condition the +three gu/n/as are in a state of equipoise, knowledge which is a quality +of Goodness only is not possible[91]. Nor can we admit the explanation +that the pradhana is all-knowing because endowed with the capacity for +all knowledge. For if, in the condition of equipoise of the gu/n/as, we +term the pradhana all-knowing with reference to the power of knowledge +residing in Goodness, we must likewise term it little-knowing, with +reference to the power impeding knowledge which resides in Passion and +Darkness. + +Moreover a modification of Goodness which is not connected with a +witnessing (observing) principle (sakshin) is not called knowledge, and +the non-intelligent pradhana is destitute of such a principle. It is +therefore impossible to ascribe to the pradhana all-knowingness. The +case of the Yogins finally does not apply to the point under +consideration; for as they possess intelligence, they may, owing to an +excess of Goodness in their nature, rise to omniscience[92].--Well then +(say those Sa@nkhyas who believe in the existence of a Lord) let us +assume that the pradhana possesses the quality of knowledge owing to the +witnessing principle (the Lord), just as the quality of burning is +imparted to an iron ball by fire.--No, we reply; for if this were so, it +would be more reasonable to assume that that which is the cause of the +pradhana having the quality of thought i.e. the all-knowing primary +Brahman itself is the cause of the world. + +The objection that to Brahman also all-knowingness in its primary sense +cannot be ascribed because, if the activity of cognition were permanent, +Brahman could not be considered as independent with regard to it, we +refute as follows. In what way, we ask the Sa@nkhya, is Brahman's +all-knowingness interfered with by a permanent cognitional activity? To +maintain that he, who possesses eternal knowledge capable to throw light +on all objects, is not all-knowing, is contradictory. If his knowledge +were considered non-permanent, he would know sometimes, and sometimes he +would not know; from which it would follow indeed that he is not +all-knowing. This fault is however avoided if we admit Brahman's +knowledge to be permanent.--But, it may be objected, on this latter +alternative the knower cannot be designated as independent with +reference to the act of knowing.--Why not? we reply; the sun also, +although his heat and light are permanent, is nevertheless designated as +independent when we say, 'he burns, he gives light[93].'--But, it will +again be objected, we say that the sun burns or gives light when he +stands in relation to some object to be heated or illuminated; Brahman, +on the other hand, stands, before the creation of the world, in no +relation to any object of knowledge. The cases are therefore not +parallel.--This objection too, we reply, is not valid; for as a matter +of fact we speak of the Sun as an agent, saying 'the sun shines' even +without reference to any object illuminated by him, and hence Brahman +also may be spoken of as an agent, in such passages as 'it thought,' +&c., even without reference to any object of knowledge. If, however, an +object is supposed to be required ('knowing' being a transitive verb +while 'shining' is intransitive), the texts ascribing thought to Brahman +will fit all the better.--What then is that object to which the +knowledge of the Lord can refer previously to the origin of the +world?--Name and form, we reply, which can be defined neither as being +identical with Brahman nor as different from it, unevolved but about to +be evolved. For if, as the adherents of the Yoga-/s/astra assume, the +Yogins have a perceptive knowledge of the past and the future through +the favour of the Lord; in what terms shall we have to speak of the +eternal cognition of the ever pure Lord himself, whose objects are the +creation, subsistence, and dissolution of the world! The objection that +Brahman, previously to the origin of the world, is not able to think +because it is not connected with a body, &c. does not apply; for +Brahman, whose nature is eternal cognition--as the sun's nature is +eternal luminousness--can impossibly stand in need of any instruments of +knowledge. The transmigrating soul (sa/m/sarin) indeed, which is under +the sway of Nescience, &c., may require a body in order that knowledge +may arise in it; but not so the Lord, who is free from all impediments +of knowledge. The two following Mantras also declare that the Lord does +not require a body, and that his knowledge is without any obstructions. +'There is no effect and no instrument known of him, no one is seen like +unto him or better; his high power is revealed as manifold, as inherent, +acting as knowledge and force.' 'Grasping without hands, hasting without +feet, he sees without eyes, he hears without ears. He knows what can be +known, but no one knows him; they call him the first, the great person' +(/S/v. Up. VI, 8; III, 19). + +But, to raise a new objection, there exists no transmigrating soul +different from the Lord and obstructed by impediments of knowledge; for +/S/ruti expressly declares that 'there is no other seer but he; there is +no other knower but he' (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23). How then can it be said +that the origination of knowledge in the transmigrating soul depends on +a body, while it does not do so in the case of the Lord?--True, we +reply. There is in reality no transmigrating soul different from the +Lord. Still the connexion (of the Lord) with limiting adjuncts, +consisting of bodies and so on, is assumed, just as we assume the ether +to enter into connexion with divers limiting adjuncts such as jars, +pots, caves, and the like. And just as in consequence of connexion of +the latter kind such conceptions and terms as 'the hollow (space) of a +jar,' &c. are generally current, although the space inside a jar is not +really different from universal space, and just as in consequence +thereof there generally prevails the false notion that there are +different spaces such as the space of a jar and so on; so there prevails +likewise the false notion that the Lord and the transmigrating soul are +different; a notion due to the non-discrimination of the (unreal) +connexion of the soul with the limiting conditions, consisting of the +body and so on. That the Self, although in reality the only existence, +imparts the quality of Selfhood to bodies and the like which are +Not-Self is a matter of observation, and is due to mere wrong +conception, which depends in its turn on antecedent wrong conception. +And the consequence of the soul thus involving itself in the +transmigratory state is that its thought depends on a body and the like. + +The averment that the pradhana, because consisting of several elements, +can, like clay and similar substances, occupy the place of a cause while +the uncompounded Brahman cannot do so, is refuted by the fact of the +pradhana not basing on Scripture. That, moreover, it is possible to +establish by argumentation the causality of Brahman, but not of the +pradhana and similar principles, the Sutrakara will set forth in the +second Adhyaya (II, 1, 4, &c.). + +Here the Sa@nkhya comes forward with a new objection. The difficulty +stated by you, he says, viz. that the non-intelligent pradhana cannot be +the cause of the world, because thought is ascribed to the latter in the +sacred texts, can be got over in another way also, viz. on the ground +that non-intelligent things are sometimes figuratively spoken of as +intelligent beings. We observe, for instance, that people say of a +river-bank about to fall, 'the bank is inclined to fall (pipatishati),' +and thus speak of a non-intelligent bank as if it possessed +intelligence. So the pradhana also, although non-intelligent, may, when +about to create, be figuratively spoken of as thinking. Just as in +ordinary life some intelligent person after having bathed, and dined, +and formed the purpose of driving in the afternoon to his village, +necessarily acts according to his purpose, so the pradhana also acts by +the necessity of its own nature, when transforming itself into the +so-called great principle and the subsequent forms of evolution; it may +therefore figuratively be spoken of as intelligent.--But what reason +have you for setting aside the primary meaning of the word 'thought' and +for taking it in a figurative sense?--The observation, the Sa@nkhya +replies, that fire and water also are figuratively spoken of as +intelligent beings in the two following scriptural passages, 'That fire +thought; that water thought' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 3; 4). We therefrom +conclude that thought is to be taken in a figurative sense there also +where Being (Sat) is the agent, because it is mentioned in a chapter +where (thought) is generally taken in a figurative sense[94]. + +To this argumentation of the Sadkhya the next Sutra replies: + +6. If it is said that (the word 'seeing') has a figurative meaning, we +deny that, on account of the word Self (being applied to the cause of +the world). + +Your assertion that the term 'Being' denotes the non-intelligent +pradhana, and that thought is ascribed to it in a figurative sense only, +as it is to fire and water, is untenable. Why so? On account of the term +'Self.' For the passage Ch. Up. VI, 2, which begins 'Being only, my +dear, this was in the beginning,' after having related the creation of +fire, water, and earth ('it thought,' &c.; 'it sent forth fire,' &c.), +goes on--denoting the thinking principle of which the whole chapter +treats, and likewise fire, water, and earth, by the +term--'divinities'--as follows, 'That divinity thought: Let me now enter +those three divinities with this living Self (jiva. atman) and evolve +names and forms.' If we assumed that in this passage the non-intelligent +pradhana is figuratively spoken of as thinking, we should also have to +assume that the same pradhana--as once constituting the subject-matter +of the chapter--is referred to by the term 'that divinity.' But in that +case the divinity would not speak of the jiva as 'Self.' For by the term +'Jiva' we must understand, according to the received meaning and the +etymology of the word, the intelligent (principle) which rules over the +body and sustains the vital airs. How could such a principle be the Self +of the non-intelligent pradhana? By 'Self' we understand (a being's) own +nature, and it is clear that the intelligent Jiva cannot constitute the +nature of the non-intelligent pradhana. If, on the other hand, we refer +the whole chapter to the intelligent Brahman, to which thought in its +primary sense belongs, the use of the word 'Self' with reference to the +Jiva is quite adequate. Then again there is the other passage, 'That +which is that subtle essence, in it all that exists has its self. It is +the true. It is the Self. That art thou, O /S/vetaketu' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, +7, &c.). Here the clause 'It is the Self' designates the Being of which +the entire chapter treats, viz. the subtle Self, by the word 'Self,' and +the concluding clause, 'that art thou, O /S/vetaketu,' declares the +intelligent /S/vetaketu to be of the nature of the Self. Fire and water, +on the other hand, are non-intelligent, since they are objects (of the +mind), and since they are declared to be implicated in the evolution of +names and forms. And as at the same time there is no reason for +ascribing to them thought in its primary sense--while the employment of +the word 'Self' furnishes such a reason with reference to the Sat--the +thought attributed to them must be explained in a figurative sense, like +the inclination of the river-bank. Moreover, the thinking on the part of +fire and water is to be understood as dependent on their being ruled +over by the Sat. On the other hand, the thought of the Sat is, on +account of the word 'Self,' not to be understood in a figurative +sense.[95] + +Here the Sa@nkhya comes forward with a new objection. The word 'Self,' +he says, may be applied to the pradhana, although unintelligent, because +it is sometimes figuratively used in the sense of 'that which effects +all purposes of another;' as, for instance, a king applies the word +'Self' to some servant who carries out all the king's intentions, +'Bhadrasena is my (other) Self.' For the pradhana, which effects the +enjoyment and the emancipation of the soul, serves the latter in the +same way as a minister serves his king in the affairs of peace and war. +Or else, it may be said, the one word 'Self' may refer to +non-intelligent things as well as to intelligent beings, as we see that +such expressions as 'the Self of the elements,' 'the Self of the +senses,' are made use of, and as the one word 'light' (jyotis) denotes a +certain sacrifice (the jyotish/t/oma) as well as a flame. How then does +it follow from the word 'Self' that the thinking (ascribed to the cause +of the world) is not to be taken in a figurative sense? + +To this last argumentation the Sutrakara replies: + +7. (The pradhana cannot be designated by the term 'Self') because +release is taught of him who takes his stand on that (the Sat). + +The non-intelligent pradhana cannot be the object of the term 'Self' +because in the passage Ch. Up. VI, 2 ff., where the subtle Sat which is +under discussion is at first referred to in the sentence, 'That is the +Self,' and where the subsequent clause, 'That art thou, O /S/vetaketu,' +declares the intelligent /S/vetaketu to have his abode in the Self, a +passage subsequent to the two quoted (viz. 'a man who has a teacher +obtains true knowledge; for him there is only delay as long as he is not +delivered, then he will be perfect') declares final release. For if the +non-intelligent pradhana were denoted by the term 'Sat' and did +comprehend--by means of the phrase 'That art thou'--persons desirous of +final release who as such are intelligent, the meaning could only be +'Thou art non-intelligent;' so that Scripture would virtually make +contradictory statements to the disadvantage of man, and would thus +cease to be a means of right knowledge. But to assume that the faultless +/s/astra is not a means of right knowledge, would be contrary to reason. +And if the /s/astra, considered as a means of right knowledge, should +point out to a man desirous of release, but ignorant of the way to it, a +non-intelligent Self as the real Self, he would--comparable to the blind +man who had caught hold of the ox's tail[96]--cling to the view of that +being the Self, and thus never be able to reach the real Self different +from the false Self pointed out to him; hence he would be debarred from +what constitutes man's good, and would incur evil. We must therefore +conclude that, just as the /s/astra teaches the agnihotra and similar +performances in their true nature as means for those who are desirous of +the heavenly world, so the passage 'that is the Self, that art thou, O +/S/vetaketu,' teaches the Self in its true nature also. Only on that +condition release for him whose thoughts are true can be taught by means +of the simile in which the person to be released is compared to the man +grasping the heated axe (Ch. Up. VI, 16). For in the other case, if the +doctrine of the Sat constituting the Self had a secondary meaning only, +the cognition founded on the passage 'that art thou' would be of the +nature of a fanciful combination only[97], like the knowledge derived +from the passage, 'I am the hymn' (Ait. Ar. II, 1, 2, 6), and would lead +to a mere transitory reward; so that the simile quoted could not convey +the doctrine of release. Therefore the word 'Self' is applied to the +subtle Sat not in a merely figurative sense. In the case of the faithful +servant, on the other hand, the word 'Self' can--in such phrases as +'Bhadrasena is my Self'--be taken in a figurative sense, because the +difference between master and servant is well established by perception. +Moreover, to assume that, because words are sometimes seen to be used in +figurative senses, a figurative sense may be resorted to in the case of +those things also for which words (i.e. Vedic words) are the only means +of knowledge, is altogether indefensible; for an assumption of that +nature would lead to a general want of confidence. The assertion that +the word 'Self' may (primarily) signify what is non-intelligent as well +as what is intelligent, just as the word 'jyotis' signifies a certain +sacrifice as well as light, is inadmissible, because we have no right to +attribute to words a plurality of meanings. Hence (we rather assume +that) the word 'Self' in its primary meaning refers to what is +intelligent only and is then, by a figurative attribution of +intelligence, applied to the elements and the like also; whence such +phrases as 'the Self of the elements,' 'the Self of the senses.' And +even if we assume that the word 'Self' primarily signifies both classes +of beings, we are unable to settle in any special case which of the two +meanings the word has, unless we are aided either by the general heading +under which it stands, or some determinative attributive word. But in +the passage under discussion there is nothing to determine that the word +refers to something non-intelligent, while, on the other hand, the Sat +distinguished by thought forms the general heading, and /S/vetaketu, +i.e. a being endowed with intelligence, is mentioned in close proximity. +That a non-intelligent Self does not agree with /S/vetaketu, who +possesses intelligence, we have already shown. All these circumstances +determine the object of the word 'Self' here to be something +intelligent. The word 'jyotis' does moreover not furnish an appropriate +example; for according to common use it has the settled meaning of +'light' only, and is used in the sense of sacrifice only on account of +the arthavada assuming a similarity (of the sacrifice) to light. + +A different explanation of the Sutra is also possible. The preceding +Sutra may be taken completely to refute all doubts as to the word 'Self' +having a figurative or double sense, and then the present Sutra is to be +explained as containing an independent reason, proving that the doctrine +of the pradhana being the general cause is untenable. + +Hence the non-intelligent pradhana is not denoted by the word 'Self.' +This the teacher now proceeds to prove by an additional reason. + +8. And (the pradhana cannot be denoted by the word 'Self') because there +is no statement of its having to be set aside. + +If the pradhana which is the Not-Self were denoted by the term 'Being' +(Sat), and if the passage 'That is the Self, that art thou, O +/S/vetaketu,' referred to the pradhana; the teacher whose wish it is to +impart instruction about the true Brahman would subsequently declare +that the pradhana is to be set aside (and the true Brahman to be +considered); for otherwise his pupil, having received the instruction +about the pradhana, might take his stand on the latter, looking upon it +as the Non-Self. In ordinary life a man who wishes to point out to a +friend the (small) star Arundhati at first directs his attention to a +big neighbouring star, saying 'that is Arundhati,' although it is really +not so; and thereupon he withdraws his first statement and points out +the real Arundhati. Analogously the teacher (if he intended to make his +pupil understand the Self through the Non-Self) would in the end +definitely state that the Self is not of the nature of the pradhana. But +no such statement is made; for the sixth Prapa/th/aka arrives at a +conclusion based on the view that the Self is nothing but that which is +(the Sat). + +The word 'and' (in the Sutra) is meant to notify that the contradiction +of a previous statement (which would be implied in the rejected +interpretation) is an additional reason for the rejection. Such a +contradiction would result even if it were stated that the pradhana is +to be set aside. For in the beginning of the Prapa/th/aka it is +intimated that through the knowledge of the cause everything becomes +known. Compare the following consecutive sentences, 'Have you ever asked +for that instruction by which we hear what cannot be heard, by which we +perceive what cannot be perceived, by which we know what cannot be +known? What is that instruction? As, my dear, by one clod of clay all +that is made of clay is known, the modification (i.e. the effect) being +a name merely which has its origin in speech, while the truth is that it +is clay merely,' &c. Now if the term 'Sat' denoted the pradhana, which +is merely the cause of the aggregate of the objects of enjoyment, its +knowledge, whether to be set aside or not to be set aside, could never +lead to the knowledge of the aggregate of enjoyers (souls), because the +latter is not an effect of the pradhana. Therefore the pradhana is not +denoted by the term 'Sat.'--For this the Sutrakara gives a further +reason. + +9. On account of (the individual Soul) going to the Self (the Self +cannot be the pradhana). + +With reference to the cause denoted by the word 'Sat,' Scripture says, +'When a man sleeps here, then, my dear, he becomes united with the Sat, +he is gone to his own (Self). Therefore they say of him, "he sleeps" +(svapiti), because he is gone to his own (svam apita).' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, +1.) This passage explains the well-known verb 'to sleep,' with reference +to the soul. The word, 'his own,' denotes the Self which had before been +denoted by the word Sat; to the Self he (the individual soul) goes, i.e. +into it it is resolved, according to the acknowledged sense of api-i, +which means 'to be resolved into.' The individual soul (jiva) is called +awake as long as being connected with the various external objects by +means of the modifications of the mind--which thus constitute limiting +adjuncts of the soul--it apprehends those external objects, and +identifies itself with the gross body, which is one of those external +objects[98]. When, modified by the impressions which the external +objects have left, it sees dreams, it is denoted by the term 'mind[99].' +When, on the cessation of the two limiting adjuncts (i.e. the subtle and +the gross bodies), and the consequent absence of the modifications due +to the adjuncts, it is, in the state of deep sleep, merged in the Self +as it were, then it is said to be asleep (resolved into the Self). A +similar etymology of the word 'h/ri/daya' is given by /s/ruti, 'That +Self abides in the heart. And this is the etymological explanation: he +is in the heart (h/ri/di ayam).' (Ch. Up. VIII, 3, 3.) The words +a/s/anaya and udanya are similarly etymologised: 'water is carrying away +what has been eaten by him;' 'fire carries away what has been drunk by +him' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 3; 5). Thus the passage quoted above explains the +resolution (of the soul) into the Self, denoted by the term 'Sat,' by +means of the etymology of the word 'sleep.' But the intelligent Self can +clearly not resolve itself into the non-intelligent pradhana. If, again, +it were said that the pradhana is denoted by the word 'own,' because +belonging to the Self (as being the Self's own), there would remain the +same absurd statement as to an intelligent entity being resolved into a +non-intelligent one. Moreover another scriptural passage (viz. 'embraced +by the intelligent--praj/n/a--Self he knows nothing that is without, +nothing that is within,' B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 21) declares that the soul in +the condition of dreamless sleep is resolved into an intelligent entity. +Hence that into which all intelligent souls are resolved is an +intelligent cause of the world, denoted by the word 'Sat,' and not the +pradhana.--A further reason for the pradhana not being the cause is +subjoined. + +10. On account of the uniformity of view (of the Vedanta-texts, Brahman +is to be considered the cause). + +If, as in the argumentations of the logicians, so in the Vedanta-texts +also, there were set forth different views concerning the nature of the +cause, some of them favouring the theory of an intelligent Brahman being +the cause of the world, others inclining towards the pradhana doctrine, +and others again tending in a different direction; then it might perhaps +be possible to interpret such passages as those, which speak of the +cause of the world as thinking, in such a manner as to make them fall in +with the pradhana theory. But the stated condition is absent since all +the Vedanta-texts uniformly teach that the cause of the world is the +intelligent Brahman. Compare, for instance, 'As from a burning fire +sparks proceed in all directions, thus from that Self the pra/n/as +proceed each towards its place; from the pra/n/as the gods, from the +gods the worlds' (Kau. Up. III, 3). And 'from that Self sprang ether' +(Taitt. Up. II, 1). And 'all this springs from the Self' (Ch. Up. VII, +26, 1). And 'this pra/n/a is born from the Self' (Pr. Up. III, 3); all +which passages declare the Self to be the cause. That the word 'Self' +denotes an intelligent being, we have already shown. + +And that all the Vedanta-texts advocate the same view as to an +intelligent cause of the world, greatly strengthens their claim to be +considered a means of right knowledge, just as the corresponding claims +of the senses are strengthened by their giving us information of a +uniform character regarding colour and the like. The all-knowing Brahman +is therefore to be considered the cause of the world, 'on account of the +uniformity of view (of the Vedanta-texts).'--A further reason for this +conclusion is advanced. + +11. And because it is directly stated in Scripture (therefore the +all-knowing Brahman is the cause of the world). + +That the all-knowing Lord is the cause of the world, is also declared in +a text directly referring to him (viz. the all-knowing one), viz. in the +following passage of the mantropanishad of the /S/veta/s/vataras (VI, 9) +where the word 'he' refers to the previously mentioned all-knowing Lord, +'He is the cause, the lord of the lords of the organs, and there is of +him neither parent nor lord.' It is therefore finally settled that the +all-knowing Brahman is the general cause, not the non-intelligent +pradhana or anything else. + +In what precedes we have shown, availing ourselves of appropriate +arguments, that the Vedanta-texts exhibited under Sutras I, 1-11, are +capable of proving that the all-knowing, all-powerful Lord is the cause +of the origin, subsistence, and dissolution of the world. And we have +explained, by pointing to the prevailing uniformity of view (I, 10), +that all Vedanta-texts whatever maintain an intelligent cause. The +question might therefore be asked, 'What reason is there for the +subsequent part of the Vedanta-sutras?' (as the chief point is settled +already.) + +To this question we reply as follows: Brahman is apprehended under two +forms; in the first place as qualified by limiting conditions owing to +the multiformity of the evolutions of name and form (i.e. the +multiformity of the created world); in the second place as being the +opposite of this, i.e. free from all limiting conditions whatever. +Compare the following passages: B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 15, 'For where there +is duality as it were, then one sees the other; but when the Self only +is all this, how should he see another?' Ch. Up. VII, 24, 1, 'Where one +sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else, that is +the greatest. Where one sees something else, hears something else, +understands something else, that is the little. The greatest is +immortal; the little is mortal;' Taitt. Up. III, 12, 7, 'The wise one, +who having produced all forms and made all names, sits calling (the +things by their names[100]);' /S/v. Up. VI, 19, 'Who is without parts, +without actions, tranquil, without faults, without taint, the highest +bridge of immortality, like a fire that has consumed its fuel;' B/ri/. +Up. II, 3, 6, 'Not so, not so;' B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 8, 'It is neither +coarse nor fine, neither short nor long;' and 'defective is one place, +perfect the other.' All these passages, with many others, declare +Brahman to possess a double nature, according as it is the object either +of Knowledge or of Nescience. As long as it is the object of Nescience, +there are applied to it the categories of devotee, object of devotion, +and the like[101]. The different modes of devotion lead to different +results, some to exaltation, some to gradual emancipation, some to +success in works; those modes are distinct on account of the distinction +of the different qualities and limiting conditions[102]. And although +the one highest Self only, i.e. the Lord distinguished by those +different qualities constitutes the object of devotion, still the fruits +(of devotion) are distinct, according as the devotion refers to +different qualities. Thus Scripture says, 'According as man worships +him, that he becomes;' and, 'According to what his thought is in this +world, so will he be when he has departed this life' (Ch. Up. III, 14, +1). Sm/ri/ti also makes an analogous statement, 'Remembering whatever +form of being he leaves this body in the end, into that form he enters, +being impressed with it through his constant meditation' (Bha. Gita +VIII, 6). + +Although one and the same Self is hidden in all beings movable as well +as immovable, yet owing to the gradual rise of excellence of the minds +which form the limiting conditions (of the Self), Scripture declares +that the Self, although eternally unchanging and uniform, reveals +itself[103] in a graduated series of beings, and so appears in forms of +various dignity and power; compare, for instance (Ait. Ar. II, 3, 2, 1), +'He who knows the higher manifestation of the Self in him[104],' &c. +Similarly Sm/ri/ti remarks, 'Whatever being there is of power, splendour +or might, know it to have sprung from portions of my glory' (Bha. Gita, +X, 41); a passage declaring that wherever there is an excess of power +and so on, there the Lord is to be worshipped. Accordingly here (i.e. in +the Sutras) also the teacher will show that the golden person in the +disc of the Sun is the highest Self, on account of an indicating sign, +viz. the circumstance of his being unconnected with any evil (Ved. Su. +I, 1, 20); the same is to be observed with regard to I, 1, 22 and other +Sutras. And, again, an enquiry will have to be undertaken into the +meaning of the texts, in order that a settled conclusion may be reached +concerning that knowledge of the Self which leads to instantaneous +release; for although that knowledge is conveyed by means of various +limiting conditions, yet no special connexion with limiting conditions +is intended to be intimated, in consequence of which there arises a +doubt whether it (the knowledge) has the higher or the lower Brahman for +its object; so, for instance, in the case of Sutra I, 1, 12[105]. From +all this it appears that the following part of the /S/astra has a +special object of its own, viz. to show that the Vedanta-texts teach, on +the one hand, Brahman as connected with limiting conditions and forming +an object of devotion, and on the other hand, as being free from the +connexion with such conditions and constituting an object of knowledge. +The refutation, moreover, of non-intelligent causes different from +Brahman, which in I, 1, 10 was based on the uniformity of the meaning of +the Vedanta-texts, will be further detailed by the Sutrakara, who, while +explaining additional passages relating to Brahman, will preclude all +causes of a nature opposite to that of Brahman. + +12. (The Self) consisting of bliss (is the highest Self) on account of +the repetition (of the word 'bliss,' as denoting the highest Self). + +The Taittiriya-upanishad (II, 1-5), after having enumerated the Self +consisting of food, the Self consisting of the vital airs, the Self +consisting of mind, and the Self consisting of understanding, says, +'Different from this which consists of understanding is the other inner +Self which consists of bliss.' Here the doubt arises whether the phrase, +'that which consists of bliss,' denotes the highest Brahman of which it +had been said previously, that 'It is true Being, Knowledge, without +end,' or something different from Brahman, just as the Self consisting +of food, &c., is different from it.--The purvapakshin maintains that the +Self consisting of bliss is a secondary (not the principal) Self, and +something different from Brahman; as it forms a link in a series of +Selfs, beginning with the Self consisting of food, which all are not the +principal Self. To the objection that even thus the Self consisting of +bliss may be considered as the primary Self, since it is stated to be +the innermost of all, he replies that this cannot be admitted, because +the Self of bliss is declared to have joy and so on for its limbs, and +because it is said to be embodied. If it were identical with the primary +Self, joy and the like would not touch it; but the text expressly says +'Joy is its head;' and about its being embodied we read, 'Of that former +one this one is the embodied Self' (Taitt. Up. II, 6), i.e. of that +former Self of Understanding this Self of bliss is the embodied Self. +And of what is embodied, the contact with joy and pain cannot be +prevented. Therefore the Self which consists of bliss is nothing but the +transmigrating Soul. + +To this reasoning we make the following reply:--By the Self consisting +of bliss we have to understand the highest Self, 'on account of +repetition.' For the word 'bliss' is repeatedly applied to the highest +Self. So Taitt. Up. II, 7, where, after the clause 'That is +flavour'--which refers back to the Self consisting of bliss, and +declares it to be of the nature of flavour--we read, 'For only after +having perceived flavour can any one perceive delight. Who could +breathe, who could breathe forth if that Bliss existed not in the ether +(of the heart)? For he alone causes blessedness;' and again, II, 8, 'Now +this is an examination of Bliss;' 'He reaches that Self consisting of +Bliss;' and again, II, 9, 'He who knows the Bliss of Brahman fears +nothing;' and in addition, 'He understood that Bliss is Brahman' (III, +6). And in another scriptural passage also (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 28), +'Knowledge and bliss is Brahman,' we see the word 'bliss' applied just +to Brahman. As, therefore, the word 'bliss' is repeatedly used with +reference to Brahman, we conclude that the Self consisting of bliss is +Brahman also. The objection that the Self consisting of bliss can only +denote the secondary Self (the Sa/m/sarin), because it forms a link in a +series of secondary Selfs, beginning with the one consisting of food, is +of no force, for the reason that the Self consisting of bliss is the +innermost of all. The /S/astra, wishing to convey information about the +primary Self, adapts itself to common notions, in so far as it at first +refers to the body consisting of food, which, although not the Self, is +by very obtuse people identified with it; it then proceeds from the body +to another Self, which has the same shape with the preceding one, just +as the statue possesses the form of the mould into which the molten +brass had been poured; then, again, to another one, always at first +representing the Non-Self as the Self, for the purpose of easier +comprehension; and it finally teaches that the innermost Self[106], +which consists of bliss, is the real Self. Just as when a man, desirous +of pointing out the star Arundhati to another man, at first points to +several stars which are not Arundhati as being Arundhati, while only the +star pointed out in the end is the real Arundhati; so here also the Self +consisting of bliss is the real Self on account of its being the +innermost (i.e. the last). Nor can any weight be allowed to the +objection that the attribution of joy and so on, as head, &c., cannot +possibly refer to the real Self; for this attribution is due to the +immediately preceding limiting condition (viz. the Self consisting of +understanding, the so-called vij/n/anakosa), and does not really belong +to the real Self. The possession of a bodily nature also is ascribed to +the Self of bliss, only because it is represented as a link in the chain +of bodies which begins with the Self consisting of food, and is not +ascribed to it in the same direct sense in which it is predicated of the +transmigrating Self. Hence the Self consisting of bliss is the highest +Brahman. + +13. If (it be objected that the term anandamaya, consisting of bliss, +can) not (denote the highest Self) on account of its being a word +denoting a modification (or product); (we declare the objection to be) +not (valid) on account of abundance, (the idea of which may be expressed +by the affix maya.) + +Here the purvapakshin raises the objection that the word anandamaya +(consisting of bliss) cannot denote the highest Self.--Why?--Because the +word anandamaya is understood to denote something different from the +original word (i.e. the word ananda without the derivative affix maya), +viz. a modification; according to the received sense of the affix maya. +'Anandamaya' therefore denotes a modification, just as annamaya +(consisting of food) and similar words do. + +This objection is, however, not valid, because 'maya' is also used in +the sense of abundance, i.e. denotes that where there is abundance of +what the original word expresses. So, for instance, the phrase 'the +sacrifice is annamaya' means 'the sacrifice is abounding in food' (not +'is some modification or product of food'). Thus here Brahman also, as +abounding in bliss, is called anandamaya. That Brahman does abound in +bliss follows from the passage (Taitt. Up. II, 8), where, after the +bliss of each of the different classes of beings, beginning with man, +has been declared to be a hundred times greater than the bliss of the +immediately preceding class, the bliss of Brahman is finally proclaimed +to be absolutely supreme. Maya therefore denotes abundance. + +14. And because he is declared to be the cause of it, (i.e. of bliss; +therefore maya is to be taken as denoting abundance.) + +Maya must be understood to denote abundance, for that reason also that +Scripture declares Brahman to be the cause of bliss, 'For he alone +causes bliss' (Taitt. Up. II, 7). For he who causes bliss must himself +abound in bliss; just as we infer in ordinary life, that a man who +enriches others must himself possess abundant wealth. As, therefore, +maya may be taken to mean 'abundant,' the Self consisting of bliss is +the highest Self. + +15. Moreover (the anandamaya is Brahman because) the same (Brahman) +which had been referred to in the mantra is sung, (i.e. proclaimed in +the Brahma/n/a passage as the anandamaya.) + +The Self, consisting of joy, is the highest Brahman for the following +reason also[107]. On the introductory words 'he who knows Brahman +attains the highest' (Taitt. Up. II, 1), there follows a mantra +proclaiming that Brahman, which forms the general topic of the chapter, +possesses the qualities of true existence, intelligence, infinity; after +that it is said that from Brahman there sprang at first the ether and +then all other moving and non-moving things, and that, entering into the +beings which it had emitted, Brahman stays in the recess, inmost of all; +thereupon, for its better comprehension, the series of the different +Selfs ('different from this is the inner Self,' &c.) are enumerated, and +then finally the same Brahman which the mantra had proclaimed, is again +proclaimed in the passage under discussion, 'different from this is the +other inner Self, which consists of bliss.' To assume that a mantra and +the Brahma/n/a passage belonging to it have the same sense is only +proper, on account of the absence of contradiction (which results +therefrom); for otherwise we should be driven to the unwelcome inference +that the text drops the topic once started, and turns to an altogether +new subject. + +Nor is there mentioned a further inner Self different from the Self +consisting of bliss, as in the case of the Self consisting of food, +&c.[108] On the same (i.e. the Self consisting of bliss) is founded, +'This same knowledge of Bh/ri/gu and Varu/n/a; he understood that bliss +is Brahman' (Taitt. Up. III, 6). Therefore the Self consisting of bliss +is the highest Self. + +16. (The Self consisting of bliss is the highest Self,) not the other +(i.e. the individual Soul), on account of the impossibility (of the +latter assumption). + +And for the following reason also the Self consisting of bliss is the +highest Self only, not the other, i.e. the one which is other than the +Lord, i.e. the transmigrating individual soul. The personal soul cannot +be denoted by the term 'the one consisting of bliss.' Why? On account of +the impossibility. For Scripture says, with reference to the Self +consisting of bliss, 'He wished, may I be many, may I grow forth. He +brooded over himself. After he had thus brooded, he sent forth whatever +there is.' Here, the desire arising before the origination of a body, +&c., the non-separation of the effects created from the creator, and the +creation of all effects whatever, cannot possibly belong to any Self +different from the highest Self. + +17. And on account of the declaration of the difference (of the two, the +anandamaya cannot be the transmigrating soul). + +The Self consisting of bliss cannot be identical with the transmigrating +soul, for that reason also that in the section treating of the Self of +bliss, the individual soul and the Self of bliss are distinctly +represented as different; Taitt. Up. II, 7, 'It (i.e. the Self +consisting of bliss) is a flavour; for only after perceiving a flavour +can this (soul) perceive bliss.' For he who perceives cannot be that +which is perceived.--But, it may be asked, if he who perceives or +attains cannot be that which is perceived or attained, how about the +following /S/ruti- and Smr/ri/ti-passages, 'The Self is to be sought;' +'Nothing higher is known than the attainment of the Self[109]?'--This +objection, we reply, is legitimate (from the point of view of absolute +truth). Yet we see that in ordinary life, the Self, which in reality is +never anything but the Self, is, owing to non-comprehension of the +truth, identified with the Non-Self, i.e. the body and so on; whereby it +becomes possible to speak of the Self in so far as it is identified with +the body, and so on, as something not searched for but to be searched +for, not heard but to be heard, not seized but to be seized, not +perceived but to be perceived, not known but to be known, and the like. +Scripture, on the other hand, denies, in such passages as 'there is no +other seer but he' (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23), that there is in reality any +seer or hearer different from the all-knowing highest Lord. (Nor can it +be said that the Lord is unreal because he is identical with the unreal +individual soul; for)[110] the Lord differs from the soul +(vij/n/anatman) which is embodied, acts and enjoys, and is the product +of Nescience, in the same way as the real juggler who stands on the +ground differs from the illusive juggler, who, holding in his hand a +shield and a sword, climbs up to the sky by means of a rope; or as the +free unlimited ether differs from the ether of a jar, which is +determined by its limiting adjunct, (viz. the jar.) With reference to +this fictitious difference of the highest Self and the individual Self, +the two last Sutras have been propounded. + +18. And on account of desire (being mentioned as belonging to the +anandamaya) no regard is to be had to what is inferred, (i.e. to the +pradhana inferred by the Sa@nkhyas.) + +Since in the passage 'he desired, may I be many, may I grow forth,' +which occurs in the chapter treating of the anandamaya (Taitt. Up. II, +6), the quality of feeling desire is mentioned, that which is inferred, +i.e. the non-intelligent pradhana assumed by the Sa@nkhyas, cannot be +regarded as being the Self consisting of bliss and the cause of the +world. Although the opinion that the pradhana is the cause of the world, +has already been refuted in the Sutra I, 1, 5, it is here, where a +favourable opportunity presents itself, refuted for a second time on the +basis of the scriptural passage about the cause of the world feeling +desire, for the purpose of showing the uniformity of view (of all +scriptural passages). + +19. And, moreover, it (i.e. Scripture) teaches the joining of this (i.e. +the individual soul) with that, (i.e. the Self consisting of bliss), on +that (being fully known). + +And for the following reason also the term, 'the Self consisting of +bliss,' cannot denote either the pradhana or the individual soul. +Scripture teaches that the individual soul when it has reached knowledge +is joined, i.e. identified, with the Self of bliss under discussion, +i.e. obtains final release. Compare the following passage (Taitt. Up. +II, 7), 'When he finds freedom from fear, and rest in that which is +invisible, incorporeal, undefined, unsupported, then he has obtained the +fearless. For if he makes but the smallest distinction in it there is +fear for him.' That means, if he sees in that Self consisting of bliss +even a small difference in the form of non-identity, then he finds no +release from the fear of transmigratory existence. But when he, by means +of the cognition of absolute identity, finds absolute rest in the Self +consisting of bliss, then he is freed from the fear of transmigratory +existence. But this (finding absolute rest) is possible only when we +understand by the Self consisting of bliss, the highest Self, and not +either the pradhana or the individual soul. Hence it is proved that the +Self consisting of bliss is the highest Self. + +But, in reality, the following remarks have to be made concerning the +true meaning of the word 'anandamaya[111].' On what grounds, we ask, can +it be maintained that the affix 'maya' after having, in the series of +compounds beginning with annamaya and ending with vij/n/anamaya, denoted +mere modifications, should all at once, in the word anandamaya, which +belongs to the same series, denote abundance, so that anandamaya would +refer to Brahman? If it should be said that the assumption is made on +account of the governing influence of the Brahman proclaimed in the +mantra (which forms the beginning of the chapter, Taitt. Up. II), we +reply that therefrom it would follow that also the Selfs consisting of +food, breath, &c., denote Brahman (because the governing influence of +the mantra extends to them also).--The advocate of the former +interpretation will here, perhaps, restate an argument already made use +of above, viz. as follows: To assume that the Selfs consisting of food, +and so on, are not Brahman is quite proper, because after each of them +an inner Self is mentioned. After the Self of bliss, on the other hand, +no further inner Self is mentioned, and hence it must be considered to +be Brahman itself; otherwise we should commit the mistake of dropping +the subject-matter in hand (as which Brahman is pointed out by the +mantra), and taking up a new topic.--But to this we reply that, although +unlike the case of the Selfs consisting of food, &c., no inner Self is +mentioned after the Self consisting of bliss, still the latter cannot be +considered as Brahman, because with reference to the Self consisting of +bliss Scripture declares, 'Joy is its head. Satisfaction is its right +arm. Great satisfaction is its left arm. Bliss is its trunk. Brahman is +its tail, its support.' Now, here the very same Brahman which, in the +mantra, had been introduced as the subject of the discussion, is called +the tail, the support; while the five involucra, extending from the +involucrum of food up to the involucrum of bliss, are merely introduced +for the purpose of setting forth the knowledge of Brahman. How, then, +can it be maintained that our interpretation implies the needless +dropping of the general subject-matter and the introduction of a new +topic?--But, it may again be objected, Brahman is called the tail, i.e. +a member of the Self consisting of bliss; analogously to those passages +in which a tail and other members are ascribed to the Selfs consisting +of food and so on. On what grounds, then, can we claim to know that +Brahman (which is spoken of as a mere member, i.e. a subordinate matter) +is in reality the chief matter referred to?--From the fact, we reply, of +Brahman being the general subject-matter of the chapter.--But, it will +again be said, that interpretation also according to which Brahman is +cognised as a mere member of the anandamaya does not involve a dropping +of the subject-matter, since the anandamaya himself is Brahman.--But, we +reply, in that case one and the same Brahman would at first appear as +the whole, viz. as the Self consisting of bliss, and thereupon as a mere +part, viz. as the tail; which is absurd. And as one of the two +alternatives must be preferred, it is certainly appropriate to refer to +Brahman the clause 'Brahman is the tail' which contains the word +'Brahman,' and not the sentence about the Self of Bliss in which Brahman +is not mentioned. Moreover, Scripture, in continuation of the phrase, +'Brahman is the tail, the support,' goes on, 'On this there is also the +following /s/loka: He who knows the Brahman as non-existing becomes +himself non-existing. He who knows Brahman as existing him we know +himself as existing.' As this /s/loka, without any reference to the Self +of bliss, states the advantage and disadvantage connected with the +knowledge of the being and non-being of Brahman only, we conclude that +the clause, 'Brahman is the tail, the support,' represents Brahman as +the chief matter (not as a merely subordinate matter). About the being +or non-being of the Self of bliss, on the other hand, a doubt is not +well possible, since the Self of bliss distinguished by joy, +satisfaction, &c., is well known to every one.--But if Brahman is the +principal matter, how can it be designated as the mere tail of the Self +of bliss ('Brahman is the tail, the support')?--Its being called so, we +reply, forms no objection; for the word tail here denotes that which is +of the nature of a tail, so that we have to understand that the bliss of +Brahman is not a member (in its literal sense), but the support or +abode, the one nest (resting-place) of all worldly bliss. Analogously +another scriptural passage declares, 'All other creatures live on a +small portion of that bliss' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 32). Further, if by the +Self consisting of bliss we were to understand Brahman we should have to +assume that the Brahman meant is the Brahman distinguished by qualities +(savi/s/esha), because it is said to have joy and the like for its +members. But this assumption is contradicted by a complementary passage +(II, 9) which declares that Brahman is the object neither of mind nor +speech, and so shows that the Brahman meant is the (absolute) Brahman +(devoid of qualities), 'From whence all speech, with the mind, turns +away unable to reach it, he who knows the bliss of that Brahman fears +nothing.' Moreover, if we speak of something as 'abounding in +bliss[112],' we thereby imply the co-existence of pain; for the word +'abundance' in its ordinary sense implies the existence of a small +measure of what is opposed to the thing whereof there is abundance. But +the passage so understood would be in conflict with another passage (Ch. +Up. VII, 24), 'Where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, +understands nothing else, that is the Infinite;' which declares that in +the Infinite, i.e. Brahman, there is nothing whatever different from it. +Moreover, as joy, &c. differ in each individual body, the Self +consisting of bliss also is a different one in each body. Brahman, on +the other hand, does not differ according to bodies; for the mantra at +the beginning of the chapter declares it to be true Being, knowledge, +infinite, and another passage says, 'He is the one God, hidden in all +beings, all-pervading, the Self within all beings' (/S/v. Up. VI, 11). +Nor, again, does Scripture exhibit a frequent repetition of the word +'anandamaya;' for merely the radical part of the compound (i.e. the word +ananda without the affix maya) is repeated in all the following +passages; 'It is a flavour, for only after seizing flavour can any one +seize bliss. Who could breathe, who could breathe forth, if that bliss +existed not in the ether? For he alone causes blessedness;' 'Now this is +an examination of bliss;' 'He who knows the bliss of that Brahman fears +nothing;' 'He understood that bliss is Brahman.' If it were a settled +matter that Brahman is denoted by the term, 'the Self consisting of +bliss,' then we could assume that in the subsequent passages, where +merely the word 'bliss' is employed, the term 'consisting of bliss' is +meant to be repeated; but that the Self consisting of bliss is not +Brahman, we have already proved by means of the reason of joy being its +head, and so on. Hence, as in another scriptural passage, viz. 'Brahman +is knowledge and bliss' (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 28), the mere word 'bliss' +denotes Brahman, we must conclude that also in such passages as, 'If +that bliss existed not in the ether,' the word bliss is used with +reference to Brahman, and is not meant to repeat the term 'consisting of +bliss.' The repetition of the full compound, 'consisting of bliss,' +which occurs in the passage, 'He reaches that Self consisting of bliss' +(Taitt. Up. II, 8), does not refer to Brahman, as it is contained in the +enumeration of Non-Selfs, comprising the Self of food, &c., all of which +are mere effects, and all of which are represented as things to be +reached.--But, it may be said, if the Self consisting of bliss, which is +said to have to be reached, were not Brahman--just as the Selfs +consisting of food, &c. are not Brahman--then it would not be declared +(in the passage immediately following) that he who knows obtains for his +reward Brahman.--This objection we invalidate by the remark that the +text makes its declaration as to Brahman--which is the tail, the +support--being reached by him who knows, by the very means of the +declaration as to the attainment of the Self of bliss; as appears from +the passage, 'On this there is also this /s/loka, from which all speech +returns,' &c. With reference, again, to the passage, 'He desired: may I +be many, may I grow forth,' which is found in proximity to the mention +of the Self consisting of bliss, we remark that it is in reality +connected (not with the Self of bliss but with) Brahman, which is +mentioned in the still nearer passage, 'Brahman is the tail, the +support,' and does therefore not intimate that the Self of bliss is +Brahman. And, on account of its referring to the passage last quoted +('it desired,' &c.), the later passage also, 'That is flavour,' &c., has +not the Self of bliss for its subject.--But, it may be objected, the +(neuter word) Brahman cannot possibly be designated by a masculine word +as you maintain is done in the passage, 'He desired,' &c.--In reply to +this objection we point to the passage (Taitt. Up. II, 1), 'From that +Self sprang ether,' where, likewise, the masculine word 'Self' can refer +to Brahman only, since the latter is the general topic of the chapter. +In the knowledge of Bh/ri/gu and Varu/n/a finally ('he knew that bliss +is Brahman'), the word 'bliss' is rightly understood to denote Brahman, +since we there meet neither with the affix 'maya,' nor with any +statement as to joy being its head, and the like. To ascribe to Brahman +in itself joy, and so on, as its members, is impossible, unless we have +recourse to certain, however minute, distinctions qualifying Brahman; +and that the whole chapter is not meant to convey a knowledge of the +qualified (savi/s/esha) Brahman is proved by the passage (quoted above), +which declares that Brahman transcends speech and mind. We therefore +must conclude that the affix maya, in the word anandamaya, does not +denote abundance, but expresses a mere effect, just as it does in the +words annamaya and the subsequent similar compounds. + +The Sutras are therefore to be explained as follows. There arises the +question whether the passage, 'Brahman is the tail, the support,' is to +be understood as intimating that Brahman is a mere member of the Self +consisting of bliss, or that it is the principal matter. If it is said +that it must be considered as a mere member, the reply is, 'The Self +consisting of bliss on account of the repetition.' That means: Brahman, +which in the passage 'the Self consisting of bliss,' &c., is spoken of +as the tail, the support, is designated as the principal matter (not as +something subordinate). On account of the repetition; for in the +memorial /s/loka, 'he becomes himself non-existing,' Brahman alone is +reiterated. 'If not, on account of the word denoting a modification; not +so, on account of abundance.' In this Sutra the word 'modification' is +meant to convey the sense of member. The objection that on account of +the word 'tail,' which denotes a mere member, Brahman cannot be taken as +the principal matter must be refuted. This we do by remarking that there +is no difficulty, since a word denoting a member may be introduced into +the passage on account of pra/k/urya[113]. Pra/k/urya here means a +phraseology abounding in terms denoting members. After the different +members, beginning with the head and ending with the tail, of the Selfs, +consisting of food, &c. have been enumerated, there are also mentioned +the head and the other limbs of the Self of bliss, and then it is added, +'Brahman is the tail, the support;' the intention being merely to +introduce some more terms denoting members, not to convey the meaning of +'member,' (an explanation which is impossible) because the preceding +Sutra already has proved Brahman (not to be a member, but) to be the +principal matter. 'And because he is declared to be the cause of it.' +That means: Brahman is declared to be the cause of the entire aggregate +of effects, inclusive of the Self, consisting of bliss, in the following +passage, 'He created all whatever there is' (Taitt. Up. II, 6). And as +Brahman is the cause, it cannot at the same time be called the member, +in the literal sense of the word, of the Self of bliss, which is nothing +but one of Brahman's effects. The other Sutras also (which refer to the +Self of bliss[114]) are to be considered, as well as they may, as +conveying a knowledge of Brahman, which (Brahman) is referred to in the +passage about the tail. + +20. The one within (the sun and the eye) (is the highest Lord), on +account of his qualities being declared[115]. + +The following passage is found in Scripture (Ch. Up. I, 6, 6 ff.), 'Now +that person bright as gold who is seen within the sun, with beard bright +as gold and hair bright as gold, bright as gold altogether to the very +tips of his nails, whose eyes are like blue lotus; his name is Ut, for +he has risen (udita) above all evil. He also who knows this rises above +all evil. So much with reference to the devas.' And further on, with +reference to the body, 'Now the person who is seen in the eye,' &c. Here +the following doubt presents itself. Do these passages point out, as the +object of devotion directed on the sphere of the sun and the eye, merely +some special individual soul, which, by means of a large measure of +knowledge and pious works, has raised itself to a position of eminence; +or do they refer to the eternally perfect highest Lord? + +The purvapakshin takes the former view. An individual soul, he says, is +referred to, since Scripture speaks of a definite shape. To the person +in the sun special features are ascribed, such as the possession of a +beard as bright as gold and so on, and the same features manifestly +belong to the person in the eye also, since they are expressly +transferred to it in the passage, 'The shape of this person is the same +as the shape of that person.' That, on the other hand, no shape can be +ascribed to the highest Lord, follows from the passage (Kau. Up. I, 3, +15), 'That which is without sound, without touch, without form, without +decay.' That an individual soul is meant follows moreover from the fact +that a definite abode is mentioned, 'He who is in the sun; he who is in +the eye.' About the highest Lord, who has no special abode, but abides +in his own glory, no similar statement can be made; compare, for +instance, the two following passages, 'Where does he rest? In his own +glory?' (Ch. Up. VII, 24, 1); and 'like the ether he is omnipresent, +eternal.' A further argument for our view is supplied by the fact that +the might (of the being in question) is said to be limited; for the +passage, 'He is lord of the worlds beyond that, and of the wishes of the +devas,' indicates the limitation of the might of the person in the sun; +and the passage, 'He is lord of the worlds beneath that and of the +wishes of men,' indicates the limitation of the might of the person in +the eye. No limit, on the other hand, can be admitted of the might of +the highest Lord, as appears from the passage (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 22), +'He is the Lord of all, the king of all things, the protector of all +things. He is a bank and a boundary so that these worlds may not be +confounded;' which passage intimates that the Lord is free from all +limiting distinctions. For all these reasons the person in the eye and +the sun cannot be the highest Lord. + +To this reasoning the Sutra replies, 'The one within, on account of his +qualities being declared.' The person referred to in the passages +concerning the person within the sun and the person within the eye is +not a transmigrating being, but the highest Lord. Why? Because his +qualities are declared. For the qualities of the highest Lord are +indicated in the text as follows. At first the name of the person within +the sun is mentioned--'his name is Ut'--and then this name is explained +on the ground of that person being free from all evil, 'He has risen +above all evil.' The same name thus explained is then transferred to the +person in the eye, in the clause, 'the name of the one is the name of +the other.' Now, entire freedom from sin is attributed in Scripture to +the highest Self only; so, for instance (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1), 'The Self +which is free from sin,' &c. Then, again, there is the passage, 'He is +/Ri/k, he is Saman, Uktha, Yajus, Brahman,' which declares the person in +the eye to be the Self of the /Ri/k, Saman, and so on; which is possible +only if that person is the Lord who, as being the cause of all, is to be +considered as the Self of all. Moreover, the text, after having stated +in succession /Ri/k and Saman to have earth and fire for their Self with +reference to the Devas, and, again, speech and breath with reference to +the body, continues, '/Ri/k and Saman are his joints,' with reference to +the Devas, and 'the joints of the one are the joints of the other,' with +reference to the body. Now this statement also can be made only with +regard to that which is the Self of all. Further, the passage, +'Therefore all who sing to the Vina sing him, and from him also they +obtain wealth,' shows that the being spoken of is the sole topic of all +worldly songs; which again holds true of the highest Lord only. That +absolute command over the objects of worldly desires (as displayed, for +instance, in the bestowal of wealth) entitles us to infer that the Lord +is meant, appears also from the following passage of the Bhagavad-gita +(X, 41), 'Whatever being there is possessing power, glory, or strength, +know it to be produced from a portion of my energy[116].' To the +objection that the statements about bodily shape contained in the +clauses, 'With a beard bright as gold,' &c., cannot refer to the highest +Lord, we reply that the highest Lord also may, when he pleases, assume a +bodily shape formed of Maya, in order to gratify thereby his devout +worshippers. Thus Sm/ri/ti also says, 'That thou seest me, O Narada, is +the Maya emitted by me; do not then look on me as endowed with the +qualities of all beings.' We have further to note that expressions such +as, 'That which is without sound, without touch, without form, without +decay,' are made use of where instruction is given about the nature of +the highest Lord in so far as he is devoid of all qualities; while +passages such as the following one, 'He to whom belong all works, all +desires, all sweet odours and tastes' (Ch. Up. III, 14, 2), which +represent the highest Lord as the object of devotion, speak of him, who +is the cause of everything, as possessing some of the qualities of his +effects. Analogously he may be spoken of, in the passage under +discussion, as having a beard bright as gold and so on. With reference +to the objection that the highest Lord cannot be meant because an abode +is spoken of, we remark that, for the purposes of devout meditation, a +special abode may be assigned to Brahman, although it abides in its own +glory only; for as Brahman is, like ether, all-pervading, it may be +viewed as being within the Self of all beings. The statement, finally, +about the limitation of Brahman's might, which depends on the +distinction of what belongs to the gods and what to the body, has +likewise reference to devout meditation only. From all this it follows +that the being which Scripture states to be within the eye and the sun +is the highest Lord. + +21. And there is another one (i.e. the Lord who is different from the +individual souls animating the sun, &c.), on account of the declaration +of distinction. + +There is, moreover, one distinct from the individual souls which animate +the sun and other bodies, viz. the Lord who rules within; whose +distinction (from all individual souls) is proclaimed in the following +scriptural passage, 'He who dwells in the sun and within the sun, whom +the sun does not know, whose body the sun is, and who rules the sun +within; he is thy Self, the ruler within, the immortal' (B/ri/. Up. III, +7, 9). Here the expression, 'He within the sun whom the sun does not +know,' clearly indicates that the Ruler within is distinct from that +cognising individual soul whose body is the sun. With that Ruler within +we have to identify the person within the sun, according to the tenet of +the sameness of purport of all Vedanta-texts. It thus remains a settled +conclusion that the passage under discussion conveys instruction about +the highest Lord. + +22. The aka/s/a, i.e. ether (is Brahman) on account of characteristic +marks (of the latter being mentioned). + +In the Chandogya (I, 9) the following passage is met with, 'What is the +origin of this world?' 'Ether,' he replied. 'For all these beings take +their rise from the ether only, and return into the ether. Ether is +greater than these, ether is their rest.'--Here the following doubt +arises. Does the word 'ether' denote the highest Brahman or the +elemental ether?--Whence the doubt?--Because the word is seen to be used +in both senses. Its use in the sense of 'elemental ether' is well +established in ordinary as well as in Vedic speech; and, on the other +hand, we see that it is sometimes used to denote Brahman, viz. in cases +where we ascertain, either from some complementary sentence or from the +fact of special qualities being mentioned, that Brahman is meant. So, +for instance, Taitt. Up. II, 7, 'If that bliss existed not in the +ether;' and Ch. Up. VIII, 14, 'That which is called ether is the +revealer of all forms and names; that within which forms and names +are[117] that is Brahman.' Hence the doubt.--Which sense is then to be +adopted in our case?--The sense of elemental ether, the purvapakshin +replies; because this sense belongs to the word more commonly, and +therefore presents itself to the mind more readily. The word 'ether' +cannot be taken in both senses equally, because that would involve a +(faulty) attribution of several meanings to one and the same word. Hence +the term 'ether' applies to Brahman in a secondary (metaphorical) sense +only; on account of Brahman being in many of its attributes, such as all +pervadingness and the like, similar to ether. The rule is, that when the +primary sense of a word is possible, the word must not be taken in a +secondary sense. And in the passage under discussion only the primary +sense of the word 'ether' is admissible. Should it be objected that, if +we refer the passage under discussion to the elemental ether, a +complementary passage ('for all these beings take their rise from the +ether only, &c.') cannot be satisfactorily accounted for; we reply that +the elemental ether also may be represented as a cause, viz. of air, +fire, &c. in due succession. For we read in Scripture (Taitt. Up. II, +1), 'From that Self sprang ether, from ether air, from air fire, and so +on.' The qualities also of being greater and of being a place of rest +may be ascribed to the elemental ether, if we consider its relations to +all other beings. Therefore we conclude that the word 'ether' here +denotes the elemental ether. + +To this we reply as follows:--The word ether must here be taken to +denote Brahman, on account of characteristic marks of the latter being +mentioned. For the sentence, 'All these beings take their rise from the +ether only,' clearly indicates the highest Brahman, since all +Vedanta-texts agree in definitely declaring that all beings spring from +the highest Brahman.--But, the opponent may say, we have shown that the +elemental ether also may be represented as the cause, viz. of air, fire, +and the other elements in due succession.--We admit this. But still +there remains the difficulty, that, unless we understand the word to +apply to the fundamental cause of all, viz. Brahman, the affirmation +contained in the word 'only' and the qualification expressed by the word +'all' (in 'all beings') would be out of place. Moreover, the clause, +'They return into the ether,' again points to Brahman, and so likewise +the phrase, 'Ether is greater than these, ether is their rest;' for +absolute superiority in point of greatness Scripture attributes to the +highest Self only; cp. Ch. Up. III, 14, 3, 'Greater than the earth, +greater than the sky, greater than heaven, greater than all these +worlds.' The quality of being a place of rest likewise agrees best with +the highest Brahman, on account of its being the highest cause. This is +confirmed by the following scriptural passage: 'Knowledge and bliss is +Brahman, it is the rest of him who gives gifts' (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 28). +Moreover, Jaivali finding fault with the doctrine of /S/alavatya, on +account of (his saman) having an end (Ch. Up. I, 8, 8), and wishing to +proclaim something that has no end chooses the ether, and then, having +identified the ether with the Udgitha, concludes, 'He is the Udgitha +greater than great; he is without end.' Now this endlessness is a +characteristic mark of Brahman. To the remark that the sense of +'elemental ether' presents itself to the mind more readily, because it +is the better established sense of the word aka/s/a, we reply, that, +although it may present itself to the mind first, yet it is not to be +accepted, because we see that qualities of Brahman are mentioned in the +complementary sentences. That the word aka/s/a is also used to denote +Brahman has been shown already; cp. such passages as, 'Ether is the +revealer of all names and forms.' We see, moreover, that various +synonyma of aka/s/a are employed to denote Brahman. So, for instance, +/Ri/k Sa/m/h. I, 164, 39, 'In which the Vedas are[118], in the +Imperishable one (i.e. Brahman), the highest, the ether (vyoman), on +which all gods have their seat.' And Taitt. Up. III, 6, 'This is the +knowledge of Bh/ri/gu and Varu/n/a, founded on the highest ether +(vyoman).' And again, 'Om, ka is Brahman, ether (kha) is Brahman' (Ch. +Up. IV, 10, 5), and 'the old ether' (B/ri/. Up. V, 1)[119]. And other +similar passages. On account of the force of the complementary passage +we are justified in deciding that the word 'ether,' although occurring +in the beginning of the passage, refers to Brahman. The case is +analogous to that of the sentence, 'Agni (lit. the fire) studies a +chapter,' where the word agni, although occurring in the beginning, is +at once seen to denote a boy[120]. It is therefore settled that the word +'ether' denotes Brahman. + +23. For the same reason breath (is Brahman). + +Concerning the udgitha it is said (Ch. Up. I, 10, 9), 'Prastot/ri/, that +deity which belongs to the prastava, &c.,' and, further on (I, 11, 4; +5), 'Which then is that deity? He said: Breath. For all these beings +merge into breath alone, and from breath they arise. This is the deity +belonging to the prastava.' With reference to this passage doubt and +decision are to be considered as analogous to those stated under the +preceding Sutra. For while in some passages--as, for instance, 'For +indeed, my son, mind is fastened to pra/n/a,' Ch. Up. VI, 8, 2; and, +'the pra/n/a of pra/n/a,' B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 18--the word 'breath' is +seen to denote Brahman, its use in the sense of a certain modification +of air is better established in common as well as in Vedic language. +Hence there arises a doubt whether in the passage under discussion the +word pra/n/a denotes Brahman or (ordinary) breath. In favour of which +meaning have we then to decide? + +Here the purvapakshin maintains that the word must be held to denote the +fivefold vital breath, which is a peculiar modification of wind (or +air); because, as has been remarked already, that sense of the word +pra/n/a is the better established one.--But no, an objector will say, +just as in the case of the preceding Sutra, so here also Brahman is +meant, on account of characteristic marks being mentioned; for here also +a complementary passage gives us to understand that all beings spring +from and merge into pra/n/a; a process which can take place in connexion +with the highest Lord only.--This objection, the purvapakshin replies, +is futile, since we see that the beings enter into and proceed from the +principal vital air also. For Scripture makes the following statement +(Sat. Br. X, 3, 3, 6), 'When man sleeps, then into breath indeed speech +merges, into breath the eye, into breath the ear, into breath the mind; +when he awakes then they spring again from breath alone.' What the Veda +here states is, moreover, a matter of observation, for during sleep, +while the process of breathing goes on uninterruptedly, the activity of +the sense organs is interrupted and again becomes manifest at the time +of awaking only. And as the sense organs are the essence of all material +beings, the complementary passage which speaks of the merging and +emerging of the beings can be reconciled with the principal vital air +also. Moreover, subsequently to pra/n/a being mentioned as the divinity +of the prastava the sun and food are designated as the divinities of the +udgitha and the pratibara. Now as they are not Brahman, the pra/n/a +also, by parity of reasoning, cannot be Brahman. + +To this argumentation the author of the Sutras replies: For the same +reason pra/n/a--that means: on account of the presence of characteristic +marks--which constituted the reason stated in the preceding Sutra--the +word pra/n/a also must be held to denote Brahman. For Scripture says of +pra/n/a also, that it is connected with marks characteristic of Brahman. +The sentence, 'All these beings merge into breath alone, and from breath +they arise,' which declares that the origination and retractation of all +beings depend on pra/n/a, clearly shows pra/n/a to be Brahman. In reply +to the assertion that the origination and retractation of all beings can +be reconciled equally well with the assumption of pra/n/a denoting the +chief vital air, because origination and retractation take place in the +state of waking and of sleep also, we remark that in those two states +only the senses are merged into, and emerge from, the chief vital air, +while, according to the scriptural passage, 'For all these beings, &c.,' +all beings whatever into which a living Self has entered, together with +their senses and bodies, merge and emerge by turns. And even if the word +'beings' were taken (not in the sense of animated beings, but) in the +sense of material elements in general, there would be nothing in the way +of interpreting the passage as referring to Brahman.--But, it may be +said, that the senses together with their objects do, during sleep, +enter into pra/n/a, and again issue from it at the time of waking, we +distinctly learn from another scriptural passage, viz. Kau. Up. III, 3, +'When a man being thus asleep sees no dream whatever, he becomes one +with that pra/n/a alone. Then speech goes to him with all names,' +&c.--True, we reply, but there also the word pra/n/a denotes (not the +vital air) but Brahman, as we conclude from characteristic marks of +Brahman being mentioned. The objection, again, that the word pra/n/a +cannot denote Brahman because it occurs in proximity to the words 'food' +and 'sun' (which do not refer to Brahman), is altogether baseless; for +proximity is of no avail against the force of the complementary passage +which intimates that pra/n/a is Brahman. That argument, finally, which +rests on the fact that the word pra/n/a commonly denotes the vital air +with its five modifications, is to be refuted in the same way as the +parallel argument which the purvapakshin brought forward with reference +to the word 'ether.' From all this it follows that the pra/n/a, which is +the deity of the prastava, is Brahman. + +Some (commentators)[121] quote under the present Sutra the following +passages, 'the pra/n/a of pra/n/a' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 18), and 'for to +pra/n/a mind is fastened' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 2). But that is wrong since +these two passages offer no opportunity for any discussion, the former +on account of the separation of the words, the latter on account of the +general topic. When we meet with a phrase such as 'the father of the +father' we understand at once that the genitive denotes a father +different from the father denoted by the nominative. Analogously we +infer from the separation of words contained in the phrase, 'the breath +of breath,' that the 'breath of breath' is different from the ordinary +breath (denoted by the genitive 'of breath'). For one and the same thing +cannot, by means of a genitive, be predicated of--and thus distinguished +from--itself. Concerning the second passage we remark that, if the +matter constituting the general topic of some chapter is referred to in +that chapter under a different name, we yet conclude, from the general +topic, that that special matter is meant. For instance, when we meet in +the section which treats of the jyotish/t/oma sacrifice with the +passage, 'in every spring he is to offer the jyotis sacrifice,' we at +once understand that the word denotes the jyotish/t/oma. If we therefore +meet with the clause 'to pra/n/a mind is fastened' in a section of which +the highest Brahman is the topic, we do not for a moment suppose that +the word pra/n/a should there denote the ordinary breath which is a mere +modification of air. The two passages thus do not offer any matter for +discussion, and hence do not furnish appropriate instances for the +Sutra. We have shown, on the other hand, that the passage about the +pra/n/a, which is the deity of the prastava, allows room for doubt, +purvapaksha and final decision. + +24. The 'light' (is Brahman), on account of the mention of feet (in a +passage which is connected with the passage about the light). + +Scripture says (Ch. Up. III, 13, 7), 'Now that light which shines above +this heaven, higher than all, higher than everything, in the highest +worlds beyond which there are no other worlds that is the same light +which is within man.' Here the doubt presents itself whether the word +'light' denotes the light of the sun and the like, or the highest Self. +Under the preceding Sutras we had shown that some words which ordinarily +have different meanings yet in certain passages denote Brahman, since +characteristic marks of the latter are mentioned. Here the question has +to be discussed whether, in connexion with the passage quoted, +characteristic marks of Brahman are mentioned or not. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the word 'light' denotes nothing else +but the light of the sun and the like, since that is the ordinary +well-established meaning of the term. The common use of language, he +says, teaches us that the two words 'light' and 'darkness' denote +mutually opposite things, darkness being the term for whatever +interferes with the function of the sense of sight, as, for instance, +the gloom of the night, while sunshine and whatever else favours the +action of the eye is called light. The word 'shines' also, which the +text exhibits, is known ordinarily to refer to the sun and similar +sources of light; while of Brahman, which is devoid of colour, it cannot +be said, in the primary sense of the word, that it 'shines.' Further, +the word jyotis must here denote light because it is said to be bounded +by the sky ('that light which shines above this heaven'). For while it +is impossible to consider the sky as being the boundary of Brahman, +which is the Self of all and the source of all things movable or +immovable, the sky may be looked upon as forming the boundary of light, +which is a mere product and as such limited; accordingly the text says, +'the light beyond heaven.'--But light, although a mere product, is +perceived everywhere; it would therefore be wrong to declare that it is +bounded by the sky!--Well, then, the purvapakshin replies, let us assume +that the light meant is the first-born (original) light which has not +yet become tripartite[122]. This explanation again cannot be admitted, +because the non-tripartite light does not serve any purpose.--But, the +purvapakshin resumes, Why should its purpose not be found therein that +it is the object of devout meditation?--That cannot be, we reply; for we +see that only such things are represented as objects of devotion as have +some other independent use of their own; so, for instance, the sun +(which dispels darkness and so on). Moreover the scriptural passage, +'Let me make each of these three (fire, water, and earth) tripartite,' +does not indicate any difference[123]. And even of the non-tripartite +light it is not known that the sky constitutes its boundary.--Well, then +(the purvapakshin resumes, dropping the idea of the non-tripartite +light), let us assume that the light of which the text speaks is the +tripartite (ordinary) light. The objection that light is seen to exist +also beneath the sky, viz. in the form of fire and the like, we +invalidate by the remark that there is nothing contrary to reason in +assigning a special locality to fire, although the latter is observed +everywhere; while to assume a special place for Brahman, to which the +idea of place does not apply at all, would be most unsuitable. Moreover, +the clause 'higher than everything, in the highest worlds beyond which +there are no other worlds,' which indicates a multiplicity of abodes, +agrees much better with light, which is a mere product (than with +Brahman). There is moreover that other clause, also, 'That is the same +light which is within man,' in which the highest light is identified +with the gastric fire (the fire within man). Now such identifications +can be made only where there is a certain similarity of nature; as is +seen, for instance, in the passage, 'Of that person Bhu/h/ is the head, +for the head is one and that syllable is one' (B/ri/. Up. V, 5, 3). But +that the fire within the human body is not Brahman clearly appears from +the passage, 'Of this we have visible and audible proof' (Ch. Up. III, +13, 7; 8), which declares that the fire is characterised by the noise it +makes, and by heat; and likewise from the following passage, 'Let a man +meditate on this as that which is seen and heard.' The same conclusion +may be drawn from the passage, 'He who knows this becomes conspicuous +and celebrated,' which proclaims an inconsiderable reward only, while to +the devout meditation on Brahman a high reward would have to be +allotted. Nor is there mentioned in the entire passage about the light +any other characteristic mark of Brahman, while such marks are set forth +in the passages (discussed above) which refer to pra/n/a and the ether. +Nor, again, is Brahman indicated in the preceding section, 'the Gayatri +is everything whatsoever exists,' &c. (III, 12); for that passage makes +a statement about the Gayatri metre only. And even if that section did +refer to Brahman, still Brahman would not be recognised in the passage +at present under discussion; for there (in the section referred to) it +is declared in the clause, 'Three feet of it are the Immortal in +heaven'--that heaven constitutes the abode; while in our passage the +words 'the light above heaven' declare heaven to be a boundary. For all +these reasons the word jyotis is here to be taken in its ordinary +meaning, viz. light. + +To this we make the following reply. The word jyotis must be held to +denote Brahman. Why? On account of the feet (quarters) being mentioned. +In a preceding passage Brahman had been spoken of as having four feet +(quarters). 'Such is the greatness of it; greater than it is the Person +(purusha). One foot of it are all the beings, three feet of it are the +Immortal in heaven.' That which in this passage is said to constitute +the three-quarter part, immortal and connected with heaven, of Brahman, +which altogether comprises four quarters; this very same entity we +recognise as again referred to in the passage under discussion, because +there also it is said to be connected with heaven. If therefore we +should set it aside in our interpretation of the passage and assume the +latter to refer to the ordinary light, we should commit the mistake of +dropping, without need, the topic started and introducing a new subject. +Brahman, in fact, continues to form the subject-matter, not only of the +passage about the light, but likewise of the subsequent section, the +so-called Sa/nd/ilya-vidya (Ch. Up. III, 14). Hence we conclude that in +our passage the word 'light' must be held to denote Brahman. The +objection (raised above) that from common use the words 'light' and 'to +shine' are known to denote effected (physical) light is without force; +for as it is known from the general topic of the chapter that Brahman is +meant, those two words do not necessarily denote physical light only to +the exclusion of Brahman[124], but may also denote Brahman itself, in so +far as it is characterised by the physical shining light which is its +effect. Analogously another mantra declares, 'that by which the sun +shines kindled with heat' (Taitt. Br. III, 12, 9, 7). Or else we may +suppose that the word jyotis here does not denote at all that light on +which the function of the eye depends. For we see that in other passages +it has altogether different meanings; so, for instance, B/ri/. Up. IV, +3, 5, 'With speech only as light man sits,' and Taitt. Sa. I, 6, 3, 3, +'May the mind, the light, accept,' &c. It thus appears that whatever +illuminates (in the different senses of the word) something else may be +spoken of as 'light.' Hence to Brahman also, whose nature is +intelligence, the term 'light' may be applied; for it gives light to the +entire world. Similarly, other scriptural passages say, 'Him the shining +one, everything shines after; by his light all this is lighted' (Kau. +Up. II, 5, 15); and 'Him the gods worship as the light of lights, as the +immortal' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 16). Against the further objection that the +omnipresent Brahman cannot be viewed as bounded by heaven we remark that +the assignment, to Brahman, of a special locality is not contrary to +reason because it subserves the purpose of devout meditation. Nor does +it avail anything to say that it is impossible to assign any place to +Brahman because Brahman is out of connexion with all place. For it is +possible to make such an assumption, because Brahman is connected with +certain limiting adjuncts. Accordingly Scripture speaks of different +kinds of devout meditation on Brahman as specially connected with +certain localities, such as the sun, the eye, the heart. For the same +reason it is also possible to attribute to Brahman a multiplicity of +abodes, as is done in the clause (quoted above) 'higher than all.' The +further objection that the light beyond heaven is the mere physical +light because it is identified with the gastric fire, which itself is a +mere effect and is inferred from perceptible marks such as the heat of +the body and a certain sound, is equally devoid of force; for the +gastric fire may be viewed as the outward appearance (or symbol) of +Brahman, just as Brahman's name is a mere outward symbol. Similarly in +the passage, 'Let a man meditate on it (the gastric light) as seen and +heard,' the visibility and audibility (here implicitly ascribed to +Brahman) must be considered as rendered possible through the gastric +fire being the outward appearance of Brahman. Nor is there any force in +the objection that Brahman cannot be meant because the text mentions an +inconsiderable reward only; for there is no reason compelling us to have +recourse to Brahman for the purpose of such and such a reward only, and +not for the purpose of such and such another reward. Wherever the text +represents the highest Brahman--which is free from all connexion with +distinguishing attributes--as the universal Self, it is understood that +the result of that instruction is one only, viz. final release. +Wherever, on the other hand, Brahman is taught to be connected with +distinguishing attributes or outward symbols, there, we see, all the +various rewards which this world can offer are spoken of; cp. for +instance, B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 24, 'This is he who eats all food, the giver +of wealth. He who knows this obtains wealth.' Although in the passage +itself which treats of the light no characteristic mark of Brahman is +mentioned, yet, as the Sutra intimates, the mark stated in a preceding +passage (viz. the mantra, 'Such is the greatness of it,' &c.) has to be +taken in connexion with the passage about the light as well. The +question how the mere circumstance of Brahman being mentioned in a not +distant passage can have the power of divorcing from its natural object +and transferring to another object the direct statement about light +implied in the word 'light,' may be answered without difficulty. The +passage under discussion runs[125], 'which above this heaven, the +light.' The relative pronoun with which this clause begins intimates, +according to its grammatical force[126], the same Brahman which was +mentioned in the previous passage, and which is here recognised (as +being the same which was mentioned before) through its connexion with +heaven; hence the word jyotis also--which stands in grammatical +co-ordination to 'which'--must have Brahman for its object. From all +this it follows that the word 'light' here denotes Brahman. + +25. If it be objected that (Brahman is) not (denoted) on account of the +metre being denoted; (we reply) not so, because thus (i.e. by means of +the metre) the direction of the mind (on Brahman) is declared; for thus +it is seen (in other passages also). + +We now address ourselves to the refutation of the assertion (made in the +purvapaksha of the preceding Sutra) that in the previous passage also +Brahman is not referred to, because in the sentence, 'Gayatri is +everything whatsoever here exists,' the metre called Gayatri is spoken +of.--How (we ask the purvapakshin) can it be maintained that, on account +of the metre being spoken of, Brahman is not denoted, while yet the +mantra 'such is the greatness of it,' &c., clearly sets forth Brahman +with its four quarters?--You are mistaken (the purvapakshin replies). +The sentence, 'Gayatri is everything,' starts the discussion of Gayatri. +The same Gayatri is thereupon described under the various forms of all +beings, earth, body, heart, speech, breath; to which there refers also +the verse, 'that Gayatri has four feet and is sixfold.' After that we +meet with the mantra, 'Such is the greatness of it.' &c. How then, we +ask, should this mantra, which evidently is quoted with reference to the +Gayatri (metre) as described in the preceding clauses, all at once +denote Brahman with its four quarters? Since therefore the metre Gayatri +is the subject-matter of the entire chapter, the term 'Brahman' which +occurs in a subsequent passage ('the Brahman which has thus been +described') must also denote the metre. This is analogous to a previous +passage (Ch. Up. III, 11, 3, 'He who thus knows this Brahma-upanishad'), +where the word Brahma-upanishad is explained to mean Veda-upanishad. As +therefore the preceding passage refers (not to Brahman, but) to the +Gayatri metre, Brahman does not constitute the topic of the entire +section. + +This argumentation, we reply, proves nothing against our position. +'Because thus direction of the mind is declared,' i.e. because the +Brahma/n/a passage, 'Gayatri indeed is all this,' intimates that by +means of the metre Gayatri the mind is to be directed on Brahman which +is connected with that metre. Of the metre Gayatri, which is nothing but +a certain special combination of syllables, it could not possibly be +said that it is the Self of everything. We therefore have to understand +the passage as declaring that Brahman, which, as the cause of the world, +is connected with that product also whose name is Gayatri, is 'all +this;' in accordance with that other passage which directly says, 'All +this indeed is Brahman' (Kh. Up. III, 14, 1). That the effect is in +reality not different from the cause, we shall prove later on, under +Sutra II, 1, 14. Devout meditation on Brahman under the form of certain +effects (of Brahman) is seen to be mentioned in other passages also, so, +for instance, Ait. Ar. III, 2, 3, 12, 'For the Bahv/rik/as consider him +in the great hymn, the Adhvaryus in the sacrificial fire, the Chandogas +in the Mahavrata ceremony.' Although, therefore, the previous passage +speaks of the metre, Brahman is what is meant, and the same Brahman is +again referred to in the passage about the light, whose purport it is to +enjoin another form of devout meditation. + +Another commentator[127] is of opinion that the term Gayatri (does not +denote Brahman in so far as viewed under the form of Gayatri, but) +directly denotes Brahman, on account of the equality of number; for just +as the Gayatri metre has four feet consisting of six syllables each, so +Brahman also has four feet, (i.e. quarters.) Similarly we see that in +other passages also the names of metres are used to denote other things +which resemble those metres in certain numerical relations; cp. for +instance, Ch. Up. IV, 3, 8, where it is said at first, 'Now these five +and the other five make ten and that is the K/ri/ta,' and after that +'these are again the Viraj which eats the food.' If we adopt this +interpretation, Brahman only is spoken of, and the metre is not referred +to at all. In any case Brahman is the subject with which the previous +passage is concerned. + +26. And thus also (we must conclude, viz. that Brahman is the subject of +the previous passage), because (thus only) the declaration as to the +beings, &c. being the feet is possible. + +That the previous passage has Brahman for its topic, we must assume for +that reason also that the text designates the beings and so on as the +feet of Gayatri. For the text at first speaks of the beings, the earth, +the body, and the heart[128], and then goes on 'that Gayatri has four +feet and is sixfold.' For of the mere metre, without any reference to +Brahman, it would be impossible to say that the beings and so on are its +feet. Moreover, if Brahman were not meant, there would be no room for +the verse, 'Such is the greatness,' &c. For that verse clearly describes +Brahman in its own nature; otherwise it would be impossible to represent +the Gayatri as the Self of everything as is done in the words, 'One foot +of it are all the beings; three feet of it are what is immortal in +heaven.' The purusha-sukta also (/Ri/k Sa/m/h. X, 90) exhibits the verse +with sole reference to Brahman. Sm/ri/ti likewise ascribes to Brahman a +like nature, 'I stand supporting all this world by a single portion of +myself' (Bha. Gita X, 42). Our interpretation moreover enables us to +take the passage, 'that Brahman indeed which,' &c. (III, 12, 7), in its +primary sense, (i.e. to understand the word Brahman to denote nothing +but Brahman.) And, moreover, the passage, 'these are the five men of +Brahman' (III, 13, 6), is appropriate only if the former passage about +the Gayatri is taken as referring to Brahman (for otherwise the +'Brahman' in 'men of Brahman' would not be connected with the previous +topic). Hence Brahman is to be considered as the subject-matter of the +previous passage also. And the decision that the same Brahman is +referred to in the passage about the light where it is recognised (to be +the same) from its connexion with heaven, remains unshaken. + +27. The objection that (the Brahman of the former passage cannot be +recognised in the latter) on account of the difference of designation, +is not valid because in either (designation) there is nothing contrary +(to the recognition). + +The objection that in the former passage ('three feet of it are what is +immortal in heaven'), heaven is designated as the abode, while in the +latter passage ('that light which shines above this heaven'), heaven is +designated as the boundary, and that, on account of this difference of +designation, the subject-matter of the former passage cannot be +recognised in the latter, must likewise be refuted. This we do by +remarking that in either designation nothing is contrary to the +recognition. Just as in ordinary language a falcon, although in contact +with the top of a tree, is not only said to be on the tree but also +above the tree, so Brahman also, although being in heaven, is here +referred to as being beyond heaven as well. + +Another (commentator) explains: just as in ordinary language a falcon, +although not in contact with the top of a tree, is not only said to be +above the top of the tree but also on the top of the tree, so Brahman +also, which is in reality beyond heaven, is (in the former of the two +passages) said to be in heaven. Therefore the Brahman spoken of in the +former passage can be recognised in the latter also, and it remains +therefore a settled conclusion that the word 'light' denotes Brahman. + +28. Pra/n/a (breath) is Brahman, that being understood from a connected +consideration (of the passages referring to pra/n/a). + +In the Kaushitaki-brahma/n/a-upanishad there is recorded a legend of +Indra and Pratardana which begins with the words, 'Pratardana, forsooth, +the son of Divodasa came by means of fighting and strength to the +beloved abode of Indra' (Kau. Up. III, 1). In this legend we read: 'He +said: I am pra/n/a, the intelligent Self (praj/n/atman), meditate on me +as Life, as Immortality' (III, 2). And later on (III, 3), 'Pra/n/a +alone, the intelligent Self, having laid hold of this body, makes it +rise up.' Then, again (III, 8), 'Let no man try to find out what speech +is, let him know the speaker.' And in the end (III, 8), 'That breath +indeed is the intelligent Self, bliss, imperishable, immortal.'--Here +the doubt presents itself whether the word pra/n/a denotes merely +breath, the modification of air, or the Self of some divinity, or the +individual soul, or the highest Brahman.--But, it will be said at the +outset, the Sutra I, 1, 21 already has shown that the word pra/n/a +refers to Brahman, and as here also we meet with characteristic marks of +Brahman, viz. the words 'bliss, imperishable, immortal,' what reason is +there for again raising the same doubt?--We reply: Because there are +observed here characteristic marks of different kinds. For in the legend +we meet not only with marks indicating Brahman, but also with marks +pointing to other beings Thus Indra's words, 'Know me only' (III, 1) +point to the Self of a divinity; the words, 'Having laid hold of this +body it makes it rise up,' point to the breath; the words, 'Let no man +try to find out what speech is, let him know the speaker,' point to the +individual soul. There is thus room for doubt. + +If, now, the purvapakshin maintains that the term pra/n/a here denotes +the well-known modification of air, i.e. breath, we, on our side, assert +that the word pra/n/a must be understood to denote Brahman.--For what +reason?--On account of such being the consecutive meaning of the +passages. For if we examine the connexion of the entire section which +treats of the pra/n/a, we observe that all the single passages can be +construed into a whole only if they are viewed as referring to Brahman. +At the beginning of the legend Pratardana, having been allowed by Indra +to choose a boon, mentions the highest good of man, which he selects for +his boon, in the following words, 'Do you yourself choose that boon for +me which you deem most beneficial for a man.' Now, as later on pra/n/a +is declared to be what is most beneficial for man, what should pra/n/a +denote but the highest Self? For apart from the cognition of that Self a +man cannot possibly attain what is most beneficial for him, as many +scriptural passages declare. Compare, for instance, /S/ve. Up. III, 8, +'A man who knows him passes over death; there is no other path to go.' +Again, the further passage, 'He who knows me thus by no deed of his is +his life harmed, not by theft, not by bhru/n/ahatya' (III, 1), has a +meaning only if Brahman is supposed to be the object of knowledge. For, +that subsequently to the cognition of Brahman all works and their +effects entirely cease, is well known from scriptural passages, such as +the following, 'All works perish when he has been beheld who is the +higher and the lower' (Mu. Up. II, 2, 8). Moreover, pra/n/a can be +identified with the intelligent Self only if it is Brahman. For the air +which is non-intelligent can clearly not be the intelligent Self. Those +characteristic marks, again, which are mentioned in the concluding +passage (viz. those intimated by the words 'bliss,' 'imperishable,' +'immortal') can, if taken in their full sense, not be reconciled with +any being except Brahman. There are, moreover, the following passages, +'He does not increase by a good action, nor decrease by a bad action. +For he makes him whom he wishes to lead up from these worlds do a good +deed; and the same makes him whom he wishes to lead down from these +worlds do a bad deed;' and, 'He is the guardian of the world, he is the +king of the world, he is the Lord of the world' (Kau. Up. III, 8). All +this can be properly understood only if the highest Brahman is +acknowledged to be the subject-matter of the whole chapter, not if the +vital air is substituted in its place. Hence the word pra/n/a denotes +Brahman. + +29. If it be said that (Brahman is) not (denoted) on account of the +speaker denoting himself; (we reply that this objection is not valid) +because there is in that (chapter) a multitude of references to the +interior Self. + +An objection is raised against the assertion that pra/n/a denotes +Brahman. The word pra/n/a, it is said, does not denote the highest +Brahman, because the speaker designates himself. The speaker, who is a +certain powerful god called Indra, at first says, in order to reveal +himself to Pratardana, 'Know me only,' and later on, 'I am pra/n/a, the +intelligent Self.' How, it is asked, can the pra/n/a, which this latter +passage, expressive of personality as it is, represents as the Self of +the speaker, be Brahman to which, as we know from Scripture, the +attribute of being a speaker cannot be ascribed; compare, for instance, +B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 8, 'It is without speech, without mind.' Further on, +also, the speaker, i.e. Indra, glorifies himself by enumerating a number +of attributes, all of which depend on personal existence and can in no +way belong to Brahman, 'I slew the three-headed son of Tvash/tri/; I +delivered the Arunmukhas, the devotees, to the wolves,' and so on. Indra +may be called pra/n/a on account of his strength. Scripture says, +'Strength indeed is pra/n/a,' and Indra is known as the god of strength; +and of any deed of strength people say, 'It is Indra's work.' The +personal Self of a deity may, moreover, be called an intelligent Self; +for the gods, people say, possess unobstructed knowledge. It thus being +a settled matter that some passages convey information about the +personal Self of some deity, the other passages also--as, for instance, +the one about what is most beneficial for man--must be interpreted as +well as they may with reference to the same deity. Hence pra/n/a does +not denote Brahman. + +This objection we refute by the remark that in that chapter there are +found a multitude of references to the interior Self. For the passage, +'As long as pra/n/a dwells in this body so long surely there is life,' +declares that that pra/n/a only which is the intelligent interior +Self--and not some particular outward deity--has power to bestow and to +take back life. And where the text speaks of the eminence of the +pra/n/as as founded on the existence of the pra/n/a, it shows that that +pra/n/a is meant which has reference to the Self and is the abode of the +sense-organs.[129] + +Of the same tendency is the passage, 'Pra/n/a, the intelligent Self, +alone having laid hold of this body makes it rise up;' and the passage +(which occurs in the passus, 'Let no man try to find out what speech +is,' &c.), 'For as in a car the circumference of the wheel is set on the +spokes and the spokes on the nave, thus are these objects set on the +subjects (the senses) and the subjects on the pra/n/a. And that pra/n/a +indeed is the Self of pra/n/a, blessed, imperishable, immortal.' So also +the following passage which, referring to this interior Self, forming as +it were the centre of the peripherical interaction of the objects and +senses, sums up as follows, 'He is my Self, thus let it be known;' a +summing up which is appropriate only if pra/n/a is meant to denote not +some outward existence, but the interior Self. And another scriptural +passage declares 'this Self is Brahman, omniscient'[130] (B/ri/. Up. II, +5, 19). We therefore arrive at the conclusion that, on account of the +multitude of references to the interior Self, the chapter contains +information regarding Brahman, not regarding the Self of some +deity.--How then can the circumstance of the speaker (Indra) referring +to himself be explained? + +30. The declaration (made by Indra about himself, viz. that he is one +with Brahman) (is possible) through intuition vouched for by Scripture, +as in the case of Vamadeva. + +The individual divine Self called Indra perceiving by means of +/ri/shi-like intuition[131]--the existence of which is vouched for by +Scripture--its own Self to be identical with the supreme Self, instructs +Pratardana (about the highest Self) by means of the words 'Know me +only.' + +By intuition of the same kind the /ri/shi Vamadeva reached the knowledge +expressed in the words, 'I was Manu and Surya;' in accordance with the +passage, 'Whatever deva was awakened (so as to know Brahman) he indeed +became that' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 10). The assertion made above (in the +purvapaksha of the preceding Sutra) that Indra after saying, 'Know me +only,' glorifies himself by enumerating the slaying of Tvash/tri/'s son +and other deeds of strength, we refute as follows. The death of +Tvash/tri/'s son and similar deeds are referred to, not to the end of +glorifying Indra as the object of knowledge--in which case the sense of +the passage would be, 'Because I accomplished such and such deeds, +therefore know me'--but to the end of glorifying the cognition of the +highest Self. For this reason the text, after having referred to the +slaying of Tvash/tri/'s son and the like, goes on in the clause next +following to exalt knowledge, 'And not one hair of me is harmed there. +He who knows me thus by no deed of his is his life harmed.'--(But how +does this passage convey praise of knowledge?)--Because, we reply, its +meaning is as follows: 'Although I do such cruel deeds, yet not even a +hair of mine is harmed because I am one with Brahman; therefore the life +of any other person also who knows me thus is not harmed by any deed of +his.' And the object of the knowledge (praised by Indra) is nothing else +but Brahman which is set forth in a subsequent passage, 'I am pra/n/a, +the intelligent Self.' Therefore the entire chapter refers to Brahman. + +31. If it be said (that Brahman is) not (meant), on account of +characteristic marks of the individual soul and the chief vital air +(being mentioned); we say no, on account of the threefoldness of devout +meditation (which would result from your interpretation); on account of +(the meaning advocated by us) being accepted (elsewhere); and on account +of (characteristic marks of Brahman) being connected (with the passage +under discussion). + +Although we admit, the purvapakshin resumes, that the chapter about the +pra/n/a does not furnish any instruction regarding some outward deity, +since it contains a multitude of references to the interior Self; still +we deny that it is concerned with Brahman.--For what reason?--Because it +mentions characteristic marks of the individual soul on the one hand, +and of the chief vital air on the other hand. The passage, 'Let no man +try to find out what speech is, let him know the speaker,' mentions a +characteristic mark of the individual soul, and must therefore be held +to point out as the object of knowledge the individual soul which rules +and employs the different organs of action such as speech and so on. On +the other hand, we have the passage, 'But pra/n/a alone, the intelligent +Self, having laid hold of this body makes it rise up,' which points to +the chief vital air; for the chief attribute of the vital air is that it +sustains the body. Similarly, we read in the colloquy of the vital airs +(Pra. Up. II, 3), concerning speech and the other vital airs, 'Then +pra/n/a (the chief vital air) as the best said to them: Be not deceived; +I alone dividing myself fivefold support this body and keep it.' Those, +again, who in the passage quoted above read 'this one (masc.), the +body[132]' must give the following explanation, Pra/n/a having laid hold +of this one, viz. either the individual soul or the aggregate of the +sense organs, makes the body rise up. The individual soul as well as the +chief vital air may justly be designated as the intelligent Self; for +the former is of the nature of intelligence, and the latter (although +non-intelligent in itself) is the abode of other pra/n/as, viz. the +sense organs, which are the instruments of intelligence. Moreover, if +the word pra/n/a be taken to denote the individual soul as well as the +chief vital air, the pra/n/a and the intelligent Self may be spoken of +in two ways, either as being non-different on account of their mutual +concomitance, or as being different on account of their (essentially +different) individual character; and in these two different ways they +are actually spoken of in the two following passages, 'What is pra/n/a +that is praj/n/a, what is praj/n/a that is pra/n/a;' and, 'For together +do these two live in the body and together do they depart.' If, on the +other hand, pra/n/a denoted Brahman, what then could be different from +what? For these reasons pra/n/a does not denote Brahman, but either the +individual soul or the chief vital air or both. + +All this argumentation, we reply, is wrong, 'on account of the +threefoldness of devout meditation.' Your interpretation would involve +the assumption of devout meditation of three different kinds, viz. on +the individual soul, on the chief vital air, and on Brahman. But it is +inappropriate to assume that a single sentence should enjoin three kinds +of devout meditation; and that all the passages about the pra/n/a really +constitute one single sentence (one syntactical whole) appears from the +beginning and the concluding part. In the beginning we have the clause +'Know me only,' followed by 'I am pra/n/a, the intelligent Self, +meditate on me as Life, as Immortality;' and in the end we read, 'And +that pra/n/a indeed is the intelligent Self, blessed, imperishable, +immortal.' The beginning and the concluding part are thus seen to be +similar, and we therefore must conclude that they refer to one and the +same matter. Nor can the characteristic mark of Brahman be so turned as +to be applied to something else; for the ten objects and the ten +subjects (subjective powers)[133] cannot rest on anything but Brahman. +Moreover, pra/n/a must denote Brahman 'on account of (that meaning) +being accepted,' i.e. because in the case of other passages where +characteristic marks of Brahman are mentioned the word pra/n/a is taken +in the sense of 'Brahman.' And another reason for assuming the passage +to refer to Brahman is that here also, i.e. in the passage itself there +is 'connexion' with characteristic marks of Brahman, as, for instance, +the reference to what is most beneficial for man. The assertion that the +passage, 'Having laid hold of this body it makes it rise up,' contains a +characteristic mark of the chief vital air, is untrue; for as the +function of the vital air also ultimately rests on Brahman it can +figuratively be ascribed to the latter. So Scripture also declares, 'No +mortal lives by the breath that goes up and by the breath that goes +down. We live by another in whom these two repose' (Ka. Up. II, 5, 5). +Nor does the indication of the individual soul which you allege to occur +in the passage, 'Let no man try to find out what speech is, let him know +the speaker,' preclude the view of pra/n/a denoting Brahman. For, as the +passages, 'I am Brahman,' 'That art thou,' and others, prove, there is +in reality no such thing as an individual soul absolutely different from +Brahman, but Brahman, in so far as it differentiates itself through the +mind (buddhi) and other limiting conditions, is called individual soul, +agent, enjoyer. Such passages therefore as the one alluded to, (viz. +'let no man try to find out what speech is, let him know the speaker,') +which, by setting aside all the differences due to limiting conditions, +aim at directing the mind on the internal Self and thus showing that the +individual soul is one with Brahman, are by no means out of place. That +the Self which is active in speaking and the like is Brahman appears +from another scriptural passage also, viz. Ke. Up. I, 5, 'That which is +not expressed by speech and by which speech is expressed that alone know +as Brahman, not that which people here adore.' The remark that the +statement about the difference of pra/n/a and praj/n/a (contained in the +passage, 'Together they dwell in this body, together they depart') does +not agree with that interpretation according to which pra/n/a is +Brahman, is without force; for the mind and the vital air which are the +respective abodes of the two powers of cognition and action, and +constitute the limiting conditions of the internal Self may be spoken of +as different. The internal Self, on the other hand, which is limited by +those two adjuncts, is in itself non-differentiated, so that the two may +be identified, as is done in the passage 'pra/n/a is praj/n/a.' + +The second part of the Sutra is explained in a different manner +also[134], as follows: Characteristic marks of the individual soul as +well as of the chief vital air are not out of place even in a chapter +whose topic is Brahman. How so? 'On account of the threefoldness of +devout meditation.' The chapter aims at enjoining three kinds of devout +meditation on Brahman, according as Brahman is viewed under the aspect +of pra/n/a, under the aspect of praj/n/a, and in itself. The passages, +'Meditate (on me) as life, as immortality. Life is pra/n/a,' and 'Having +laid hold of this body it makes it rise up. Therefore let man worship it +alone as uktha,' refer to the pra/n/a aspect. The introductory passage, +'Now we shall explain how all things become one in that praj/n/a,' and +the subsequent passages, 'Speech verily milked one portion thereof; the +word is its object placed outside;' and, 'Having by praj/n/a taken +possession of speech he obtains by speech all words &c.,' refer to the +praj/n/a aspect. The Brahman aspect finally is referred to in the +following passage, 'These ten objects have reference to praj/n/a, the +ten subjects have reference to objects. If there were no objects there +would be no subjects; and if there were no subjects there would be no +objects. For on either side alone nothing could be achieved. But that is +not many. For as in a car the circumference of the wheel is set on the +spokes and the spokes on the nave, thus are these objects set on the +subjects and the subjects on the pra/n/a.' Thus we see that the one +meditation on Brahman is here represented as threefold, according as +Brahman is viewed either with reference to two limiting conditions or in +itself. In other passages also we find that devout meditation on Brahman +is made dependent on Brahman being qualified by limiting adjuncts; so, +for instance (Ch. Up. III, 14, 2), 'He who consists of mind, whose body +is pra/n/a.' The hypothesis of Brahman being meditated upon under three +aspects perfectly agrees with the pra/n/a chapter[135]; as, on the one +hand, from a comparison of the introductory and the concluding clauses +we infer that the subject-matter of the whole chapter is one only, and +as, on the other hand, we meet with characteristic marks of pra/n/a, +praj/n/a, and Brahman in turns. It therefore remains a settled +conclusion that Brahman is the topic of the whole chapter. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 32: The subject is the universal Self whose nature is +intelligence (/k/u); the object comprises whatever is of a +non-intelligent nature, viz. bodies with their sense organs, internal +organs, and the objects of the senses, i.e. the external material +world.] + +[Footnote 33: The object is said to have for its sphere the notion of +the 'thou' (yushmat), not the notion of the 'this' or 'that' (idam), in +order better to mark its absolute opposition to the subject or Ego. +Language allows of the co-ordination of the pronouns of the first and +the third person ('It is I,' 'I am he who,' &c.; ete vayam, ame vayam +asmahe), but not of the co-ordination of the pronouns of the first and +second person.] + +[Footnote 34: Adhyasa, literally 'superimposition' in the sense of +(mistaken) ascription or imputation, to something, of an essential +nature or attributes not belonging to it. See later on.] + +[Footnote 35: Natural, i.e. original, beginningless; for the modes of +speech and action which characterise transmigratory existence have +existed, with the latter, from all eternity.] + +[Footnote 36: I.e. the intelligent Self which is the only reality and +the non-real objects, viz. body and so on, which are the product of +wrong knowledge.] + +[Footnote 37: 'The body, &c. is my Self;' 'sickness, death, children, +wealth, &c., belong to my Self.'] + +[Footnote 38: Literally 'in some other place.' The clause 'in the form +of remembrance' is added, the Bhamati remarks, in order to exclude those +cases where something previously observed is recognised in some other +thing or place; as when, for instance, the generic character of a cow +which was previously observed in a black cow again presents itself to +consciousness in a grey cow, or when Devadatta whom we first saw in +Pa/t/aliputra again appears before us in Mahishmati. These are cases of +recognition where the object previously observed again presents itself +to our senses; while in mere remembrance the object previously perceived +is not in renewed contact with the senses. Mere remembrance operates in +the case of adhyasa, as when we mistake mother-of-pearl for silver which +is at the time not present but remembered only.] + +[Footnote 39: The so-called anyathakhyativadins maintain that in the act +of adhyasa the attributes of one thing, silver for instance, are +superimposed on a different thing existing in a different place, +mother-of-pearl for instance (if we take for our example of adhyasa the +case of some man mistaking a piece of mother-of-pearl before him for a +piece of silver). The atmakhyativadins maintain that in adhyasa the +modification, in the form of silver, of the internal organ and action +which characterise transmigratory existence have existed, with the +latter, from all eternity.] + +[Footnote 40: This is the definition of the akhyativadins.] + +[Footnote 41: Some anyathakhyativadins and the Madhyamikas according to +Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 42: The pratyagatman is in reality non-object, for it is +svayampraka/s/a, self-luminous, i.e. the subjective factor in all +cognition. But it becomes the object of the idea of the Ego in so far as +it is limited, conditioned by its adjuncts which are the product of +Nescience, viz. the internal organ, the senses and the subtle and gross +bodies, i.e. in so far as it is jiva, individual or personal soul. Cp. +Bhamati, pp. 22, 23: '/k/idatmaiva svayampraka/s/oszpi +buddhyadivishayavi/kkh/ura/n/at katha/mk/id asm +upratyayavishayoszha/m/karaspada/m/ jiva iti /k/a jantur iti /k/a +ksheuajna iti /k/akhyayate.'] + +[Footnote 43: Translated according to the Bhamati. We deny, the objector +says, the possibility of adhyasa in the case of the Self, not on the +ground that it is not an object because self-luminous (for that it may +be an object although it is self-luminous you have shown), but on the +ground that it is not an object because it is not manifested either by +itself or by anything else.--It is known or manifest, the Vedantin +replies, on account of its immediate presentation (aparokshatvat), i.e. +on account of the intuitional knowledge we have of it. Ananda Giri +construes the above clause in a different way: +asmatpratyayavishayatveszpy aparokshatvad ekantenavishayatvabbavat +tasminn aha@nkaradyadhyasa ity artha/h/. Aparokshatvam api kai/sk/id +atmano nesh/t/am ity asa@nkyaha pratyagatmeti.] + +[Footnote 44: Tatraiva/m/ sati evambhutavastutattvavadhara/n/e sati. +Bha. Tasminn adhyase uktarityazvidyavmake sati. Go. Yatratmani +buddhyadau va yasya buddhyader atmano vadhyasa/h/ tena +buddhyadi-nasztmana va k/ri/tenasz/s/anayadidoshe/n/a /k/aitanyagu/n/ena +/k/atmanatma va vastuto na svalpenapi yujyate. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 45: Whether they belong to the karmaka/nd/a, i.e. that part of +the Veda which enjoins active religious duty or the j/n/anaka/nd/a, i.e. +that part of the Veda which treats of Brahman.] + +[Footnote 46: It being of course the function of the means of right +knowledge to determine Truth and Reality.] + +[Footnote 47: The Bhamati takes adhish/th/anam in the sense of +superintendence, guidance. The senses cannot act unless guided by a +superintending principle, i.e. the individual soul.] + +[Footnote 48: If activity could proceed from the body itself, +non-identified with the Self, it would take place in deep sleep also.] + +[Footnote 49: I.e. in the absence of the mutual superimposition of the +Self and the Non-Self and their attributes.] + +[Footnote 50: The Mima/m/sa, i.e. the enquiry whose aim it is to show +that the embodied Self, i.e. the individual or personal soul is one with +Brahman. This Mima/m/sa being an enquiry into the meaning of the +Vedanta-portions of the Veda, it is also called Vedanta mima/m/sa.] + +[Footnote 51: Nadhikarartha iti. Tatra hetur brahmeti. Asyartha/h/, kam +ayam atha/s/abdo brahmaj/n/ane/kkh/ya/h/ kim vantar/n/itavi/k/arasya +athave/kkh/avi/s/esha/n/aj/n/anasyarambhartha/h/. Nadya/h/ tasya +mima/m/sapravartikayas tadapravartyatvad anarabhyatvat tasya/s/ +/k/ottaratra pratyadhikara/n/am apratipadanat. Na +dvitiyoztha/s/abdenanantaryoktidvara vi/s/ish/t/adhikaryasamarpa/n/e +sadhana/k/atush/t/ayasampannana/m/ brahmadhitadvi/k/arayor anarthitvad +vi/k/aranarambhan na /k/a vi/k/aravidhiva/s/ad adhikari kalpya/h/ +prarambhasyapi tulyatvad adhikari/n/a/s/ /k/a vidhyapekshitopadhitvan na +t/ri/tiya/h/ brahmaj/n/anasyanandasakshatkaratvenadhikaryatve z +pyapradhanyad atha/s/abdasambandhat tasman narambharthateti. Ananda +Giri.] + +[Footnote 52: Any relation in which the result, i.e. here the enquiry +into Brahman may stand to some antecedent of which it is the effect may +be comprised under the relation of anantarya.] + +[Footnote 53: He cuts off from the heart, then from the tongue, then +from the breast.] + +[Footnote 54: Where one action is subordinate to another as, for +instance, the offering of the prayajas is to the +dar/s/apur/n/amasa-sacrifice, or where one action qualifies a person for +another as, for instance, the offering of the dar/s/apur/n/amasa +qualifies a man for the performance of the Soma-sacrifice, there is +unity of the agent, and consequently an intimation of the order of +succession of the actions is in its right place.] + +[Footnote 55: The 'means' in addition to /s/ama and dama are +discontinuance of religious ceremonies (uparati), patience in suffering +(titiksha), attention and concentration of the mind (samadhana), and +faith (/s/raddha).] + +[Footnote 56: According to Pa/n/ini II, 3, 50 the sixth (genitive) case +expresses the relation of one thing being generally supplementary to, or +connected with, some other thing.] + +[Footnote 57: In the case of other transitive verbs, object and result +may be separate; so, for instance, when it is said 'grama/m/ +ga/kkh/ati,' the village is the object of the action of going, and the +arrival at the village its result. But in the case of verbs of desiring +object and result coincide.] + +[Footnote 58: That Brahman exists we know, even before entering on the +Brahma-mima/m/sa, from the occurrence of the word in the Veda, &c., and +from the etymology of the word we at once infer Brahman's chief +attributes.] + +[Footnote 59: The three last opinions are those of the followers of the +Nyaya, the Sa@nkhya, and the Yoga-philosophy respectively. The three +opinions mentioned first belong to various materialistic schools; the +two subsequent ones to two sects of Bauddha philosophers.] + +[Footnote 60: As, for instance, the passages 'this person consists of +the essence of food;' 'the eye, &c. spoke;' 'non-existing this was in +the beginning,' &c.] + +[Footnote 61: So the compound is to be divided according to An. Gi. and +Go.; the Bha. proposes another less plausible division.] + +[Footnote 62: According to Nirukta I, 2 the six bhavavikara/h/ are: +origination, existence, modification, increase, decrease, destruction.] + +[Footnote 63: The pradhana, called also prak/ri/ti, is the primal causal +matter of the world in the /S/a@nkhya-system. It will be fully discussed +in later parts of this work. To avoid ambiguities, the term pradhana has +been left untranslated. Cp. Sa@nkhya Karika 3.] + +[Footnote 64: Ke/k/it tu hira/n/yagaroha/m/ sa/m/sari/n/am evagamaj +jagaddhetum a/k/akshate. Ananada Giri.] + +[Footnote 65: Viz. the Vai/s/eshikas.] + +[Footnote 66: Atmana/h/ /s/ruter ity artha/h/. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 67: Text (or direct statement), suggestive power (linga), +syntactical connection (vakya), &c., being the means of proof made use +of in the Purva Mima/m/sa.] + +[Footnote 68: The so-called sakshatkara of Brahman. The &c. comprises +inference and so on.] + +[Footnote 69: So, for instance, the passage 'he carves the sacrificial +post and makes it eight-cornered,' has a purpose only as being +supplementary to the injunction 'he ties the victim to the sacrificial +post.'] + +[Footnote 70: If the fruits of the two /s/astras were not of a different +nature, there would be no reason for the distinction of two /s/astras; +if they are of a different nature, it cannot be said that the knowledge +of Brahman is enjoined for the purpose of final release, in the same way +as sacrifices are enjoined for the purpose of obtaining the heavenly +world and the like.] + +[Footnote 71: The first passage shows that the Self is not joined to the +gross body; the second that it is not joined to the subtle body; the +third that is independent of either.] + +[Footnote 72: Ananda Giri omits 'ata/h/.' His comment is: +p/ri/thagjij/n/asavishayatva/k/ /k/a dharmadyasp/ri/sh/t/atva/m/ +brahma/n/o yuktam ityaha; tad iti; ata/h/ /s/abdapa/th/e dharmadyasparse +karmaphalavailaksba/n/ya/m/ hetuk/ri/tam.--The above translation follows +Govindananda's first explanation. Tat kaivalyam brahmaiva +karmaphalavilaksha/n/atvad ity artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 73: Sampat. Sampan namalpe vastuny alambane samanyena +kena/k/in mahato vastuna/h/ sampadanam. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 74: In which passage the mind, which may be called endless on +account of the infinite number of modifications it undergoes, is +identified with the Vi/s/vedevas, which thereby constitute the chief +object of the meditation; the fruit of the meditation being immortality. +The identity of the Self with Brahman, on the other hand, is real, not +only meditatively imagined, on account of the attribute of intelligence +being common to both.] + +[Footnote 75: Adhyasa/h/ /s/astratoitasmi/m/s taddhi/h/. Sampadi +sampadyamanasya pradhanyenanudhyanam, adhyase tu alambanasyeti +vi/s/esha/h/. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 76: Air and breath each absorb certain things, and are, +therefore, designated by the same term 'absorber.' Seya/m/ +sa/m/vargad/ri/sh/t/ir vayau pra/n/e /k/a da/s/a/s/agata/m/ jagad +dar/s/ayati yatha jivatmani b/rim/ha/n/akriyaya +brahmad/ri/sh/t/iram/ri/tatvayaphalayakalpata iti. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 77: The butter used in the upa/ms/uyaja is ceremonially +purified by the wife of the sacrificer looking at it; so, it might be +said, the Self of him who meditates on Brahman (and who as +kart/ri/--agent--stands in a subordinate anga-relation to the karman of +meditation) is merely purified by the cognition of its being one with +Brahman.] + +[Footnote 78: An hypothesis which might be proposed for the purpose of +obviating the imputation to moksha of non-eternality which results from +the two preceding hypotheses.] + +[Footnote 79: Viz. things to be originated (for instance, gha/t/a/m/ +karoti), things to be obtained (grama/m/ ga/kkh/ati), things to be +modified (suvar/n/a/m/ ku/nd/ala/m/ karoti), and things to be +ceremonially purified (vrihin prokshati).] + +[Footnote 80: Whence it follows that it is not something to be avoided +like transitory things.] + +[Footnote 81: That, for instance, in the passage 'he is to sacrifice +with Soma,' the word 'soma,' which does not denote an action, is devoid +of sense.] + +[Footnote 82: I.e. for the purpose of showing that the passages +conveying information about Brahman as such are justified. You have (the +objector maintains) proved hitherto only that passages containing +information about existent things are admissible, if those things have a +purpose; but how does all this apply to the information about Brahman of +which no purpose has been established?] + +[Footnote 83: It is 'naturally established' because it has natural +motives--not dependent on the injunctions of the Veda, viz. passion and +the like.] + +[Footnote 84: Elsewhere, i.e. outside the Veda.] + +[Footnote 85: The above discussion of the prohibitory passages of the +Veda is of a very scholastic nature, and various clauses in it are +differently interpreted by the different commentators. /S/a@nkara +endeavours to fortify his doctrine, that not all parts of the Veda refer +to action by an appeal to prohibitory passages which do not enjoin +action but abstinence from action. The legitimacy of this appeal might +be contested on the ground that a prohibitory passage also, (as, for +instance, 'a Brahma/n/a is not to be killed,') can be explained as +enjoining a positive action, viz. some action opposed in nature to the +one forbidden, so that the quoted passage might be interpreted to mean +'a determination, &c. of not killing a Brahma/n/a is to be formed;' just +as we understand something positive by the expression 'a +non-Brahma/n/a,' viz. some man who is a kshattriya or something else. To +this the answer is that, wherever we can, we must attribute to the word +'not' its primary sense which is the absolute negation of the word to +which it is joined; so that passages where it is joined to words +denoting action must be considered to have for their purport the entire +absence of action. Special cases only are excepted, as the one alluded +to in the text where certain prohibited actions are enumerated under the +heading of vows; for as a vow is considered as something positive, the +non-doing of some particular action must there be understood as +intimating the performance of some action of an opposite nature. The +question as to the various meanings of the particle 'not' is discussed +in all treatises on the Purva Mima/m/sa; see, for instance, +Arthasamgraha, translation, p. 39 ff.] + +[Footnote 86: The Self is the agent in a sacrifice, &c. only in so far +as it imagines itself to be joined to a body; which imagination is +finally removed by the cognition of Brahman.] + +[Footnote 87: The figurative Self, i.e. the imagination that wife, +children, possessions, and the like are a man's Self; the false Self, +i.e. the imagination that the Self acts, suffers, enjoys, &c.] + +[Footnote 88: I.e. the apparent world with all its distinctions.] + +[Footnote 89: The words in parentheses are not found in the best +manuscripts.] + +[Footnote 90: The most exalted of the three constituent elements whose +state of equipoise constitutes the pradhana.] + +[Footnote 91: Knowledge can arise only where Goodness is predominant, +not where the three qualities mutually counterbalance one another.] + +[Footnote 92: The excess of Sattva in the Yogin would not enable him to +rise to omniscience if he did not possess an intelligent principle +independent of Sattva.] + +[Footnote 93: Ananda Giri comments as follows: paroktanupapatlim +nirasitum p/rikkh/ati idam iti. Prak/ri/tyarthabhavat pratyayarthabhavad +va brahma/n/o sarvaj/n/ateti pra/s/nam eva praka/t/ayati katham iti. +Prathama/m/ pratyaha yasyeti. Ukta/m/ vyatirckadvara viyz/rin/oti +anityatve hiti. Dvitiya/m/ /s/a@nkate j/n/aneti. Svato nityasyapi +j/n/anasya tattadarthava/kkh/innasya karyatvat tatra svatantryam +pratyayartho brahma/n/a/h/ sidhyatity aha.--The knowledge of Brahman is +eternal, and in so far Brahman is not independent with regard to it, but +it is independent with regard to each particular act of knowledge; the +verbal affix in 'janati' indicating the particularity of the act.] + +[Footnote 94: In the second Kha/nd/a of the sixth Prapa/th/aka of the +Ch. Up. 'aikshata' is twice used in a figurative sense (with regard to +fire and water); it is therefore to be understood figuratively in the +third passage also where it occurs.] + +[Footnote 95: So that, on this latter explanation, it is unnecessary to +assume a figurative sense of the word 'thinking' in any of the three +passages.] + +[Footnote 96: A wicked man meets in a forest a blind person who has lost +his way, and implores him to lead him to his village; instead of doing +so the wicked man persuades the blind one to catch hold of the tail of +an ox, which he promises would lead him to his place. The consequence is +that the blind man is, owing to his trustfulness, led even farther +astray, and injured by the bushes, &c., through which the ox drags him.] + +[Footnote 97: Cp. above, p. 30.] + +[Footnote 98: So according to the commentators, not to accept whose +guidance in the translation of scholastic definitions is rather +hazardous. A simpler translation of the clause might however be given.] + +[Footnote 99: With reference to Ch. Up. VI, 8, 2.] + +[Footnote 100: The wise one, i.e. the highest Self; which as jivatman is +conversant with the names and forms of individual things.] + +[Footnote 101: I.e. it is looked upon as the object of the devotion of +the individual souls; while in reality all those souls and Brahman are +one.] + +[Footnote 102: Qualities, i.e. the attributes under which the Self is +meditated on; limiting conditions, i.e. the localities--such as the +heart and the like--which in pious meditation are ascribed to the Self.] + +[Footnote 103: Ananda Giri reads avish/t/asya for avishk/ri/tasya.] + +[Footnote 104: Cp. the entire passage. All things are manifestations of +the highest Self under certain limiting conditions, but occupying +different places in an ascending scale. In unsentient things, stones, +&c. only the satta, the quality of being manifests itself; in plants, +animals, and men the Self manifests itself through the vital sap; in +animals and men there is understanding; higher thought in man alone.] + +[Footnote 105: Ananda Giri on the preceding passage beginning from 'thus +here also:' na kevala/m/ dvaividhyam brahma/n/a/h/ /s/rutism/ri/tyor eva +siddha/m/ ki/m/ tu sutrak/ri/to api matam ity aha, evam iti, +/s/rutism/ri/tyor iva prak/ri/te pi /s/astre dvairupyam brahma/n/o +bhavati; tatra sopadhikabrahmavishayam antastaddharmadhikara/n/am +udaharati adityeti; uktanyaya/m/ tulyade/s/eshu prasarayati evam iti; +sopadhikopade/s/avan nirupadhikopade/s/a/m/ dar/s/ayati evam ityadina, +atmaj/n/@ana/m/ nir/n/etavyam iti sambandha/h/; ayaprasa@ngam aha +pareti; annamayadyupadhidvarokasya katham paravidyavishayatva/m/ tatraha +upadhiti; nir/n/ayakramam aha vakyeti, uktartham adhikara/n/a/m/ +kvastity asa@nkyokta/m/ yatheti.] + +[Footnote 106: After which no other Self is mentioned.] + +[Footnote 107: The previous proofs were founded on li@nga; the argument +which is now propounded is founded on prakara/n/a.] + +[Footnote 108: While, in the case of the Selfs consisting of food and so +on, a further inner Self is duly mentioned each time. It cannot, +therefore, be concluded that the Selfs consisting of food, &c., are +likewise identical with the highest Self referred to in the mantra.] + +[Footnote 109: Yadi labdha na labdhavya/h/ katha/m/ tarhi paramatmano +vastutobhinnena jivatmana paramatma labhyata ity artha/h/. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 110: Yatha paramesvarad bhinno jivatma drash/t/a na bhavaty +evam givatmanozpi drash/t/ur na bhinna/h/ parame/s/vara iti, +jivasyanirva/k/yarve parame/s/varozpy anirva/k/ya/h/ syad ity ata aha +parame/s/varas tv avidyakalpitad iti. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 111: The explanation of the anandamaya given hitherto is here +recalled, and a different one given. The previous explanation is +attributed by Go. An. to the v/ri/ttikara.] + +[Footnote 112: In which sense, as shown above, the word anandamaya must +be taken if understood to denote Brahman.] + +[Footnote 113: I.e. the word translated hitherto by abundance.] + +[Footnote 114: See I, 1, 15-19. ] + +[Footnote 115: The preceding adhikara/n/a had shown that the five Selfs +(consisting of food, mind, and so on), which the Taitt. Up. enumerates, +are introduced merely for the purpose of facilitating the cognition of +Brahman considered as devoid of all qualities; while that Brahman itself +is the real object of knowledge. The present adhikara/n/a undertakes to +show that the passage about the golden person represents the savi/s/esha +Brahman as the object of devout meditation.] + +[Footnote 116: So that the real giver of the gifts bestowed by princes +on poets and singers is Brahman.] + +[Footnote 117: Or else 'that which is within forms and names.'] + +[Footnote 118: Viz. as intimating it. Thus An. Gi. and Go. An. against +the accent of /rik/a/h/. Saya/n/a explains /rik/a/h/ as genitive.] + +[Footnote 119: O/m/karasya pratikatvena va/k/akatvena lakshakatvena va +brahmatvam uktam, om iti, ka/m/ sukha/m/ tasyarthendriyayogajatva/m/ +varayitu/m/ kham iti, tasya bhutaka/s/atva/m/ vyaseddhum pura/n/am ity +uktam. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 120: The doubt about the meaning of a word is preferably to be +decided by means of a reference to preceding passages; where that is not +possible (the doubtful word occurring at the beginning of some new +chapter) complementary, i.e. subsequent passages have to be taken into +consideration.] + +[Footnote 121: The v/ri/ttikara, the commentators say.] + +[Footnote 122: I.e. which has not been mixed with water and earth, +according to Ch. Up. VI, 3, 3. Before that mixture took place light was +entriely separated from the other elements, and therefore bounded by the +latter.] + +[Footnote 123: So as to justify the assumption that such a thing as +non-tripartite light exists at all.] + +[Footnote 124: Brahma/n/o vyava/kkh/idya teja/h/samarpakatva/m/ +vi/s/eshakatvam, tadabhavozvi/s/eshakatvam. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 125: If we strictly follow the order of words in the +original.] + +[Footnote 126: Svasamarthyena sarvanamna/h/ +sannihitaparamar/s/itvava/s/ena.] + +[Footnote 127: The v/ri/ttikara according to Go. An. in his /t/ika on +the bhashya to the next Sutra.] + +[Footnote 128: Concerning the difficulty involved in this +interpretation, cp. Deussen, p. 183, note.] + +[Footnote 129: The text runs, 'astitve /k/a pra/n/ana/m/ ni/hs/reyasam,' +and Go. An. explains 'astitve pra/n/asthitau pra/n/ana/m/ indriya/n/am +sthitir ity arthata/h/ /s/rutim aha.' He as well as An. Gi. quotes as +the text of the scriptural passage referred to 'athato ni/hs/reyasadanam +ity adi.' But if instead of 'astitve /k/a' we read 'asti tv eva,' we get +the concluding clause of Kau. Up. III, 2, as given in Cowell's +edition.]. + +[Footnote 130: Whence we know that the interior Self referred to in the +Kau. Up. is Brahman.] + +[Footnote 131: I.e. spontaneous intuition of supersensible truth, +rendered possible through the knowledge acquired in former existences.] + +[Footnote 132: Ima/m/ /s/ariram instead of ida/m/ /s/ariram.] + +[Footnote 133: Pa/nk/a /s/abdadaya/h/ pa/nk/a p/ri/thivyadaya/s/ /k/a +da/s/a bhutamatra/h/ pa/nk/a buddhindriya/n/i pa/nk/a buddhaya iti +da/s/a praj/n/amatra/h/. Yadva j/n/anendriyartha/h/ pa/nk/a +karzmendriyartha/s/ /ka/ pa/nk/eti da/s/a bhutamatra/h/ +dvividhanindriya/n/i praj/n/amatra da/s/eti bhava/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 134: Viz. by the v/ri/ttikara.] + +[Footnote 135: Ihapi tad yujyate explaining the 'iha tadyogat' of the +Sutra.] + + + + +SECOND PADA. + +REVERENCE TO THE HIGHEST SELF! + + +In the first pada Brahman has been shown to be the cause of the origin, +subsistence, and reabsorption of the entire world, comprising the ether +and the other elements. Moreover, of this Brahman, which is the cause of +the entire world, certain qualities have (implicitly) been declared, +such as all-pervadingness, eternity, omniscience, its being the Self of +all, and so on. Further, by producing reasons showing that some words +which are generally used in a different sense denote Brahman also, we +have been able to determine that some passages about whose sense doubts +are entertained refer to Brahman. Now certain other passages present +themselves which because containing only obscure indications of Brahman +give rise to the doubt whether they refer to the highest Self or to +something else. We therefore begin the second and third padas in order +to settle those doubtful points. + +1. (That which consists of mind is Brahman) because there is taught what +is known from everywhere. + +Scripture says, 'All this indeed is Brahman, beginning, ending, and +breathing in it; thus knowing let a man meditate with calm mind. Now man +is made of determination (kratu); according to what his determination is +in this world so will he be when he has departed this life. Let him +therefore form this determination: he who consists of mind, whose body +is breath (the subtle body),' &c. (Ch. Up. III, 14). Concerning this +passage the doubt presents itself whether what is pointed out as the +object of meditation, by means of attributes such as consisting of mind, +&c., is the embodied (individual) soul or the highest Brahman. + +The embodied Self, the purvapakshin says.--Why?--Because the embodied +Self as the ruler of the organs of action is well known to be connected +with the mind and so on, while the highest Brahman is not, as is +declared in several scriptural passages, so, for instance (Mu. Up. II, +1, 2), 'He is without breath, without mind, pure.'--But, it may be +objected, the passage, 'All this indeed is Brahman,' mentions Brahman +directly; how then can you suppose that the embodied Self forms the +object of meditation?--This objection does not apply, the purvapakshin +rejoins, because the passage does not aim at enjoining meditation on +Brahman, but rather at enjoining calmness of mind, the sense being: +because Brahman is all this, tajjalan, let a man meditate with a calm +mind. That is to say: because all this aggregate of effects is Brahman +only, springing from it, ending in it, and breathing in it; and because, +as everything constitutes one Self only, there is no room for passion; +therefore a man is to meditate with a calm mind. And since the sentence +aims at enjoining calmness of mind, it cannot at the same time enjoin +meditation on Brahman[136]; but meditation is separately enjoined in the +clause, 'Let him form the determination, i.e. reflection.' And thereupon +the subsequent passage, 'He who consists of mind, whose body is breath,' +&c. states the object of the meditation in words indicatory of the +individual soul. For this reason we maintain that the meditation spoken +of has the individual soul for its object. The other attributes also +subsequently stated in the text, 'He to whom all works, all desires +belong,' &c. may rightly be held to refer to the individual soul. The +attributes, finally, of being what abides in the heart and of being +extremely minute which are mentioned in the passage, 'He is my Self +within the heart, smaller than a corn of rice, smaller than a corn of +barley,' may be ascribed to the individual soul which has the size of +the point of a goad, but not to the unlimited Brahman. If it be objected +that the immediately following passage, 'greater than the earth,' &c., +cannot refer to something limited, we reply that smallness and greatness +which are mutually opposite cannot indeed be ascribed to one and the +same thing; and that, if one attribute only is to be ascribed to the +subject of the passage, smallness is preferable because it is mentioned +first; while the greatness mentioned later on may be attributed to the +soul in so far as it is one with Brahman. If it is once settled that the +whole passage refers to the individual soul, it follows that the +declaration of Brahman also, contained in the passage, 'That is Brahman' +(III, 14, 4), refers to the individual soul[137], as it is clearly +connected with the general topic. Therefore the individual soul is the +object of meditation indicated by the qualities of consisting of mind +and so on. + +To all this we reply: The highest Brahman only is what is to be +meditated upon as distinguished by the attributes of consisting of mind +and so on.--Why?--'On account of there being taught here what is known +from everywhere.' What is known from all Vedanta-passages to be the +sense of the word Brahman, viz. the cause of the world, and what is +mentioned here in the beginning words of the passage, ('all this indeed +is Brahman,') the same we must assume to be taught here as distinguished +by certain qualities, viz. consisting of mind and so on. Thus we avoid +the fault of dropping the subject-matter under discussion and needlessly +introducing a new topic.--But, it may be said, it has been shown that +Brahman is, in the beginning of the passage, introduced merely for the +purpose of intimating the injunction of calmness of mind, not for the +purpose of intimating Brahman itself.--True, we reply; but the fact +nevertheless remains that, where the qualities of consisting of mind, +&c. are spoken of, Brahman only is proximate (i.e. mentioned not far off +so that it may be concluded to be the thing referred to), while the +individual soul is neither proximate nor intimated by any word directly +pointing to it. The cases of Brahman and the individual soul are +therefore not equal. + +2. And because the qualities desired to be expressed are possible (in +Brahman; therefore the passage refers to Brahman). + +Although in the Veda which is not the work of man no wish in the strict +sense can be expressed[138], there being no speaker, still such phrases +as 'desired to be expressed,' may be figuratively used on account of the +result, viz. (mental) comprehension. For just as in ordinary language we +speak of something which is intimated by a word and is to be received +(by the hearer as the meaning of the word), as 'desired to be +expressed;' so in the Veda also whatever is denoted as that which is to +be received is 'desired to be expressed,' everything else 'not desired +to be expressed.' What is to be received as the meaning of a Vedic +sentence, and what not, is inferred from the general purport of the +passage. Those qualities which are here desired to be expressed, i.e. +intimated as qualities to be dwelt on in meditation, viz. the qualities +of having true purposes, &c. are possible in the highest Brahman; for +the quality of having true purposes may be ascribed to the highest Self +which possesses unimpeded power over the creation, subsistence, and +reabsorption of this world. Similarly the qualities of having true +desires and true purposes are attributed to the highest Self in another +passage, viz. the one beginning, 'The Self which is free from sin' (Ch. +Up. VIII, 7, 1). The clause, 'He whose Self is the ether,' means 'he +whose Self is like the ether;' for Brahman may be said to be like the +ether on account of its omnipresence and other qualities. This is also +expressed by the clause, 'Greater than the earth.' And the other +explanation also, according to which the passage means 'he whose Self is +the ether' is possible, since Brahman which as the cause of the whole +world is the Self of everything is also the Self of the ether. For the +same reasons he is called 'he to whom all works belong, and so on.' Thus +the qualities here intimated as topics of meditation agree with the +nature of Brahman. We further maintain that the terms 'consisting of +mind,' and 'having breath for its body,' which the purvapakshin asserts +cannot refer to Brahman, may refer to it. For as Brahman is the Self of +everything, qualities such as consisting of mind and the like, which +belong to the individual soul, belong to Brahman also. Accordingly +/S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti say of Brahman, 'Thou art woman, thou art man; thou +art youth, thou art maiden; thou as an old man totterest along on thy +staff; thou art born with thy face turned everywhere' (/S/ve. Up. IV, +3), and 'its hands and feet are everywhere, its eyes and head are +everywhere, its ears are everywhere, it stands encompassing all in the +world' (Bha. Gita III, 13). + +The passage (quoted above against our view), 'Without breath, without +mind, pure,' refers to the pure (unrelated) Brahman. The terms +'consisting of mind; having breath for its body,' on the other hand, +refer to Brahman as distinguished by qualities. Hence, as the qualities +mentioned are possible in Brahman, we conclude that the highest Brahman +only is represented as the object of meditation. + +3. On the other hand, as (those qualities) are not possible (in it), the +embodied (soul is) not (denoted by manomaya, &c.). + +The preceding Sutra has declared that the qualities mentioned are +possible in Brahman; the present Sutra states that they are not possible +in the embodied Self. Brahman only possesses, in the manner explained, +the qualities of consisting of mind, and so on; not the embodied +individual soul. For qualities such as expressed in the words, 'He whose +purposes are true, whose Self is the ether, who has no speech, who is +not disturbed, who is greater than the earth,' cannot easily be +attributed to the embodied Self. By the term 'embodied' (/s/arira) we +have to understand 'residing' in a body. If it be objected that the Lord +also resides in the body[139], we reply, True, he does reside in the +body, but not in the body only; for /s/ruti declares him to be +all-pervading; compare, 'He is greater than the earth; greater than the +atmosphere, omnipresent like the ether, eternal.' The individual soul, +on the other hand, is in the body only, apart from which as the abode of +fruition it does not exist. + +4. And because there is a (separate) denotation of the object of +activity and of the agent. + +The attributes of consisting of mind, and so on, cannot belong to the +embodied Self for that reason also, that there is a (separate) +denotation of the object of activity and of the agent. In the passage, +'When I shall have departed from hence I shall obtain him' (Ch. Up. III, +14, 4), the word 'him' refers to that which is the topic of discussion, +viz. the Self which is to be meditated upon as possessing the attributes +of consisting of mind, &c., as the object of an activity, viz. as +something to be obtained; while the words, 'I shall obtain,' represent +the meditating individual Self as the agent, i.e. the obtainer. Now, +wherever it can be helped, we must not assume that one and the same +being is spoken of as the agent and the object of the activity at the +same time. The relation existing between a person meditating and the +thing meditated upon requires, moreover, different abodes.--And thus for +the above reason, also, that which is characterised by the attributes of +consisting of mind, and so on, cannot be the individual soul. + +5. On account of the difference of words. + +That which possesses the attributes of consisting of mind, and so on, +cannot be the individual soul, for that reason also that there is a +difference of words. + +That is to say, we meet with another scriptural passage of kindred +subject-matter (/S/at. Bra. X, 6, 3, 2), 'Like a rice grain, or a barley +grain, or a canary seed or the kernel of a canary seed, thus that golden +person is in the Self.' There one word, i.e. the locative 'in the Self,' +denotes the embodied Self, and a different word, viz. the nominative +'person,' denotes the Self distinguished by the qualities of consisting +of mind, &c. We therefrom conclude that the two are different. + +6. And on account of Sm/ri/ti. + +Sm/ri/ti also declares the difference of the embodied Self and the +highest Self, viz. Bha. Gita XVIII, 61, 'The Lord, O Arjuna, is seated +in the heart of all beings, driving round by his magical power all +beings (as if they were) mounted on a machine.' + +But what, it may be asked, is that so-called embodied Self different +from the highest Self which is to be set aside according to the +preceding Sutras? /S/ruti passages, as well as Sm/ri/ti, expressly deny +that there is any Self apart from the highest Self; compare, for +instance, B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23, 'There is no other seer but he; there +is no other hearer but he;' and Bha. Gita XIII, 2, 'And know me also, O +Bharata, to be the kshetiaj/n/a in all kshetras.' + +True, we reply, (there is in reality one universal Self only.) But the +highest Self in so far as it is limited by its adjuncts, viz. the body, +the senses, and the mind (mano-buddhi), is, by the ignorant, spoken of +as if it were embodied. Similarly the ether, although in reality +unlimited, appears limited owing to certain adjuncts, such as jars and +other vessels. With regard to this (unreal limitation of the one Self) +the distinction of objects of activity and of agents may be practically +assumed, as long as we have not learned--from the passage, 'That art +thou'--that the Self is one only. As soon, however, as we grasp the +truth that there is only one universal Self, there is an end to the +whole practical view of the world with its distinction of bondage, final +release, and the like. + +7. If it be said that (the passage does) not (refer to Brahman) on +account of the smallness of the abode (mentioned), and on account of the +denotations of that (i.e. of minuteness); we say, no; because (Brahman) +has thus to be contemplated, and because the case is analogous to that +of ether. + +On account of the limitation of its abode, which is mentioned in the +clause, 'He is my Self within the heart,' and on account of the +declaration as to its minuteness contained in the direct statement, 'He +is smaller than a grain of rice,' &c.; the embodied soul only, which is +of the size of an awl's point, is spoken of in the passage under +discussion, and not the highest Self. This assertion made above (in the +purvapaksha of Sutra I, and restated in the purvapaksha of the present +Sutra) has to be refuted. We therefore maintain that the objection +raised does not invalidate our view of the passage. It is true that a +thing occupying a limited space only cannot in any way be spoken of as +omnipresent; but, on the other hand, that which is omnipresent, and +therefore in all places may, from a certain point of view, be said to +occupy a limited space. Similarly, a prince may be called the ruler of +Ayodhya although he is at the same time the ruler of the whole +earth.--But from what point of view can the omnipresent Lord be said to +occupy a limited space and to be minute?--He may, we reply, be spoken of +thus, 'because he is to be contemplated thus.' The passage under +discussion teaches us to contemplate the Lord as abiding within the +lotus of the heart, characterised by minuteness and similar +qualities--which apprehension of the Lord is rendered possible through a +modification of the mind--just as Hari is contemplated in the sacred +stone called /S/alagram. Although present everywhere, the Lord is +pleased when meditated upon as dwelling in the heart. The case is, +moreover, to be viewed as analogous to that of the ether. The ether, +although all-pervading, is spoken of as limited and minute, if +considered in its connexion with the eye of a needle; so Brahman also. +But it is an understood matter that the attributes of limitation of +abode and of minuteness depend, in Brahman's case, entirely on special +forms of contemplation, and are not real. The latter consideration +disposes also of the objection, that if Brahman has its abode in the +heart, which heart-abode is a different one in each body, it would +follow that it is affected by all the imperfections which attach to +beings having different abodes, such as parrots shut up in different +cages, viz. want of unity, being made up of parts, non-permanency, and +so on. + +8. If it is said that (from the circumstance of Brahman and the +individual soul being one) there follows fruition (on the part of +Brahman); we say, no; on account of the difference of nature (of the +two). + +But, it may be said, as Brahman is omnipresent like ether, and therefore +connected with the hearts of all living beings, and as it is of the +nature of intelligence and therefore not different from the individual +soul, it follows that Brahman also has the same fruition of pleasure, +pain, and so on (as the individual soul). The same result follows from +its unity. For in reality there exists no transmigratory Self different +from the highest Self; as appears from the text, 'There is no other +knower but he' (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23), and similar passages. Hence the +highest Self is subject to the fruition connected with transmigratory +existence. + +This is not so, we reply; because there is a difference of nature. From +the circumstance that Brahman is connected with the hearts of all living +beings it does not follow that it is, like the embodied Self, subject to +fruition. For, between the embodied Self and the highest Self, there is +the difference that the former acts and enjoys, acquires merit and +demerit, and is affected by pleasure, pain, and so on; while the latter +is of the opposite nature, i.e. characterised by being free from all +evil and the like. On account of this difference of the two, the +fruition of the one does not extend to the other. To assume merely on +the ground of the mutual proximity of the two, without considering their +essentially different powers, that a connexion with effects exists (in +Brahman's case also), would be no better than to suppose that space is +on fire (when something in space is on fire). The same objection and +refutation apply to the case of those also who teach the existence of +more than one omnipresent Self. In reply to the assertion, that because +Brahman is one and there are no other Selfs outside it, Brahman must be +subject to fruition since the individual soul is so, we ask the +question: How have you, our wise opponent, ascertained that there is no +other Self? You will reply, we suppose, from scriptural texts such as, +'That art thou,' 'I am Brahman,' 'There is no other knower but he,' and +so on. Very well, then, it appears that the truth about scriptural +matters is to be ascertained from Scripture, and that Scripture is not +sometimes to be appealed to, and on other occasions to be disregarded. + +Scriptural texts, such as 'that art thou,' teach that Brahman which is +free from all evil is the Self of the embodied soul, and thus dispel +even the opinion that the embodied soul is subject to fruition; how then +should fruition on the part of the embodied soul involve fruition on the +part of Brahman?--Let, then, the unity of the individual soul and +Brahman not be apprehended on the ground of Scripture.--In that case, we +reply, the fruition on the part of the individual soul has wrong +knowledge for its cause, and Brahman as it truly exists is not touched +thereby, not any more than the ether becomes really dark-blue in +consequence of ignorant people presuming it to be so. For this reason +the Sutrakara says[140] 'no, on account of the difference.' In spite of +their unity, fruition on the part of the soul does not involve fruition +on the part of Brahman; because there is a difference. For there is a +difference between false knowledge and perfect knowledge, fruition being +the figment of false knowledge while the unity (of the Self) is revealed +by perfect knowledge. Now, as the substance revealed by perfect +knowledge cannot be affected by fruition which is nothing but the +figment of false knowledge, it is impossible to assume even a shadow of +fruition on Brahman's part. + +9. The eater (is the highest Self) since what is movable and what is +immovable is mentioned (as his food). + +We read in the Ka/th/avalli (I, 2, 25), 'Who then knows where He is, He +to whom the Brahmans and Kshattriyas are but food, and death itself a +condiment?' This passage intimates, by means of the words 'food' and +'condiment,' that there is some eater. A doubt then arises whether the +eater be Agni or the individual soul or the highest Self; for no +distinguishing characteristic is stated, and Agni as well as the +individual soul and the highest Self is observed to form, in that +Upanishad, the subjects of questions[141]. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the eater is Agni, fire being known from +Scripture as well (cp. B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 6) as from ordinary life to be +the eater of food. Or else the individual soul may be the eater, +according to the passage, 'One of them eats the sweet fruit' (Mu. Up. +III, 1, 1). On the other hand, the eater cannot be Brahman on account of +the passage (which forms the continuation of the one quoted from the Mu. +Up.), 'The other looks on without eating.' + +The eater, we reply, must be the highest Self 'because there is +mentioned what is movable and what is immovable.' For all things movable +and immovable are here to be taken as constituting the food, while death +is the condiment. But nothing beside the highest Self can be the +consumer of all these things in their totality; the highest Self, +however, when reabsorbing the entire aggregate of effects may be said to +eat everything. If it is objected that here no express mention is made +of things movable and things immovable, and that hence we have no right +to use the (alleged) mention made of them as a reason, we reply that +this objection is unfounded; firstly, because the aggregate of all +living beings is seen to be meant from the circumstance of death being +the condiment; and, secondly, because the Brahmans and Kshattriyas may +here, on account of their pre-eminent position, be viewed as instances +only (of all beings). Concerning the objection that the highest Self +cannot be an eater on account of the passage quoted ('the other looks on +without eating'), we remark that that passage aims at denying the +fruition (on the part of the highest Self) of the results of works, such +fruition being mentioned in immediate proximity, but is not meant to +negative the reabsorption of the world of effects (into Brahman); for it +is well established by all the Vedanta-texts that Brahman is the cause +of the creation, subsistence, and reabsorption of the world. Therefore +the eater can here be Brahman only. + +10. And on account of the topic under discussion. That the highest Self +only can be the eater referred to is moreover evident from the passage +(Ka. Up. I, 2, 18), ('The knowing Self is not born, it dies not'), which +shows that the highest Self is the general topic. And to adhere to the +general topic is the proper proceeding. Further, the clause, 'Who then +knows where he is,' shows that the cognition is connected with +difficulties; which circumstance again points to the highest Self. + +11. The 'two entered into the cave' (are the individual soul and the +highest Self), for the two are (intelligent) Selfs (and therefore of the +same nature), as it is seen (that numerals denote beings of the same +nature). + +In the same Ka/th/avalli we read (I, 3, 1), 'There are the two drinking +the reward of their works in the world, (i.e. the body,) entered into +the cave, dwelling on the highest summit. Those who know Brahman call +them shade and light; likewise those householders who perform the +Tri/n/a/k/iketa sacrifice.' + +Here the doubt arises whether the mind (buddhi) and the individual soul +are referred to, or the individual soul and the highest Self. If the +mind and the individual soul, then the individual soul is here spoken of +as different from the aggregate of the organs of action, (i.e. the +body,) among which the mind occupies the first place. And a statement on +this point is to be expected, as a question concerning it is asked in a +preceding passage, viz. I, 1, 20, 'There is that doubt when a man is +dead--some saying he is; others, he is not. This I should like to know +taught by thee; this is the third of my boons.' If, on the other hand, +the passage refers to the individual soul and the highest Self, then it +intimates that the highest Self is different from the individual soul; +and this also requires to be declared here, on account of the question +contained in the passage (I, 2, 14), 'That which thou seest as different +from religious duty and its contrary, from effect and cause, from the +past and the future, tell me that.' + +The doubt to which the passage gives rise having thus been stated, a +caviller starts the following objection: neither of the stated views can +be maintained.--Why?--On account of the characteristic mark implied in +the circumstance that the two are said to drink, i.e. to enjoy, the +fruit of their works in the world. For this can apply to the intelligent +individual soul only, not to the non-intelligent buddhi. And as the dual +form 'drinking' (pibantau) shows that both are drinking, the view of the +two being the buddhi and the individual soul is not tenable. For the +same reason the other opinion also, viz. of the two being the individual +soul and the highest Self, cannot be maintained; for drinking (i.e. the +fruition of reward) cannot be predicated of the highest Self, on account +of the mantra (Mu. Up. III, 1, 1), 'The other looks on without eating.' + +These objections, we reply, are without any force. Just as we see that +in phrases such as 'the men with the umbrella (lit. the umbrella-men) +are walking,' the attribute of being furnished with an umbrella which +properly speaking belongs to one man only is secondarily ascribed to +many, so here two agents are spoken of as drinking because one of them +is really drinking. Or else we may explain the passage by saying that, +while the individual soul only drinks, the Lord also is said to drink +because he makes the soul drink. On the other hand, we may also assume +that the two are the buddhi and the individual soul, the instrument +being figuratively spoken of as the agent--a figure of speech +exemplified by phrases such as 'the fuel cooks (the food).' And in a +chapter whose topic is the soul no two other beings can well be +represented as enjoying rewards. Hence there is room for the doubt +whether the two are the buddhi and the individual soul, or the +individual soul and the highest Self. + +Here the purvapakshin maintains that the former of the two stated views +is the right one, because the two beings are qualified as 'entered into +the cave.' Whether we understand by the cave the body or the heart, in +either case the buddhi and the individual soul may be spoken of as +'entered into the cave.' Nor would it be appropriate, as long as another +interpretation is possible, to assume that a special place is here +ascribed to the omnipresent Brahman. Moreover, the words 'in the world +of their good deeds' show that the two do not pass beyond the sphere of +the results of their good works. But the highest Self is not in the +sphere of the results of either good or bad works; according to the +scriptural passage, 'It does not grow larger by works nor does it grow +smaller.' Further, the words 'shade and light' properly designate what +is intelligent and what is non-intelligent, because the two are opposed +to each other like light and shade. Hence we conclude that the buddhi +and the individual soul are spoken of. + +To this we make the following reply:--In the passage under discussion +the individual soul (vij/n/anatman) and the highest Self are spoken of, +because these two, being both intelligent Selfs, are of the same nature. +For we see that in ordinary life also, whenever a number is mentioned, +beings of the same class are understood to be meant; when, for instance, +the order is given, 'Look out for a second (i.e. a fellow) for this +bull,' people look out for a second bull, not for a horse or a man. So +here also, where the mention of the fruition of rewards enables us to +determine that the individual soul is meant, we understand at once, when +a second is required, that the highest Self has to be understood; for +the highest Self is intelligent, and therefore of the same nature as the +soul.--But has it not been said above that the highest Self cannot be +meant here, on account of the text stating that it is placed in the +cave?--Well, we reply, /s/ruti as well as sm/ri/ti speaks of the highest +Self as placed in the cave. Compare, for instance (Ka. Up. I, 2, 12), +'The Ancient who is hidden in the cave, who dwells in the abyss;' Taitt. +Up. II, 1, 'He who knows him hidden in the cave, in the highest ether;' +and, 'Search for the Self entered into the cave.' That it is not +contrary to reason to assign to the omnipresent Brahman a special +locality, for the purpose of clearer perception, we have already +demonstrated. The attribute of existing in the world of its good works, +which properly belongs to one of the two only, viz. to the individual +soul, may be assigned to both, analogously to the case of the men, one +of whom carries an umbrella. Their being compared to light and shade +also is unobjectionable, because the qualities of belonging and not +belonging to this transmigratory world are opposed to each other, like +light and shade; the quality of belonging to it being due to Nescience, +and the quality of not belonging to it being real. We therefore +understand by the two 'entered into the cave,' the individual soul and +the highest Self.--Another reason for this interpretation follows. + +12. And on account of the distinctive qualities (mentioned). + +Moreover, the distinctive qualities mentioned in the text agree only +with the individual Self and the highest Self. For in a subsequent +passage (I, 3, 3), 'Know the Self to be the charioteer, the body to be +the chariot,' which contains the simile of the chariot, the individual +soul is represented as a charioteer driving on through transmigratory +existence and final release, while the passage (9), 'He reaches the end +of his journey, and that is the highest place of Vish/n/u,' represents +the highest Self as the goal of the driver's course. And in a preceding +passage also, (I, 2, 12, 'The wise, who by means of meditation on his +Self, recognises the Ancient who is difficult to be seen, who has +entered into the dark, who is hidden in the cave, who dwells in the +abyss, as God, he indeed leaves joy and sorrow far behind,') the same +two beings are distinguished as thinker and as object of thought. The +highest Self is, moreover, the general topic. And further, the clause, +'Those who know Brahman call them,' &c., which brings forward a special +class of speakers, is in its place only if the highest Self is accepted +(as one of the two beings spoken of). It is therefore evident that the +passage under discussion refers to the individual soul and the highest +Self. + +The same reasoning applies to the passage (Mu. Up. III, 1, 1), 'Two +birds, inseparable friends,' &c. There also the Self is the general +topic, and hence no two ordinary birds can be meant; we therefore +conclude from the characteristic mark of eating, mentioned in the +passage, 'One of them eats the sweet fruit,' that the individual soul is +meant, and from the characteristic marks of abstinence from eating and +of intelligence, implied in the words, 'The other looks on without +eating,' that the highest Self is meant. In a subsequent mantra again +the two are distinguished as the seer and the object of sight. 'Merged +into the same tree (as it were into water) man grieves at his own +impotence (ani/s/a), bewildered; but when he sees the other Lord +(i/s/a.) contented and knows his glory, then his grief passes away.' + +Another (commentator) gives a different interpretation of the mantra, +'Two birds inseparable,' &c. To that mantra, he says, the final decision +of the present head of discussion does not apply, because it is +differently interpreted in the Pai@ngi-rahasya Brahma/n/a. According to +the latter the being which eats the sweet fruit is the sattva; the other +being which looks on without eating, the individual soul (j/n/a); so +that the two are the sattva and the individual soul (kshetraj/n/a). The +objection that the word sattva might denote the individual soul, and the +word kshetraj/n/a, the highest Self, is to be met by the remark that, in +the first place, the words sattva and kshetraj/n/a have the settled +meaning of internal organ and individual soul, and are in the second +place, expressly so interpreted there, (viz. in the Pai@ngi-rahasya,) +'The sattva is that by means of which man sees dreams; the embodied one, +the seer, is the kshetraj/n/a; the two are therefore the internal organ +and the individual soul.' Nor does the mantra under discussion fall +under the purvapaksha propounded above. For it does not aim at setting +forth the embodied individual soul, in so far as it is characterised by +the attributes connected with the transmigratory state, such as acting +and enjoying; but in so far rather as it transcends all attributes +connected with the sa/m/sara and is of the nature of Brahman, i.e. is +pure intelligence; as is evident from the clause, 'The other looks on +without eating.' That agrees, moreover, with /s/ruti and sm/ri/ti +passages, such as, 'That art thou,' and 'Know me also to be the +individual soul' (Bha. Gita XIII, 2). Only on such an explanation of the +passage as the preceding one there is room for the declaration made in +the concluding passage of the section, 'These two are the sattva and the +kshetraj/n/a; to him indeed who knows this no impurity +attaches[142].'--But how can, on the above interpretation, the +non-intelligent sattva (i.e. the internal organ) be spoken of as an +enjoyer, as is actually done in the clause, 'One of them eats the sweet +fruit?'--The whole passage, we reply, does not aim at setting forth the +fact that the sattva is an enjoyer, but rather the fact that the +intelligent individual soul is not an enjoyer, but is of the nature of +Brahman. To that end[143] the passage under discussion metaphorically +ascribes the attribute of being an enjoyer to the internal organ, in so +far as it is modified by pleasure, pain, and the like. For all acting +and enjoying is at the bottom based on the non-discrimination (by the +soul) of the respective nature of internal organ and soul: while in +reality neither the internal organ nor the soul either act or enjoy; not +the former, because it is non-intelligent; not the latter, because it is +not capable of any modification. And the internal organ can be +considered as acting and enjoying, all the less as it is a mere +presentment of Nescience. In agreement with what we have here +maintained, Scripture ('For where there is as it were duality there one +sees the other,' &c.; B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 15) declares that the practical +assumption of agents, and so on--comparable to the assumption of the +existence of elephants, and the like, seen in a dream--holds good in the +sphere of Nescience only; while the passage, 'But when the Self only is +all this, how should he see another?' declares that all that practically +postulated existence vanishes for him who has arrived at discriminative +knowledge. + +13. The person within (the eye) (is Brahman) on account of the agreement +(of the attributes of that person with the nature of Brahman). + +Scripture says, 'He spoke: The person that is seen in the eye that is +the Self. This is the immortal, the fearless, this is Brahman. Even +though they drop melted butter or water on it (the eye) it runs away on +both sides,' &c. (Ch. Up. IV, 15, 1). + +The doubt here arises whether this passage refers to the reflected Self +which resides in the eye, or to the individual Self, or to the Self of +some deity which presides over the sense of sight, or to the Lord. + +With reference to this doubt the purvapakshin argues as follows: What is +meant (by the person in the eye) is the reflected Self, i.e. the image +of a person (reflected in the eye of another): for of that it is well +known that it is seen, and the clause, 'The person that is seen in the +eye,' refers to it as something well known. Or else we may appropriately +take the passage as referring to the individual Self. For the individual +Self (cognitional Self, vij/n/anatman) which perceives the colours by +means of the eye is, on that account, in proximity to the eye; and, +moreover, the word 'Self' (which occurs in the passage) favours this +interpretation. Or else the passage is to be understood as referring to +the soul animating the sun which assists the sense of sight; compare the +passage (B/ri/. Up. V, 5, 2), 'He (the person in the sun) rests with his +rays in him (the person in the right eye).' Moreover, qualities such as +immortality and the like (which are ascribed to the subject of the +scriptural passage) may somehow belong to individual deities. The Lord, +on the other hand[144], cannot be meant, because a particular locality +is spoken of. + +Against this we remark that the highest Lord only can be meant here by +the person within the eye.--Why?--'On account of the agreement.' For the +qualities mentioned in the passage accord with the nature of the highest +Lord. The quality of being the Self, in the first place, belongs to the +highest Lord in its primary (non-figurative or non-derived) sense, as we +know from such texts as 'That is the Self,' 'That art thou.' Immortality +and fearlessness again are often ascribed to him in Scripture. The +location in the eye also is in consonance with the nature of the highest +Lord. For just as the highest Lord whom Scripture declares to be free +from all evil is not stained by any imperfections, so the station of the +eye also is declared to be free from all stain, as we see from the +passage, 'Even though they drop melted butter or water on it it runs +away on both sides.' The statement, moreover, that he possesses the +qualities of sa/m/yadvama, &c. can be reconciled with the highest Lord +only (Ch. Up. IV, 15, 2, 'They call him Sa/m/yadvama, for all blessings +(vama) go towards him (sa/m/yanti). He is also vamani, for he leads +(nayati) all blessings (vama). He is also Bhamani, for he shines (bhati) +in all worlds'). Therefore, on account of agreement, the person within +the eye is the highest Lord. + +14. And on account of the statement of place, and so on. + +But how does the confined locality of the eye agree with Brahman which +is omnipresent like the ether?--To this question we reply that there +would indeed be a want of agreement if that one locality only were +assigned to the Lord. For other localities also, viz. the earth and so +on, are attributed to him in the passage, 'He who dwells in the earth,' +&c. (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 3). And among those the eye also is mentioned, +viz. in the clause, 'He who dwells in the eye,' &c. The phrase 'and so +on,' which forms part of the Sutra, intimates that not only locality is +assigned to Brahman, although not (really) appropriate to it, but that +also such things as name and form, although not appropriate to Brahman +which is devoid of name and form, are yet seen to be attributed to it. +That, in such passages as 'His name is ut, he with the golden beard' +(Ch. Up. I, 6, 7, 6), Brahman although devoid of qualities is spoken of, +for the purposes of devotion, as possessing qualities depending on name +and form, we have already shown. And we have, moreover, shown that to +attribute to Brahman a definite locality, in spite of his omnipresence, +subserves the purposes of contemplation, and is therefore not contrary +to reason[145]; no more than to contemplate Vish/n/u in the sacred +/s/alagram. + +15. And on account of the passage referring to that which is +distinguished by pleasure (i.e. Brahman). + +There is, moreover, really no room for dispute whether Brahman be meant +in the passage under discussion or not, because the fact of Brahman +being meant is established 'by the reference to that which is +distinguished by pleasure.' For the same Brahman which is spoken of as +characterised by pleasure in the beginning of the chapter[146], viz. in +the clauses, 'Breath is Brahman, Ka is Brahman, Kha is Brahman,' that +same Brahman we must suppose to be referred to in the present passage +also, it being proper to adhere to the subject-matter under discussion; +the clause, 'The teacher will tell you the way[147],' merely announcing +that the way will be proclaimed [by the teacher; not that a new subject +will be started].--How then, it may be asked, is it known that Brahman, +as distinguished by pleasure, is spoken of in the beginning of the +passage?--We reply: On hearing the speech of the fires, viz. 'Breath is +Brahman, Ka is Brahman, Kha is Brahman,' Upako/s/ala says, 'I understand +that breath is Brahman, but I do not understand that Ka or Kha is +Brahman.' Thereupon the fires reply, 'What is Ka is Kha, what is Kha is +Ka.' Now the word Kha denotes in ordinary language the elemental ether. +If therefore the word Ka which means pleasure were not applied to +qualify the sense of 'Kha,' we should conclude that the name Brahman is +here symbolically[148] given to the mere elemental ether as it is (in +other places) given to mere names and the like. Thus also with regard to +the word Ka, which, in ordinary language, denotes the imperfect pleasure +springing from the contact of the sense-organs with their objects. If +the word Kha were not applied to qualify the sense of Ka we should +conclude that ordinary pleasure is here called Brahman. But as the two +words Ka and Kha (occur together and therefore) qualify each other, they +intimate Brahman whose Self is pleasure. If[149] in the passage referred +to (viz. 'Breath is Brahman, Ka is Brahman, Kha is Brahman') the second +Brahman (i.e. the word Brahman in the clause 'Ka is Brahman') were not +added, and if the sentence would run 'Ka, Kha is Brahman,' the word Ka +would be employed as a mere qualifying word, and thus pleasure as being +a mere quality would not be represented as a subject of meditation. To +prevent this, both words--Ka as well as Kha--are joined with the word +Brahman ('Ka (is) Brahman, Kha (is) Brahman'). For the passage wishes to +intimate that pleasure also, although a quality, should be meditated +upon as something in which qualities inhere. It thus appears that at the +beginning of the chapter Brahman, as characterised by pleasure, is +spoken of. After that the Garhapatya and the other sacred fires proclaim +in turns their own glory, and finally conclude with the words, 'This is +our knowledge, O friend, and the knowledge of the Self;' wherein they +point back to the Brahman spoken of before. The words, 'The teacher will +tell you the way' (which form the last clause of the concluding +passage), merely promise an explanation of the way, and thus preclude +the idea of another topic being started. The teacher thereupon saying, +'As water does not cling to a lotus leaf, so no evil deed clings to one +who knows it' (which words intervene between the concluding speech of +the fires and the information given by the teacher about the person +within the eye) declares that no evil attacks him who knows the person +within the eye, and thereby shows the latter to be Brahman. It thus +appears that the teacher's intention is to speak about that Brahman +which had formed the topic of the instruction of the fires; to represent +it at first as located in the eye and possessing the qualities of +Sa/m/yadvama and the like, and to point out afterwards that he who thus +knows passes on to light and so on. He therefore begins by saying, 'That +person that is seen in the eye that is the Self.' + +16. And on account of the statement of the way of him who has heard the +Upanishads. + +The person placed in the eye is the highest lord for the following +reason also. From /s/ruti as well as sm/ri/ti we are acquainted with the +way of him who has heard the Upanishads or the secret knowledge, i.e. +who knows Brahman. That way, called the path of the gods, is described +(Pra. Up. I, 10), 'Those who have sought the Self by penance, +abstinence, faith, and knowledge gain by the northern path the sun. This +is the home of the spirits, the immortal, free from fear, the highest. +From thence they do not return;' and also (Bha. Gita VIII, 24), 'Fire, +light, the bright fortnight, the six months of the northern progress of +the sun, on that way those who know Brahman go, when they have died, to +Brahman.' Now that very same way is seen to be stated, in our text, for +him who knows the person within the eye. For we read (Ch. Up. IV, 15, +5), 'Now whether people perform obsequies for him or no he goes to +light;' and later on, 'From the sun (he goes) to the moon, from the moon +to lightning. There is a person not human, he leads them to Brahman. +This is the path of the gods, the path that leads to Brahman. Those who +proceed on that path do not return to the life of man.' From this +description of the way which is known to be the way of him who knows +Brahman we ascertain that the person within the eye is Brahman. + +17. (The person within the eye is the highest), not any other Self; on +account of the non-permanency (of the other Selfs) and on account of the +impossibility (of the qualities of the person in the eye being ascribed +to the other Selfs). + +To the assertion made in the purvapaksha that the person in the eye is +either the reflected Self or the cognitional Self (the individual soul) +or the Self of some deity the following answer is given.--No other Self +such as, for instance, the reflected Self can be assumed here, on +account of non-permanency.--The reflected Self, in the first place, does +not permanently abide in the eye. For when some person approaches the +eye the reflection of that person is seen in the eye, but when the +person moves away the reflection is seen no longer. The passage 'That +person within the eye' must, moreover, be held, on the ground of +proximity, to intimate that the person seen in a man's own eye is the +object of (that man's) devout meditation (and not the reflected image of +his own person which he may see in the eye of another man). [Let, then, +another man approach the devout man, and let the latter meditate on the +image reflected in his own eye, but seen by the other man only. No, we +reply, for] we have no right to make the (complicated) assumption that +the devout man is, at the time of devotion, to bring close to his eye +another man in order to produce a reflected image in his own eye. +Scripture, moreover, (viz. Ch. Up. VIII, 9, 1, 'It (the reflected Self) +perishes as soon as the body perishes,') declares the non-permanency of +the reflected Self.--And, further, 'on account of impossibility' (the +person in the eye cannot be the reflected Self). For immortality and the +other qualities ascribed to the person in the eye are not to be +perceived in the reflected Self.--Of the cognitional Self, in the second +place, which is in general connexion with the whole body and all the +senses, it can likewise not be said that it has its permanent station in +the eye only. That, on the other hand, Brahman although all-pervading +may, for the purpose of contemplation, be spoken of as connected with +particular places such as the heart and the like, we have seen already. +The cognitional Self shares (with the reflected Self) the impossibility +of having the qualities of immortality and so on attributed to it. +Although the cognitional Self is in reality not different from the +highest Self, still there are fictitiously ascribed to it (adhyaropita) +the effects of nescience, desire and works, viz, mortality and fear; so +that neither immortality nor fearlessness belongs to it. The qualities +of being the sa/m/yadvama, &c. also cannot properly be ascribed to the +cognitional Self, which is not distinguished by lordly power +(ai/s/varya).--In the third place, although the Self of a deity (viz. +the sun) has its station in the eye--according to the scriptural +passage, 'He rests with his rays in him'--still Selfhood cannot be +ascribed to the sun, on account of his externality (paragrupatva). +Immortality, &c. also cannot be predicated of him, as Scripture speaks +of his origin and his dissolution. For the (so-called) deathlessness of +the gods only means their (comparatively) long existence. And their +lordly power also is based on the highest Lord and does not naturally +belong to them; as the mantra declares, 'From terror of it (Brahman) the +wind blows, from terror the sun rises; from terror of it Agni and Indra, +yea, Death runs as the fifth.'--Hence the person in the eye must be +viewed as the highest Lord only. In the case of this explanation being +adopted the mention (of the person in the eye) as something well known +and established, which is contained in the words 'is seen' (in the +phrase 'the person that is seen in the eye'), has to be taken as +referring to (the mental perception founded on) the /s/astra which +belongs to those who know; and the glorification (of devout meditation) +has to be understood as its purpose. + +18. The internal ruler over the devas and so on (is Brahman), because +the attributes of that (Brahman) are designated. + +In B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 1 ff. we read, 'He who within rules this world and +the other world and all beings,' and later on, 'He who dwells in the +earth and within the earth, whom the earth does not know, whose body the +earth is, who rules the earth within, he is thy Self, the ruler within, +the immortal,' &c. The entire chapter (to sum up its contents) speaks of +a being, called the antaryamin (the internal ruler), who, dwelling +within, rules with reference to the gods, the world, the Veda, the +sacrifice, the beings, the Self.--Here now, owing to the unusualness of +the term (antaryamin), there arises a doubt whether it denotes the Self +of some deity which presides over the gods and so on, or some Yogin who +has acquired extraordinary powers, such as, for instance, the capability +of making his body subtle, or the highest Self, or some other being. +What alternative then does recommend itself? + +As the term is an unknown one, the purvapakshin says, we must assume +that the being denoted by it is also an unknown one, different from all +those mentioned above.--Or else it may be said that, on the one hand, we +have no right to assume something of an altogether indefinite character, +and that, on the other hand, the term antaryamin--which is derived from +antaryamana (ruling within)--cannot be called altogether unknown, that +therefore antaryamin may be assumed to denote some god presiding over +the earth, and so on. Similarly, we read (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 16), 'He +whose dwelling is the earth, whose sight is fire, whose mind is light,' +&c. A god of that kind is capable of ruling the earth, and so on, +dwelling within them, because he is endowed with the organs of action; +rulership is therefore rightly ascribed to him.--Or else the rulership +spoken of may belong to some Yogin whom his extraordinary powers enable +to enter within all things.--The highest Self, on the other hand, cannot +be meant, as it does not possess the organs of action (which are +required for ruling). + +To this we make the following reply.--The internal ruler, of whom +Scripture speaks with reference to the gods, must be the highest Self, +cannot be anything else.--Why so?--Because its qualities are designated +in the passage under discussion. The universal rulership implied in the +statement that, dwelling within, it rules the entire aggregate of +created beings, inclusive of the gods, and so on, is an appropriate +attribute of the highest Self, since omnipotence depends on (the +omnipotent ruler) being the cause of all created things.--The qualities +of Selfhood and immortality also, which are mentioned in the passage, +'He is thy Self, the ruler within, the immortal,' belong in their +primary sense to the highest Self.--Further, the passage, 'He whom the +earth does not know,' which declares that the internal ruler is not +known by the earth-deity, shows him to be different from that deity; for +the deity of the earth knows itself to be the earth.--The attributes +'unseen,' 'unheard,' also point to the highest Self, which is devoid of +shape and other sensible qualities.--The objection that the highest Self +is destitute of the organs of action, and hence cannot be a ruler, is +without force, because organs of action may be ascribed to him owing to +the organs of action of those whom he rules.--If it should be objected +that [if we once admit an internal ruler in addition to the individual +soul] we are driven to assume again another and another ruler ad +infinitum; we reply that this is not the case, as actually there is no +other ruler (but the highest Self[150]). The objection would be valid +only in the case of a difference of rulers actually existing.--For all +these reasons, the internal ruler is no other but the highest Self. + +19. And (the internal ruler is) not that which the Sm/ri/ti assumes, +(viz. the pradhana,) on account of the statement of qualities not +belonging to it. + +Good so far, a Sa@nkhya opponent resumes. The attributes, however, of +not being seen, &c., belong also to the pradhana assumed by the +Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, which is acknowledged to be devoid of form and other +sensible qualities. For their Sm/ri/ti says, 'Undiscoverable, +unknowable, as if wholly in sleep' (Manu I, 5). To this pradhana also +the attribute of rulership belongs, as it is the cause of all effects. +Therefore the internal ruler may be understood to denote the pradhana. +The pradhana has, indeed, been set aside already by the Sutra I, 1, 5, +but we bring it forward again, because we find that attributes belonging +to it, such as not being seen and the like, are mentioned in Scripture. + +To this argumentation the Sutrakara replies that the word 'internal +ruler' cannot denote the pradhana, because qualities not belonging to +the latter are stated. For, although the pradhana may be spoken of as +not being seen, &c, it cannot be spoken of as seeing, since the +Sa@nkhyas admit it to be non-intelligent. But the scriptural passage +which forms the complement to the passage about the internal ruler +(B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23) says expressly, 'Unseen but seeing, unheard but +hearing, unperceived but perceiving, unknown but knowing.'--And Selfhood +also cannot belong to the pradhana. + +Well, then, if the term 'internal ruler' cannot be admitted to denote +the pradhana, because the latter is neither a Self nor seeing; let us +suppose it to denote the embodied (individual) soul, which is +intelligent, and therefore hears, sees, perceives, knows; which is +internal (pratya/nk/), and therefore of the nature of Self; and which is +immortal, because it is able to enjoy the fruits of its good and evil +actions. It is, moreover, a settled matter that the attributes of not +being seen, &c., belong to the embodied soul, because the agent of an +action, such as seeing, cannot at the same time be the object of the +action. This is declared in scriptural passages also, as, for instance +(B/ri/. Up. III, 4, 2), 'Thou couldst not see the seer of sight.' The +individual soul is, moreover, capable of inwardly ruling the complex of +the organs of action, as it is the enjoyer. Therefore the internal ruler +is the embodied soul.--To this reasoning the following Sutra replies. + +20. And the embodied soul (also cannot be understood by the internal +ruler), for both also (i.e. both recensions of the B/ri/had Ara/n/yaka) +speak of it as different (from the internal ruler). + +The word 'not' (in the Sutra) has to be supplied from the preceding +Sutra. Although the attributes of seeing, &c., belong to the individual +soul, still as the soul is limited by its adjuncts, as the ether is by a +jar, it is not capable of dwelling completely within the earth and the +other beings mentioned, and to rule them. Moreover, the followers of +both /s/akhas, i.e. the Ka/n/vas as well as the Madhyandinas, speak in +their texts of the individual soul as different from the internal ruler, +viz. as constituting, like the earth, and so on, his abode and the +object of his rule. The Ka/n/vas read (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 22), 'He who +dwells in knowledge;' the Madhyandinas, 'He who dwells in the Self.' If +the latter reading is adopted, the word 'Self' denotes the individual +soul; if the former, the individual soul is denoted by the word +'knowledge;' for the individual soul consists of knowledge. It is +therefore a settled matter that some being different from the individual +soul, viz. the lord, is denoted by the term 'internal ruler.'--But how, +it may be asked, is it possible that there should be within one body two +seers, viz. the lord who rules internally and the individual soul +different from him?--Why--we ask in return--should that be +impossible?--Because, the opponent replies, it is contrary to scriptural +passages, such as, 'There is no other seer but he,' &c., which deny that +there is any seeing, hearing, perceiving, knowing Self, but the internal +ruler under discussion.--May, we rejoin, that passage not have the +purpose of denying the existence of another ruler?--No, the opponent +replies, for there is no occasion for another ruler (and therefore no +occasion for denying his existence), and the text does not contain any +specification, (but merely denies the existence of any other seer in +general.) + +We therefore advance the following final refutation of the opponent's +objection.--The declaration of the difference of the embodied Self and +the internal ruler has its reason in the limiting adjunct, consisting of +the organs of action, presented by Nescience, and is not absolutely +true. For the Self within is one only; two internal Selfs are not +possible. But owing to its limiting adjunct the one Self is practically +treated as if it were two; just as we make a distinction between the +ether of the jar and the universal ether. Hence there is room for those +scriptural passages which set forth the distinction of knower and object +of knowledge, for perception and the other means of proof, for the +intuitive knowledge of the apparent world, and for that part of +Scripture which contains injunctions and prohibitions. In accordance +with this, the scriptural passage, 'Where there is duality, as it were, +there one sees another,' declares that the whole practical world exists +only in the sphere of Nescience; while the subsequent passage, 'But when +the Self only is all this, how should he see another?' declares that the +practical world vanishes in the sphere of true knowledge. + +21. That which possesses the attributes of invisibility and so on (is +Brahman), on account of the declaration of attributes. + +Scripture says, 'The higher knowledge is this by which the +Indestructible is apprehended. That which cannot be seen nor seized, +which is without origin and qualities, without eyes and ears, without +hands and feet, the eternal, all-pervading, omnipresent, infinitesimal, +that which is imperishable, that it is which the wise regard as the +source of all beings' (Mu. Up. I, 1, 5; 6).--Here the doubt arises +whether the source of all beings which is spoken of as characterised by +invisibility, &c. be the pradhana or the embodied soul, or the highest +Lord. + +We must, the purvapakshin says, understand by the source of all beings +the non-intelligent pradhana because (in the passage immediately +subsequent to the one quoted) only non-intelligent beings are mentioned +as parallel instances. 'As the spider sends forth and draws in its +thread, as plants grow on the earth, as from the living man hairs spring +forth on the head and the body, thus everything arises here from the +Indestructible.'--But, it may be objected, men and spiders which are +here quoted as parallel instances are of intelligent nature.--No, the +purvapakshin replies; for the intelligent being as such is not the +source of the threads and the hair, but everybody knows that the +non-intelligent body of the spider ruled by intelligence is the source +of the threads; and so in the case of man also.--While, moreover, in the +case of the preceding Sutra, the pradhana hypothesis could not be +accepted, because, although some qualities mentioned, such as +invisibility and so on, agreed with it, others such as being the seer +and the like did not; we have here to do only with attributes such as +invisibility which agree with the pradhana, no attribute of a contrary +nature being mentioned.--But the qualities mentioned in the +complementary passage (Mu. Up. I, 1, 9), 'He who knows all and perceives +all,' do not agree with the non-intelligent pradhana; how, then, can the +source of all beings be interpreted to mean the pradhana?--To this the +purvapakshin replies: The passage, 'The higher knowledge is that by +which the Indestructible is apprehended, that which cannot be seen,' +&c., points, by means of the term 'the Indestructible,' to the source of +all beings characterised by invisibility and similar attributes. This +same 'Indestructible' is again mentioned later on in the passage, 'It is +higher than the high Imperishable.' Now that which in this latter +passage is spoken of as higher than the Imperishable may possess the +qualities of knowing and perceiving everything, while the pradhana +denoted by the term 'the Imperishable' is the source of all beings.--If, +however, the word 'source' (yoni) be taken in the sense of operative +cause, we may by 'the source of the beings' understand the embodied Self +also, which, by means of merit and demerit, is the cause of the origin +of the complex of things. + +To this we make the following reply.--That which here is spoken of as +the source of all beings, distinguished by such qualities as +invisibility and so on, can be the highest Lord only, nothing +else.--Whereupon is this conclusion founded?--On the statement of +attributes. For the clause, 'He who is all-knowing, all-perceiving,' +clearly states an attribute belonging to the highest Lord only, since +the attributes of knowing all and perceiving all cannot be predicated +either of the non-intelligent pradhana or the embodied soul whose power +of sight is narrowed by its limiting conditions. To the objection that +the qualities of knowing and perceiving all are, in the passage under +discussion, attributed to that which is higher than the source of all +beings--which latter is denoted by the term 'the Imperishable'--not to +the source itself, we reply that this explanation is inadmissible +because the source of all beings, which--in the clause, 'From the +Indestructible everything here arises'--is designated as the material +cause of all created beings, is later on spoken of as all-knowing, and +again as the cause of all created beings, viz. in the passage (I, 1, 9), +'From him who knows all and perceives all, whose brooding consists of +knowledge, from him is born that Brahman, name, form, and food.' As +therefore the Indestructible which forms the general topic of discussion +is, owing to the identity of designation, recognised (as being referred +to in the later passage also), we understand that it is the same +Indestructible to which the attributes of knowing and perceiving all are +ascribed.--We further maintain that also the passage, 'Higher than the +high Imperishable,' does not refer to any being different from the +imperishable source of all beings which is the general topic of +discussion. We conclude this from the circumstance that the passage, 'He +truly told that knowledge of Brahman through which he knows the +imperishable true person,' (I, 2, 13; which passage leads on to the +passage about that which is higher than the Imperishable,) merely +declares that the imperishable source of all beings, distinguished by +invisibility and the like--which formed the subject of the preceding +chapter--will be discussed. The reason why that imperishable source is +called higher than the high Imperishable, we shall explain under the +next Sutra.--Moreover, two kinds of knowledge are enjoined there (in the +Upanishad), a lower and a higher one. Of the lower one it is said that +it comprises the /Ri/g-veda and so on, and then the text continues, 'The +higher knowledge is that by which the Indestructible is apprehended.' +Here the Indestructible is declared to be the subject of the higher +knowledge. If we now were to assume that the Indestructible +distinguished by invisibility and like qualities is something different +from the highest Lord, the knowledge referring to it would not be the +higher one. For the distinction of lower and higher knowledge is made on +account of the diversity of their results, the former leading to mere +worldly exaltation, the latter to absolute bliss; and nobody would +assume absolute bliss to result from the knowledge of the +pradhana.--Moreover, as on the view we are controverting the highest +Self would be assumed to be something higher than the imperishable +source of all beings, three kinds of knowledge would have to be +acknowledged, while the text expressly speaks of two kinds +only.--Further, the reference to the knowledge of everything being +implied in the knowledge of one thing--which is contained in the passage +(I, 1, 3), 'Sir, what is that through which if it is known everything +else becomes known?'--is possible only if the allusion is to Brahman the +Self of all, and not either to the pradhana which comprises only what is +non-intelligent or to the enjoyer viewed apart from the objects of +enjoyment.--The text, moreover, by introducing the knowledge of Brahman +as the chief subject--which it does in the passage (I, 1, 1), 'He told +the knowledge of Brahman, the foundation of all knowledge, to his eldest +son Atharvan'--and by afterwards declaring that out of the two kinds of +knowledge, viz. the lower one and the higher one, the higher one leads +to the comprehension of the Imperishable, shows that the knowledge of +the Imperishable is the knowledge of Brahman. On the other hand, the +term 'knowledge of Brahman' would become meaningless if that +Imperishable which is to be comprehended by means of it were not +Brahman. The lower knowledge of works which comprises the /Ri/g-veda, +and so on, is mentioned preliminarily to the knowledge of Brahman for +the mere purpose of glorifying the latter; as appears from the passages +in which it (the lower knowledge) is spoken of slightingly, such as (I, +2, 7), 'But frail indeed are those boats, the sacrifices, the eighteen +in which this lower ceremonial has been told. Fools who praise this as +the highest good are subject again and again to old age and death.' +After these slighting remarks the text declares that he who turns away +from the lower knowledge is prepared for the highest one (I, 2, 12), +'Let a Brahama/n/a after he has examined all these worlds which are +gained by works acquire freedom from all desires. Nothing that is +eternal (not made) can be gained by what is not eternal (made). Let him +in order to understand this take fuel in his hand and approach a guru +who is learned and dwells entirely in Brahman.'--The remark that, +because the earth and other non-intelligent things are adduced as +parallel instances, that also which is compared to them, viz. the source +of all beings must be non-intelligent, is without foundation, since it +is not necessary that two things of which one is compared to the other +should be of absolutely the same nature. The things, moreover, to which +the source of all beings is compared, viz. the earth and the like, are +material, while nobody would assume the source of all beings to be +material.--For all these reasons the source of all beings, which +possesses the attributes of invisibility and so on, is the highest Lord. + +22. The two others (i.e. the individual soul and the pradhana) are not +(the source of all beings) because there are stated distinctive +attributes and difference. + +The source of all beings is the highest Lord, not either of the two +others, viz. the pradhana and the individual soul, on account of the +following reason also. In the first place, the text distinguishes the +source of all beings from the embodied soul, as something of a different +nature; compare the passage (II, 1, 2), 'That heavenly person is without +body, he is both without and within, not produced, without breath and +without mind, pure.' The distinctive attributes mentioned here, such as +being of a heavenly nature, and so on, can in no way belong to the +individual soul, which erroneously considers itself to be limited by +name and form as presented by Nescience, and erroneously imputes their +attributes to itself. Therefore the passage manifestly refers to the +Person which is the subject of all the Upanishads.--In the second place, +the source of all beings which forms the general topic is represented in +the text as something different from the pradhana, viz. in the passage, +'Higher than the high Imperishable.' Here the term 'Imperishable' means +that undeveloped entity which represents the seminal potentiality of +names and forms, contains the fine parts of the material elements, +abides in the Lord, forms his limiting adjunct, and being itself no +effect is high in comparison to all effects; the whole phrase, 'Higher +than the high Imperishable,' which expresses a difference then clearly +shows that the highest Self is meant here.--We do not on that account +assume an independent entity called pradhana and say that the source of +all beings is stated separately therefrom; but if a pradhana is to be +assumed at all (in agreement with the common opinion) and if being +assumed it is assumed of such a nature as not to be opposed to the +statements of Scripture, viz. as the subtle cause of all beings denoted +by the terms 'the Undeveloped' and so on, we have no objection to such +an assumption, and declare that, on account of the separate statement +therefrom, i.e. from that pradhana, 'the source of all beings' must mean +the highest Lord.--A further argument in favour of the same conclusion +is supplied by the next Sutra. + +23. And on account of its form being mentioned. + +Subsequently to the passage, 'Higher than the high Imperishable,' we +meet (in the passage, 'From him is born breath,' &c.) with a description +of the creation of all things, from breath down to earth, and then with +a statement of the form of this same source of beings as consisting of +all created beings, 'Fire is his head, his eyes the sun and the moon, +the quarters his ears, his speech the Vedas disclosed, the wind his +breath, his heart the universe; from his feet came the earth; he is +indeed the inner Self of all things.' This statement of form can refer +only to the highest Lord, and not either to the embodied soul, which, on +account of its small power, cannot be the cause of all effects, or to +the pradhana, which cannot be the inner Self of all beings. We therefore +conclude that the source of all beings is the highest Lord, not either +of the other two.--But wherefrom do you conclude that the quoted +declaration of form refers to the source of all beings?--From the +general topic, we reply. The word 'he' (in the clause, 'He is indeed the +inner Self of all things') connects the passage with the general topic. +As the source of all beings constitutes the general topic, the whole +passage, from 'From him is born breath,' up to, 'He is the inner Self of +all beings,' refers to that same source. Similarly, when in ordinary +conversation a certain teacher forms the general topic of the talk, the +phrase, 'Study under him; he knows the Veda and the Veda@ngas +thoroughly,' as a matter of course, refers to that same teacher.--But +how can a bodily form be ascribed to the source of all beings which is +characterised by invisibility and similar attributes?--The statement as +to its nature, we reply, is made for the purpose of showing that the +source of all beings is the Self of all beings, not of showing that it +is of a bodily nature. The case is analogous to such passages as, 'I am +food, I am food, I am the eater of food' (Taitt. Up. III, 10, +6).--Others, however, are of opinion[151] that the statement quoted does +not refer to the source of all beings, because that to which it refers +is spoken of as something produced. For, on the one hand, the +immediately preceding passage ('From him is born health, mind, and all +organs of sense, ether, air, light, water, and the earth, the support of +all') speaks of the aggregate of beings from air down to earth as +something produced, and, on the other hand, a passage met with later on +('From him comes Agni, the sun being his fuel,' up to 'All herbs and +juices') expresses itself to the same purpose. How then should all at +once, in the midst of these two passages (which refer to the creation), +a statement be made about the nature of the source of all beings?--The +attribute of being the Self of all beings, (which above was said to be +mentioned in the passage about the creation, 'Fire is his head,' &c., is +not mentioned there but) is stated only later on in a passage subsequent +to that which refers to the creation, viz. 'The Person is all this, +sacrifice,' &c. (II, 1, 10).--Now, we see that /s/ruti as well as +sm/ri/ti speaks of the birth of Prajapati, whose body is this threefold +world; compare /Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. X, 121, 1, 'Hira/n/ya-garbha arose in +the beginning; he was the one born Lord of things existing. He +established the earth and this sky; to what God shall we offer our +oblation?' where the expression 'arose' means 'he was born.' And in +sm/ri/ti we read, 'He is the first embodied one, he is called the +Person; as the primal creator of the beings Brahman was evolved in the +beginning.' This Person which is (not the original Brahman but) an +effect (like other created beings) may be called the internal Self of +all beings (as it is called in II, 1, 4), because in the form of the +Self of breath it abides in the Selfs of all beings.--On this latter +explanation (according to which the passage, 'Fire is his head,' &c., +does not describe the nature of the highest Lord, and can therefore not +be referred to in the Sutra) the declaration as to the Lord being the +'nature' of all which is contained in the passage, 'The Person is all +this, sacrifice,' &c., must be taken as the reason for establishing the +highest Lord, (i.e. as the passage which, according to the Sutra, proves +that the source of all beings is the highest Lord[152].) + +24. Vai/s/vanara (is the highest Lord) on account of the distinction +qualifying the common terms (Vai/s/vanara and Self). + +(In Ch. Up. V, 11 ff.) a discussion begins with the words, 'What is our +Self, what is Brahman?' and is carried on in the passage, 'You know at +present that Vai/s/vanara Self, tell us that;' after that it is declared +with reference to Heaven, sun, air, ether, water, and earth, that they +are connected with the qualities of having good light, &c., and, in +order to disparage devout meditation on them singly, that they stand to +the Vai/s/vanara in the relation of being his head, &c., merely; and +then finally (V, 18) it is said, 'But he who meditates on the +Vai/s/vanara Self as measured by a span, as abhivimana[153], he eats +food in all worlds, in all beings, in all Selfs. Of that Vai/s/vanara +Self the head is Sutejas (having good light), the eye Vi/s/varupa +(multiform), the breath P/ri/thagvartman (moving in various courses), +the trunk Bahula (full), the bladder Rayi (wealth), the feet the earth, +the chest the altar, the hairs the grass on the altar, the heart the +Garhapatya fire, the mind the Anvaharya fire, the mouth the Ahavaniya +fire.'--Here the doubt arises whether by the term 'Vai/s/vanara' we have +to understand the gastric fire, or the elemental fire, or the divinity +presiding over the latter, or the embodied soul, or the highest +Lord.--But what, it may be asked, gives rise to this doubt?--The +circumstance, we reply, of 'Vai/s/vanara' being employed as a common +term for the gastric fire, the elemental fire, and the divinity of the +latter, while 'Self' is a term applying to the embodied soul as well as +to the highest Lord. Hence the doubt arises which meaning of the term is +to be accepted and which to be set aside. + +Which, then, is the alternative to be embraced?--Vai/s/vanara, the +purvapakshin maintains, is the gastric fire, because we meet, in some +passages, with the term used in that special sense; so, for instance +(B/ri/. Up. V, 9), 'Agni Vai/s/vanara is the fire within man by which +the food that is eaten is cooked.'--Or else the term may denote fire in +general, as we see it used in that sense also; so, for instance +(/Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. X, 88, 12), 'For the whole world the gods have made +the Agni Vai/s/vanara a sign of the days.' Or, in the third place, the +word may denote that divinity whose body is fire. For passages in which +the term has that sense are likewise met with; compare, for instance, +/Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. I, 98, 1, 'May we be in the favour of Vai/s/vanara; +for he is the king of the beings, giving pleasure, of ready grace;' this +and similar passages properly applying to a divinity endowed with power +and similar qualities. Perhaps it will be urged against the preceding +explanations, that, as the word Vai/s/vanara is used in co-ordination +with the term 'Self,' and as the term 'Self' alone is used in the +introductory passage ('What is our Self, what is Brahman?'), +Vai/s/vanara has to be understood in a modified sense, so as to be in +harmony with the term Self. Well, then, the purvapakshin rejoins, let us +suppose that Vai/s/vanara is the embodied Self which, as being an +enjoyer, is in close vicinity to the Vai/s/vanara fire,[154] (i.e. the +fire within the body,) and with which the qualification expressed by the +term, 'Measured by a span,' well agrees, since it is restricted by its +limiting condition (viz. the body and so on).--In any case it is evident +that the term Vai/s/vanara does not denote the highest Lord. + +To this we make the following reply.--The word Vai/s/vanara denotes the +highest Self, on account of the distinction qualifying the two general +terms.--Although the term 'Self,' as well as the term 'Vai/s/vanara,' +has various meanings--the latter term denoting three beings while the +former denotes two--yet we observe a distinction from which we conclude +that both terms can here denote the highest Lord only; viz. in the +passage, 'Of that Vai/s/vanara Self the head is Sutejas,' &c. For it is +clear that that passage refers to the highest Lord in so far as he is +distinguished by having heaven, and so on, for his head and limbs, and +in so far as he has entered into a different state (viz. into the state +of being the Self of the threefold world); represents him, in fact, for +the purpose of meditation, as the internal Self of everything. As such +the absolute Self may be represented, because it is the cause of +everything; for as the cause virtually contains all the states belonging +to its effects, the heavenly world, and so on, may be spoken of as the +members of the highest Self.--Moreover, the result which Scripture +declares to abide in all worlds--viz. in the passage, 'He eats food in +all worlds, in all beings, in all Selfs'--is possible only if we take +the term Vai/s/vanara to denote the highest Self.--The same remark +applies to the declaration that all the sins are burned of him who has +that knowledge, 'Thus all his sins are burned,' &c. (Ch. Up. V, 24, +3).--Moreover, we meet at the beginning of the chapter with the words +'Self' and 'Brahman;' viz. in the passage, 'What is our Self, what is +Brahman?' Now these are marks of Brahman, and indicate the highest Lord +only. Hence he only can be meant by the term Vai/s/vanara. + +25. (And) because that which is stated by Sm/ri/ti (i.e. the shape of +the highest Lord as described by Sm/ri/ti) is an inference (i.e. an +indicatory mark from which we infer the meaning of /S/ruti). + +The highest Lord only is Vai/s/vanara, for that reason also that +Sm/ri/ti ascribes to the highest Lord only a shape consisting of the +threefold world, the fire constituting his mouth, the heavenly world his +head, &c. So, for instance, in the following passage, 'He whose mouth is +fire, whose head the heavenly world, whose navel the ether, whose feet +the earth, whose eye the sun, whose ears the regions, reverence to him +the Self of the world.' The shape described here in Sm/ri/ti allows us +to infer a /S/ruti passage on which the Sm/ri/ti rests, and thus +constitutes an inference, i.e. a sign indicatory of the word +'Vai/s/vanara' denoting the highest Lord. For, although the quoted +Sm/ri/ti passage contains a glorification[155], still even a +glorification in the form in which it there appears is not possible, +unless it has a Vedic passage to rest on.--Other Sm/ri/ti passages also +may be quoted in connexion with this Sutra, so, for instance, the +following one, 'He whose head the wise declare to be the heavenly world, +whose navel the ether, whose eyes sun and moon, whose ears the regions, +and whose feet the earth, he is the inscrutable leader of all beings.' + +26. If it be maintained that (Vai/s/vanara is) not (the highest Lord) on +account of the term (viz. Vai/s/vanara, having a settled different +meaning), &c., and on account of his abiding within (which is a +characteristic of the gastric fire); (we say) no, on account of the +perception (of the highest Lord), being taught thus (viz. in the gastric +fire), and on account of the impossibility (of the heavenly world, &c. +being the head, &c. of the gastric fire), and because they (the +Vajasaneyins) read of him (viz. the Vai/s/vanara) as man (which term +cannot apply to the gastric fire). + +Here the following objection is raised.--Vai/s/vanara cannot be the +highest Lord, on account of the term, &c., and on account of the abiding +within. The term, viz. the term Vai/s/vanara, cannot be applied to the +highest Lord, because the settled use of language assigns to it a +different sense. Thus, also, with regard to the term Agni (fire) in the +passage (/S/at. Bra. X, 6, 1, 11), 'He is the Agni Vai/s/vanara.' The +word '&c.' (in the Sutra) hints at the fiction concerning the three +sacred fires, the garhapatya being represented as the heart, and so on, +of the Vai/s/vanara Self (Ch. Up. V, 18, 2[156]).--Moreover, the +passage, 'Therefore the first food which a man may take is in the place +of homa' (Ch. Up. V, 19, 1), contains a glorification of (Vai/s/vanara) +being the abode of the oblation to Pra/n/a[157]. For these reasons we +have to understand by Vai/s/vanara the gastric fire.--Moreover, +Scripture speaks of the Vai/s/vanara as abiding within. 'He knows him +abiding within man;' which again applies to the gastric fire only.--With +reference to the averment that on account of the specifications +contained in the passage, 'His head is Sutejas,' &c., Vai/s/vanara is to +be explained as the highest Self, we (the purvapakshin) ask: How do you +reach the decision that those specifications, although agreeing with +both interpretations, must be assumed to refer to the highest Lord only, +and not to the gastric fire?--Or else we may assume that the passage +speaks of the elemental fire which abides within and without; for that +that fire is also connected with the heavenly world, and so on, we +understand from the mantra, 'He who with his light has extended himself +over earth and heaven, the two halves of the world, and the atmosphere' +(/Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. X, 88, 3).--Or else the attribute of having the +heavenly world, and so on, for its members may, on account of its power, +be attributed to that divinity which has the elemental fire for its +body.--Therefore Vai/s/vanara is not the highest Lord. + +To all this we reply as follows.--Your assertions are unfounded, +'because there is taught the perception in this manner.' The reasons +(adduced in the former part of the Sutra), viz. the term, and so on, are +not sufficient to make us abandon the interpretation according to which +Vai/s/vanara is the highest Lord.--Why?--On account of perception being +taught in this manner, i.e. without the gastric fire being set aside. +For the passages quoted teach the perception of the highest Lord in the +gastric fire, analogously to such passages as 'Let a man meditate on the +mind as Brahman' (Ch. Up. III, 18, 1).--Or else they teach that the +object of perception is the highest Lord, in so far as he has the +gastric fire called Vai/s/vanara for his limiting condition; analogously +to such passages as 'He who consists of mind, whose body is breath, +whose form is light' (Ch. Up. III, 14, 2[158]). If it were the aim of +the passages about the Vai/s/vanara to make statements not concerning +the highest Lord, but merely concerning the gastric fire, there would be +no possibility of specifications such as contained in the passage 'His +head is Sutejas,' &c. That also on the assumption of Vai/s/vanara being +either the divinity of fire or the elemental fire no room is to be found +for the said specifications, we shall show under the following +Sutra.--Moreover, if the mere gastric fire were meant, there would be +room only for a declaration that it abides within man, not that it is +man. But, as a matter of fact, the Vajasaneyins speak of him--in their +sacred text--as man, 'This Agni Vai/s/vanara is man; he who knows this +Agni Vai/s/vanara as man-like, as abiding within man,' &c. (/S/at. Bra. +X, 6, 1, 11). The highest Lord, on the other hand, who is the Self of +everything, may be spoken of as well as man, as abiding within +man.--Those who, in the latter part of the Sutra, read 'man-like' +(puru-shavidham) instead of 'man' (purusham), wish to express the +following meaning: If Vai/s/vanara were assumed to be the gastric fire +only, he might be spoken of as abiding within man indeed, but not as +man-like. But the Vajasaneyins do speak of him as man-like, 'He who +knows him as man-like, as abiding within man.'--The meaning of the term +man-like is to be concluded from the context, whence it will be seen +that, with reference to nature, it means that the highest Lord has the +heaven for his head, &c., and is based on the earth; and with reference +to man, that he forms the head, &c., and is based on the chin (of the +devout worshipper[159]). + +27. For the same reasons (the Vai/s/vanara) cannot be the divinity (of +fire), or the element (of fire). + +The averment that the fanciful attribution of members contained in the +passage 'His head is Sutejas,' &c. may apply to the elemental fire also +which from the mantras is seen to be connected with the heavenly world, +&c., or else to the divinity whose body is fire, on account of its +power, is refuted by the following remark: For the reasons already +stated Vai/s/vanara is neither the divinity nor the element. For to the +elemental fire which is mere heat and light the heavenly world and so on +cannot properly be ascribed as head and so on, because an effect cannot +be the Self of another effect.--Again, the heavenly world cannot be +ascribed as head, &c. to the divinity of fire, in spite of the power of +the latter; for, on the one hand, it is not a cause (but a mere effect), +and on the other hand its power depends on the highest Lord. Against all +these interpretations there lies moreover the objection founded on the +inapplicability of the term 'Self.' + +28. Jaimini (declares that there is) no contradiction even on the +assumption of a direct (worship of the highest Lord as Vai/s/vanara). + +Above (Sutra 26) it has been said that Vai/s/vanara is the highest Lord, +to be meditated upon as having the gastric fire either for his outward +manifestation or for his limiting condition; which interpretation was +accepted in deference to the circumstance that he is spoken of as +abiding within--and so on.--The teacher Jaimini however is of opinion +that it is not necessary to have recourse to the assumption of an +outward manifestation or limiting condition, and that there is no +objection to refer the passage about Vai/s/vanara to the direct worship +of the highest Lord.--But, if you reject the interpretation based on the +gastric fire, you place yourself in opposition to the statement that +Vai/s/vanara abides within, and to the reasons founded on the term, &c. +(Su. 26).--To this we reply that we in no way place ourselves in +opposition to the statement that Vai/s/vanara abides within. For the +passage, 'He knows him as man-like, as abiding within man,' does not by +any means refer to the gastric fire, the latter being neither the +general topic of discussion nor having been mentioned by name +before.--What then does it refer to?--It refers to that which forms the +subject of discussion, viz. that similarity to man (of the highest Self) +which is fancifully found in the members of man from the upper part of +the head down to the chin; the text therefore says, 'He knows him as +man-like, as abiding within man,' just as we say of a branch that it +abides within the tree[160].--Or else we may adopt another +interpretation and say that after the highest Self has been represented +as having the likeness to man as a limiting condition, with regard to +nature as well as to man, the passage last quoted ('He knows him as +abiding within man') speaks of the same highest Self as the mere witness +(sakshin; i.e. as the pure Self, non-related to the limiting +conditions).--The consideration of the context having thus shown that +the highest Self has to be resorted to for the interpretation of the +passage, the term 'Vai/s/vanara' must denote the highest Self in some +way or other. The word 'Vi/s/vanara' is to be explained either as 'he +who is all and man (i.e. the individual soul),' or 'he to whom souls +belong' (in so far as he is their maker or ruler), and thus denotes the +highest Self which is the Self of all. And the form 'Vai/s/vanara' has +the same meaning as 'Vi/s/vanara,' the taddhita-suffix, by which the +former word is derived from the latter, not changing the meaning; just +as in the case of rakshasa (derived from rakshas), and vayasa (derived +from vayas).--The word 'Agni' also may denote the highest Self if we +adopt the etymology agni=agra/n/i, i.e. he who leads in front.--As the +Garhapatya-fire finally, and as the abode of the oblation to breath the +highest Self may be represented because it is the Self of all. + +But, if it is assumed that Vai/s/vanara denotes the highest Self, how +can Scripture declare that he is measured by a span?--On the explanation +of this difficulty we now enter. + +29. On account of the manifestation, so A/s/marathya opines. + +The circumstance of the highest Lord who transcends all measure being +spoken of as measured by a span has for its reason 'manifestation.' The +highest Lord manifests himself as measured by a span, i.e. he specially +manifests himself for the benefit of his worshippers in some special +places, such as the heart and the like, where he may be perceived. +Hence, according to the opinion of the teacher A/s/marathya, the +scriptural passage which speaks of him who is measured by a span may +refer to the highest Lord. + +30. On account of remembrance; so Badari opines. + +Or else the highest Lord may be called 'measured by a span' because he +is remembered by means of the mind which is seated in the heart which is +measured by a span. Similarly, barley-corns which are measured by means +of prasthas are themselves called prasthas. It must be admitted that +barley-grains themselves have a certain size which is merely rendered +manifest through their being connected with a prastha measure; while the +highest Lord himself does not possess a size to be rendered manifest by +his connexion with the heart. Still the remembrance (of the Lord by +means of the mind) may be accepted as offering a certain foundation for +the /S/ruti passage concerning him who is measured by a span.--Or +else[161] the Sutra may be interpreted to mean that the Lord, although +not really measured by a span, is to be remembered (meditated upon) as +being of the measure of a span; whereby the passage is furnished with an +appropriate sense.--Thus the passage about him who is measured by a span +may, according to the opinion of the teacher Badari, be referred to the +highest Lord, on account of remembrance. + +31. On the ground of imaginative identification (the highest Lord may be +called prade/s/amatra), Jaimini thinks; for thus (Scripture) declares. + +Or else the passage about him who is measured by a span may be +considered to rest on imaginative combination.--Why?--Because the +passage of the Vajasaneyibrahma/n/a which treats of the same topic +identifies heaven, earth, and so on--which are the members of +Vai/s/vanara viewed as the Self of the threefold world--with certain +parts of the human frame, viz. the parts comprised between the upper +part of the head and the chin, and thus declares the imaginative +identity of Vai/s/vanara with something whose measure is a span. There +we read, 'The Gods indeed reached him, knowing him as measured by a span +as it were. Now I will declare them (his members) to you so as to +identify him (the Vai/s/vanara) with that whose measure is a span; thus +he said. Pointing to the upper part of the head he said: This is what +stands above (i.e. the heavenly world) as Vai/s/vanara (i.e. the head of +Vai/s/vanara[162]). Pointing to the eyes he said: This is he with good +light (i.e. the sun) as Vai/s/vanara (i.e. the eye of V.). Pointing to +the nose he said: This is he who moves on manifold paths (i.e. the air) +as Vai/s/vanara (i.e. the breath of V.). Pointing to the space (ether) +within his mouth he said: This is the full one (i.e. the ether) as +Vai/s/vanara. Pointing to the saliva within his mouth he said: This is +wealth as Vai/s/vanara (i.e. the water in the bladder of V.). Pointing +to the chin he said: This is the base as Vai/s/vanara (i.e. the feet of +V.).'--Although in the Vajasaneyi-brahma/n/a the heaven is denoted as +that which has the attribute of standing above and the sun as that which +has the attribute of good light, while in the Chandogya the heaven is +spoken of as having good light and the sun as being multiform; still +this difference does not interfere (with the unity of the vidya)[163], +because both texts equally use the term 'measured by a span,' and +because all /s/akhas intimate the same.--The above explanation of the +term 'measured by a span,' which rests on imaginative identification, +the teacher Jaimini considers the most appropriate one. + +32. Moreover they (the Jabalas) speak of him (the highest Lord) in that +(i.e. the interstice between the top of the head and the chin which is +measured by a span). + +Moreover the Jabalas speak in their text of the highest Lord as being in +the interstice between the top of the head and the chin. 'The unevolved +infinite Self abides in the avimukta (i.e. the non-released soul). Where +does that avimukta abide? It abides in the Vara/n/a and the Nasi, in the +middle. What is that Vara/n/a, what is that Nasi?' The text thereupon +etymologises the term Vara/n/a as that which wards off (varayati) all +evil done by the senses, and the term Nasi as that which destroys +(na/s/ayati) all evil done by the senses; and then continues, 'And what +is its place?--The place where the eyebrows and the nose join. That is +the joining place of the heavenly world (represented by the upper part +of the head) and of the other (i.e. the earthly world represented by the +chin).' (Jabala Up. I.)--Thus it appears that the scriptural statement +which ascribes to the highest Lord the measure of a span is appropriate. +That the highest Lord is called abhivimana refers to his being the +inward Self of all. As such he is directly measured, i.e. known by all +animate beings. Or else the word may be explained as 'he who is near +everywhere--as the inward Self--and who at the same time is measureless' +(as being infinite). Or else it may denote the highest Lord as him who, +as the cause of the world, measures it out, i.e. creates it. By all this +it is proved that Vai/s/vanara is the highest Lord. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 136: The clause 'he is to meditate with a calm mind' if taken +as a gu/n/avidhi, i.e. as enjoining some secondary matter, viz. calmness +of mind of the meditating person, cannot at the same time enjoin +meditation; for that would involve a so-called split of the sentence +(vakyabheda).] + +[Footnote 137: Jivezpi dehadib/rim/hanaj jyastvanyayad va brahmatety +artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 138: The discussion is brought on by the term 'vivakshita' in +the Sutra whose meaning is 'expressed, aimed at,' but more literally +'desired to be expressed.'] + +[Footnote 139: Because he is vyapin.] + +[Footnote 140: Another interpretation of the later part of Sutra.] + +[Footnote 141: Cp. Ka/th/a Up, I, 1, 13; 20; I, 2, 14.] + +[Footnote 142: Freedom from impurity can result only from the knowledge +that the individual soul is in reality Brahman. The commentators explain +rajas by avidya.] + +[Footnote 143: Tadartham iti, jivasya brahmasiddhyartham iti yavat, +/k/aitanya/kh/ayapanna dhi/h/sukhadina pari/n/amata iti, tatra +purushozpi bhakt/ri/tvam ivanubhavati na tattvata iti vaktum +adhyaropayati. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 144: Who, somebody might say, is to be understood here, +because immortality and similar qualities belong to him not somehow +only, but in their true sense.] + +[Footnote 145: The /t/ikas say that the contents of this last sentence +are hinted at by the word 'and' in the Sutra.] + +[Footnote 146: I.e. at the beginning of the instruction which the sacred +fires give to Upako/s/ala, Ch. Up. IV, 10 ff.] + +[Footnote 147: Which words conclude the instruction given by the fires, +and introduce the instruction given by the teacher, of which the passage +'the person that is seen in the eye,' &c. forms a part.] + +[Footnote 148: A/s/rayantarapratyayasya/s/rayantare kshepa/h/ +pratika/h/, yatha brahma/s/abda/h/ paramatmavishayo namadishu kshipyate. +Bha.] + +[Footnote 149: The following sentences give the reason why, although +there is only one Brahman, the word Brahman is repeated.] + +[Footnote 150: According to Scripture, Nira@nku/s/a/m/ +sarvaniyantritva/m/ /s/rauta/m/ na /k/a tadri/s/e sarvaniyantari bhedo +na /k/anumana/m/ /s/rutibhaditam uttish/th/ati. Ananda Giri. Or else, as +Go. An. remarks, we may explain: as the highest Self is not really +different from the individual soul. So also Bhamati: Na /h/anavastha, na +hi niyantrantara/m/ tena niyamyate ki/m/ tu yo jivo niyanta +lokasiddha/h/ sa paramatmevopadhyava/kkh/edakalpitabheda/h/.] + +[Footnote 151: V/ri/ttik/ri/dvyakhyam dushayati, Go. An.; ekade/s/ina/m/ +dushayati, Ananda Giri; tad etat paramatenakshepasamadhanabhya/m/ +vyakhyaya svamatena vya/k/ash/t/e, puna/h/ /s/abdozpi purvasmad +vi/s/esha/m/ dyotayann asyesh/t/ata/m/ su/k/ayati, Bhamati.--The +statement of the two former commentators must be understood to mean--in +agreement with the Bhamati--that /S/a@nkara is now going to refute the +preceding explanation by the statement of his own view. Thus Go. An. +later on explains 'asmin pakshe' by 'svapakshe.'] + +[Footnote 152: The question is to what passage the 'rupopanyasat' of the +Sutra refers.--According to the opinion set forth first it refers to Mu. +Up. II, 1, 4 ff.--But, according to the second view, II, 1, 4 to II, 1, +9, cannot refer to the source of all beings, i.e. the highest Self, +because that entire passage describes the creation, the inner Self of +which is not the highest Self but Prajapati, i.e. the Hira/n/yagarbha or +Sutratman of the later Vedanta, who is himself an 'effect,' and who is +called the inner Self, because he is the breath of life (pra/n/a) in +everything.--Hence the Sutra must be connected with another passage, and +that passage is found in II, 1, 10, where it is said that the Person +(i.e. the highest Self) is all this, &c.] + +[Footnote 153: About which term see later on.] + +[Footnote 154: Sarire laksha/n/aya vai/s/vanara/s/abdopapattim aha +tasyeti. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 155: And as such might be said not to require a basis for its +statements.] + +[Footnote 156: Na /k/a garhapatyadih/ri/dayadita brahma/n/a/h/ +sambhavini. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 157: Na /k/a pra/n/ahutyadhikara/n/ata z nyatra ja/th/aragner +yujyate. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 158: According to the former explanation the gastric fire is +to be looked on as the outward manifestation (pratika) of the highest +Lord; according to the latter as his limiting condition.] + +[Footnote 159: I.e. that he may be fancifully identified with the head +and so on of the devout worshipper.] + +[Footnote 160: Whereby we mean not that it is inside the tree, but that +it forms a part of the tree.--The Vai/s/vanara Self is identified with +the different members of the body, and these members abide within, i.e. +form parts of the body.] + +[Footnote 161: Parima/n/asya h/ri/da/y/advararopitasya smaryama/n/e +katham aropo vishayavishayitvena bhedad ity a/s/a@nkya vyakhyantaram aha +prade/s/eti. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 162: Atra sarvatra vai/s/vanara/s/abdas tada@ngapara/h/. Go. +An.] + +[Footnote 163: Which unity entitles us to use the passage from the +/S/at. Bra. for the explanation of the passage from the Ch. Up.] + + + + +THIRD PADA. + +REVERENCE TO THE HIGHEST SELF! + + +1. The abode of heaven, earth, and so on (is Brahman), on account of the +term 'own,' i.e. Self. + +We read (Mu. Up. II, 2, 5), 'He in whom the heaven, the earth, and the +sky are woven, the mind also with all the vital airs, know him alone as +the Self, and leave off other words! He is the bridge of the +Immortal.'--Here the doubt arises whether the abode which is intimated +by the statement of the heaven and so on being woven in it is the +highest Brahman or something else. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the abode is something else, on account +of the expression, 'It is the bridge of the Immortal.' For, he says, it +is known from every-day experience that a bridge presupposes some +further bank to which it leads, while it is impossible to assume +something further beyond the highest Brahman, which in Scripture is +called 'endless, without a further shore' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 12). Now if +the abode is supposed to be something different from Brahman, it must be +supposed to be either the pradhana known from Sm/ri/ti, which, as being +the (general) cause, may be called the (general) abode; or the air known +from /S/ruti, of which it is said (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 2, 'Air is that +thread, O Gautama. By air as by a thread, O Gautama, this world and the +other world and all beings are strung together'), that it supports all +things; or else the embodied soul which, as being the enjoyer, may be +considered as an abode with reference to the objects of its fruition. + +Against this view we argue with the sutrakara as follows:--'Of the world +consisting of heaven, earth, and so on, which in the quoted passage is +spoken of as woven (upon something), the highest Brahman must be the +abode.'--Why?--On account of the word 'own,' i.e. on account of the word +'Self.' For we meet with the word 'Self' in the passage, 'Know him alone +as the Self.' This term 'Self' is thoroughly appropriate only if we +understand the highest Self and not anything else.--(To propound another +interpretation of the phrase 'sva/s/abdat' employed in the Sutra.) +Sometimes also Brahman is spoken of in /S/ruti as the general abode by +its own terms (i.e. by terms properly designating Brahman), as, for +instance (Ch. Up. VI. 8, 4), 'All these creatures, my dear, have their +root in the being, their abode in the being, their rest in the +being[164].'--(Or else we have to explain 'sva/s/abdena' as follows), In +the passages preceding and following the passage under discussion +Brahman is glorified with its own names[165]; cp. Mu. Up. II, 1, 10, +'The Person is all this, sacrifice, penance, Brahman, the highest +Immortal,' and II, 2, 11, 'That immortal Brahman is before, is behind, +Brahman is to the right and left.' Here, on account of mention being +made of an abode and that which abides, and on account of the +co-ordination expressed in the passage, 'Brahman is all' (Mu. Up. II, 2, +11), a suspicion might arise that Brahman is of a manifold variegated +nature, just as in the case of a tree consisting of different parts we +distinguish branches, stem, and root. In order to remove this suspicion +the text declares (in the passage under discussion), 'Know him alone as +the Self.' The sense of which is: The Self is not to be known as +manifold, qualified by the universe of effects; you are rather to +dissolve by true knowledge the universe of effects, which is the mere +product of Nescience, and to know that one Self, which is the general +abode, as uniform. Just as when somebody says, 'Bring that on which +Devadatta sits,' the person addressed brings the chair only (the abode +of Devadatta), not Devadatta himself; so the passage, 'Know him alone as +the Self,' teaches that the object to be known is the one uniform Self +which constitutes the general abode. Similarly another scriptural +passage reproves him who believes in the unreal world of effects, 'From +death to death goes he who sees any difference here' (Ka. Up. II, 4, +11). The statement of co-ordination made in the clause 'All is Brahman' +aims at dissolving (the wrong conception of the reality of) the world, +and not in any way at intimating that Brahman is multiform in +nature[166]; for the uniformity (of Brahman's nature) is expressly +stated in other passages such as the following one, 'As a mass of salt +has neither inside nor outside, but is altogether a mass of taste, thus +indeed has that Self neither inside nor outside, but is altogether a +mass of knowledge' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 13).--For all these reasons the +abode of heaven, earth, &c. is the highest Brahman.--Against the +objection that on account of the text speaking of a 'bridge,' and a +bridge requiring a further bank, we have to understand by the abode of +heaven and earth something different from Brahman, we remark that the +word 'bridge' is meant to intimate only that that which is called a +bridge supports, not that it has a further bank. We need not assume by +any means that the bridge meant is like an ordinary bridge made of clay +and wood. For as the word setu (bridge) is derived from the root si, +which means 'to bind,' the idea of holding together, supporting is +rather implied in it than the idea of being connected with something +beyond (a further bank). + +According to the opinion of another (commentator) the word 'bridge' does +not glorify the abode of heaven, earth, &c., but rather the knowledge of +the Self which is glorified in the preceding clause, 'Know him alone as +the Self,' and the abandonment of speech advised in the clause, 'leave +off other words;' to them, as being the means of obtaining immortality, +the expression 'the bridge of the immortal' applies[167]. On that +account we have to set aside the assertion that, on account of the word +'bridge,' something different from Brahman is to be understood by the +abode of heaven, earth, and so on. + +2. And on account of its being designated as that to which the Released +have to resort. + +By the abode of heaven, earth, and so on, we have to understand the +highest Brahman for that reason also that we find it denoted as that to +which the Released have to resort.--The conception that the body and +other things contained in the sphere of the Not-self are our Self, +constitutes Nescience; from it there spring desires with regard to +whatever promotes the well-being of the body and so on, and aversions +with regard to whatever tends to injure it; there further arise fear and +confusion when we observe anything threatening to destroy it. All this +constitutes an endless series of the most manifold evils with which we +all are acquainted. Regarding those on the other hand who have freed +themselves from the stains of Nescience desire aversion and so on, it is +said that they have to resort to that, viz. the abode of heaven, earth, +&c. which forms the topic of discussion. For the text, after having +said, 'The fetter of the heart is broken, all doubts are solved, all his +works perish when He has been beheld who is the higher and the lower' +(Mu. Up. II, 2, 8), later on remarks, 'The wise man freed from name and +form goes to the divine Person who is greater than the great' (Mu. Up. +III, 2, 8). That Brahman is that which is to be resorted to by the +released, is known from other scriptural passages, such as 'When all +desires which once entered his heart are undone then does the mortal +become immortal, then he obtains Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 7). Of the +pradhana and similar entities, on the other hand, it is not known from +any source that they are to be resorted to by the released. Moreover, +the text (in the passage, 'Know him alone as the Self and leave off +other words') declares that the knowledge of the abode of heaven and +earth, &c. is connected with the leaving off of all speech; a condition +which, according to another scriptural passage, attaches to (the +knowledge of) Brahman; cp. B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 21, 'Let a wise Brahma/n/a, +after he has discovered him, practise wisdom. Let him not seek after +many words, for that is mere weariness of the tongue.'--For that reason +also the abode of heaven, earth, and so on, is the highest Brahman. + +3. Not (i.e. the abode of heaven, earth, &c. cannot be) that which is +inferred, (i.e. the pradhana), on account of the terms not denoting it. + +While there has been shown a special reason in favour of Brahman (being +the abode), there is no such special reason in favour of anything else. +Hence he (the sutrakara) says that that which is inferred, i.e. the +pradhana assumed by the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, is not to be accepted as the +abode of heaven, earth, &c.--Why?--On account of the terms not denoting +it. For the sacred text does not contain any term intimating the +non-intelligent pradhana, on the ground of which we might understand the +latter to be the general cause or abode; while such terms as 'he who +perceives all and knows all' (Mu. Up. I, 1, 9) intimate an intelligent +being opposed to the pradhana in nature.--For the same reason the air +also cannot be accepted as the abode of heaven, earth, and so on. + +4. (Nor) also the individual soul (pra/n/abh/ri/t). + +Although to the cognitional (individual) Self the qualities of Selfhood +and intelligence do belong, still omniscience and similar qualities do +not belong to it as its knowledge is limited by its adjuncts; thus the +individual soul also cannot be accepted as the abode of heaven, earth, +&c., for the same reason, i.e. on account of the terms not denoting +it.--Moreover, the attribute of forming the abode of heaven, earth, and +so on, cannot properly be given to the individual soul because the +latter is limited by certain adjuncts and therefore non-pervading (not +omnipresent)[168].--The special enunciation (of the individual soul) is +caused by what follows[169].--The individual soul is not to be accepted +as the abode of heaven, earth, &c. for the following reason also. + +5. On account of the declaration of difference. + +The passage 'Know him alone as the Self' moreover implies a declaration +of difference, viz. of the difference of the object of knowledge and the +knower. Here the individual soul as being that which is desirous of +release is the knower, and consequently Brahman, which is denoted by the +word 'self' and represented as the object of knowledge, is understood to +be the abode of heaven, earth, and so on.--For the following reason also +the individual soul cannot be accepted as the abode of heaven, earth, +&c. + +6. On account of the subject-matter. + +The highest Self constitutes the subject-matter (of the entire chapter), +as we see from the passage, 'Sir, what is that through which, when it is +known, everything else becomes known?' (Mu. Up. I, 1, 3) in which the +knowledge of everything is declared to be dependent on the knowledge of +one thing. For all this (i.e. the entire world) becomes known if Brahman +the Self of all is known, not if only the individual soul is +known.--Another reason against the individual soul follows. + +7. And on account of the two conditions of standing and eating (of which +the former is characteristic of the highest Lord, the latter of the +individual soul). + +With reference to that which is the abode of heaven, earth, and so on, +the text says, 'Two birds, inseparable friends,' &c. (Mu. Up. III, 1, +1). This passage describes the two states of mere standing, i.e. mere +presence, and of eating, the clause, 'One of them eats the sweet fruit,' +referring to the eating, i.e. the fruition of the results of works, and +the clause, 'The other one looks on without eating,' describing the +condition of mere inactive presence. The two states described, viz. of +mere presence on the one hand and of enjoyment on the other hand, show +that the Lord and the individual soul are referred to. Now there is room +for this statement which represents the Lord as separate from the +individual soul, only if the passage about the abode of heaven and earth +likewise refers to the Lord; for in that case only there exists a +continuity of topic. On any other supposition the second passage would +contain a statement about something not connected with the general +topic, and would therefore be entirely uncalled for.--But, it may be +objected, on your interpretation also the second passage makes an +uncalled-for statement, viz. in so far as it represents the individual +soul as separate from the Lord.--Not so, we reply. It is nowhere the +purpose of Scripture to make statements regarding the individual soul. +From ordinary experience the individual soul, which in the different +individual bodies is joined to the internal organs and other limiting +adjuncts, is known to every one as agent and enjoyer, and we therefore +must not assume that it is that which Scripture aims at setting forth. +The Lord, on the other hand, about whom ordinary experience tells us +nothing, is to be considered as the special topic of all scriptural +passages, and we therefore cannot assume that any passage should refer +to him merely casually[170].--That the mantra 'two birds,' &c. speaks of +the Lord--and the individual soul we have already shown under I, 2, +11.--And if, according to the interpretation given in the +Pai@ngi-upanishad (and quoted under I, 2, 11), the verse is understood +to refer to the internal organ (sattva) and the individual soul (not to +the individual soul and the Lord), even then there is no contradiction +(between that interpretation and our present averment that the +individual soul is not the abode of heaven and earth).--How so?--Here +(i.e. in the present Sutra and the Sutras immediately preceding) it is +denied that the individual soul which, owing to its imagined connexion +with the internal organ and other limiting adjuncts, has a separate +existence in separate bodies--its division being analogous to the +division of universal space into limited spaces such as the spaces +within jars and the like--is that which is called the abode of heaven +and earth. That same soul, on the other hand, which exists in all +bodies, if considered apart from the limiting adjuncts, is nothing else +but the highest Self. Just as the spaces within jars, if considered +apart from their limiting conditions, are merged in universal space, so +the individual soul also is incontestably that which is denoted as the +abode of heaven and earth, since it (the soul) cannot really be separate +from the highest Self. That it is not the abode of heaven and earth, is +therefore said of the individual soul in so far only as it imagines +itself to be connected with the internal organ and so on. Hence it +follows that the highest Self is the abode of heaven, earth, and so +on.--The same conclusion has already been arrived at under I, 2, 21; for +in the passage concerning the source of all beings (which passage is +discussed under the Sutra quoted) we meet with the clause, 'In which +heaven and earth and the sky are woven.' In the present adhikara/n/a the +subject is resumed for the sake of further elucidation. + +8. The bhuman (is Brahman), as the instruction about it is additional to +that about the state of deep sleep (i.e. the vital air which remains +awake even in the state of deep sleep). + +We read (Ch. Up. VII, 23; 24), 'That which is much (bhuman) we must +desire to understand.--Sir, I desire to understand it.--Where one sees +nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else, that is what +is much (bhuman). Where one sees something else, hears something else, +understands something else, that is the Little.'--Here the doubt arises +whether that which is much is the vital air (pra/n/a) or the highest +Self.--Whence the doubt?--The word 'bhuman,' taken by itself, means the +state of being much, according to its derivation as taught by Pa/n/ani, +VI, 4, 158. Hence there is felt the want of a specification showing what +constitutes the Self of that muchness. Here there presents itself at +first the approximate passage, 'The vital air is more than hope' (Ch. +Up. VII, 15, 1), from which we may conclude that the vital air is +bhuman.--On the other hand, we meet at the beginning of the chapter, +where the general topic is stated, with the following passage, 'I have +heard from men like you that he who knows the Self overcomes grief. I am +in grief. Do, Sir, help me over this grief of mine;' from which passage +it would appear that the bhuman is the highest Self.--Hence there arises +a doubt as to which of the two alternatives is to be embraced, and which +is to be set aside. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the bhuman is the vital air, since there +is found no further series of questions and answers as to what is more. +For while we meet with a series of questions and answers (such as, 'Sir, +is there something which is more than a name?'--'Speech is more than +name.'--'Is there something which is more than speech?'--'Mind is more +than speech'), which extends from name up to vital air, we do not meet +with a similar question and answer as to what might be more than vital +air (such as, 'Is there something which is more than vital air?'--'Such +and such a thing is more than vital air'). The text rather at first +declares at length (in the passage, 'The vital air is more than hope,' +&c.) that the vital air is more than all the members of the series from +name up to hope; it then acknowledges him who knows the vital air to be +an ativadin, i.e. one who makes a statement surpassing the preceding +statements (in the passage, 'Thou art an ativadin. He may say I am an +ativadin; he need not deny it'); and it thereupon (in the passage, 'But +he in reality is an ativadin who declares something beyond by means of +the True'[171]),--not leaving off, but rather continuing to refer to the +quality of an ativadin which is founded on the vital air,--proceeds, by +means of the series beginning with the True, to lead over to the bhuman; +so that we conclude the meaning to be that the vital air is the +bhuman.--But, if the bhuman is interpreted to mean the vital air, how +have we to explain the passage in which the bhuman is characterised. +'Where one sees nothing else?' &c.--As, the purvapakshin replies, in the +state of deep sleep we observe a cessation of all activity, such as +seeing, &c., on the part of the organs merged in the vital air, the +vital air itself may be characterised by a passage such as, 'Where one +sees nothing else.' Similarly, another scriptural passage (Pra. Up. IV, +2; 3) describes at first (in the words, 'He does not hear, he does not +see,' &c.) the state of deep sleep as characterised by the cessation of +the activity of all bodily organs, and then by declaring that in that +state the vital air, with its five modifications, remains awake ('The +fires of the pra/n/as are awake in that town'), shows the vital air to +occupy the principal position in the state of deep sleep.--That passage +also, which speaks of the bliss of the bhuman ('The bhuman is bliss,' +Ch. Up. VII, 23), can be reconciled with our explanation, because Pra. +Up. IV, 6 declares bliss to attach to the state of deep sleep ('Then +that god sees no dreams and at that time that happiness arises in his +body').--Again, the statement, 'The bhuman is immortality' (Ch. Up. VII, +24, 1), may likewise refer to the vital air; for another scriptural +passage says, 'Pra/n/a is immortality' (Kau. Up. III, 2).--But how can +the view according to which the bhuman is the vital air be reconciled +with the fact that in the beginning of the chapter the knowledge of the +Self is represented as the general topic ('He who knows the Self +overcomes grief,' &c.)?--By the Self there referred to, the purvapakshin +replies, nothing else is meant but the vital air. For the passage, 'The +vital air is father, the vital air is mother, the vital air is brother, +the vital air is sister, the vital air is teacher, the vital air is +Brahma/n/a' (Ch. Up. VII, 15, 1), represents the vital air as the Self +of everything. As, moreover, the passage, 'As the spokes of a wheel rest +in the nave, so all this rests in pra/n/a,' declares the pra/n/a to be +the Self of all--by means of a comparison with the spokes and the nave +of a wheel--the pra/n/a may be conceived under the form of bhuman, i.e. +plenitude.--Bhuman, therefore, means the vital air. + +To this we make the following reply.--Bhuman can mean the highest Self +only, not the vital air.--Why?--'On account of information being given +about it, subsequent to bliss.' The word 'bliss' (samprasada) means the +state of deep sleep, as may be concluded, firstly, from the etymology of +the word ('In it he, i.e. man, is altogether +pleased--samprasidati')--and, secondly, from the fact of samprasada +being mentioned in the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka together with the state of +dream and the waking state. And as in the state of deep sleep the vital +air remains awake, the word 'samprasada' is employed in the Sutra to +denote the vital air; so that the Sutra means, 'on account of +information being given about the bhuman, subsequently to (the +information given about) the vital air.' If the bhuman were the vital +air itself, it would be a strange proceeding to make statements about +the bhuman in addition to the statements about the vital air. For in the +preceding passages also we do not meet, for instance, with a statement +about name subsequent to the previous statement about name (i.e. the +text does not say 'name is more than name'), but after something has +been said about name, a new statement is made about speech, which is +something different from name (i.e. the text says, 'Speech is more than +name'), and so on up to the statement about vital air, each subsequent +statement referring to something other than the topic of the preceding +one. We therefore conclude that the bhuman also, the statement about +which follows on the statement about the vital air, is something other +than the vital air. But--it may be objected--we meet here neither with a +question, such as, 'Is there something more than vital air?' nor with an +answer, such as, 'That and that is more than vital air.' How, then, can +it be said that the information about the bhuman is given subsequently +to the information about the vital air?--Moreover, we see that the +circumstance of being an ativadin, which is exclusively connected with +the vital air, is referred to in the subsequent passage (viz. 'But in +reality he is an ativadin who makes a statement surpassing (the +preceding statements) by means of the True'). There is thus no +information additional to the information about the vital air.--To this +objection we reply that it is impossible to maintain that the passage +last quoted merely continues the discussion of the quality of being an +ativadin, as connected with the knowledge of the vital air; since the +clause, 'He who makes a statement surpassing, &c. by means of the True,' +states a specification.--But, the objector resumes, this very statement +of a specification may be explained as referring to the vital air. If +you ask how, we refer you to an analogous case. If somebody says, 'This +Agnihotrin speaks the truth,' the meaning is not that the quality of +being an Agnihotrin depends on speaking the truth; that quality rather +depends on the (regular performance of the) agnihotra only, and speaking +the truth is mentioned merely as a special attribute of that special +Agnihotrin. So our passage also ('But in reality he is an ativadin who +makes a statement, &c. by means of the True') does not intimate that the +quality of being an ativadin depends on speaking the truth, but merely +expresses that speaking the truth is a special attribute of him who +knows the vital air; while the quality of being an ativadin must be +considered to depend on the knowledge of the vital air.--This objection +we rebut by the remark that it involves an abandonment of the direct +meaning of the sacred text. For from the text, as it stands, we +understand that the quality of being an ativadin depends on speaking the +truth; the sense being: An ativadin is he who is an ativadin by means of +the True. The passage does not in anyway contain a eulogisation of the +knowledge of the vital air. It could be connected with the latter only +on the ground of general subject-matter (prakara/n/a)[172]; which would +involve an abandonment of the direct meaning of the text in favour of +prakara/n/a[173].--Moreover, the particle but ('But in reality he is,' +&c.), whose purport is to separate (what follows) from the +subject-matter of what precedes, would not agree (with the pra/n/a +explanation). The following passage also, 'But we must desire to know +the True' (VII, 16), which presupposes a new effort, shows that a new +topic is going to be entered upon.--For these reasons we have to +consider the statement about the ativadin in the same light as we should +consider the remark--made in a conversation which previously had turned +on the praise of those who study one Veda--that he who studies the four +Vedas is a great Brahma/n/a; a remark which we should understand to be +laudatory of persons different from those who study one Veda, i.e. of +those who study all the four Vedas. Nor is there any reason to assume +that a new topic can be introduced in the form of question and answer +only; for that the matter propounded forms a new topic is sufficiently +clear from the circumstance that no connexion can be established between +it and the preceding topic. The succession of topics in the chapter +under discussion is as follows: Narada at first listens to the +instruction which Sanatkumara gives him about various matters, the last +of which is Pra/n/a, and then becomes silent. Thereupon Sanatkumara +explains to him spontaneously (without being asked) that the quality of +being an ativadin, if merely based on the knowledge of the vital +air--which knowledge has for its object an unreal product,--is devoid of +substance, and that he only is an ativadin who is such by means of the +True. By the term 'the True' there is meant the highest Brahman; for +Brahman is the Real, and it is called the 'True' in another scriptural +passage also, viz. Taitt. Up. II, 1, 'The True, knowledge, infinite is +Brahman.' Narada, thus enlightened, starts a new line of enquiry ('Might +I, Sir, become an ativadin by the True?') and Sanatkumara then leads +him, by a series of instrumental steps, beginning with understanding, up +to the knowledge of bhuman. We therefrom conclude that the bhuman is +that very True whose explanation had been promised in addition to the +(knowledge of the) vital air. We thus see that the instruction about the +bhuman is additional to the instruction about the vital air, and bhuman +must therefore mean the highest Self, which is different from the vital +air. With this interpretation the initial statement, according to which +the enquiry into the Self forms the general subject-matter, agrees +perfectly well. The assumption, on the other hand (made by the +purvapakshin), that by the Self we have here to understand the vital air +is indefensible. For, in the first place, Self-hood does not belong to +the vital air in any non-figurative sense. In the second place, +cessation of grief cannot take place apart from the knowledge of the +highest Self; for, as another scriptural passage declares, 'There is no +other path to go' (/S/vet. Up. VI, 15). Moreover, after we have read at +the outset, 'Do, Sir, lead me over to the other side of grief' (Ch. Up. +VII, 1, 3), we meet with the following concluding words (VII, 26, 2), +'To him, after his faults had been rubbed out, the venerable Sanatkumara +showed the other side of darkness.' The term 'darkness' here denotes +Nescience, the cause of grief, and so on.--Moreover, if the instruction +terminated with the vital air, it would not be said of the latter that +it rests on something else. But the brahma/n/a (Ch. Up. VII, 26, 1) does +say, 'The vital air springs from the Self.' Nor can it be objected +against this last argument that the concluding part of the chapter may +refer to the highest Self, while, all the same, the bhuman (mentioned in +an earlier part of the chapter) may be the vital air. For, from the +passage (VII, 24, 1), ('Sir, in what does the bhuman rest? In its own +greatness,' &c.), it appears that the bhuman forms the continuous topic +up to the end of the chapter.--The quality of being the bhuman--which +quality is plenitude--agrees, moreover, best with the highest Self, +which is the cause of everything. + +9. And on account of the agreement of the attributes (mentioned in the +text). + +The attributes, moreover, which the sacred text ascribes to the bhuman +agree well with the highest Self. The passage, 'Where one sees nothing +else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else, that is the bhuman,' +gives us to understand that in the bhuman the ordinary activities of +seeing and so on are absent; and that this is characteristic of the +highest Self, we know from another scriptural passage, viz. 'But when +the Self only is all this, how should he see another?' &c. (B/ri/. Up. +IV, 5, 15). What is said about the absence of the activities of seeing +and so on in the state of deep sleep (Pra. Up. IV, 2) is said with the +intention of declaring the non-attachedness of the Self, not of +describing the nature of the pra/n/a; for the highest Self (not the +vital air) is the topic of that passage. The bliss also of which +Scripture speaks as connected with that state is mentioned only in order +to show that bliss constitutes the nature of the Self. For Scripture +says (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 32), 'This is his highest bliss. All other +creatures live on a small portion of that bliss.'--The passage under +discussion also ('The bhuman is bliss. There is no bliss in that which +is little (limited). The bhuman only is bliss') by denying the reality +of bliss on the part of whatever is perishable shows that Brahman only +is bliss as bhuman, i.e. in its plenitude,--Again, the passage, 'The +bhuman is immortality,' shows that the highest cause is meant; for the +immortality of all effected things is a merely relative one, and another +scriptural passage says that 'whatever is different from that (Brahman) +is perishable' (B/ri/. Up. III, 4, 2).--Similarly, the qualities of +being the True, and of resting in its own greatness, and of being +omnipresent, and of being the Self of everything which the text mentions +(as belonging to the bhuman) can belong to the highest Self only, not to +anything else.--By all this it is proved that the bhuman is the highest +Self. + +10. The Imperishable (is Brahman) on account of (its) supporting (all +things) up to ether. + +We read (B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 7; 8). 'In what then is the ether woven, +like warp and woof?--He said: O Gargi, the Brahma/n/as call this the +akshara (the Imperishable). It is neither coarse nor fine,' and so +on.--Here the doubt arises whether the word 'akshara' means 'syllable' +or 'the highest Lord.' + +The purvapakshin maintains that the word 'akshara' means 'syllable' +merely, because it has, in such terms as akshara-samamnaya, the meaning +of 'syllable;' because we have no right to disregard the settled meaning +of a word; and because another scriptural passage also ('The syllable Om +is all this,' Ch. Up. II, 23, 4) declares a syllable, represented as the +object of devotion, to be the Self of all. + +To this we reply that the highest Self only is denoted by the word +'akshara.'--Why?--Because it (the akshara) is said to support the entire +aggregate of effects, from earth up to ether. For the sacred text +declares at first that the entire aggregate of effects beginning with +earth and differentiated by threefold time is based on ether, in which +it is 'woven like warp and woof;' leads then (by means of the question, +'In what then is the ether woven, like warp and woof?') over to the +akshara, and, finally, concludes with the words, 'In that akshara then, +O Gargi, the ether is woven, like warp and woof.'--Now the attribute of +supporting everything up to ether cannot be ascribed to any being but +Brahman. The text (quoted from the Ch. Up.) says indeed that the +syllable Om is all this, but that statement is to be understood as a +mere glorification of the syllable Om considered as a means to obtain +Brahman.--Therefore we take akshara to mean either 'the Imperishable' or +'that which pervades;' on the ground of either of which explanations it +must be identified with the highest Brahman. + +But--our opponent resumes--while we must admit that the above reasoning +holds good so far that the circumstance of the akshara supporting all +things up to ether is to be accepted as a proof of all effects depending +on a cause, we point out that it may be employed by those also who +declare the pradhana to be the general cause. How then does the previous +argumentation specially establish Brahman (to the exclusion of the +pradhana)?--The reply to this is given in the next Sutra. + +11. This (supporting can), on account of the command (attributed to the +Imperishable, be the work of the highest Lord only). + +The supporting of all things up to ether is the work of the highest Lord +only.--Why?--On account of the command.--For the sacred text speaks of a +command ('By the command of that akshara, O Gargi, sun and moon stand +apart!' III, 8, 9), and command can be the work of the highest Lord +only, not of the non-intelligent pradhana. For non-intelligent causes +such as clay and the like are not capable of command, with reference to +their effects, such as jars and the like. + +12. And on account of (Scripture) separating (the akshara) from that +whose nature is different (from Brahman). + +Also on account of the reason stated in this Sutra Brahman only is to be +considered as the Imperishable, and the supporting of all things up to +ether is to be looked upon as the work of Brahman only, not of anything +else. The meaning of the Sutra is as follows. Whatever things other than +Brahman might possibly be thought to be denoted by the term 'akshara,' +from the nature of all those things Scripture separates the akshara +spoken of as the support of all things up to ether. The scriptural +passage alluded to is III, 8, 11, 'That akshara, O Gargi, is unseen but +seeing, unheard but hearing, unperceived but perceiving, unknown but +knowing.' Here the designation of being unseen, &c. agrees indeed with +the pradhana also, but not so the designation of seeing, &c., as the +pradhana is non-intelligent.--Nor can the word akshara denote the +embodied soul with its limiting conditions, for the passage following on +the one quoted declares that there is nothing different from the Self +('there is nothing that sees but it, nothing that hears but it, nothing +that perceives but it, nothing that knows but it'); and, moreover, +limiting conditions are expressly denied (of the akshara) in the +passage, 'It is without eyes, without ears, without speech, without +mind,' &c. (III, 8, 8). An embodied soul without limiting conditions +does not exist[174].--It is therefore certain beyond doubt that the +Imperishable is nothing else but the highest Brahman. + +13. On account of his being designated as the object of sight (the +highest Self is meant, and) the same (is meant in the passage speaking +of the meditation on the highest person by means of the syllable Om). + +(In Pra. Up. V, 2) the general topic of discussion is set forth in the +words, 'O Satyakama, the syllable Om is the highest and also the other +Brahman; therefore he who knows it arrives by the same means at one of +the two.' The text then goes on, 'Again, he who meditates with this +syllable Om of three matras on the highest Person,' &c.--Here the doubt +presents itself, whether the object of meditation referred to in the +latter passage is the highest Brahman or the other Brahman; a doubt +based on the former passage, according to which both are under +discussion. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the other, i.e. the lower Brahman, is +referred to, because the text promises only a reward limited by a +certain locality for him who knows it. For, as the highest Brahman is +omnipresent, it would be inappropriate to assume that he who knows it +obtains a fruit limited by a certain locality. The objection that, if +the lower Brahman were understood, there would be no room for the +qualification, 'the highest person,' is not valid, because the vital +principal (pra/n/a) may be called 'higher' with reference to the +body[175]. + +To this we make the following reply: What is here taught as the object +of meditation is the highest Brahman only.--Why?--On account of its +being spoken of as the object of sight. For the person to be meditated +upon is, in a complementary passage, spoken of as the object of the act +of seeing, 'He sees the person dwelling in the castle (of the body; +purusham puri/s/ayam), higher than that one who is of the shape of the +individual soul, and who is himself higher (than the senses and their +objects).' Now, of an act of meditation an unreal thing also can be the +object, as, for instance, the merely imaginary object of a wish. But of +the act of seeing, real things only are the objects, as we know from +experience; we therefore conclude, that in the passage last quoted, the +highest (only real) Self which corresponds to the mental act of complete +intuition[176] is spoken of as the object of sight. This same highest +Self we recognise in the passage under discussion as the object of +meditation, in consequence of the term, 'the highest person.'--But--an +objection will be raised--as the object of meditation we have the +highest person, and as the object of sight the person higher than that +one who is himself higher, &c.; how, then, are we to know that those two +are identical?--The two passages, we reply, have in common the terms +'highest' (or 'higher,' para) and 'person.' And it must not by any means +be supposed that the term jivaghana[177] refers to that highest person +which, considered as the object of meditation, had previously been +introduced as the general topic. For the consequence of that supposition +would be that that highest person which is the object of sight would be +different from that highest person which is represented as the object of +meditation. We rather have to explain the word jivaghana as 'He whose +shape[178] is characterised by the jivas;' so that what is really meant +by that term is that limited condition of the highest Self which is +owing to its adjuncts, and manifests itself in the form of jivas, i.e. +individual souls; a condition analogous to the limitation of salt (in +general) by means of the mass of a particular lump of salt. That limited +condition of the Self may itself be called 'higher,' if viewed with +regard to the senses and their objects. + +Another (commentator) says that we have to understand by the word +'jivaghana' the world of Brahman spoken of in the preceding sentence +('by the Saman verses he is led up to the world of Brahman'), and again +in the following sentence (v. 7), which may be called 'higher,' because +it is higher than the other worlds. That world of Brahman may be called +jivaghana because all individual souls (jiva) with their organs of +action may be viewed as comprised (sa@nghata = ghana) within +Hira/n/yagarbha, who is the Self of all organs, and dwells in the +Brahma-world. We thus understand that he who is higher than that +jivaghana, i.e. the highest Self, which constitutes the object of sight, +also constitutes the object of meditation. The qualification, moreover, +expressed in the term 'the highest person' is in its place only if we +understand the highest Self to be meant. For the name, 'the highest +person,' can be given only to the highest Self, higher than which there +is nothing. So another scriptural passage also says, 'Higher than the +person there is nothing--this is the goal, the highest road.' Hence the +sacred text, which at first distinguishes between the higher and the +lower Brahman ('the syllable Om is the higher and the lower Brahman'), +and afterwards speaks of the highest Person to be meditated upon by +means of the syllable Om, gives us to understand that the highest Person +is nothing else but the highest Brahman. That the highest Self +constitutes the object of meditation, is moreover intimated by the +passage declaring that release from evil is the fruit (of meditation), +'As a snake is freed from its skin, so is he freed from evil.'--With +reference to the objection that a fruit confined to a certain place is +not an appropriate reward for him who meditates on the highest Self, we +finally remark that the objection is removed, if we understand the +passage to refer to emancipation by degrees. He who meditates on the +highest Self by means of the syllable Om, as consisting of three matras, +obtains for his (first) reward the world of Brahman, and after that, +gradually, complete intuition. + +14. The small (ether) (is Brahman) on account of the subsequent +(arguments). + +We read (Ch. Up. VIII, 1, 1), 'There is this city of Brahman, and in it +the palace, the small lotus, and in it that small ether. Now what exists +within that small ether that is to be sought for, that is to be +understood,' &c.--Here the doubt arises whether the small ether within +the small lotus of the heart of which Scripture speaks, is the elemental +ether, or the individual soul (vij/n/anatman), or the highest Self. This +doubt is caused by the words 'ether' and 'city of Brahman.' For the word +'ether,' in the first place, is known to be used in the sense of +elemental ether as well as of highest Brahman. Hence the doubt whether +the small ether of the text be the elemental ether or the highest ether, +i.e. Brahman. In explanation of the expression 'city of Brahman,' in the +second place, it might be said either that the individual soul is here +called Brahman and the body Brahman's city, or else that the city of +Brahman means the city of the highest Brahman. Here (i.e. in consequence +of this latter doubt) a further doubt arises as to the nature of the +small ether, according as the individual soul or the highest Self is +understood by the Lord of the city. + +The purvapakshin maintains that by the small ether we have to understand +the elemental ether, since the latter meaning is the conventional one of +the word aka/s/a. The elemental ether is here called small with +reference to its small abode (the heart).--In the passage, 'As large as +this ether is, so large is that ether within the heart,' it is +represented as constituting at the same time the two terms of a +comparison, because it is possible to make a distinction between the +outer and the inner ether[179]; and it is said that 'heaven and earth +are contained within it,' because the whole ether, in so far as it is +space, is one[180].--Or else, the purvapakshin continues, the 'small +one' may be taken to mean the individual soul, on account of the term, +'the city of Brahman.' The body is here called the city of Brahman +because it is the abode of the individual soul; for it is acquired by +means of the actions of the soul. On this interpretation we must assume +that the individual soul is here called Brahman metaphorically. The +highest Brahman cannot be meant, because it is not connected with the +body as its lord. The lord of the city, i.e. the soul, is represented as +dwelling in one spot of the city (viz. the heart), just as a real king +resides in one spot of his residence. Moreover, the mind (manas) +constitutes the limiting adjunct of the individual soul, and the mind +chiefly abides in the heart; hence the individual soul only can be +spoken of as dwelling in the heart. Further, the individual soul only +can be spoken of as small, since it is (elsewhere; /S/vet. Up. V, 8) +compared in size to the point of a goad. That it is compared (in the +passage under discussion) to the ether must be understood to intimate +its non difference from Brahman.--Nor does the scriptural passage say +that the 'small' one is to be sought for and to be understood, since in +the clause, 'That which is within that,' &c., it is represented as a +mere distinguishing attribute of something else[181]. + +To all this we make the following reply:--The small ether can mean the +highest Lord only, not either the elemental ether or the individual +soul.--Why?--On account of the subsequent reasons, i.e. on account of +the reasons implied in the complementary passage. For there, the text +declares at first, with reference to the small ether, which is enjoined +as the object of sight, 'If they should say to him,' &c.; thereupon +follows an objection, 'What is there that deserves to be sought for or +that is to be understood?' and thereon a final decisive statement, 'Then +he should say: As large as this ether is, so large is that ether within +the heart. Both heaven and earth are contained within it.' Here the +teacher, availing himself of the comparison of the ether within the +heart with the known (universal) ether, precludes the conception that +the ether within the heart is small--which conception is based on the +statement as to the smallness of the lotus, i.e. the heart--and thereby +precludes the possibility of our understanding by the term 'the small +ether,' the elemental ether. For, although the ordinary use of language +gives to the word 'ether' the sense of elemental ether, here the +elemental ether cannot be thought of, because it cannot possibly be +compared with itself.--But, has it not been stated above, that the +ether, although one only, may be compared with itself, in consequence of +an assumed difference between the outer and the inner ether?--That +explanation, we reply, is impossible; for we cannot admit that a +comparison of a thing with itself may be based upon a merely imaginary +difference. And even if we admitted the possibility of such a +comparison, the extent of the outer ether could never be ascribed to the +limited inner ether. Should it be said that to the highest Lord also the +extent of the (outer) ether cannot be ascribed, since another scriptural +passage declares that he is greater than ether (/S/a. Bra, X, 6, 3, 2), +we invalidate this objection by the remark, that the passage (comparing +the inner ether with the outer ether) has the purport of discarding the +idea of smallness (of the inner ether), which is prima facie established +by the smallness of the lotus of the heart in which it is contained, and +has not the purport of establishing a certain extent (of the inner +ether). If the passage aimed at both, a split of the sentence[182] would +result.--Nor, if we allowed the assumptive difference of the inner and +the outer ether, would it be possible to represent that limited portion +of the ether which is enclosed in the lotus of the heart, as containing +within itself heaven, earth, and so on. Nor can we reconcile with the +nature of the elemental ether the qualities of Self-hood, freeness from +sin, and so on, (which are ascribed to the 'small' ether) in the +following passage, 'It is the Self free from sin, free from old age, +from death and grief, from hunger and thirst, of true desires, of true +purposes.'--Although the term 'Self' (occurring in the passage quoted) +may apply to the individual soul, yet other reasons exclude all idea of +the individual soul being meant (by the small ether). For it would be +impossible to dissociate from the individual soul, which is restricted +by limiting conditions and elsewhere compared to the point of a goad, +the attribute of smallness attaching to it, on account of its being +enclosed in the lotus of the heart.--Let it then be assumed--our +opponent remarks--that the qualities of all-pervadingness, &c. are +ascribed to the individual soul with the intention of intimating its +non-difference from Brahman.--Well, we reply, if you suppose that the +small ether is called all-pervading because it is one with Brahman, our +own supposition, viz. that the all-pervadingness spoken of is directly +predicated of Brahman itself, is the much more simple one.--Concerning +the assertion that the term 'city of Brahman' can only be understood, on +the assumption that the individual soul dwells, like a king, in one +particular spot of the city of which it is the Lord, we remark that the +term is more properly interpreted to mean 'the body in so far as it is +the city of the highest Brahman;' which interpretation enables us to +take the term 'Brahman' in its primary sense[183]. The highest Brahman +also is connected with the body, for the latter constitutes an abode for +the perception of Brahman[184]. Other scriptural passages also express +the same meaning, so, for instance, Pra. Up. V, 5, 'He sees the highest +person dwelling in the city' (purusha = puri/s/aya), &c., and B/ri/. Up. +II, 5, 18, 'This person (purusha) is in all cities (bodies) the dweller +within the city (puri/s/aya).'--Or else (taking brahmapura to mean +jivapura) we may understand the passage to teach that Brahman is, in the +city of the individual soul, near (to the devout worshipper), just as +Vish/n/u is near to us in the Salagrama-stone.--Moreover, the text +(VIII, 1, 6) at first declares the result of works to be perishable ('as +here on earth whatever has been acquired by works perishes, so perishes +whatever is acquired for the next world by good actions,' &c.), and +afterwards declares the imperishableness of the results flowing from a +knowledge of the small ether, which forms the general subject of +discussion ('those who depart from hence after having discovered the +Self and those true desires, for them there is freedom in all worlds'). +From this again it is manifest that the small ether is the highest +Self.--We now turn to the statement made by the purvapakshin,'that the +sacred text does not represent the small ether as that which is to be +sought for and to be understood, because it is mentioned as a +distinguishing attribute of something else,' and reply as follows: If +the (small) ether were not that which is to be sought for and to be +understood, the description of the nature of that ether, which is given +in the passage ('as large as this ether is, so large is that ether +within the heart'), would be devoid of purport.--But--the opponent might +say--that descriptive statement also has the purport of setting forth +the nature of the thing abiding within (the ether); for the text after +having raised an objection (in the passage, 'And if they should say to +him: Now with regard to that city of Brahman and the palace in it, i.e. +the small lotus of the heart, and the small ether within the heart, what +is there within it that deserves to be sought for or that is to be +understood?') declares, when replying to that objection, that heaven, +earth, and so on, are contained within it (the ether), a declaration to +which the comparison with the ether forms a mere introduction.--Your +reasoning, we reply, is faulty. If it were admitted, it would follow +that heaven, earth, &c., which are contained within the small ether, +constitute the objects of search and enquiry. But in that case the +complementary passage would be out of place. For the text carrying on, +as the subject of discussion, the ether that is the abode of heaven, +earth, &c.--by means of the clauses, 'In it all desires are contained,' +'It is the Self free from sin,' &c., and the passage, 'But those who +depart from hence having discovered the Self, and the true desires' (in +which passage the conjunction 'and' has the purpose of joining the +desires to the Self)--declares that the Self as well, which is the abode +of the desires, as the desires which abide in the Self, are the objects +of knowledge. From this we conclude that in the beginning of the passage +also, the small ether abiding within the lotus of the heart, together +with whatever is contained within it as earth, true desires, and so on, +is represented as the object of knowledge. And, for the reasons +explained, that ether is the highest Lord. + +15. (The small ether is Brahman) on account of the action of going (into +Brahman) and of the word (brahmaloka); for thus it is seen (i.e. that +the individual souls go into Brahman is seen elsewhere in Scripture); +and (this going of the souls into Brahman constitutes) an inferential +sign (by means of which we may properly interpret the word +'brahmaloka'). + +It has been declared (in the preceding Sutra) that the small (ether) is +the highest Lord, on account of the reasons contained in the subsequent +passages. These subsequent reasons are now set forth.--For this reason +also the small (ether) can be the highest Lord only, because the passage +complementary to the passage concerning the small (ether) contains a +mention of going and a word, both of which intimate the highest Lord. In +the first place, we read (Ch. Up. VIII, 3, 2), 'All these creatures, day +after day going into that Brahma-world, do not discover it.' This +passage which refers back, by means of the word 'Brahma-world,' to the +small ether which forms the general subject-matter, speaks of the going +to it of the creatures, i.e. the individual souls, wherefrom we conclude +that the small (ether) is Brahman. For this going of the individual +souls into Brahman, which takes place day after day in the state of deep +sleep, is seen, i.e. is met with in another scriptural passage, viz. Ch. +Up. VI, 8, 1, 'He becomes united with the True,' &c. In ordinary life +also we say of a man who lies in deep sleep, 'he has become Brahman,' +'he is gone into the state of Brahman.'--In the second place, the word +'Brahma-world,' which is here applied to the small (ether) under +discussion, excludes all thought of the individual soul or the elemental +ether, and thus gives us to understand that the small (ether) is +Brahman.--But could not the word 'Brahma-world' convey as well the idea +of the world of him whose throne is the lotus[185]?--It might do so +indeed, if we explained the compound 'Brahma-world' as 'the world of +Brahman.' But if we explain it on the ground of the coordination of both +members of the compound--so that 'Brahma-world' denotes that world which +is Brahman--then it conveys the idea of the highest Brahman only.--And +that daily going (of the souls) into Brahman (mentioned above) is, +moreover, an inferential sign for explaining the compound +'Brahma-world,' on the ground of the co-ordination of its two +constituent members. For it would be impossible to assume that all those +creatures daily go into the world of the effected (lower) Brahman; which +world is commonly called the Satyaloka, i.e. the world of the True. + +16. And on account of the supporting also (attributed to it), (the small +ether must be the Lord) because that greatness is observed in him +(according to other scriptural passages). + +And also on account of the 'supporting' the small ether can be the +highest Lord only.--How?--The text at first introduces the general +subject of discussion in the passage, 'In it is that small ether;' +declares thereupon that the small one is to be compared with the +universal ether, and that everything is contained in it; subsequently +applies to it the term 'Self,' and states it to possess the qualities of +being free from sin, &c.; and, finally, declares with reference to the +same general subject of discussion, 'That Self is a bank, a limitary +support (vidh/ri/ti), that these worlds may not be confounded.' As +'support' is here predicated of the Self, we have to understand by it a +supporting agent. Just as a dam stems the spreading water so that the +boundaries of the fields are not confounded, so that Self acts like a +limitary dam in order that these outer and inner worlds, and all the +different castes and a/s/ramas may not be confounded. In accordance with +this our text declares that greatness, which is shown in the act of +holding asunder, to belong to the small (ether) which forms the subject +of discussion; and that such greatness is found in the highest Lord +only, is seen from other scriptural passages, such as 'By the command of +that Imperishable, O Gargi, sun and moon; are held apart' (B/ri/. Up. +III, 8, 9). Similarly, we read in another passage also, about whose +referring to the highest Lord there is no doubt, 'He is the Lord of all, +the king of all things, the protector of all things. He is a bank and a +limitary support, so that these worlds may not be confounded' (B/ri/. +Up. IV, 4, 22)--Hence, on account of the 'supporting,' also the small +(ether) is nothing else but the highest Lord. + +17. And on account of the settled meaning. + +The small ether within cannot denote anything but the highest Lord for +this reason also, that the word 'ether' has (among other meanings) the +settled meaning of 'highest Lord.' Compare, for instance, the sense in +which the word 'ether' is used in Ch. Up. VIII, 14, 'He who is called +ether is the revealer of all forms and names;' and Ch. Up. I, 9, 1, 'All +these beings take their rise from the ether,' &c. On the other hand, we +do not meet with any passage in which the word 'ether' is used in the +sense of 'individual soul.'--We have already shown that the word cannot, +in our passage, denote the elemental ether; for, although the word +certainly has that settled meaning, it cannot have it here, because the +elemental ether cannot possibly be compared to itself, &c. &c. + +18. If it be said that the other one (i.e. the individual soul) (is +meant) on account of a reference to it (made in a complementary +passage), (we say) no, on account of the impossibility. + +If the small (ether) is to be explained as the highest Lord on account +of a complementary passage, then, the purvapakshin resumes, we point out +that another complementary passage contains a reference to the other +one, i.e. to the individual soul: 'Now that serene being (literally: +serenity, complete satisfaction), which after having risen out from this +earthly body and having reached the highest light, appears in its true +form, that is, the Self; thus he spoke' (Ch. Up. VIII, 3, 4). For there +the word 'serenity,' which is known to denote, in another scriptural +passage, the state of deep sleep, can convey the idea of the individual +soul only when it is in that state, not of anything else. The 'rising +from the body' also can be predicated of the individual soul only whose +abode the body is; just as air, &c., whose abode is the ether, are said +to arise from the ether. And just as the word 'ether,' although in +ordinary language not denoting the highest Lord, yet is admitted to +denote him in such passages as, 'The ether is the revealer of forms and +names,' because it there occurs in conjunction with qualities of the +highest Lord, so it may likewise denote the individual soul Hence the +term 'the small ether' denotes in the passage under discussion the +individual soul, 'on account of the reference to the other.' + +Not so, we reply, 'on account of the impossibility.' In the first place, +the individual soul, which imagines itself to be limited by the internal +organ and its other adjuncts, cannot be compared with the ether. And, in +the second place, attributes such as freedom from evil, and the like, +cannot be ascribed to a being which erroneously transfers to itself the +attributes of its limiting adjuncts. This has already been set forth in +the first Sutra of the present adhikara/n/a, and is again mentioned here +in order to remove all doubt as to the soul being different from the +highest Self. That the reference pointed out by the purvapakshin is not +to the individual soul will, moreover, be shown in one of the next +Sutras (I, 3, 21). + +19. If it be said that from the subsequent (chapter it appears that the +individual soul is meant), (we point out that what is there referred to +is) rather (the individual soul in so far) as its true nature has become +manifest (i.e. as it is non-different from Brahman). + +The doubt whether, 'on account of the reference to the other,' the +individual soul might not possibly be meant, has been discarded on the +ground of 'impossibility.' But, like a dead man on whom am/ri/ta has +been sprinkled, that doubt rises again, drawing new strength from the +subsequent chapter which treats of Prajapati. For there he (Prajapati) +at the outset declares that the Self, which is free from sin and the +like, is that which is to be searched out, that which we must try to +understand (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1); after that he points out that the seer +within the eye, i.e. the individual soul, is the Self ('that person that +is seen in the eye is the Self,' VIII, 7, 3); refers again and again to +the same entity (in the clauses 'I shall explain him further to you,' +VIII, 9, 3; VIII, 10, 4); and (in the explanations fulfilling the given +promises) again explains the (nature of the) same individual soul in its +different states ('He who moves about happy in dreams is the Self,' +VIII, 10, 1; 'When a man being asleep, reposing, and at perfect rest +sees no dreams, that is the Self,' VIII, 11, 1). The clause attached to +both these explanations (viz. 'That is the immortal, the fearless; that +is Brahman') shows, at the same time, the individual soul to be free +from sin, and the like. After that Prajapati, having discovered a +shortcoming in the condition of deep sleep (in consequence of the +expostulation of Indra, 'In that way he does not know himself that he is +I, nor does he know these beings,' VIII, 11, 2), enters on a further +explanation ('I shall explain him further to you, and nothing more than +this'), begins by blaming the (soul's) connexion with the body, and +finally declares the individual soul, when it has risen from the body, +to be the highest person. ('Thus does that serene being, arising from +this body, appear in its own form as soon as it has approached the +highest light. That is the highest person.')--From this it appears that +there is a possibility of the qualities of the highest Lord belonging to +the individual soul also, and on that account we maintain that the term, +'the small ether within it,' refers to the individual soul. + +This position we counter-argue as follows. 'But in so far as its nature +has become manifest.' The particle 'but' (in the Sutra) is meant to set +aside the view of the purvapakshin, so that the sense of the Sutra is, +'Not even on account of the subsequent chapter a doubt as to the small +ether being the individual soul is possible, because there also that +which is meant to be intimated is the individual soul, in so far only as +its (true) nature has become manifest.' The Sutra uses the expression +'he whose nature has become manifest,' which qualifies jiva., the +individual soul, with reference to its previous condition[186].--The +meaning is as follows. Prajapati speaks at first of the seer +characterised by the eye ('That person which is within the eye,' &c.); +shows thereupon, in the passage treating of (the reflection in) the +waterpan, that he (viz. the seer) has not his true Self in the body; +refers to him repeatedly as the subject to be explained (in the clauses +'I shall explain him further to you'); and having then spoken of him as +subject to the states of dreaming and deep sleep, finally explains the +individual soul in its real nature, i.e. in so far as it is the highest +Brahman, not in so far as it is individual soul ('As soon as it has +approached the highest light it appears in its own form'). The highest +light mentioned, in the passage last quoted, as what is to be +approached, is nothing else but the highest Brahman, which is +distinguished by such attributes as freeness from sin, and the like. +That same highest Brahman constitutes--as we know from passages such as +'that art thou'--the real nature of the individual soul, while its +second nature, i.e. that aspect of it which depends on fictitious +limiting conditions, is not its real nature. For as long as the +individual soul does not free itself from Nescience in the form of +duality--which Nescience may be compared to the mistake of him who in +the twilight mistakes a post for a man--and does not rise to the +knowledge of the Self, whose nature is unchangeable, eternal +Cognition--which expresses itself in the form 'I am Brahman'--so long it +remains the individual soul. But when, discarding the aggregate of body, +sense-organs and mind, it arrives, by means of Scripture, at the +knowledge that it is not itself that aggregate, that it does not form +part of transmigratory existence, but is the True, the Real, the Self, +whose nature is pure intelligence; then knowing itseif to be of the +nature of unchangeable, eternal Cognition, it lifts itself above the +vain conceit of being one with this body, and itself becomes the Self, +whose nature is unchanging, eternal Cognition. As is declared in such +scriptural passages as 'He who knows the highest Brahman becomes even +Brahman' (Mu. Up. III, 2, 9). And this is the real nature of the +individual soul by means of which it arises from the body and appears in +its own form. + +Here an objection may be raised. How, it is asked, can we speak of the +true nature (svarupa) of that which is unchanging and eternal, and then +say that 'it appears in its own form (true nature)?' Of gold and similar +substances, whose true nature becomes hidden, and whose specific +qualities are rendered non-apparent by their contact with some other +substance, it may be said that their true nature is rendered manifest +when they are cleaned by the application of some acid substance; so it +may be said, likewise, that the stars, whose light is during daytime +overpowered (by the superior brilliancy of the sun), become manifest in +their true nature at night when the overpowering (sun) has departed. But +it is impossible to speak of an analogous overpowering of the eternal +light of intelligence by whatever agency, since, like ether, it is free +from all contact, and since, moreover, such an assumption would be +contradicted by what we actually observe. For the (energies of) seeing, +hearing, noticing, cognising constitute the character of the individual +soul, and that character is observed to exist in full perfection, even +in the case of that individual soul which has not yet risen beyond the +body. Every individual soul carries on the course of its practical +existence by means of the activities of seeing, hearing, cognising; +otherwise no practical existence at all would be possible. If, on the +other hand, that character would realise itself in the case of that soul +only which has risen above the body, the entire aggregate of practical +existence, as it actually presents itself prior to the soul's rising, +would thereby be contradicted. We therefore ask: Wherein consists that +(alleged) rising from the body? Wherein consists that appearing (of the +soul) in its own form? + +To this we make the following reply.--Before the rise of discriminative +knowledge the nature of the individual soul, which is (in reality) pure +light, is non-discriminated as it were from its limiting adjuncts +consisting of body, senses, mind, sense-objects and feelings, and +appears as consisting of the energies of seeing and so on. Similarly--to +quote an analogous case from ordinary experience--the true nature of a +pure crystal, i.e. its transparency and whiteness, is, before the rise +of discriminative knowledge (on the part of the observer), +non-discriminated as it were from any limiting adjuncts of red or blue +colour; while, as soon as through some means of true cognition +discriminative knowledge has arisen, it is said to have now accomplished +its true nature, i.e. transparency and whiteness, although in reality it +had already done so before. Thus the discriminative knowledge, effected +by /S/ruti, on the part of the individual soul which previously is +non-discriminated as it were from its limiting adjuncts, is (according +to the scriptural passage under discussion) the soul's rising from the +body, and the fruit of that discriminative knowledge is its +accomplishment in its true nature, i.e. the comprehension that its +nature is the pure Self. Thus the embodiedness and the non-embodiedness +of the Self are due merely to discrimination and non-discrimination, in +agreement with the mantra, 'Bodiless within the bodies,' &c. (Ka. Up. I, +2, 22), and the statement of Sm/ri/ti as to the non-difference between +embodiedness and non-embodiedness 'Though dwelling in the body, O +Kaunteya, it does not act and is not tainted' (Bha. Gi. XIII, 31). The +individual soul is therefore called 'That whose true nature is +non-manifest' merely on account of the absence of discriminative +knowledge, and it is called 'That whose nature has become manifest' on +account of the presence of such knowledge. Manifestation and +non-manifestation of its nature of a different kind are not possible, +since its nature is nothing but its nature (i.e. in reality is always +the same). Thus the difference between the individual soul and the +highest Lord is owing to wrong knowledge only, not to any reality, +since, like ether, the highest Self is not in real contact with +anything. + +And wherefrom is all this to be known?--From the instruction given by +Prajapati who, after having referred to the jiva ('the person that is +seen in the eye,' &c.), continues 'This is the immortal, the fearless, +this is Brahman.' If the well-known seer within the eye were different +from Brahman which is characterised as the immortal and fearless, it +would not be co-ordinated (as it actually is) with the immortal, the +fearless, and Brahman. The reflected Self, on the other hand, is not +spoken of as he who is characterised by the eye (the seer within the +eye), for that would render Prajapati obnoxious to the reproach of +saying deceitful things.--So also, in the second section, the passage, +'He who moves about happy in dreams,' &c. does not refer to a being +different from the seeing person within the eye spoken of in the first +chapter, (but treats of the same topic) as appears from the introductory +clause, 'I shall explain him further to you.' Moreover[187], a person +who is conscious of having seen an elephant in a dream and of no longer +seeing it when awake discards in the waking state the object which he +had seen (in his sleep), but recognises himself when awake to be the +same person who saw something in the dream.--Thus in the third section +also Prajapati does indeed declare the absence of all particular +cognition in the state of deep sleep, but does not contest the identity +of the cognising Self ('In that way he does not know himself that he is +I, nor all these beings'). The following clause also, 'He is gone to +utter annihilation,' is meant to intimate only the annihilation of all +specific cognition, not the annihilation of the cogniser. For there is +no destruction of the knowing of the knower as--according to another +scriptural passage (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 30)--that is imperishable.--Thus, +again, in the fourth section the introductory phrase of Prajapati is, 'I +shall explain him further to you and nothing different from this;' he +thereupon refutes the connexion (of the Self) with the body and other +limiting conditions ('Maghavat, this body is mortal,' &c.), shows the +individual soul--which is there called 'the serene being'--in the state +when it has reached the nature of Brahman ('It appears in its own +form'), and thus proves the soul to be non-different from the highest +Brahman whose characteristics are immortality and fearlessness. + +Some (teachers) however are of opinion that if the highest Self is meant +(in the fourth section) it would be inappropriate to understand the +words 'This (him) I will explain further,' &c., as referring to the +individual soul, and therefore suppose that the reference is (not to the +individual soul forming the topic of the three preceding sections, but) +to the Self possessing the qualities of freeness from sin, &c., which +Self is pointed out at the beginning of the entire chapter (VII, +1).--Against this interpretation we remark that, in the first place, it +disregards the direct enunciation of the pronoun (i.e. the 'this' in +'this I will explain') which rests on something approximate (i.e. refers +to something mentioned not far off), and, in the second place, is +opposed to the word 'further' (or 'again') met with in the text, since +from that interpretation it would follow that what had been discussed in +the preceding sections is not again discussed in the subsequent section. +Moreover, if Prajapati, after having made a promise in the clause, 'This +I shall explain' (where that clause occurs for the first time), did +previously to the fourth section explain a different topic in each +section, we should have to conclude that he acted deceitfully.--Hence +(our opinion about the purport of the whole chapter remains valid, viz. +that it sets forth how) the unreal aspect of the individual soul as +such--which is a mere presentation of Nescience, is stained by all the +desires and aversions attached to agents and enjoyers, and is connected +with evils of various kinds--is dissolved by true knowledge, and how the +soul is thus led over into the opposite state, i.e. into its true state +in which it is one with the highest Lord and distinguished by freedom +from sin and similar attributes. The whole process is similar to that by +which an imagined snake passes over into a rope as soon as the mind of +the beholder has freed itself from its erroneous imagination. + +Others again, and among them some of ours (asmadiya/s/ /k/a. ke/k/it), +are of opinion that the individual soul as such is real. To the end of +refuting all these speculators who obstruct the way to the complete +intuition of the unity of the Self this /s/ariraka-/s/astra has been set +forth, whose aim it is to show that there is only one highest Lord ever +unchanging, whose substance is cognition[188], and who, by means of +Nescience, manifests himself in various ways, just as a thaumaturg +appears in different shapes by means of his magical power. Besides that +Lord there is no other substance of cognition.--If, now, the Sutrakara +raises and refutes the doubt whether a certain passage which (in +reality) refers to the Lord does refer to the individual soul, as he +does in this and the preceding Sutras[189], he does so for the following +purpose. To the highest Self which is eternally pure, intelligent and +free, which is never changing, one only, not in contact with anything, +devoid of form, the opposite characteristics of the individual soul are +erroneously ascribed; just as ignorant men ascribe blue colour to the +colourless ether. In order to remove this erroneous opinion by means of +Vedic passages tending either to prove the unity of the Self or to +disprove the doctrine of duality--which passages he strengthens by +arguments--he insists on the difference of the highest Self from the +individual soul, does however not mean to prove thereby that the soul is +different from the highest Self, but, whenever speaking of the soul, +refers to its distinction (from the Self) as forming an item of ordinary +thought, due to the power of Nescience. For thus, he thinks, the Vedic +injunctions of works which are given with a view to the states of acting +and enjoying, natural (to the non-enlightened soul), are not +stultified.--That, however, the absolute unity of the Self is the real +purport of the /s/astra's teaching, the Sutrakara declares, for +instance, in I, 1, 30[190]. The refutation of the reproach of futility +raised against the injunctions of works has already been set forth by +us, on the ground of the distinction between such persons as possess +full knowledge, and such as do not. + +20. And the reference (to the individual soul) has a different meaning. + +The alleged reference to the individual soul which has been pointed out +(by the purvapakshin) in the passage complementary to the passage about +the small ether ('Now that serene being,' &c., VIII, 3, 4) teaches, if +the small ether is interpreted to mean the highest Lord, neither the +worship of the individual soul nor any qualification of the subject +under discussion (viz. the small ether), and is therefore devoid of +meaning.--On that account the Sutra declares that the reference has +another meaning, i.e. that the reference to the individual soul is not +meant to determine the nature of the individual soul, but rather the +nature of the highest Lord. In the following manner. The individual soul +which, in the passage referred to, is called the serene being, acts in +the waking state as the ruler of the aggregate comprising the body and +the sense-organs; permeates in sleep the na/d/is of the body, and enjoys +the dream visions resulting from the impressions of the waking state; +and, finally, desirous of reaching an inner refuge, rises in the state +of deep sleep beyond its imagined connexion with the gross and the +subtle body, reaches the highest light, i.e. the highest Brahman +previously called ether, and thus divesting itself of the state of +specific cognition appears in its own (true) nature. The highest light +which the soul is to reach and through which it is manifested in its +true nature is the Self, free from sin and so on, which is there +represented as the object of worship.--In this sense the reference to +the individual soul can be admitted by those also who maintain that in +reality the highest Lord is meant. + +21. If it be said that on account of the scriptural declaration of the +smallness (of the ether) (the Lord cannot be meant; we reply that) that +has been explained (before). + +The purvapakshin has remarked that the smallness of the ether stated by +Scripture ('In it is that small ether') does not agree with the highest +Lord, that it may however be predicated of the individual soul which (in +another passage) is compared to the point of a goad. As that remark +calls for a refutation we point out that it has been refuted already, it +having been shown--under I, 2, 7--that a relative smallness may be +attributed to the Lord. The same refutation is--as the Sutra points +out--to be applied here also.--That smallness is, moreover, contradicted +by that scriptural passage which compares (the ether within the heart) +with the known (universal) ether. ('As large as is this ether so large +is the ether within the heart.') + +22. On account of the acting after (i.e. the shining after), (that after +which sun, moon, &c. are said to shine is the highest Self), and +(because by the light) of him (all this is said to be lighted). + +We read (Mu. Up. II, 2, 10, and Ka. Up. V, 15), 'The sun does not shine +there, nor the moon and the stars, nor these lightnings, much less this +fire. After him when he shines everything shines; by the light of him +all this is lighted.' The question here arises whether he 'after whom +when he shines everything shines, and by whose light all this is +lighted,' is some luminous substance, or the highest Self (praj/n/a +atman). + +A luminous substance, the purvapakshin maintains.--Why?--Because the +passage denies the shining only of such luminous bodies as the sun and +the like. It is known (from every-day experience) that luminous bodies +such as the moon and the stars do not shine at daytime when the sun, +which is itself a luminous body, is shining. Hence we infer that that +thing on account of which all this, including the moon, the stars, and +the sun himself, does not shine is likewise a thing of light. The +'shining after' also is possible only if there is a luminous body +already, for we know from experience that 'acting after' (imitation) of +any kind takes place only when there are more than one agent of similar +nature; one man, for instance, walks after another man who walks +himself. Therefore we consider it settled that the passage refers to +some luminous body. + +To this we reply that the highest Self only can be meant.--Why?--On +account of the acting after. The shining after mentioned in the passage, +'After him when he shines everything shines,' is possible only if the +praj/n/a Self, i.e. the highest Self, is understood. Of that praj/n/a +Self another scriptural passage says, 'His form is light, his thoughts +are true' (Ch. Up. III, 14, 2). On the other hand, it is not by any +means known that the sun, &c. shines after some other luminous body. +Moreover, on account of the equality of nature of all luminous bodies +such as the sun and the like, there is no need for them of any other +luminous body after which they should shine; for we see that a lamp, for +instance, does not 'shine after' another lamp. Nor is there any such +absolute rule (as the purvapakshin asserted) that acting after is +observed only among things of similar nature. It is rather observed +among things of dissimilar nature also; for a red-hot iron ball acts +after, i.e. burns after the burning fire, and the dust of the ground +blows (is blown) after the blowing wind.--The clause 'on account of the +acting after' (which forms part of the Sutra) points to the shining +after (mentioned in the scriptural /s/loka under discussion); the clause +'and of him' points to the fourth pada of the same /s/loka. The meaning +of this latter clause is that the cause assigned for the light of the +sun, &c. (in the passage 'by the light of him everything is lighted') +intimates the praj/n/a Self. For of that Self Scripture says, 'Him the +gods worship as the light of lights, as immortal time' (B/ri/. Up. IV, +4, 16). That, on the other hand, the light of the sun, the moon, &c, +should shine by some other (physical) light is, in the first place, not +known; and, in the second place, absurd as one (physical) light is +counteracted by another.--Or else the cause assigned for the shining +does not apply only to the sun and the other bodies mentioned in the +/s/loka; but the meaning (of the last pada) rather is--as we may +conclude from the comprehensive statement 'all this'--that the +manifestation of this entire world consisting of names and forms, acts, +agents and fruits (of action) has for its cause the existence of the +light of Brahman; just as the existence of the light of the sun is the +cause of the manifestation of all form and colour.--Moreover, the text +shows by means of the word 'there' ('the sun does not shine there,' &c.) +that the passage is to be connected with the general topic, and that +topic is Brahman as appears from Mu. Up. II, 2, 5, 'In whom the heaven, +the earth, and the sky are woven,' &c. The same appears from a passage +subsequent (on the one just quoted and immediately preceding the passage +under discussion). 'In the highest golden sheath there is the Brahman +without passion and without parts; that is pure, that is the light of +lights, that is it which they know who know the Self.' This passage +giving rise to the question, 'How is it the light of lights?' there is +occasion for the reply given in 'The sun does not shine there,' &c.--In +refutation of the assertion that the shining of luminous bodies such as +the sun and the moon can be denied only in case of there being another +luminous body--as, for instance, the light of the moon and the stars is +denied only when the sun is shining--we point out that it has been shown +that he (the Self) only can be the luminous being referred to, nothing +else. And it is quite possible to deny the shining of sun, moon, and so +on with regard to Brahman; for whatever is perceived is perceived by the +light of Brahman only so that sun, moon, &c. can be said to shine in it; +while Brahman as self-luminous is not perceived by means of any other +light. Brahman manifests everything else, but is not manifested by +anything else; according to such scriptural passages as, 'By the Self +alone as his light man sits,' &c. (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 6), and 'He is +incomprehensible, for he cannot be comprehended '(B/ri/. Up. IV, 2, 4). + +23. Moreover Sm/ri/ti also speaks of him (i.e. of the praj/n/a Self as +being the universal light). + +Moreover that aspect of the praj/n/a Self is spoken of in Sm/ri/ti also, +viz. in the Bhagavad Gita (XV, 6, 12), 'Neither the sun, nor the moon, +nor the fire illumines that; having gone into which men do not return, +that is my highest seat.' And 'The light which abiding in the sun +illumines the whole world, and that which is in the moon and that which +is in the fire, all that light know to be mine.' + +24. On account of the term, (viz. the term 'lord' applied to it) the +(person) measured (by a thumb) (is the highest Lord). + +We read (Ka. Up. II, 4, 12), 'The person of the size of a thumb stands +in the middle of the Self,' &c., and (II, 4, 13), 'That person, of the +size of a thumb, is like a light without smoke, lord of the past and of +the future, he is the same to-day and to-morrow. This is that.'--The +question here arises whether the person of the size of a thumb mentioned +in the text is the cognitional (individual) Self or the highest Self. + +The purvapakshin maintains that on account of the declaration of the +person's size the cognitional Self is meant. For to the highest Self +which is of infinite length and breadth Scripture would not ascribe the +measure of a span; of the cognitional Self, on the other hand, which is +connected with limiting adjuncts, extension of the size of a span may, +by means of some fictitious assumption, be predicated. Sm/ri/ti also +confirms this, 'Then Yama drew forth, by force, from the body of +Satyavat the person of the size of a thumb tied to Yama's noose and +helpless' (Mahabh. III, 16763). For as Yama could not pull out by force +the highest Self, the passage is clearly seen to refer to the +transmigrating (individual soul) of the size of a thumb, and we thence +infer that the same Self is meant in the Vedic passage under discussion. + +To this we reply that the person a thumb long can only be the highest +Lord.--Why?--On account of the term 'lord of the past and of the +future.' For none but the highest Lord is the absolute ruler of the past +and the future.--Moreover, the clause 'this is that' connects the +passage with that which had been enquired about, and therefore forms the +topic of discussion. And what had been enquired about is Brahman, 'That +which thou seest as neither this nor that, as neither effect nor cause, +as neither past nor future, tell me that' (I, 2, 14).--'On account of +the term,' i.e. on account of the direct statement, in the text, of a +designation, viz. the term 'Lord,' we understand that the highest Lord +is meant[191].--But still the question remains how a certain extension +can be attributed to the omnipresent highest Self.--The reply to this is +given, in the next Sutra. + +25. But with reference to the heart (the highest Self is said to be of +the size of a span), as men are entitled (to the study of the Veda). + +The measure of a span is ascribed to the highest Lord, although +omnipresent with reference to his abiding within the heart; just as to +ether (space) the measure of a cubit is ascribed with reference to the +joint of a bamboo. For, on the one hand, the measure of a span cannot be +ascribed directly to the highest Self which exceeds all measure, and, on +the other hand, it has been shown that none but the highest Lord can be +meant here, on account of the term 'Lord,' and so on.--But--an objection +may be raised--as the size of the heart varies in the different classes +of living beings it cannot be maintained that the declaration of the +highest Self being of the size of a thumb can be explained with +reference to the heart.--To this objection the second half of the Sutra +replies: On account of men (only) being entitled. For the /s/astra, +although propounded without distinction (i.e. although not itself +specifying what class of beings is to proceed according to its +precepts), does in reality entitle men[192] only (to act according to +its precepts); for men only (of the three higher castes) are, firstly, +capable (of complying with the precepts of the /s/astra); are, secondly, +desirous (of the results of actions enjoined by the /s/astra); are, +thirdly, not excluded by prohibitions; and are, fourthly, subject to the +precepts about the upanayana ceremony and so on[193]. This point has +been explained in the section treating of the definition of adhikara +(Purva Mim. S. VI, 1).--Now the human body has ordinarily a fixed size, +and hence the heart also has a fixed size, viz. the size of a thumb. +Hence, as men (only) are entitled to study and practise the /s/astra, +the highest Self may, with reference to its dwelling in the human heart, +be spoken of as being of the size of a thumb.--In reply to the +purvapakshin's reasoning that on account of the statement of size and on +account of Sm/ri/ti we can understand by him who is of the size of a +thumb the transmigrating soul only, we remark that--analogously to such +passages as 'That is the Self,' 'That art thou'--our passage teaches +that the transmigrating soul which is of the size of a thumb is (in +reality) Brahman. For the Vedanta-passages have a twofold purport; some +of them aim at setting forth the nature of the highest Self, some at +teaching the unity of the individual soul with the highest Self. Our +passage teaches the unity of the individual soul with the highest Self, +not the size of anything. This point is made clear further on in the +Upanishad, 'The person of the size of a thumb, the inner Self, is always +settled in the heart of men. Let a man draw that Self forth from his +body with steadiness, as one draws the pith from a reed. Let him know +that Self as the Bright, as the Immortal' (II, 6, 17). + +26. Also (beings) above them, (viz. men) (are qualified for the study +and practice of the Veda), on account of the possibility (of it), +according to Badaraya/n/a. + +It has been said above that the passage about him who is of the size of +a thumb has reference to the human heart, because men are entitled to +study and act according to the /s/astra. This gives us an occasion for +the following discussion.--It is true that the /s/astra entitles men, +but, at the same time, there is no exclusive rule entitling men only to +the knowledge of Brahman; the teacher, Badaraya/n/a, rather thinks that +the /s/astra entitles those (classes of beings) also which are above +men, viz. gods, and so on.--On what account?--On the account of +possibility.--For in their cases also the different causes on which the +qualification depends, such as having certain desires, and so on, may +exist. In the first place, the gods also may have the desire of final +release, caused by the reflection that all effects, objects, and powers +are non-permanent. In the second place, they may be capable of it as +their corporeality appears from mantras, arthavadas, itihasas, +pura/n/as, and ordinary experience. In the third place, there is no +prohibition (excluding them like /S/udras). Nor does, in the fourth +place, the scriptural rule about the upanayana-ceremony annul their +title; for that ceremony merely subserves the study of the Veda, and to +the gods the Veda is manifest of itself (without study). That the gods, +moreover, for the purpose of acquiring knowledge, undergo discipleship, +and the like, appears from such scriptural passages as 'One hundred and +one years Indra lived as a disciple with Prajapati' (Ch. Up. VIII, 11, +3), and 'Bh/ri/gu Varu/n/i went to his father Varu/n/a, saying, "Sir, +teach me Brahman"' (Taitt. Up. III, 1).--And the reasons which have been +given above against gods and /ri/shis being entitled to perform +religious works (such as sacrifices), viz. the circumstance of there +being no other gods (to whom the gods could offer sacrifices), and of +there being no other /ri/shis (who could be invoked during the +sacrifice), do not apply to the case of branches of knowledge. For Indra +and the other gods, when applying themselves to knowledge, have no acts +to perform with a view to Indra, and so on; nor have Bh/ri/gu and other +/ri/shis, in the same case, to do anything with the circumstance of +their belonging to the same gotra as Bh/ri/gu, &c. What, then, should +stand in the way of the gods' and /ri/shis' right to acquire +knowledge?--Moreover, the passage about that which is of the size of a +thumb remains equally valid, if the right of the gods, &c. is admitted; +it has then only to be explained in each particular case by a reference +to the particular size of the thumb (of the class of beings spoken of). + +27. If it be said that (the corporeal individuality of the gods +involves) a contradiction to (sacrificial) works; we deny that, on +account of the observation of the assumption (on the part of the gods) +of several (forms). + +If the right of the gods, and other beings superior to men, to the +acquisition of knowledge is founded on the assumption of their +corporeality, &c., we shall have to admit, in consequence of that +corporeality, that Indra and the other gods stand in the relation of +subordinate members (a@nga) to sacrificial acts, by means of their being +present in person just as the priests are. But this admission will lead +to 'a contradiction in the sacrificial acts,' because the circumstance +of the gods forming the members of sacrificial acts by means of their +personal presence, is neither actually observed nor possible. For it is +not possible that one and the same Indra should, at the same time, be +present in person at many sacrifices. + +To this we reply, that there is no such contradiction.--Why?--On account +of the assumption of several (forms). For it is possible for one and the +same divine Self to assume several forms at the same time.--How is that +known?--From observation.--For a scriptural passage at first replies to +the question how many gods there are, by the declaration that there are +'Three and three hundred, three and three thousand,' and subsequently, +on the question who they are, declares 'They (the 303 and 3003) are only +the various powers of them, in reality there are only thirty-three gods' +(B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 1, 2); showing thereby that one and the same divine +Self may at the same time appear in many forms. After that it proceeds +to show that these thirty-three gods themselves are in reality contained +in six, five, &c., and, finally, by replying to the question, 'Who is +the one god?' that Breath is the one god, shows that the gods are all +forms of Breath, and that Breath, therefore, can at the same time appear +in many forms.--Sm/ri/ti also has a similar statement, 'A Yogin, O hero +of the Bharatas, may, by his power, multiply his Self in many thousand +shapes, and in them walk about on the earth. In some he may enjoy the +objects, in others he may undergo dire penance, and, finally, he may +again retract them all, just as the sun retracts the multitude of his +rays.' If such Sm/ri/ti passages as the above declare that even Yogins, +who have merely acquired various extraordinary powers, such as subtlety +of body, and the like, may animate several bodies at the same time, how +much more capable of such feats must the gods be, who naturally possess +all supernatural powers. The gods thus being able to assume several +shapes, a god may divide himself into many forms and enter into relation +with many sacrifices at the same time, remaining all the while unseen by +others, in consequence of his power to render himself invisible. + +The latter part of the Sutra may be explained in a different manner +also, viz. as meaning that even beings enjoying corporeal individuality +are seen to enter into mere subordinate relation to more than one +action. Sometimes, indeed, one individual does not at the same time +enter into subordinate relation to different actions; one Brahma/n/a, +for instance, is not at the same time entertained by many entertainers. +But in other cases one individual stands in subordinate relation to many +actions at the same time; one Brahma/n/a, for instance, may constitute +the object of the reverence done to him by many persons at the same +time. Similarly, it is possible that, as the sacrifice consists in the +parting (on the part of the sacrificer with some offering) with a view +(to some divinity), many persons may at the same time part with their +respective offerings, all of them having in view one and the same +individual divinity. The individuality of the gods does not, therefore, +involve any contradiction in sacrificial works. + +28. If it be said (that a contradiction will result) in respect of the +word; we refute this objection on the ground that (the world) originates +from the word, as is shown by perception and inference. + +Let it then be granted that, from the admission of the corporeal +individuality of the gods, no contradiction will result in the case of +sacrificial works. Still a contradiction will result in respect of the +'word' (/s/abda).--How?--The authoritativeness of the Veda has been +proved 'from its independence,' basing on the original (eternal) +connection of the word with its sense ('the thing signified')[194]. But +now, although a divinity possessing corporeal individuality, such as +admitted above, may, by means of its supernatural powers, be able to +enjoy at the same time the oblations which form part of several +sacrifices yet it will, on account of its very individuality, be subject +to birth and death just as we men are, and hence, the eternal connexion +of the eternal word with a non-eternal thing being destroyed, a +contradiction will arise with regard to the authoritativeness proved to +belong to the word of the Veda. + +To this we reply that no such contradiction exists.--Why?--'On account +of their origin from it.' For from that very same word of the Veda the +world, with the gods and other beings, originates.--But--an objection +will be raised--in Sutra I, 1, 2 ('That whence there is the origin, &c. +of this world') it has been proved that the world originates from +Brahman; how then can it be said here that it originates from the word? +And, moreover, even if the origin of the world from the word of the Veda +be admitted, how is the contradiction in regard to the word removed +thereby, inasmuch as the Vasus, the Rudras, the Adityas, the +Vi/s/vedevas, and the Maruts[195] are non-eternal beings, because +produced; and if they are non-eternal, what is there to preclude the +non-eternality of the Vedic words Vasu, &c. designating them? For it is +known from every-day life that only when the son of Devadatta is born, +the name Yaj/n/adatta is given to him (lit. made for him)[196]. Hence we +adhere to our opinion that a contradiction does arise with regard to the +'word.' + +This objection we negative, on the ground that we observe the eternity +of the connexion between such words as cow, and so on, and the things +denoted by them. For, although the individuals of the (species denoted +by the word) cow have an origin, their species[197] does not have an +origin, since of (the three categories) substances, qualities, and +actions the individuals only originate, not the species. Now it is with +the species that the words are connected, not with the individuals, +which, as being infinite in number, are not capable of entering into +that connexion. Hence, although the individuals do not originate, no +contradiction arises in the case of words such as cow, and the like, +since the species are eternal. Similarly, although individual gods are +admitted to originate, there arises no contradiction in the case of such +words as Vasu, and the like, since the species denoted by them are +eternal. And that the gods, and so on, belong to different species, is +to be concluded from the descriptions of their various personal +appearance, such as given in the mantras, arthavadas, &c. Terms such as +'Indra' rest on the connexion (of some particular being) with some +particular place, analogously to terms such as 'army-leader;' hence, +whoever occupies that particular place is called by that particular +name.--The origination of the world from the 'word' is not to be +understood in that sense, that the word constitutes the material cause +of the world, as Brahman does; but while there exist the everlasting +words, whose essence is the power of denotation in connexion with their +eternal sense (i.e. the ak/r/itis denoted), the accomplishment of such +individual things as are capable of having those words applied to them +is called an origination from those words. + +How then is it known that the world originates from the word?--'From +perception and inference.' Perception here denotes Scripture which, in +order to be authoritative, is independent (of anything else). +'Inference' denotes Sm/r/iti which, in order to be authoritative, +depends on something else (viz. Scripture). These two declare that +creation is preceded by the word. Thus a scriptural passage says, 'At +the word these Prajapati created the gods; at the words were poured out +he created men; at the word drops he created the fathers; at the words +through the filter he created the Soma cups; at the words the swift ones +he created the stotra; at the words to all he created the /s/astra; at +the word blessings he created the other beings.' And another passage +says, 'He with his mind united himself with speech (i.e. the word of the +Veda.--B/ri/. Up. I, 2, 4). Thus Scripture declares in different places +that the word precedes the creation.--Sm/r/ti also delivers itself as +follows, 'In the beginning a divine voice, eternal, without beginning or +end, formed of the Vedas was uttered by Svayambhu, from which all +activities proceeded.' By the 'uttering' of the voice we have here to +understand the starting of the oral tradition (of the Veda), because of +a voice without beginning or end 'uttering' in any other sense cannot be +predicated.--Again, we read, 'In the beginning Mahe/s/vara shaped from +the words of the Veda the names and forms of all beings and the +procedure of all actions.' And again, 'The several names, actions, and +conditions of all things he shaped in the beginning from the words of +the Veda' (Manu I, 21). Moreover, we all know from observation that any +one when setting about some thing which he wishes to accomplish first +remembers the word denoting the thing, and after that sets to work. We +therefore conclude that before the creation the Vedic words became +manifest in the mind of Prajapati the creator, and that after that he +created the things conesponding to those words. Scripture also, where it +says (Taitt. Bra. II, 2, 4, 2) 'uttering bhur he created the earth,' +&c., shows that the worlds such as the earth, &c. became manifest, i.e. +were created from the words bhur, &c. which had become manifest in the +mind (of Prajapati). + +Of what nature then is the 'word' with a view to which it is said that +the world originates from the 'word?'--It is the spho/t/a, the +purvapakshin says.[198] For on the assumption that the letters are the +word, the doctrine that the individual gods, and so on, originates from +the eternal words of the Veda could not in any way be proved, since the +letters perish as soon as they are produced (i.e. pronounced). These +perishable letters are moreover apprehended as differing according to +the pronunciation of the individual speaker. For this reason we are able +to determine, merely from the sound of the voice of some unseen person +whom we hear reading, who is reading, whether Devadatta or Yaj/n/adatta +or some other man. And it cannot be maintained that this apprehension of +difference regarding the letters is an erroneous one; for we do not +apprehend anything else whereby it is refuted. Nor is it reasonable to +maintain that the apprehension of the sense of a word results from the +letters. For it can neither be maintained that each letter by itself +intimates the sense, since that would be too wide an assumption;[199] +nor that there takes place a simultaneous apprehension of the whole +aggregate of letters; since the letters succeed one another in time. Nor +can we admit the explanation that the last letter of the word together +with the impressions produced by the perception of the preceding letters +is that which makes us apprehend the sense. For the word makes us +apprehend the sense only if it is itself apprehended in so far as having +reference to the mental grasp of the constant connexion (of the word and +the sense), just as smoke makes us infer the existence of fire only when +it is itself apprehended; but an apprehension of the last letter +combined with the impressions produced by the preceding letters does not +actually take place, because those impressions are not objects of +perception.[200] Nor, again, can it be maintained that (although those +impressions are not objects of perception, yet they may be inferred from +their effects, and that thus) the actual perception of the last letter +combined with the impressions left by the preceding letters--which +impressions are apprehended from their effects--is that which intimates +the sense of the word; for that effect of the impressions, viz. the +remembrance of the entire word, is itself something consisting of parts +which succeed each other in time.--From all this it follows that the +spho/t/a is the word. After the apprehending agent, i.e. the buddhi, +has, through the apprehension of the several letters of the word, +received rudimentary impressions, and after those impressions have been +matured through the apprehension of the last letter, the spho/t/a +presents itself in the buddhi all at once as the object of one mental +act of apprehension.--And it must not be maintained that that one act of +apprehension is merely an act of remembrance having for its object the +letters of the word; for the letters which are more than one cannot form +the object of one act of apprehension.--As that spho/t/a is recognised +as the same as often as the word is pronounced, it is eternal; while the +apprehension of difference referred to above has for its object the +letters merely. From this eternal word, which is of the nature of the +spho/t/a and possesses denotative power, there is produced the object +denoted, i.e. this world which consists of actions, agents, and results +of action. + +Against this doctrine the reverend Upavarsha maintains that the letters +only are the word.--But--an objection is raised--it has been said above +that the letters no sooner produced pass away!--That assertion is not +true, we reply; for they are recognised as the same letters (each time +they are produced anew).--Nor can it be maintained that the recognition +is due to similarity only, as in the case of hairs, for instance; for +the fact of the recognition being a recognition in the strict sense of +the word is not contradicted by any other means of proof.--Nor, again, +can it be said that the recognition has its cause in the species (so +that not the same individual letter would be recognised, but only a +letter belonging to the same species as other letters heard before); +for, as a matter of fact, the same individual letters are recognised. +That the recognition of the letters rests on the species could be +maintained only if whenever the letters are pronounced different +individual letters were apprehended, just as several cows are +apprehended as different individuals belonging to the same species. But +this is actually not the case; for the (same) individual letters are +recognised as often as they are pronounced. If, for instance, the word +cow is pronounced twice, we think not that two different words have been +pronounced, but that the same individual word has been repeated.--But, +our opponent reminds us, it has been shown above, that the letters are +apprehended as different owing to differences of pronunciation, as +appears from the fact that we apprehend a difference when merely hearing +the sound of Devadatta or Yaj/n/adatta reading.--Although, we reply, it +is a settled matter that the letters are recognised as the same, yet we +admit that there are differences in the apprehension of the letters; but +as the letters are articulated by means of the conjunction and +disjunction (of the breath with the palate, the teeth, &c.), those +differences are rightly ascribed to the various character of the +articulating agents and not to the intrinsic nature of the letters +themselves. Those, moreover, who maintain that the individual letters +are different have, in order to account for the fact of recognition, to +assume species of letters, and further to admit that the apprehension of +difference is conditioned by external factors. Is it then not much +simpler to assume, as we do, that the apprehension of difference is +conditioned by external factors while the recognition is due to the +intrinsic nature of the letters? And this very fact of recognition is +that mental process which prevents us from looking on the apprehension +of difference as having the letters for its object (so that the opponent +was wrong in denying the existence of such a process). For how should, +for instance, the one syllable ga, when it is pronounced in the same +moment by several persons, be at the same time of different nature, viz. +accented with the udatta, the anudatta, and the Svarita and nasal as +well as non-nasal[201]? Or else[202]--and this is the preferable +explanation--we assume that the difference of apprehension is caused not +by the letters but by the tone (dhvani). By this tone we have to +understand that which enters the ear of a person who is listening from a +distance and not able to distinguish the separate letters, and which, +for a person standing near, affects the letters with its own +distinctions, such as high or low pitch and so on. It is on this tone +that all the distinctions of udatta, anudatta, and so on depend, and not +on the intrinsic nature of the letters; for they are recognised as the +same whenever they are pronounced. On this theory only we gain a basis +for the distinctive apprehension of the udatta, the anudatta, and the +like. For on the theory first propounded (but now rejected), we should +have to assume that the distinctions of udatta and so on are due to the +processes of conjunction and disjunction described above, since the +letters themselves, which are ever recognised as the same, are not +different. But as those processes of conjunction and disjunction are not +matter of perception, we cannot definitely ascertain in the letters any +differences based on those processes, and hence the apprehension of the +udatta and so on remains without a basis.--Nor should it be urged that +from the difference of the udatta and so on there results also a +difference of the letters recognised. For a difference in one matter +does not involve a difference in some other matter which in itself is +free from difference. Nobody, for instance, thinks that because the +individuals are different from each other the species also contains a +difference in itself. + +The assumption of the spho/t/a is further gratuitous, because the sense +of the word may be apprehended from the letters.--But--our opponent here +objects--I do not assume the existence of the spho/t/a. I, on the +contrary, actually perceive it; for after the buddhi has been impressed +by the successive apprehension of the letters of the word, the spho/t/a +all at once presents itself as the object of cognition.--You are +mistaken, we reply. The object of the cognitional act of which you speak +is simply the letters of the word. That one comprehensive cognition +which follows upon the apprehension of the successive letters of the +word has for its object the entire aggregate of the letters constituting +the word, and not anything else. We conclude this from the circumstance +that in that final comprehensive cognition there are included those +letters only of which a definite given word consists, and not any other +letters. If that cognitional act had for its object the spho/t/a--i.e. +something different from the letters of the given word--then those +letters would be excluded from it just as much as the letters of any +other word. But as this is not the case, it follows that that final +comprehensive act of cognition is nothing but an act of remembrance +which has the letters of the word for its object.--Our opponent has +asserted above that the letters of a word being several cannot form the +object of one mental act. But there he is wrong again. The ideas which +we have of a row, for instance, or a wood or an army, or of the numbers +ten, hundred, thousand, and so on, show that also such things as +comprise several unities can become the objects of one and the same +cognitional act. The idea which has for its object the word as one whole +is a derived one, in so far as it depends on the determination of one +sense in many letters[203]; in the same way as the idea of a wood, an +army, and so on. But--our opponent may here object--if the word were +nothing else but the letters which in their aggregate become the object +of one mental act, such couples of words as jara and raja or pika and +kapi would not be cognised as different words; for here the same letters +are presented to consciousness in each of the words constituting one +couple.--There is indeed, we reply, in both cases a comprehensive +consciousness of the same totality of letters; but just as ants +constitute the idea of a row only if they march one after the other, so +the letters also constitute the idea of a certain word only if they +follow each other in a certain order. Hence it is not contrary to reason +that the same letters are cognised as different words, in consequence of +the different order in which they are arranged. + +The hypothesis of him who maintains that the letters are the word may +therefore be finally formulated as follows. The letters of which a word +consists--assisted by a certain order and number--have, through +traditional use, entered into a connexion with a definite sense. At the +time when they are employed they present themselves as such (i.e. in +their definite order and number) to the buddhi, which, after having +apprehended the several letters in succession, finally comprehends the +entire aggregate, and they thus unerringly intimate to the buddhi their +definite sense. This hypothesis is certainly simpler than the +complicated hypothesis of the grammarians who teach that the spho/t/a is +the word. For they have to disregard what is given by perception, and to +assume something which is never perceived; the letters apprehended in a +definite order are said to manifest the spho/t/a, and the spho/t/a in +its turn is said to manifest the sense. + +Or let it even be admitted that the letters are different ones each time +they are pronounced; yet, as in that case we necessarily must assume +species of letters as the basis of the recognition of the individual +letters, the function of conveying the sense which we have demonstrated +in the case of the (individual) letters has then to be attributed to the +species. + +From all this it follows that the theory according to which the +individual gods and so on originate from the eternal words is +unobjectionable. + +29. And from this very reason there follows the eternity of the Veda. + +As the eternity of the Veda is founded on the absence of the remembrance +of an agent only, a doubt with regard to it had been raised owing to the +doctrine that the gods and other individuals have sprung from it. That +doubt has been refuted in the preceding Sutra.--The present Sutra now +confirms the, already established, eternity of the Veda. The eternity of +the word of the Veda has to be assumed for this very reason, that the +world with its definite (eternal) species, such as gods and so on, +originates from it.--A mantra also ('By means of the sacrifice they +followed the trace of speech; they found it dwelling in the /ri/shis,' +/Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. X, 71, 3) shows that the speech found (by the +/ri/shis) was permanent.--On this point Vedavyasa also speaks as +follows: 'Formerly the great /ri/shis, being allowed to do so by +Svayambhu, obtained, through their penance, the Vedas together with the +itihasas, which had been hidden at the end of the yuga.' + +30. And on account of the equality of names and forms there is no +contradiction (to the eternity of the word of the Veda) in the +renovation (of the world); as is seen from /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti. + +If--the purvapakshin resumes--the individual gods and so on did, like +the individual animals, originate and pass away in an unbroken +succession so that there would be no break of the course of practical +existence including denominations, things denominated and agents +denominating; the connexion (between word and thing) would be eternal, +and the objection as to a contradiction with reference to the word +(raised in Sutra 27) would thereby be refuted. But if, as /S/ruti and +Sm/ri/ti declare, the whole threefold world periodically divests itself +of name and form, and is entirely dissolved (at the end of a kalpa), and +is after that produced anew; how can the contradiction be considered to +have been removed? + +To this we reply: 'On account of the sameness of name and form.'--Even +then the beginninglessness of the world will have to be admitted (a +point which the teacher will prove later on: II, 1, 36). And in the +beginningless sa/m/sara we have to look on the (relative) beginning, and +the dissolution connected with a new kalpa in the same light in which we +look on the sleeping and waking states, which, although in them +according to Scripture (a kind of) dissolution and origination take +place, do not give rise to any contradiction, since in the later waking +state (subsequent to the state of sleep) the practical existence is +carried on just as in the former one. That in the sleeping and the +waking states dissolution and origination take place is stated Kaush. +Up. III, 3, 'When a man being asleep sees no dream whatever he becomes +one with that pra/n/a alone. Then speech goes to him with all names, the +eye with all forms, the ear with all sounds, the mind with all thoughts. +And when he awakes then, as from a burning fire, sparks proceed in all +directions, thus from that Self the pra/n/as proceed, each towards its +place; from the pra/n/as the gods, from the gods the worlds.' + +Well, the purvapakshin resumes, it may be that no contradiction arises +in the case of sleep, as during the sleep of one person the practical +existence of other persons suffers no interruption, and as the sleeping +person himself when waking from sleep may resume the very same form of +practical existence which was his previously to his sleep. The case of a +mahapralaya (i.e. a general annihilation of the world) is however a +different one, as then the entire current of practical existence is +interrupted, and the form of existence of a previous kalpa can be +resumed in a subsequent kalpa no more than an individual can resume that +form of existence which it enjoyed in a former birth. + +This objection, we reply, is not valid. For although a mahapralaya does +cut short the entire current of practical existence, yet, by the favour +of the highest Lord, the Lords (i/s/vara), such as Hira/n/yagarbha and +so on, may continue the same form of existence which belonged to them in +the preceding kalpa. Although ordinary animated beings do not, as we +see, resume that form of existence which belonged to them in a former +birth; still we cannot judge of the Lords as we do of ordinary beings. +For as in the series of beings which descends from man to blades of +grass a successive diminution of knowledge, power, and so on, is +observed--although they all have the common attribute of being +animated--so in the ascending series extending from man up to +Hira/n/yagarbha, a gradually increasing manifestation of knowledge, +power, &c. takes place; a circumstance which /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti +mention in many places, and which it is impossible to deny. On that +account it may very well be the case that the Lords, such as +Hira/n/yagarbha and so on, who in a past kalpa were distinguished by +superior knowledge and power of action, and who again appear in the +present kalpa, do, if favoured by the highest Lord, continue (in the +present kalpa) the same kind of existence which they enjoyed in the +preceding kalpa; just as a man who rises from sleep continues the same +form of existence which he enjoyed previously to his sleep. Thus +Scripture also declares, 'He who first creates Brahman (Hira/n/yagarbha) +and delivers the Vedas to him, to that God who is the light of his own +thoughts, I, seeking for release, go for refuge' (/S/vet. Up. VI, 18). +/S/aunaka and others moreover declare (in the Anukrama/n/is of the Veda) +that the ten books (of the /Ri/g-veda) were seen by Madhu/kkh/andas and +other /ri/shis.[204] And, similarly, Sm/ri/ti tells us, for every Veda, +of men of exalted mental vision (/ri/shis) who 'saw' the subdivisions of +their respective Vedas, such as ka/nd/as and so on. Scripture also +declares that the performance of the sacrificial action by means of the +mantra is to be preceded by the knowledge of the /ri/shi and so on, 'He +who makes another person sacrifice or read by means of a mantra of which +he does not know the /ri/shi, the metre, the divinity, and the +Brahma/n/a, runs against a post, falls into a pit[205], &c. &c., +therefore one must know all those matters for each mantra' (Arsheya +Brahma/n/a, first section).--Moreover, religious duty is enjoined and +its opposite is forbidden, in order that the animate beings may obtain +pleasure and escape pain. Desire and aversion have for their objects +pleasure and pain, known either from experience or from Scripture, and +do not aim at anything of a different nature. As therefore each new +creation is (nothing but) the result of the religious merit and demerit +(of the animated beings of the preceding creation), it is produced with +a nature resembling that of the preceding creation. Thus Sm/ri/ti also +declares, 'To whatever actions certain of these (animated beings) had +turned in a former creation, to the same they turn when created again +and again. Whether those actions were harmful or harmless, gentle or +cruel, right or wrong, true or untrue, influenced by them they proceed; +hence a certain person delights in actions of a certain +kind.'--Moreover, this world when being dissolved (in a mahapralaya) is +dissolved to that extent only that the potentiality (/s/akti) of the +world remains, and (when it is produced again) it is produced from the +root of that potentiality; otherwise we should have to admit an effect +without a cause. Nor have we the right to assume potentialities of +different kind (for the different periods of the world). Hence, although +the series of worlds from the earth upwards, and the series of different +classes of animate beings such as gods, animals, and men, and the +different conditions based on caste, a/s/rama, religious duty and fruit +(of works), although all these we say are again and again interrupted +and thereupon produced anew; we yet have to understand that they are, in +the beginningless sa/m/sara, subject to a certain determinateness +analogous to the determinateness governing the connexion between the +senses and their objects. For it is impossible to imagine that the +relation of senses and sense-objects should be a different one in +different creations, so that, for instance, in some new creation a sixth +sense and a corresponding sixth sense-object should manifest themselves. +As, therefore, the phenomenal world is the same in all kalpas and as the +Lords are able to continue their previous forms of existence, there +manifest themselves, in each new creation, individuals bearing the same +names and forms as the individuals of the preceding creations, and, +owing to this equality of names and forms, the admitted periodical +renovations of the world in the form of general pralayas and general +creations do not conflict with the authoritativeness of the word of the +Veda. The permanent identity of names and forms is declared in /S/ruti +as well as Sm/ri/ti; compare, for instance, /Ri/k. Sa/m/h. X, 190, 3, +'As formerly the creator ordered sun and moon, and the sky, and the air, +and the heavenly world;' which passage means that the highest Lord +arranged at the beginning of the present kalpa the entire world with sun +and moon, and so on, just as it had been arranged in the preceding +kalpa. Compare also Taitt. Brahm. III, 1, 4, 1, 'Agni desired: May I +become the consumer of the food of the gods; for that end he offered a +cake on eight potsherds to Agni and the K/ri/ttikas.' This passage, +which forms part of the injunction of the ish/t/i to the Nakshatras, +declares equality of name and form connecting the Agni who offered and +the Agni to whom he offered.[206] + +Sm/ri/ti also contains similar statements to be quoted here; so, for +instance, 'Whatever were the names of the /ri/shis and their powers to +see the Vedas, the same the Unborn one again gives to them when they are +produced afresh at the end of the night (the mahapralaya). As the +various signs of the seasons return in succession in their due time, +thus the same beings again appear in the different yugas. And of +whatever individuality the gods of the past ages were, equal to them are +the present gods in name and form.' + +31. On account of the impossibility of (the gods being qualified) for +the madhu-vidya, &c., Jaimini (maintains) the non-qualification (of the +gods for the Brahma-vidya). + +A new objection is raised against the averment that the gods, &c. also +are entitled to the knowledge of Brahman. The teacher, Jaimini, +considers the gods and similar beings not to have any claim.--Why?--On +account of the impossibility, in the case of the so-called Madhu-vidya, +&c. If their claim to the knowledge of Brahman were admitted, we should +have to admit their claim to the madhu-vidya ('the knowledge of the +honey') also, because that also is a kind of knowledge not different +(from the knowledge of Brahman). But to admit this latter claim is not +possible; for, according to the passage, 'The Sun is indeed the honey of +the devas' (Ch. Up. III, 1, 1), men are to meditate on the sun (the god +Aditya) under the form of honey, and how, if the gods themselves are +admitted as meditating worshippers, can Aditya meditate upon another +Aditya?--Again, the text, after having enumerated five kinds of nectar, +the red one, &c. residing in the sun, and after having stated that the +five classes of gods, viz. the Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, Maruts, and +Sadhyas, live on one of these nectars each, declares that 'he who thus +knows this nectar becomes one of the Vasus, with Agni at their head, he +sees the nectar and rejoices, &c., and indicates thereby that those who +know the nectars enjoyed by the Vasus, &c., attain the greatness of the +Vasus, &c.' But how should the Vasus themselves know other Vasus +enjoying the nectar, and what other Vasu-greatness should they desire to +attain?--We have also to compare the passages 'Agni is one foot, Aditya +is one foot, the quarters are one foot' (Ch. Up. III, 18, 2); 'Air is +indeed the absorber' (Ch. Up. IV, 3, 1); 'Aditya is Brahman, this is the +doctrine.' All these passages treat of the meditation on the Self of +certain divinities, for which meditation these divinities themselves are +not qualified.--So it is likewise impossible that the /ri/shis +themselves should be qualified for meditations connected with /ri/shis, +such as expressed in passages like B/ri/. Up. II, 2, 4, 'These two are +the /ri/shis Gautama and Bharadvaja; the right Gautama, the left +Bharadvaja.'--Another reason for the non-qualification of the gods is +stated in the following Sutra. + +32. And (the devas, &c. are not qualified) on account of (the words +denoting the devas, &c.) being (used) in the sense of (sphere of) light. + +To that sphere of light, the purvapakshin resumes, which is stationed in +the sky, and during its diurnal revolutions illumines the world, terms +such as Aditya, i.e. the names of devas, are applied, as we know from +the use of ordinary language, and from Vedic complementary +passages[207]. But of a mere sphere of light we cannot understand how it +should be endowed with either a bodily form, consisting of the heart and +the like, or intelligence, or the capability of forming wishes[208]. For +mere light we know to be, like earth, entirely devoid of intelligence. +The same observation applies to Agni (fire), and so on. It will perhaps +be said that our objection is not valid, because the personality of the +devas is known from the mantras, arthavadas, itihasas, pura/n/as, and +from the conceptions of ordinary life[209]; but we contest the relevancy +of this remark. For the conceptions of ordinary life do not constitute +an independent means of knowledge; we rather say that a thing is known +from ordinary life if it is known by the (acknowledged) means of +knowledge, perception, &c. But none of the recognised means of +knowledge, such as perception and the like, apply to the matter under +discussion. Itihasas and pura/n/as again being of human origin, stand +themselves in need of other means of knowledge on which to base. The +arthavada passages also, which, as forming syntactical wholes with the +injunctory passages, have merely the purpose of glorifying (what is +enjoined in the latter), cannot be considered to constitute by +themselves reasons for the existence of the personality, &c. of the +devas. The mantras again, which, on the ground of direct enunciation, +&c., are to be employed (at the different stages of the sacrificial +action), have merely the purpose of denoting things connected with the +sacrificial performance, and do not constitute an independent means of +authoritative knowledge for anything[210].--For these reasons the devas, +and similar beings, are not qualified for the knowledge of Brahman. + +33. Badaraya/n/a, on the other hand, (maintains) the existence (of +qualification for Brahma-vidya on the part of the gods); for there are +(passages indicatory of that). + +The expression 'on the other hand' is meant to rebut the purvapaksha. +The teacher, Badaraya/n/a, maintains the existence of the qualification +on the part of the gods, &c. For, although the qualification of the gods +cannot be admitted with reference to the madhu-vidya, and similar topics +of knowledge, in which the gods themselves are implicated, still they +may be qualified for the pure knowledge of Brahman, qualification in +general depending on the presence of desire, capability, &c.[211] Nor +does the impossibility of qualification in certain cases interfere with +the presence of qualification in those other cases where it is not +impossible. To the case of the gods the same reasoning applies as to the +case of men; for among men also, all are not qualified for everything, +Brahma/n/as, for instance, not for the rajasuya-sacrifice[212]. + +And, with reference to the knowledge of Brahman, Scripture, moreover, +contains express hints notifying that the devas are qualified; compare, +for instance, /Br/i. Up. I, 4, 10, 'Whatever Deva was awakened (so as to +know Brahman) he indeed became that; and the same with /ri/shis;' Ch. +Up. VIII, 7, 2, 'They said: Well, let us search for that Self by which, +if one has searched it out, all worlds and all desires are obtained. +Thus saying, Indra went forth from the Devas, Viro/k/ana from the +Asuras.' Similar statements are met with in Sm/ri/ti, so, for instance, +in the colloquy of the Gandharva and Yaj/n/avalkya[213].--Against the +objection raised in the preceding Sutra (32) we argue as follows. Words +like aditya, and so on, which denote devas, although having reference to +light and the like, yet convey the idea of certain divine Selfs +(persons) endowed with intelligence and pre-eminent power; for they are +used in that sense in mantras and arthavada passages. For the devas +possess, in consequence of their pre-eminent power, the capability of +residing within the light, and so on, and to assume any form they like. +Thus we read in Scripture, in the arthavada passage explaining the words +'ram of Medhatithi,' which form part of the Subrahma/n/ya-formula, that +'Indra, having assumed the shape of a ram, carried off Medhatithi, the +descendant of Ka/n/va' (Sha/d/v. Br. I, 1). And thus Sm/ri/ti says that +'Aditya, having assumed the shape of a man, came to Kunti.' Moreover, +even in such substances as earth, intelligent ruling beings must be +admitted to reside, for that appears from such scriptural passages as +'the earth spoke,' 'the waters spoke,' &c. The non-intelligence of light +and the like, in so far as they are mere material elements, is admitted +in the case of the sun (aditya), &c. also; but--as already +remarked--from the use of the words in mantras and arthavadas it appears +that there are intelligent beings of divine nature (which animate those +material elements). + +We now turn to the objection (raised above by the purvapakshin) that +mantras and arthavadas, as merely subserving other purposes, have no +power of setting forth the personality of the devas, and remark that not +the circumstance of subordination or non-subordination to some other +purpose, but rather the presence or absence of a certain idea furnishes +a reason for (our assuming) the existence of something. This is +exemplified by the case of a person who, having set out for some other +purpose, (nevertheless) forms the conviction of the existence of leaves, +grass, and the like, which he sees lying on the road.--But, the +purvapakshin may here object, the instance quoted by you is not strictly +analogous. In the case of the wanderer, perception, whose objects the +grass and leaves are, is active, and through it he forms the conception +of their existence. In the case of an arthavada, on the other hand, +which, as forming a syntactical unity with the corresponding injunctory +passage, merely subserves the purpose of glorifying (the latter), it is +impossible to determine any energy having a special object of its own. +For in general any minor syntactical unity, which is included in a more +comprehensive syntactical unity conveying a certain meaning, does not +possess the power of expressing a separate meaning of its own. Thus, for +instance, we derive, from the combination of the three words +constituting the negative sentence, '(Do) not drink wine,' one meaning +only, i.e. a prohibition of drinking wine, and do not derive an +additional meaning, viz. an order to drink wine, from the combination of +the last two words, 'drink wine.'--To this objection we reply, that the +instance last quoted is not analogous (to the matter under discussion). +The words of the sentence prohibiting the drinking of wine form only one +whole, and on that account the separate sense which any minor +syntactical unity included in the bigger sentence may possess cannot be +accepted. In the case of injunction and arthavada, on the other hand, +the words constituting the arthavada form a separate group of their own +which refers to some accomplished thing[214], and only subsequently to +that, when it comes to be considered what purpose they subserve, they +enter on the function of glorifying the injunction. Let us examine, as +an illustrative example, the injunctive passage, 'He who is desirous of +prosperity is to offer to Vayu a white animal.' All the words contained +in this passage are directly connected with the injunction. This is, +however, not the case with the words constituting the corresponding +arthavada passage, 'For Vayu is the swiftest deity; Vayu he approaches +with his own share; he leads him to prosperity.' The single words of +this arthavada are not grammatically connected with the single words of +the injunction, but form a subordinate unity of their own, which +contains the praise of Vayu, and glorify the injunction, only in so far +as they give us to understand that the action enjoined is connected with +a distinguished divinity. If the matter conveyed by the subordinate +(arthavada) passage can be known by some other means of knowledge, the +arthavada acts as a mere anuvada, i.e. a statement referring to +something (already known)[215]. When its contents are contradicted by +other means of knowledge it acts as a so-called gu/n/avada, i.e. a +statement of a quality[216]. Where, again, neither of the two mentioned +conditions is found, a doubt may arise whether the arthavada is to be +taken as a gu/n/avada on account of the absence of other means of +knowledge, or as an arthavada referring to something known (i.e. an +anuvada) on account of the absence of contradiction by other means of +proof. The latter alternative is, however, to be embraced by reflecting +people.--The same reasoning applies to mantras also. + +There is a further reason for assuming the personality of the gods. The +Vedic injunctions, as enjoining sacrificial offerings to Indra and the +other gods, presuppose certain characteristic shapes of the individual +divinities, because without such the sacrificer could not represent +Indra and the other gods to his mind. And if the divinity were not +represented to the mind it would not be possible to make an offering to +it. So Scripture also says, 'Of that divinity for which the offering is +taken he is to think when about to say vausha/t/' (Ai. Br. III, 8, 1). +Nor is it possible to consider the essential form (or character) of a +thing to consist in the word only[217]; for word (denoting) and thing +(denoted) are different. He therefore who admits the authoritativeness +of the scriptural word has no right to deny that the shape of Indra, and +the other gods, is such as we understand it to be from the mantras and +arthavadas.--Moreover, itihasas and pura/n/as also--because based on +mantra and arthavada which possess authoritative power in the manner +described--are capable of setting forth the personality, &c. of the +devas. Itihasa and pura/n/a can, besides, be considered as based on +perception also. For what is not accessible to our perception may have +been within the sphere of perception of people in ancient times. +Sm/ri/ti also declares that Vyasa and others conversed with the gods +face to face. A person maintaining that the people of ancient times were +no more able to converse with the gods than people are at present, would +thereby deny the (incontestable) variety of the world. He might as well +maintain that because there is at present no prince ruling over the +whole earth, there were no such princes in former times; a position by +which the scriptural injunction of the rajasuya-sacrifice[218] would be +stultified. Or he might maintain that in former times the spheres of +duty of the different castes and a/s/ramas were as generally unsettled +as they are now, and, on that account, declare those parts of Scripture +which define those different duties to be purposeless. It is therefore +altogether unobjectionable to assume that the men of ancient times, in +consequence of their eminent religious merit, conversed with the gods +face to face. Sm/ri/ti also declares that 'from the reading of the Veda +there results intercourse with the favourite divinity' (Yoga Sutra II, +44). And that Yoga does, as Sm/ri/ti declares, lead to the acquirement +of extraordinary powers, such as subtlety of body, and so on, is a fact +which cannot be set aside by a mere arbitrary denial. Scripture also +proclaims the greatness of Yoga, 'When, as earth, water, light, heat, +and ether arise, the fivefold quality of Yoga takes place, then there is +no longer illness, old age, or pain for him who has obtained a body +produced by the fire of Yoga' (/S/vet. Up. II, 12). Nor have we the +right to measure by our capabilities the capability of the /ri/shis who +see the mantras and brahma/n/a passages (i.e. the Veda).--From all this +it appears that the itihasas and pura/n/as have an adequate basis.--And +the conceptions of ordinary life also must not be declared to be +unfounded, if it is at all possible to accept them. + +The general result is that we have the right to conceive the gods as +possessing personal existence, on the ground of mantras, arthavadas, +itihasas, pura/n/as, and ordinarily prevailing ideas. And as the gods +may thus be in the condition of having desires and so on, they must be +considered as qualified for the knowledge of Brahman. Moreover, the +declarations which Scripture makes concerning gradual emancipation[219] +agree with this latter supposition only. + +34. Grief of him (i.e. of Jana/s/ruti) (arose) on account of his hearing +a disrespectful speech about himself; on account of the rushing on of +that (grief) (Raikva called him /S/udra); for it (the grief) is pointed +at (by Raikva). + +(In the preceding adhikara/n/a) the exclusiveness of the claim of men to +knowledge has been refuted, and it has been declared that the gods, &c. +also possess such a claim. The present adhikara/n/a is entered on for +the purpose of removing the doubt whether, as the exclusiveness of the +claim of twice-born men is capable of refutation, the /S/udras also +possess such a claim. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the /S/udras also have such a claim, +because they may be in the position of desiring that knowledge, and +because they are capable of it; and because there is no scriptural +prohibition (excluding them from knowledge) analogous to the text, +'Therefore[220] the /S/udra is unfit for sacrificing' (Taitt. Sa/m/h. +VII, 1, 1, 6). The reason, moreover, which disqualifies the /S/udras for +sacrificial works, viz. their being without the sacred fires, does not +invalidate their qualification for knowledge, as knowledge can be +apprehended by those also who are without the fires. There is besides an +inferential mark supporting the claim of the /S/udras; for in the +so-called sa/m/varga-knowledge he (Raikva) refers to Jana/s/ruti +Pautraya/n/a, who wishes to learn from him, by the name of /S/udra 'Fie, +necklace and carnage be thine, O /S/udra, together with the cows' (Ch. +Up. IV, 2, 3). Sm/ri/ti moreover speaks of Vidura and others who were +born from /S/udra mothers as possessing eminent knowledge.--Hence the +/S/udra has a claim to the knowledge of Brahman. + +To this we reply that the /S/udras have no such claim, on account of +their not studying the Veda. A person who has studied the Veda and +understood its sense is indeed qualified for Vedic matters; but a +/S/udra does not study the Veda, for such study demands as its +antecedent the upanayana-ceremony, and that ceremony belongs to the +three (higher) castes only. The mere circumstance of being in a +condition of desire does not furnish a reason for qualification, if +capability is absent. Mere temporal capability again does not constitute +a reason for qualification, spiritual capability being required in +spiritual matters. And spiritual capability is (in the case of the +/S/udras) excluded by their being excluded from the study of the +Veda.--The Vedic statement, moreover, that the /S/udra is unfit for +sacrifices intimates, because founded on reasoning, that he is unfit for +knowledge also; for the argumentation is the same in both +cases[221].--With reference to the purvapakshin's opinion that the fact +of the word '/S/udra' being enounced in the sa/m/varga-knowledge +constitutes an inferential mark (of the /S/udra's qualification for +knowledge), we remark that that inferential mark has no force, on +account of the absence of arguments. For the statement of an inferential +mark possesses the power of intimation only in consequence of arguments +being adduced; but no such arguments are brought forward in the passage +quoted.[222] Besides, the word '/S/udra' which occurs in the +sa/m/varga-vidya would establish a claim on the part of the /S/udras to +that one vidya only, not to all vidyas. In reality, however, it is +powerless, because occurring in an arthavada, to establish the /S/udras' +claim to anything.--The word '/S/udra' can moreover be made to agree +with the context in which it occurs in the following manner. When +Jana/s/ruti Pautraya/n/a heard himself spoken of with disrespect by the +flamingo ('How can you speak of him, being what he is, as if he were +like Raikva with the car?' IV, 1, 3), grief (su/k/) arose in his mind, +and to that grief the /ri/shi Raikva alludes with the word /S/udra, in +order to show thereby his knowledge of what is remote. This explanation +must be accepted because a (real) born /S/udra is not qualified (for the +sa/m/varga-vidya). If it be asked how the grief (su/k/) which had arisen +in Janasruti's mind can be referred to by means of the word /S/udra, we +reply: On account of the rushing on (adrava/n/a) of the grief. For we +may etymologise the word /S/udra by dividing it into its parts, either +as 'he rushed into grief (/S/u/k/am abhidudrava) or as 'grief rushed on +him,' or as 'he in his grief rushed to Raikva;' while on the other hand +it is impossible to accept the word in its ordinary conventional sense. +The circumstance (of the king actually being grieved) is moreover +expressly touched upon in the legend[223]. + +35. And because the kshattriyahood (of Jana/s/ruti) is understood from +the inferential mark (supplied by his being mentioned) later on with +/K/aitraratha (who was a kshattriya himself). + +Jana/s/ruti cannot have been a /S/udra by birth for that reason also +that his being a kshattriya is understood from an inferential sign, viz. +his being mentioned together (in one chapter) with the kshattriya +/K/aitraratha Abhipratarin. For, later on, i.e. in the passage +complementary to the sa/m/varga-vidya, a kshattriya /K/aitrarathi +Abhipratarin is glorified, 'Once while /S/aunaka Kapeya and Abhipratarin +Kakshaseni were being waited on at their meal a religious student begged +of them' (Ch. Up. IV, 3, 5). That this Abhipratarin was a /K/aitrarathi +(i.e. a descendant of /K/itraratha) we have to infer from his connexion +with a Kapeya. For we know (from /S/ruti) about the connexion of +/K/itraratha himself with the Kapeyas ('the Kapeyas made /K/itraratha +perform that sacrifice;' Ta/nd/ya. Br. XX, 12, 5), and as a rule +sacrificers of one and the same family employ officiating priests of one +and the same family. Moreover, as we understand from Scripture ('from +him a /K/aitrarathi descended who was a prince[224]') that he +(/K/aitraratha) was a prince, we must understand him to have been a +kshattriya. The fact now of Jana/s/ruti being praised in the same vidya +with the kshattriya Abhipratarin intimates that the former also was a +kshattriya. For as a rule equals are mentioned together with equals. +That Jana/s/ruti was a kshattriya we moreover conclude from his sending +his door-keeper and from other similar signs of power (mentioned in the +text).--Hence the /S/udras are not qualified (for the knowledge of +Brahman). + +36. On account of the reference to ceremonial purifications (in the case +of the higher castes) and on account of their absence being declared (in +the case of the /S/udras). + +That the /S/udras are not qualified, follows from that circumstance also +that in different places of the vidyas such ceremonies as the upanayana +and the like are referred to. Compare, for instance, /S/at. Br. XI, 5, +3, 13, 'He initiated him as a pupil;' Ch. Up. VII, 1, 1, 'Teach me, Sir! +thus he approached him;' Pra. Up. I, 1, 'Devoted to Brahman, firm in +Brahman, seeking for the highest Brahman they, carrying fuel in their +hands, approached the venerable Pippalada, thinking that he would teach +them all that.'--Thus the following passage also, 'He without having +made them undergo the upanayana (said) to them' (Ch. Up. V, 11, 7), +shows that the upanayana is a well-established ceremony[225].--With +reference to the /S/udras, on the other hand, the absence of ceremonies +is frequently mentioned; so, for instance, Manu X, 4, where they are +spoken of as 'once born' only ('the /S/udra is the fourth caste, +once-born'), and Manu X, 126, 'In the /S/udra there is not any sin, and +he is not fit for any ceremony.' + +37. And on account of (Gautama) proceeding (to initiate Jabala) on the +ascertainment of (his) not being that (i.e. a /S/udra). + +The /S/udras are not qualified for that reason also that Gautama, having +ascertained Jabala not to be a /S/udra from his speaking the truth, +proceeded to initiate and instruct him. 'None who is not a Brahma/n/a +would thus speak out. Go and fetch fuel, friend, I shall initiate you. +You have not swerved from the truth' (Ch. Up. IV, 4, 5); which +scriptural passage furnishes an inferential sign (of the /S/udras not +being capable of initiation). + +38. And on account of the prohibition, in Sm/ri/ti, of (the /S/udras') +hearing and studying (the Veda) and (knowing and performing) (Vedic) +matters. + +The /S/udras are not qualified for that reason also that Sm/ri/ti +prohibits their hearing the Veda, their studying the Veda, and their +understanding and performing Vedic matters. The prohibition of hearing +the Veda is conveyed by the following passages: 'The ears of him who +hears the Veda are to be filled with (molten) lead and lac,' and 'For a +/S/udra is (like) a cemetery, therefore (the Veda) is not to be read in +the vicinity of a /S/udra.' From this latter passage the prohibition of +studying the Veda results at once; for how should he study Scripture in +whose vicinity it is not even to be read? There is, moreover, an express +prohibition (of the /S/udras studying the Veda). 'His tongue is to be +slit if he pronounces it; his body is to be cut through if he preserves +it.' The prohibitions of hearing and studying the Veda already imply the +prohibition of the knowledge and performance of Vedic matters; there +are, however, express prohibitions also, such as 'he is not to impart +knowledge to the /S/udra,' and 'to the twice-born belong study, +sacrifice, and the bestowal of gifts.'--From those /S/udras, however, +who, like Vidura and 'the religious hunter,' acquire knowledge in +consequence of the after effects of former deeds, the fruit of their +knowledge cannot be withheld, since knowledge in all cases brings about +its fruit. Sm/ri/ti, moreover, declares that all the four castes are +qualified for acquiring the knowledge of the itihasas and pura/n/as; +compare the passage, 'He is to teach the four castes' (Mahabh.).--It +remains, however, a settled point that they do not possess any such +qualification with regard to the Veda. + +39. (The pra/n/a is Brahman), on account of the trembling (predicated of +the whole world). + +The discussion of qualification for Brahma-knowledge--on which we +entered as an opportunity offered--being finished we return to our chief +topic, i.e. the enquiry into the purport of the Vedanta-texts.--We read +(Ka. Up. II, 6, 2), 'Whatever there is, the whole world when gone forth +trembles in the pra/n/a. It (the pra/n/a) is a great terror, a raised +thunderbolt. Those who know it become immortal[226].'--This passage +declares that this whole world trembles, abiding in pra/n/a, and that +there is raised something very terrible, called a thunderbolt, and that +through its knowledge immortality is obtained. But as it is not +immediately clear what the pra/n/a is, and what that terrible +thunderbolt, a discussion arises. + +The purvapakshin maintains that, in accordance with the ordinary meaning +of the term, pra/n/a denotes the air with its five modifications, that +the word 'thunderbolt' also is to be taken in its ordinary sense, and +that thus the whole passage contains a glorification of air. For, he +says, this whole world trembles, abiding within air with its five +forms--which is here called pra/n/a--and the terrible thunderbolts also +spring from air (or wind) as their cause. For in the air, people say, +when it manifests itself in the form of Parjanya, lightning, thunder, +rain, and thunderbolts manifest themselves.--Through the knowledge of +that air immortality also can be obtained; for another scriptural +passage says, 'Air is everything by itself, and air is all things +together. He who knows this conquers death.'--We therefore conclude that +the same air is to be understood in the passage under discussion. + +To this we make the following reply.--Brahman only can be meant, on +account of what precedes as well as what follows. In the preceding as +well as the subsequent part of the chapter Brahman only is spoken of; +how then can it be supposed that in the intermediate part all at once +the air should be referred to? The immediately preceding passage runs as +follows, 'That only is called the Bright, that is called Brahman, that +alone is called the Immortal. All worlds are contained in it, and no one +goes beyond it.' That the Brahman there spoken of forms the topic of our +passage also, we conclude, firstly, from proximity; and, secondly, from +the circumstance that in the clause, 'The whole world trembles in +pra/n/a' we recognise a quality of Brahman, viz. its constituting the +abode of the whole world. That the word pra/n/a can denote the highest +Self also, appears from such passages as 'the pra/n/a of pra/n/a' +(B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 18). Being the cause of trembling, moreover, is a +quality which properly appertains to the highest Self only, not to mere +air. Thus Scripture says, 'No mortal lives by the pra/n/a and the breath +that goes down. We live by another in whom these two repose' (Ka. Up. +II, 5 5). And also in the passage subsequent to the one under +discussion, ('From terror of it fire burns, from terror the sun burns, +from terror Indra and Vayu, and Death as the fifth run away,') Brahman, +and not the air, must be supposed to be spoken of, since the subject of +that passage is represented as the cause of fear on the part of the +whole world inclusive of the air itself. Thence we again conclude that +the passage under discussion also refers to Brahman, firstly, on the +ground of proximity; and, secondly, because we recognise a quality of +Brahman, viz. its being the cause of fear, in the words, 'A great +terror, a raised thunderbolt.' The word 'thunderbolt' is here used to +denote a cause of fear in general. Thus in ordinary life also a man +strictly carries out a king's command because he fearfully considers in +his mind, 'A thunderbolt (i.e. the king's wrath, or threatened +punishment) is hanging over my head; it might fall if I did not carry +out his command.' In the same manner this whole world inclusive of fire, +air, sun, and so on, regularly carries on its manifold functions from +fear of Brahman; hence Brahman as inspiring fear is compared to a +thunderbolt. Similarly, another scriptural passage, whose topic is +Brahman, declares, 'From terror of it the wind blows, from terror the +sun rises; from terror of it Agni and Indra, yea, Death runs as the +fifth.'--That Brahman is what is referred to in our passage, further +follows from the declaration that the fruit of its cognition is +immortality. For that immortality is the fruit of the knowledge of +Brahman is known, for instance, from the mantra, 'A man who knows him +only passes over death, there is no other path to go' (/S/vet. Up. VI, +15).--That immortality which the purvapakshin asserts to be sometimes +represented as the fruit of the knowledge of the air is a merely +relative one; for there (i.e. in the chapter from which the passage is +quoted) at first the highest Self is spoken of, by means of a new topic +being started (B/ri/. Up. III, 4), and thereupon the inferior nature of +the air and so on is referred to. ('Everything else is evil.')--That in +the passage under discussion the highest Self is meant appears finally +from the general subject-matter; for the question (asked by Na/k/iketas +in I, 2, 14, 'That which thou seest as neither this nor that, as neither +effect nor cause, as neither past nor future tell me that') refers to +the highest Self. + +40. The light (is Brahman), on account of that (Brahman) being seen (in +the scriptural passage). + +We read in Scripture, 'Thus does that serene being, arising from this +body, appear in its own form as soon as it has approached the highest +light' (Ch. Up. VIII, 12, 3). Here the doubt arises whether the word +'light' denotes the (physical) light, which is the object of sight and +dispels darkness, or the highest Brahman. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the word 'light' denotes the well-known +(physical) light, because that is the conventional sense of the word. +For while it is to be admitted that in another passage, discussed under +I, 1, 24, the word 'light' does, owing to the general topic of the +chapter, divest itself of its ordinary meaning and denote Brahman, there +is in our passage no similar reason for setting the ordinary meaning +aside. Moreover, it is stated in the chapter treating of the na/d/is of +the body, that a man going to final release reaches the sun ('When he +departs from this body then he departs upwards by those very rays;' Ch. +Up. VIII, 6, 5). Hence we conclude that the word 'light' denotes, in our +passage, the ordinary light. + +To this we make the following reply.--The word 'light' can denote the +highest Brahman only, on account of that being seen. We see that in the +whole chapter Brahman is carried on as the topic of discussion. For the +Self, which is free from sin, &c. is introduced as the general +subject-matter in VIII, 7, 1 ('the Self which is free from sin'); it is +thereupon set forth as that which is to be searched out and to be +understood (VIII, 7, 1); it is carried on by means of the clauses, 'I +shall explain that further to you' (VIII, 9, 3 ff.); after that freedom +from body is said to belong to it, because it is one with light ('when +he is free from the body then neither pleasure nor pain touches him,' +VIII, 12, 1)--and freedom from body is not possible outside Brahman--and +it is finally qualified as 'the highest light, the highest person' +(VIII, 12, 3).--Against the statement, made by the purvapakshin, that +Scripture speaks of a man going to release as reaching the sun, we +remark, that the release there referred to is not the ultimate one, +since it is said to be connected with going and departing upwards. That +the ultimate release has nothing to do with going and departing upwards +we shall show later on. + +41. The ether is (Brahman), as it is designated as something different, +&c. (from name and form). + +Scripture says, 'He who is called ether, (aka/s/a) is the revealer of +all forms and names. That within which these forms and names are +contained is the Brahman, the Immortal, the Self (Ch. Up. VIII, 14, 1). + +There arising a doubt whether that which here is called ether is the +highest Brahman or the ordinary elemental ether, the purvapakshin +declares that the latter alternative is to be embraced, firstly, because +it is founded on the conventional meaning of the word 'ether;' and, +secondly, because the circumstance of revealing names and forms can very +well be reconciled with the elemental ether, as that which affords room +(for all things). Moreover, the passage contains no clear indicatory +mark of Brahman, such as creative power, and the like. + +To this we reply, that the word 'ether' can here denote the highest +Brahman only, because it is designated as a different thing, &c. For the +clause, 'That within which these two are contained is Brahman,' +designates the ether as something different from names and forms. But, +excepting Brahman, there is nothing whatever different from name and +form, since the entire world of effects is evolved exclusively by names +and forms. Moreover, the complete revealing of names and forms cannot be +accomplished by anything else but Brahman, according to the text which +declares Brahman's creative agency, 'Let me enter (into those beings) +with this living Self (jiva atman), and evolve names and forms' (Ch. Up. +VI, 3, 2). But--it may be said--from this very passage it is apparent +that the living Self also (i.e. the individual soul) possesses revealing +power with regard to names and forms.--True, we reply, but what the +passage really wishes to intimate, is the non-difference (of the +individual soul from the highest Self). And the very statement +concerning the revealing of names and forms implies the statement of +signs indicatory of Brahman, viz. creative power and the +like.--Moreover, the terms 'the Brahman, the Immortal, the Self' (VIII, +14) indicate that Brahman is spoken of. + +42. And (on account of the designation) (of the highest Self) as +different (from the individual soul) in the states of deep sleep and +departing. + +In the sixth prapa/th/aka of the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka there is given, in +reply to the question, 'Who is that Self?' a lengthy exposition of the +nature of the Self, 'He who is within the heart, among the pra/n/as, the +person of light, consisting of knowledge' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 7). Here +the doubt arises, whether the passage merely aims at making an +additional statement about the nature of the transmigrating soul (known +already from other sources), or at establishing the nature of the +non-transmigrating Self. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the passage is concerned with the nature +of the transmigrating soul, on account of the introductory and +concluding statements. For the introductory statement, 'He among the +pra/n/as who consists of knowledge,' contains marks indicatory of the +embodied soul, and so likewise the concluding passage, 'And that great +unborn Self is he who consists of cognition,' &c. (IV, 4, 22). We must +therefore adhere to the same subject-matter in the intermediate passages +also, and look on them as setting forth the same embodied Self, +represented in its different states, viz. the waking state, and so on. + +In reply to this, we maintain that the passage aims only at giving +information about the highest Lord, not at making additional statements +about the embodied soul.--Why?--On account of the highest Lord being +designated as different from the embodied soul, in the states of deep +sleep and of departing from the body. His difference from the embodied +soul in the state of deep sleep is declared in the following passage, +'This person embraced by the intelligent (praj/n/a) Self knows nothing +that is without, nothing that is within.' Here the term, 'the person,' +must mean the embodied soul; for of him it is possible to deny that he +knows, because he, as being the knower, may know what is within and +without. The 'intelligent Self,' on the other hand, is the highest Lord, +because he is never dissociated from intelligence, i.e.--in his +case--all-embracing knowledge.--Similarly, the passage treating of +departure, i.e. death ('this bodily Self mounted by the intelligent Self +moves along groaning'), refers to the highest Lord as different from the +individual Self. There also we have to understand by the 'embodied one' +the individual soul which is the Lord of the body, while the +'intelligent one' is again the Lord. We thus understand that 'on account +of his being designated as something different, in the states of deep +sleep and departure,' the highest Lord forms the subject of the +passage.--With reference to the purvapakshin's assertion that the entire +chapter refers to the embodied Self, because indicatory marks of the +latter are found in its beginning, middle, and end, we remark that in +the first place the introductory passage ('He among the pra/n/as who +consists of cognition') does not aim at setting forth the character of +the transmigrating Self, but rather, while merely referring to the +nature of the transmigrating Self as something already known, aims at +declaring its identity with the highest Brahman; for it is manifest that +the immediately subsequent passage, 'as if thinking, as if moving'[227], +aims at discarding the attributes of the transmigrating Self. The +concluding passage again is analogous to the initial one; for the words, +'And that great unborn Self is he who,' &c., mean: We have shown that +that same cognitional Self, which is observed among the pra/n/as, is the +great unborn Self, i.e. the highest Lord--He, again, who imagines that +the passages intervening (between the two quoted) aim at setting forth +the nature of the transmigrating Self by representing it in the waking +state, and so on, is like a man who setting out towards the east, wants +to set out at the same time towards the west. For in representing the +states of waking, and so on, the passage does not aim at describing the +soul as subject to different states or transmigration, but rather as +free from all particular conditions and transmigration. This is evident +from the circumstance that on Janaka's question, which is repeated in +every section, 'Speak on for the sake of emancipation,' Yaj/n/avalkya +replies each time, 'By all that he is not affected, for that person is +not attached to anything' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 14-16). And later on he +says (IV, 3, 22), 'He is not followed by good, not followed by evil, for +he has then overcome all the sorrows of the heart.' We have, therefore, +to conclude that the chapter exclusively aims at setting forth the +nature of the non-transmigrating Self. + +43. And on account of such words as Lord, &c. + +That the chapter aims at setting forth the nature of the +non-transmigrating Self, we have to conclude from that circumstance also +that there occur in it terms such as Lord and so on, intimating the +nature of the non-transmigrating Self, and others excluding the nature +of the transmigrating Self. To the first class belongs, for instance, +'He is the lord of all, the king of all things, the protector of all +things.' To the latter class belongs the passage, 'He does not become +greater by good works, nor smaller by evil works.'--From all which we +conclude that the chapter refers to the non-transmigrating highest Lord. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 164: From passages of which nature we may infer that in the +passage under discussion also the 'abode' is Brahman.] + +[Footnote 165: From which circumstance we may conclude that the passage +under discussion also refers to Brahman.] + +[Footnote 166: Yat sarvam avidyaropita/m/ tat sarva/m/ paramarthato +brahma na tu yad brahma tat sarvam ity artha/h/. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 167: So that the passage would have to be translated, 'That, +viz. knowledge, &c. is the bridge of the Immortal.'] + +[Footnote 168: Bhogyasya bhokt/ris/eshatvat tasyayatanatvam uktam +a/s/a@nkyaha na /k/eti, jivasyad/ri/sh/t/advara dyubhvadinimittatvezpi +na sakshat tadayatanatvam aupadhikatvenavibhutvad ity artha/h/. Ananda +Giri.] + +[Footnote 169: It would not have been requisite to introduce a special +Sutra for the individual soul--which, like the air, is already excluded +by the preceding Sutra--if it were not for the new argument brought +forward in the following Sutra which applies to the individual soul +only.] + +[Footnote 170: If the individual soul were meant by the abode of heaven, +earth, &c., the statement regarding I/s/vara made in the passage about +the two birds would be altogether abrupt, and on that ground +objectionable. The same difficulty does not present itself with regard +to the abrupt mention of the individual soul which is well known to +everybody, and to which therefore casual allusions may be made.--I +subjoin Ananda Giri's commentary on the entire passage: +Jivasyopadhyaikyenavivakshitatvat tadj/n/anezpi sarvaj/n/anasiddhes +tasyayatanatvadyabhave hetvantara/m/ va/k/yam ity a/s/a@nkya sutre/n/a +pariharati kuta/sk/etyadina. Tad vya/k/ash/t/e dyubhvaditi. Nirde/s/am +eva dar/s/ayati tayor iti. Vibhaktyartham aha tabhya/m/ /k/eti. +Sthitye/s/varasyadanaj jivasa/m/grahezpi katham i/s/varasyaiva +vi/s/vayatanatva/m/ tadaha yaditi. I/s/varasyayanatvenaprak/ri/tatve +jivap/ri/thakkathananupapattir ity uktam eva vyatirekadvaraha anyatheti. +Jivasyayatanatvenaprak/ri/tatve tulyanupapattir iti /s/a@nkate nanviti. +Tasyaikyartha/m/ lokasiddhasyanuvadatvan naivam ity aha neti. +Jivasyapurvatvabhavenapratipadyatvam eva praka/t/ayati kshetraj/n/o +hiti. I/s/varasyapi lokavadisiddhatvad apratipadyatety a/s/a@nkyaha +i/s/varas tv iti.] + +[Footnote 171: As might be the prima facie conclusion from the particle +'but' introducing the sentence 'but he in reality,' &c.] + +[Footnote 172: It being maintained that the passage referred to is to be +viewed in connexion with the general subject-matter of the preceding +past of the chapter.] + +[Footnote 173: And would thus involve a violation of a fundamental +principle of the Mima/m/sa.] + +[Footnote 174: A remark directed against the possible attempt to explain +the passage last quoted as referring to the embodied soul.] + +[Footnote 175: Pi/nd/a/h/ sthulo deha/h/, pra/n/a/h/ sutratma. Ananda +Giri.-The lower Brahman (hira/n/yagarbha on sutratman) is the vital +principle (pra/n/a) in all creatures.] + +[Footnote 176: Sa/m/yagdar/s/ana, i.e. complete seeing or intuition; the +same term which in other places--where it is not requisite to insist on +the idea of 'seeing' in contradistinction from 'reflecting' or +'meditating'--is rendered by perfect knowledge.] + +[Footnote 177: Translated above by 'of the shape of the individual +soul.'] + +[Footnote 178: Pa/n/ini III, 3, 77, 'murtta/m/ ghana/h/.'] + +[Footnote 179: So that the interpretation of the purvapakshin cannot be +objected to on the ground of its involving the comparison of a thing to +itself.] + +[Footnote 180: So that no objection can be raised on the ground that +heaven and earth cannot be contained in the small ether of the heart.] + +[Footnote 181: Viz. of that which is within it. Ananda Giri proposes two +explanations: na /k/eti, paravi/s/esha/n/atvenety atra paro daharaka/s/a +upadanat tasminn iti saptamyanta-ta/kkh/abdasyeti /s/esha/h/. Yadva +para/s/abdo s nta/h/sthavastuvishayas tadvi/s/esha/n/alvena tasminn iti +daharaka/s/asyokter ity artha/h/. Ta/kkh/abdasya +samnik/ri/sh/t/anvayayoge viprak/ri/sh/t/anvayasya jaghanyatvad +aka/s/antargata/m/ dhyeyam iti bhava/h/.] + +[Footnote 182: A vakyabheda--split of the sentence--takes place +according to the Mimam/s/a when one and the same sentence contains two +new statements which are different.] + +[Footnote 183: While the explanation of Brahman by jiva would compel us +to assume that the word Brahman secondarily denotes the individual +soul.] + +[Footnote 184: Upalabdher adhish/th/anam brahma/n/a deha ishyate. +Tenasadhara/n/atvena deho brahmapuram bhavet. Bhamati.] + +[Footnote 185: I.e. Brahma, the lower Brahman.] + +[Footnote 186: The masculine 'avirbhutasvarupa/h/' qualifies the +substantive jiva/h/ which has to be supplied. Properly speaking the jiva +whose true nature has become manifest, i.e. which has become Brahman, is +no longer jiva; hence the explanatory statement that the term jiva is +used with reference to what the jiva was before it became Brahman.] + +[Footnote 187: To state another reason showing that the first and second +chapters of Prajapati's instruction refer to the same subject.] + +[Footnote 188: I.e. of whom cognition is not a mere attribute.] + +[Footnote 189: Although in reality there is no such thing as an +individual soul.] + +[Footnote 190: Nanu jivabrahma/n/or aikyam na kvapi sutrakaro mukhato +vadati kim tu sarvatra bhedam eva, ato naikyam ish/t/am tatraha +pratipadyam tv iti.] + +[Footnote 191: This last sentence is directed against the possible +objection that '/s/abda,' which the Sutra brings forward as an argument +in favour of the highest Lord being meant, has the sense of 'sentence' +(vakya), and is therefore of less force than li@nga, i.e. indicatory or +inferential mark which is represented in our passage by the +a@ngush/th/amatrata of the purusha, and favours the jiva interpretation. +/S/abda, the text remarks, here means /s/ruti, i.e. direct enunciation, +and /s/ruti ranks, as a means of proof, higher than li@nga.] + +[Footnote 192: I.e. men belonging to the three upper castes.] + +[Footnote 193: The first reason excludes animals, gods, and /ri/shis. +Gods cannot themselves perform sacrifices, the essential feature of +which is the parting, on the part of the sacrificer, with an offering +meant for the gods. /Ri/shis cannot perform sacrifices in the course of +whose performance the ancestral /ri/shis of the sacrificer are +invoked.--The second reason excludes those men whose only desire is +emancipation and who therefore do not care for the perishable fruits of +sacrifices.--The third and fourth reasons exclude the /S/udras who are +indirectly disqualified for /s/astric works because the Veda in +different places gives rules for the three higher castes only, and for +whom the ceremony of the upanayana--indispensable for all who wish to +study the Veda--is not prescribed.--Cp. Purva Mima/m/sa Sutras VI, 1.] + +[Footnote 194: The reference is to Purva Mima/m/sa Sutras I, 1, 5 (not +to I, 2, 21, as stated in Muir's Sanskrit Texts, III, p. 69).] + +[Footnote 195: In which classes of beings all the gods are comprised.] + +[Footnote 196: Which shows that together with the non-eternality of the +thing denoted there goes the non-eternality of the denoting word.] + +[Footnote 197: Ak/ri/ti, best translated by [Greek: eidos].] + +[Footnote 198: The purvapakshin, i.e. here the grammarian maintains, for +the reasons specified further on, that there exists in the case of words +a supersensuous entity called spho/t/a which is manifested by the +letters of the word, and, if apprehended by the mind, itself manifests +the sense of the word. The term spho/t/a may, according as it is viewed +in either of these lights, be explained as the manifestor or that which +is manifested.--The spho/t/a is a grammatical fiction, the word in so +far as it is apprehended by us as a whole. That we cannot identify it +with the 'notion' (as Deussen seems inclined to do, p. 80) follows from +its being distinctly called va/k/aka or abhidhayaka, and its being +represented as that which causes the conception of the sense of a word +(arthadhihetu).] + +[Footnote 199: For that each letter by itself expresses the sense is not +observed; and if it did so, the other letters of the word would have to +be declared useless.] + +[Footnote 200: In order to enable us to apprehend the sense from the +word, there is required the actual consciousness of the last letter plus +the impressions of the preceding letters; just as smoke enables us to +infer the existence of fire only if we are actually conscious of the +smoke. But that actual consciousness does not take place because the +impressions are not objects of perceptive consciousness.] + +[Footnote 201: 'How should it be so?' i.e. it cannot be so; and on that +account the differences apprehended do not belong to the letters +themselves, but to the external conditions mentioned above.] + +[Footnote 202: With 'or else' begins the exposition of the finally +accepted theory as to the cause why the same letters are apprehended as +different. Hitherto the cause had been found in the variety of the +upadhis of the letters. Now a new distinction is made between +articulated letters and non-articulated tone.] + +[Footnote 203: I.e. it is not directly one idea, for it has for its +object more than one letter; but it may be called one in a secondary +sense because it is based on the determinative knowledge that the +letters, although more than one, express one sense only.] + +[Footnote 204: Which circumstance proves that exalted knowledge +appertains not only to Hira/n/yagarbha, but to many beings.] + +[Footnote 205: Viz. naraka, the commentaries say.] + +[Footnote 206: Asmin kalpe sarvesham pra/n/inam dahapakapraka/s/akari +yozyam agnir d/ris/yate sozyam agni/h/ purvasmin kalpe manushya/h/ san +devatvapadaprapaka/m/ karmanush/th/ayasmin kalpa etaj janma labdhavan +ata/h/ purvasmin kalpe sa manushyo bhavini/m/ sa/m/j/n/am a/sri/tyagnir +iti vyapadi/s/yate.--Saya/n/a on the quoted passage.] + +[Footnote 207: As, for instance, 'So long as Aditya rises in the east +and sets in the west' (Ch. Up. III, 6, 4).] + +[Footnote 208: Whence it follows that the devas are not personal beings, +and therefore not qualified for the knowledge of Brahman.] + +[Footnote 209: Yama, for instance, being ordinarily represented as a +person with a staff in his hand, Varu/n/a with a noose, Indra with a +thunderbolt, &c. &c.] + +[Footnote 210: On the proper function of arthavada and mantra according +to the Mima/m/sa, cp. Arthasa/m/graha, Introduction.] + +[Footnote 211: See above, p. 197.] + +[Footnote 212: Which can be offered by kshattriyas only.] + +[Footnote 213: /S/rautali@ngenanumanabadha/m/ dar/s/ayitva smartenapi +tadbadha/m/ dar/s/ayati smartam iti. Ki/m/ atra brahma am/ri/tam ki/m/ +svid vedyam anuttamam, /k/intayet tatra vai gatva gandharvo mam +ap/rikkh/ata, Vi/s/vavasus tato rajan vedantaj/n/anakovida iti +mokshadharme janakayaj/n/avalkyasa/m/vadat prahladajagarasa/m/vada/k/ +/k/oktanumanasiddhir ity artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 214: As opposed to an action to be accomplished.] + +[Footnote 215: Of this nature is, for instance, the arthavada, 'Fire is +a remedy for cold.'] + +[Footnote 216: Of this nature is, for instance, the passage 'the +sacrificial post is the sun' (i.e. possesses the qualities of the sun, +luminousness, &c.; a statement contradicted by perception).] + +[Footnote 217: And therefore to suppose that a divinity is nothing but a +certain word forming part of a mantra.] + +[Footnote 218: The rajasuya-sacrifice is to be offered by a prince who +wishes to become the ruler of the whole earth.] + +[Footnote 219: In one of whose stages the being desirous of final +emancipation becomes a deva.] + +[Footnote 220: The commentaries explain 'therefore' by 'on account of +his being devoid of the three sacred fires.' This explanation does not, +however, agree with the context of the Taitt. Sa/m/h.] + +[Footnote 221: The /S/udra not having acquired a knowledge of Vedic +matters in the legitimate way, i.e. through the study of the Veda under +the guidance of a guru, is unfit for sacrifices as well as for vidya.] + +[Footnote 222: The li@nga contained in the word '/S/udra' has no proving +power as it occurs in an arthavada-passage which has no authority if not +connected with a corresponding injunctive passage. In our case the +li@nga in the arthavada-passage is even directly contradicted by those +injunctions which militate against the /S/udras' qualification for Vedic +matters.] + +[Footnote 223: Ha/m/savakyad atmanoznadara/m/ /s/rutva jana/s/rute/h/ +/s/ug utpannety etad eva katha/m/ gamyate yenasau /s/udra/s/abdena +sa/k/yate tatraha sp/ris/yate /k/eti. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 224: I translate this passage as I find it in all MSS. of +/S/a@nkara consulted by me (noting, however, that some MSS. read +/k/aitrarathinamaika/h/). Ananda Giri expressly explains tasmad by +/k/aitrarathad ity artha/h/.--The text of the Ta/nd/ya Br. runs: +tasma/k/ /k/aitrarathinam eka/h/ kshatrapatir gayate, and the commentary +explains: tasmat kara/n/ad adyapi /k/itrava/ms/otpannana/m/ madhye eka +eva raja kshatrapatir baladhipatir bhavati.--Grammar does not authorise +the form /k/ahraratha used in the Sutra.] + +[Footnote 225: The king A/s/vapati receives some Brahma/n/as as his +pupils without insisting on the upanayana. This express statement of the +upanayana having been omitted in a certain case shows it to be the +general rule.] + +[Footnote 226: As the words stand in the original they might be +translated as follows (and are so translated by the purvapakshin), +'Whatever there is, the whole world trembles in the pra/n/a, there goes +forth (from it) a great terror, viz. the raised thunderbolt.'] + +[Footnote 227: The stress lies here on the 'as if.' which intimate that +the Self does not really think or move.] + + + + +FOURTH PADA. + +REVERENCE TO THE HIGHEST SELF! + + +1. If it be said that some (mention) that which is based on inference +(i.e. the pradhana); we deny this, because (the term alluded to) refers +to what is contained in the simile of the body (i.e. the body itself); +and (that the text) shows. + +In the preceding part of this work--as whose topic there has been set +forth an enquiry into Brahman--we have at first defined Brahman (I, 1, +2); we have thereupon refuted the objection that that definition applies +to the pradhana also, by showing that there is no scriptural authority +for the latter (I, 1, 5), and we have shown in detail that the common +purport of all Vedanta-texts is to set forth the doctrine that Brahman, +and not the pradha/n/a, is the cause of the world. Here, however, the +Sa@nkhya again raises an objection which he considers not to have been +finally disposed of. + +It has not, he says, been satisfactorily proved that there is no +scriptural authority for the pradhana; for some /s/akhas contain +expressions which seem to convey the idea of the pradhana. From this it +follows that Kapila and other supreme /ri/shis maintain the doctrine of +the pradhana being the general cause only because it is based on the +Veda.--As long therefore as it has not been proved that those passages +to which the Sa@nkhyas refer have a different meaning (i.e. do not +allude to the pradhana), all our previous argumentation as to the +omniscient Brahman being the cause of the world must be considered as +unsettled. We therefore now begin a new chapter which aims at proving +that those passages actually have a different meaning. + +The Sa@nkhyas maintain that that also which is based on inference, i.e. +the pradhana, is perceived in the text of some /s/akhas. We read, for +instance, they say, in the Ka/th/aka (I, 3, 11), 'Beyond the Great there +is the Undeveloped, beyond the Undeveloped there is the Person.' There +we recognise, named by the same names and enumerated in the same order, +the three entities with which we are acquainted from the +Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, viz. the great principle, the Undeveloped (the +pradhana), and the soul[228]. That by the Undeveloped is meant the +pradhana is to be concluded from the common use of Sm/ri/ti and from the +etymological interpretation of which the word admits, the pradhana being +called undeveloped because it is devoid of sound and other qualities. It +cannot therefore be asserted that there is no scriptural authority for +the pradhana. And this pradhana vouched for by Scripture we declare to +be the cause of the world, on the ground of Scripture, Sm/ri/ti, and +ratiocination. + +Your reasoning, we reply, is not valid. The passage from the Ka/th/aka +quoted by you intimates by no means the existence of that great +principle and that Undeveloped which are known from the +Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti. We do not recognise there the pradhana of the +Sa@nkhyas, i.e. an independent general cause consisting of three +constituting elements; we merely recognise the word 'Undeveloped,' which +does not denote any particular determined thing, but may--owing to its +etymological meaning, 'that which is not developed, not +manifest'--denote anything subtle and difficult to distinguish. The +Sa@nkhyas indeed give to the word a settled meaning, as they apply it to +the pradhana; but then that meaning is valid for their system only, and +has no force in the determination of the sense of the Veda. Nor does +mere equality of position prove equality of being, unless the latter be +recognised independently. None but a fool would think a cow to be a +horse because he sees it tied in the usual place of a horse. We, +moreover, conclude, on the strength of the general subject-matter, that +the passage does not refer to the pradhana the fiction of the Sa@nkhyas, +'on account of there being referred to that which is contained in the +simile of the body.' This means that the body which is mentioned in the +simile of the chariot is here referred to as the Undeveloped. We infer +this from the general subject-matter of the passage and from the +circumstance of nothing else remaining.--The immediately preceding part +of the chapter exhibits the simile in which the Self, the body, and so +on, are compared to the lord of a chariot, a chariot, &c., 'Know the +Self to be the lord of the chariot, the body to be the chariot, the +intellect the charioteer, and the mind the reins. The senses they call +the horses, the objects of the senses their roads. When he (the Self) is +in union with the body, the senses and the mind, then wise people call +him the enjoyer.' The text then goes on to say that he whose senses, &c. +are not well controlled enters into sa/m/sara, while he who has them +under control reaches the end of the journey, the highest place of +Vish/n/u. The question then arises: What is the end of the journey, the +highest place of Vish/n/u? Whereupon the text explains that the highest +Self which is higher than the senses, &c., spoken of is the end of the +journey, the highest place of Vish/n/u. 'Beyond the senses there are the +objects, beyond the objects there is the mind, beyond the mind there is +the intellect, the great Self is beyond the intellect. Beyond the great +there is the Undeveloped, beyond the Undeveloped there is the Person. +Beyond the Person there is nothing--this is the goal, the highest Road.' +In this passage we recognise the senses, &c. which in the preceding +simile had been compared to horses and so on, and we thus avoid the +mistake of abandoning the matter in hand and taking up a new subject. +The senses, the intellect, and the mind are referred to in both passages +under the same names. The objects (in the second passage) are the +objects which are (in the former passage) designated as the roads of the +senses; that the objects are beyond (higher than) the senses is known +from the scriptural passage representing the senses as grahas, i.e. +graspers, and the objects as atigrahas, i.e. superior to the grahas +(B/ri/ Up. III, 2). The mind (manas) again is superior to the objects, +because the relation of the senses and their objects is based on the +mind. The intellect (buddhi) is higher than the mind, since the objects +of enjoyment are conveyed to the soul by means of the intellect. Higher +than the intellect is the great Self which was represented as the lord +of the chariot in the passage, 'Know the Self to be the lord of the +chariot.' That the same Self is referred to in both passages is manifest +from the repeated use of the word 'Self;' that the Self is superior to +intelligence is owing to the circumstance that the enjoyer is naturally +superior to the instrument of enjoyment. The Self is appropriately +called great as it is the master.--Or else the phrase 'the great Self' +may here denote the intellect of the first-born Hira/n/yagarbha which is +the basis of all intellects; in accordance with the following +Sm/ri/ti-passage it is called mind, the great one; reflection, Brahman; +the stronghold, intellect; enunciation, the Lord; highest knowledge, +consciousness; thought, remembrance[229], and likewise with the +following scriptural passage, 'He (Hira/n/ya-garbha) who first creates +Brahman and delivers the Vedas to him' (/S/vet. Up. VI, 18). The +intellect, which in the former passage had been referred to under its +common name buddhi, is here mentioned separately, since it may be +represented as superior to our human intellects. On this latter +explanation of the term 'the great Self,' we must assume that the +personal Self which in the simile had been compared to the charioteer +is, in the latter passage, included in the highest person (mentioned +last); to which there is no objection, since in reality the personal +Self and the highest Self are identical.--Thus there remains now the +body only which had before been compared to a chariot. We therefore +conclude that the text after having enumerated the senses and all the +other things mentioned before, in order to point out the highest place, +points out by means of the one remaining word, viz. avyakta, the only +thing remaining out of those which had been mentioned before, viz. the +body. The entire passage aims at conveying the knowledge of the unity of +the inward Self and Brahman, by describing the soul's passing through +sa/m/sara and release under the form of a simile in which the body, &c. +of the soul--which is affected by Nescience and therefore joined to a +body, senses, mind, intellect, objects, sensations, &c.--are compared to +a chariot, and so on.--In accordance with this the subsequent verse +states the difficulty of knowing the highest place of Vish/n/u ('the +Self is hidden in all beings and does not shine forth, but it is seen by +subtle seers through their sharp and subtle intellect'), and after that +the next verse declares Yoga to be the means of attaining that +cognition. 'A wise man should keep down speech in the mind, he should +keep down the mind in intelligence, intelligence he should keep down +within the great Self, and he should keep that within the quiet +Self.'--That means: The wise man should restrain the activity of the +outer organs such as speech, &c., and abide within the mind only; he +should further restrain the mind which is intent on doubtful external +objects within intelligence, whose characteristic mark is decision, +recognising that indecision is evil; he should further restrain +intelligence within the great Self, i.e. the individual soul or else the +fundamental intellect; he should finally fix the great Self on the calm +Self, i.e. the highest Self, the highest goal, of which the whole +chapter treats.--If we in this manner review the general context, we +perceive that there is no room for the pradhana imagined by the +Sankhyas. + +2. But the subtle (body is meant by the term avyakta) on account of its +capability (of being so designated). + +It has been asserted, under the preceding Sutra, that the term 'the +Undeveloped' signifies, on account of the general subject-matter and +because the body only remains, the body and not the pradhana of the +Sa@nkhyas.--But here the following doubt arises: How can the word +'undeveloped' appropriately denote the body which, as a gross and +clearly appearing thing, should rather be called vyakta, i.e. that which +is developed or manifested? + +To this doubt the Sutra replies that what the term avyakta denotes is +the subtle causal body. Anything subtle may be spoken of as Undeveloped. +The gross body indeed cannot directly be termed 'undeveloped,' but the +subtle parts of the elements from which the gross body originates may be +called so, and that the term denoting the causal substance is applied to +the effect also is a matter of common occurrence; compare, for instance, +the phrase 'mix the Soma with cows, i.e. milk' (/Ri/g-veda. S. IX, 46, +4). Another scriptural passage also--'now all this was then undeveloped' +(B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 7)--shows that this, i.e. this developed world with +its distinction of names and forms, is capable of being termed +undeveloped in so far as in a former condition it was in a merely +seminal or potential state, devoid of the later evolved distinctions of +name and form. + +3. (Such a previous seminal condition of the world may be admitted) on +account of its dependency on him (the Lord); (for such an admission is) +according to reason. + +Here a new objection is raised.--If, the opponent says, in order to +prove the possibility of the body being called undeveloped you admit +that this world in its antecedent seminal condition before either names +or forms are evolved can be called undeveloped, you virtually concede +the doctrine that the pradhana is the cause of the world. For we +Sa@nkhyas understand by the term pradhana nothing but that antecedent +condition of the world. + +Things lie differently, we rejoin. If we admitted some antecedent state +of the world as the independent cause of the actual world, we should +indeed implicitly, admit the pradhana doctrine. What we admit is, +however, only a previous state dependent on the highest Lord, not an +independent state. A previous stage of the world such as the one assumed +by us must necessarily be admitted, since it is according to sense and +reason. For without it the highest Lord could not be conceived as +creator, as he could not become active if he were destitute of the +potentiality of action. The existence of such a causal potentiality +renders it moreover possible that the released souls should not enter on +new courses of existence, as it is destroyed by perfect knowledge. For +that causal potentiality is of the nature of Nescience; it is rightly +denoted by the term 'undeveloped;' it has the highest Lord for its +substratum; it is of the nature of an illusion; it is a universal sleep +in which are lying the transmigrating souls destitute for the time of +the consciousness of their individual character.[230] This undeveloped +principle is sometimes denoted by the term aka/s/a, ether; so, for +instance, in the passage, 'In that Imperishable then, O Gargi, the ether +is woven like warp and woof' (B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 11). Sometimes, again, +it is denoted by the term akshara, the Imperishable; so, for instance +(Mu. Up. II, 1, 2), 'Higher, than the high Imperishable.' Sometimes it +is spoken of as Maya, illusion; so, for instance (/S/ve. Up. IV, 10), +'Know then Prak/ri/ti is Maya, and the great Lord he who is affected +with Maya.' For Maya is properly called undeveloped or non-manifested +since it cannot be defined either as that which is or that which is +not.--The statement of the Ka/th/aka that 'the Undeveloped is beyond the +Great one' is based on the fact of the Great one originating from the +Undeveloped, if the Great one be the intellect of Hira/n/yagarbha. If, +on the other hand, we understand by the Great one the individual soul, +the statement is founded on the fact of the existence of the individual +soul depending on the Undeveloped, i.e. Nescience. For the continued +existence of the individual soul as such is altogether owing to the +relation in which it stands to Nescience. The quality of being beyond +the Great one which in the first place belongs to the Undeveloped, i.e. +Nescience, is attributed to the body which is the product of Nescience, +the cause and the effect being considered as identical. Although the +senses, &c. are no less products of Nescience, the term 'the +Undeveloped' here refers to the body only, the senses, &c. having +already been specially mentioned by their individual names, and the body +alone being left.--Other interpreters of the two last Sutras give a +somewhat different explanation[231].--There are, they say, two kinds of +body, the gross one and the subtle one. The gross body is the one which +is perceived; the nature of the subtle one will be explained later on. +(Ved. Su. III, 1, 1.) Both these bodies together were in the simile +compared to the chariot; but here (in the passage under discussion) only +the subtle body is referred to as the Undeveloped, since the subtle body +only is capable of being denoted by that term. And as the soul's passing +through bondage and release depends on the subtle body, the latter is +said to be beyond the soul, like the things (arthavat), i.e. just as the +objects are said to be beyond the senses because the activity of the +latter depends on the objects.--But how--we ask interpreters--is it +possible that the word 'Undeveloped' should refer to the subtle body +only, while, according to your opinion, both bodies had in the simile +been represented as a chariot, and so equally constitute part of the +topic of the chapter, and equally remain (to be mentioned in the passage +under discussion)?--If you should rejoin that you are authorised to +settle the meaning of what the text actually mentions, but not to find +fault with what is not mentioned, and that the word avyakta which occurs +in the text can denote only the subtle body, but not the gross body +which is vyakta, i.e. developed or manifest; we invalidate this +rejoinder by remarking that the determination of the sense depends on +the circumstance of the passages interpreted constituting a syntactical +whole. For if the earlier and the later passage do not form a whole they +convey no sense, since that involves the abandonment of the subject +started and the taking up of a new subject. But syntactical unity cannot +be established unless it be on the ground of there being a want of a +complementary part of speech or sentence. If you therefore construe the +connexion of the passages without having regard to the fact that the +latter passage demands as its complement that both bodies (which had +been spoken of in the former passage) should be understood as referred +to, you destroy all syntactical unity and so incapacitate yourselves +from arriving at the true meaning of the text. Nor must you think that +the second passage occupies itself with the subtle body only, for that +reason that the latter is not easily distinguished from the Self, while +the gross body is easily so distinguished on account of its readily +perceived loathsomeness. For the passage does not by any means refer to +such a distinction--as we conclude from the circumstance of there being +no verb enjoining it--but has for its only subject the highest place of +Vish/n/u, which had been mentioned immediately before. For after having +enumerated a series of things in which the subsequent one is always +superior to the one preceding it, it concludes by saying that nothing is +beyond the Person.--We might, however, accept the interpretation just +discussed without damaging our general argumentation; for whichever +explanation we receive, so much remains clear that the Ka/th/aka passage +does not refer to the pradhana. + +4. And (the pradhana cannot be meant) because there is no statement as +to (the avyakta) being something to be cognised. + +The Sa@nkhyas, moreover, represent the pradhana as something to be +cognised in so far as they say that from the knowledge of the difference +of the constitutive elements of the pradhana and of the soul there +results the desired isolation of the soul. For without a knowledge of +the nature of those constitutive elements it is impossible to cognise +the difference of the soul from them. And somewhere they teach that the +pradhana is to be cognised by him who wishes to attain special +powers.--Now in the passage under discussion the avyakta is not +mentioned as an object of knowledge; we there meet with the mere word +avyakta, and there is no sentence intimating that the avyakta is to be +known or meditated upon. And it is impossible to maintain that a +knowledge of things which (knowledge) is not taught in the text is of +any advantage to man.--For this reason also we maintain that the word +avyakta cannot denote the pradhana.--Our interpretation, on the other +hand, is unobjectionable, since according to it the passage mentions the +body (not as an object of knowledge, but merely) for the purpose of +throwing light on the highest place of Vish/n/u, in continuation of the +simile in which the body had been compared to a chariot. + +5. And if you maintain that the text does speak (of the pradhana as an +object of knowledge) we deny that; for the intelligent (highest) Self is +meant, on account of the general subject-matter. + +Here the Sa@nkhya raises a new objection, and maintains that the +averment made in the last Sutra is not proved, since the text later on +speaks of the pradhana--which had been referred to as the +Undeveloped--as an object of knowledge. 'He who has perceived that which +is without sound, without touch, without form, without decay, without +taste, eternal, without smell, without beginning, without end, beyond +the great and unchangeable, is freed from the jaws of death' (Ka. Up. +II, 3, 15). For here the text speaks of the pradhana, which is beyond +the great, describing it as possessing the same qualities which the +Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti ascribes to it, and designating it as the object of +perception. Hence we conclude that the pradhana is denoted by the term +avyakta. + +To this we reply that the passage last quoted does represent as the +object of perception not the pradhana but the intelligent, i.e. the +highest Self. We conclude this from the general subject-matter. For that +the highest Self continues to form the subject-matter is clear from the +following reasons. In the first place, it is referred to in the passage, +'Beyond the person there is nothing, this is the goal, the highest +Road;' it has further to be supplied as the object of knowledge in the +passage, 'The Self is hidden in all beings and does not shine forth,' +because it is there spoken of as difficult to know; after that the +restraint of passion, &c. is enjoined as conducive to its cognition, in +the passage, 'A wise man should keep down speech within the mind;' and, +finally, release from the jaws of death is declared to be the fruit of +its knowledge. The Sa@nkhyas, on the other hand, do not suppose that a +man is freed from the jaws of death merely by perceiving the pradhana, +but connect that result rather with the cognition of the intelligent +Self.--The highest Self is, moreover, spoken of in all Vedanta-texts as +possessing just those qualities which are mentioned in the passage +quoted above, viz. absence of sound, and the like. Hence it follows, +that the pradhana is in the text neither spoken of as the object of +knowledge nor denoted by the term avyakta. + +6. And there is question and explanation relative to three things only +(not to the pradhana). + +To the same conclusion we are led by the consideration of the +circumstance that the Ka/th/avalli-upanishad brings forward, as subjects +of discussion, only three things, viz. the fire sacrifice, the +individual soul, and the highest Self. These three things only Yama +explains, bestowing thereby the boons he had granted, and to them only +the questions of Na/k/iketas refer. Nothing else is mentioned or +enquired about. The question relative to the fire sacrifice is contained +in the passage (Ka. Up. I, 1, 13), 'Thou knowest, O Death, the fire +sacrifice which leads us to Heaven; tell it to me, who am full of +faith.' The question as to the individual soul is contained in I, 1, 20, +'There is that doubt when a man is dead, some saying, he is; others, he +is not. This I should like to know, taught by thee; this is the third of +my boons.' And the question about the highest Self is asked in the +passage (I, 2, 14), 'That which thou seest as neither this nor that, as +neither effect nor cause, as neither past nor future, tell me +that.'--The corresponding answers are given in I, 1, 15, 'Yama then told +him that fire sacrifice, the beginning of all the worlds, and what +bricks are required for the altar, and how many;' in the passage met +with considerably later on (II, 5, 6; 7), 'Well then, O Gautama, I shall +tell thee this mystery, the old Brahman and what happens to the Self +after reaching death. Some enter the womb in order to have a body as +organic beings, others go into inorganic matter according to their work +and according to their knowledge;' and in the passage (I, 2, 18), 'The +knowing Self is not born nor does it die,' &c.; which latter passage +dilates at length on the highest Self. But there is no question relative +to the pradhana, and hence no opportunity for any remarks on it. + +Here the Sa@nkhya advances a new objection. Is, he asks, the question +relative to the Self which is asked in the passage, 'There is that doubt +when a man is dead,' &c., again resumed in the passage, 'That which thou +seest as neither this nor that,' &c, or does the latter passage raise a +distinct new question? If the former, the two questions about the Self +coalesce into one, and there are therefore altogether two questions +only, one relative to the fire sacrifice, the other relative to the +Self. In that case the Sutra has no right to speak of questions and +explanations relating to three subjects.--If the latter, you do not +consider it a mistake to assume a question in excess of the number of +boons granted, and can therefore not object to us if we assume an +explanation about the pradhana in excess of the number of questions +asked. + +To this we make the following reply.--We by no means assume a question +in excess of the number of boons granted, being prevented from doing so +by the influence of the opening part of that syntactical whole which +constitutes the Ka/th/avalli-upanishad. The Upanishad starts with the +topic of the boons granted by Yama, and all the following part of the +Upanishad--which is thrown into the form of a colloquy of Yama and +Na/k/iketas--carries on that topic up to the very end. Yama grants to +Na/k/iketas, who had been sent by his father, three boons. For his first +boon Na/k/iketas chooses kindness on the part of his father towards him, +for his second boon the knowledge of the fire sacrifice, for his third +boon the knowledge of the Self. That the knowledge of the Self is the +third boon appears from the indication contained in the passage (I, 1, +20), 'There is that doubt--; this is the third of my boons.'--If we +therefore supposed that the passage, 'That which thou seest as neither +this nor that,' &c., raises a new question, we should thereby assume a +question in excess of the number of boons granted, and thus destroy the +connexion of the entire Upanishad.--But--the Sa@nkhya will perhaps +interpose--it must needs be admitted that the passage last quoted does +raise a new question, because the subject enquired about is a new one. +For the former question refers to the individual soul, as we conclude +from the doubt expressed in the words, 'There is that doubt when a man +is dead--some saying, he is; others, he is not.' Now this individual +soul, as having definite attributes, &c., cannot constitute the object +of a question expressed in such terms as, 'This which thou seest as +neither this nor that,' &c.; the highest Self, on the other hand, may be +enquired about in such terms, since it is above all attributes. The +appearance of the two questions is, moreover, seen to differ; for the +former question refers to existence and non-existence, while the latter +is concerned with an entity raised above all definite attributes, &c. +Hence we conclude that the latter question, in which the former one +cannot be recognised, is a separate question, and does not merely resume +the subject of the former one.--All this argumentation is not valid, we +reply, since we maintain the unity of the highest Self and the +individual Self. If the individual Self were different from the highest +Self, we should have to declare that the two questions are separate +independent questions, but the two are not really different, as we know +from other scriptural passages, such as 'Thou art that.' And in the +Upanishad under discussion also the answer to the question, 'That which +thou seest as neither this nor that,' viz. the passage, 'The knowing +Self is not born, it dies not'--which answer is given in the form of a +denial of the birth and death of the Self-clearly shows that the +embodied Self and the highest Self are non-different. For there is room +for a denial of something only when that something is possible, and the +possibility of birth and death exists in the embodied Self only, since +it is connected with the body, but not in the highest Self.--There is, +moreover, another passage conveying the same meaning, viz. II, 4, 4, +'The wise when he knows that that by which he perceives all objects in +sleep or in waking, is the great omnipresent Self, grieves no more.' +This passage makes the cessation of all grief dependent on the knowledge +of the individual Self, in so far as it possesses the qualities of +greatness and omnipresence, and thereby declares that the individual +Self is not different from the highest Self. For that the cessation of +all sorrow is consequent on the knowledge of the highest Self, is a +recognised Vedanta tenet.--There is another passage also warning men not +to look on the individual Self and the highest Self as different +entities, viz. II, 4, 10, 'What is here the same is there; and what is +there the same is here. He who sees any difference here goes from death +to death.'--The following circumstance, too, is worthy of consideration. +When Na/k/iketas has asked the question relating to the existence or +non-existence of the soul after death, Yama tries to induce him to +choose another boon, tempting him with the offer of various objects of +desire. But Na/k/iketas remains firm. Thereupon Death, dwelling on the +distinction of the Good and the Pleasant, and the distinction of wisdom +and ignorance, praises Na/k/iketas, 'I believe Na/k/iketas to be one who +desires knowledge, for even many pleasures did not tear thee away' (I, +2, 4); and later on praises the question asked by Na/k/iketas, 'The wise +who, by means of meditation on his Self, recognises the Ancient who is +difficult to be seen, who has entered into the dark, who is hidden in +the cave, who dwells in the abyss, as God, he indeed leaves joy and +sorrow far behind' (I, 2, 12). Now all this means to intimate that the +individual Self and the highest Self are non-different. For if +Na/k/iketas set aside the question, by asking which he had earned for +himself the praise of Yama, and after having received that praise asked +a new question, all that praise would have been bestowed on him unduly. +Hence it follows that the question implied in I, 2, 14, 'That which thou +seest as neither this nor that,' merely resumes the topic to which the +question in I, 1, 20 had referred.--Nor is there any basis to the +objection that the two questions differ in form. The second question, in +reality, is concerned with the same distinction as the first. The first +enquires about the existence of the soul apart from the body, &c.; the +second refers to the circumstance of that soul not being subject to +sa/m/sara. For as long as Nescience remains, so long the soul is +affected with definite attributes, &c.; but as soon as Nescience comes +to an end, the soul is one with the highest Self, as is taught by such +scriptural texts as 'Thou art that.' But whether Nescience be active or +inactive, no difference is made thereby in the thing itself (viz. the +soul). A man may, in the dark, mistake a piece of rope lying on the +ground for a snake, and run away from it, frightened and trembling; +thereon another man may tell him, 'Do not be afraid, it is only a rope, +not a snake;' and he may then dismiss the fear caused by the imagined +snake, and stop running. But all the while the presence and subsequent +absence of his erroneous notion, as to the rope being a snake, make no +difference whatever in the rope itself. Exactly analogous is the case of +the individual soul which is in reality one with the highest soul, +although Nescience makes it appear different. Hence the reply contained +in the passage, 'It is not born, it dies not,' is also to be considered +as furnishing an answer to the question asked in I, 1, 20.--The Sutra is +to be understood with reference to the distinction of the individual +Self and the highest Self which results from Nescience. Although the +question relating to the Self is in reality one only, yet its former +part (I, 1, 20) is seen specially to refer to the individual Self, since +there a doubt is set forth as to the existence of the soul when, at the +time of death, it frees itself from the body, and since the specific +marks of the sa/m/sara-state, such as activity, &c. are not denied; +while the latter part of the question (I, 2, 14), where the state of +being beyond all attributes is spoken of, clearly refers to the highest +Self.--For these reasons the Sutra is right in assuming three topics of +question and explanation, viz. the fire sacrifice, the individual soul, +and the highest Self. Those, on the other hand, who assume that the +pradhana constitutes a fourth subject discussed in the Upanishad, can +point neither to a boon connected with it, nor to a question, nor to an +answer. Hence the pradhana hypothesis is clearly inferior to our own. + +7. And (the case of the term avyakta) is like that of the term mahat. + +While the Sa@nkhyas employ the term 'the Great one,' to denote the +first-born entity, which is mere existence[232] (? viz. the intellect), +the term has a different meaning in Vedic use. This we see from its +being connected with the Self, &c. in such passages as the following, +'The great Self is beyond the Intellect' (Ka. Up. I, 3, 10); 'The great +omnipresent Self' (Ka. Up. I, 2, 23); 'I know that great person' (/S/ve. +Up. III, 8). We thence conclude that the word avyakta also, where it +occurs in the Veda, cannot denote the pradhana.--The pradhana is +therefore a mere thing of inference, and not vouched for by Scripture. + +8. (It cannot be maintained that aja means the pradhana) because no +special characteristic is stated; as in the case of the cup. + +Here the advocate of the pradhana comes again forward and maintains that +the absence of scriptural authority for the pradhana is not yet proved. +For, he says, we have the following mantra (/S/ve. Up. IV, 5), 'There is +one aja[233], red, white, and black, producing manifold offspring of the +same nature. There is one aja who loves her and lies by her; there is +another who leaves her after having enjoyed her.'--In this mantra the +words 'red,' 'white,' and 'black' denote the three constituent elements +of the pradhana. Passion is called red on account of its colouring, i.e. +influencing property; Goodness is called white, because it is of the +nature of Light; Darkness is called black on account of its covering and +obscuring property. The state of equipoise of the three constituent +elements, i.e. the pradhana, is denoted by the attributes of its parts, +and is therefore called red-white-black. It is further called aja, i.e. +unborn, because it is acknowledged to be the fundamental matter out of +which everything springs, not a mere effect.--But has not the word aja +the settled meaning of she-goat?--True; but the ordinary meaning of the +word cannot be accepted in this place, because true knowledge forms the +general subject-matter.--That pradhana produces many creatures +participating in its three constituent elements. One unborn being loves +her and lies by her, i.e. some souls, deluded by ignorance, approach +her, and falsely imagining that they experience pleasure or pain, or are +in a state of dulness, pass through the course of transmigratory +existence. Other souls, again, which have attained to discriminative +knowledge, lose their attachment to prak/ri/ti, and leave her after +having enjoyed her, i.e. after she has afforded to them enjoyment and +release.--On the ground of this passage, as interpreted above, the +followers of Kapila claim the authority of Scripture for their pradhana +hypothesis. + +To this argumentation we reply, that the quoted mantra by no means +proves the Sa@nkhya doctrine to be based on Scripture. That mantra, +taken by itself, is not able to give additional strength to any +doctrine. For, by means of some supposition or other, the terms aja, &c. +can be reconciled with any doctrine, and there is no reason for the +special assertion that the Sa@nkhya doctrine only is meant. The case is +analogous to that of the cup mentioned in the mantra, 'There is a cup +having its mouth below and its bottom above' (B/ri/. Up. II, 2, 3). Just +as it is impossible to decide on the ground of this mantra taken by +itself what special cup is meant--it being possible to ascribe, somehow +or other, the quality of the mouth being turned downward to any cup--so +here also there is no special quality stated, so that it is not possible +to decide from the mantra itself whether the pradhana is meant by the +term aja, or something else.--But in connexion with the mantra about the +cup we have a supplementary passage from which we learn what kind of cup +is meant, 'What is called the cup having its mouth below and its bottom +above is this head.'--Whence, however, can we learn what special being +is meant by the aja of the /S/veta/s/vatara-upanishad?--To this question +the next Sutra replies. + +9. But the (elements) beginning with light (are meant by the term aja); +for some read so in their text. + +By the term aja we have to understand the causal matter of the four +classes of beings, which matter has sprung from the highest Lord and +begins with light, i.e. comprises fire, water, and earth.--The word +'but' (in the Sutra) gives emphasis to the assertion.--This aja is to be +considered as comprising three elementary substances, not as consisting +of three gu/n/as in the Sa@nkhya sense. We draw this conclusion from the +fact that one /s/akha, after having related how fire, water, and earth +sprang from the highest Lord, assigns to them red colour, and so on. +'The red colour of burning fire (agni) is the colour of the elementary +fire (tejas), its white colour is the colour of water, its black +colour the colour of earth,' &c. Now those three elements--fire, water, +and earth--we recognise in the /S/veta/s/vatara passage, as the words +red, white, and black are common to both passages, and as these words +primarily denote special colours and can be applied to the Sa@nkhya +gu/n/as in a secondary sense only. That passages whose sense is beyond +doubt are to be used for the interpretation of doubtful passages, is a +generally acknowledged rule. As we therefore find that in the +/S/veta/s/vatara--after the general topic has been started in I, 1, 'The +Brahman-students say, Is Brahman the cause?'--the text, previous to the +passage under discussion, speaks of a power of the highest Lord which +arranges the whole world ('the Sages devoted to meditation and +concentration have seen the power belonging to God himself, hidden in +its own qualities'); and as further that same power is referred to in +two subsequent complementary passages ('Know then, Prak/ri/ti is Maya, +and the great Lord he who is affected with Maya;' 'who being one only +rules over every germ;' IV, 10, 11); it cannot possibly be asserted that +the mantra treating of the aja refers to some independent causal matter +called pradhana. We rather assert, on the ground of the general +subject-matter, that the mantra describes the same divine power referred +to in the other passages, in which names and forms lie unevolved, and +which we assume as the antecedent condition of that state of the world +in which names and forms are evolved. And that divine power is +represented as three-coloured, because its products, viz. fire, water, +and earth, have three distinct colours.--But how can we maintain, on the +ground of fire, water, and earth having three colours, that the causal +matter is appropriately called a three-coloured aja? if we consider, on +the one hand, that the exterior form of the genus aja (i.e. goat) does +not inhere in fire, water, and earth; and, on the other hand, that +Scripture teaches fire, water, and earth to have been produced, so that +the word aja cannot be taken in the sense 'non-produced[234].'--To this +question the next Sutra replies. + +10. And on account of the statement of the assumption (of a metaphor) +there is nothing contrary to reason (in aja denoting the causal matter); +just as in the case of honey (denoting the sun) and similar cases. + +The word aja neither expresses that fire, water, and earth belong to the +goat species, nor is it to be explained as meaning 'unborn;' it rather +expresses an assumption, i.e. it intimates the assumption of the source +of all beings (which source comprises fire, water, and earth), being +compared to a she-goat. For as accidentally some she-goat might be +partly red, partly white, partly black, and might have many young goats +resembling her in colour, and as some he-goat might love her and lie by +her, while some other he-goat might leave her after having enjoyed her; +so the universal causal matter which is tri-coloured, because comprising +fire, water, and earth, produces many inanimate and animate beings +similar to itself, and is enjoyed by the souls fettered by Nescience, +while it is abandoned by those souls which have attained true +knowledge.--Nor must we imagine that the distinction of individual +souls, which is implied in the preceding explanation, involves that +reality of the multiplicity of souls which forms one of the tenets of +other philosophical schools. For the purport of the passage is to +intimate, not the multiplicity of souls, but the distinction of the +states of bondage and release. This latter distinction is explained with +reference to the multiplicity of souls as ordinarily conceived; that +multiplicity, however, depends altogether on limiting adjuncts, and is +the unreal product of wrong knowledge merely; as we know from scriptural +passages such as, 'He is the one God hidden in all beings, +all-pervading, the Self in all beings,' &c.--The words 'like the honey' +(in the Sutra) mean that just as the sun, although not being honey, is +represented as honey (Ch. Up. III, 1), and speech as a cow (B/ri/. Up. +V, 8), and the heavenly world, &c. as the fires (B/ri/. Up. VI, 2, 9), +so here the causal matter, although not being a she-goat, is +metaphorically represented as one. There is therefore nothing contrary +to reason in the circumstance of the term aja being used to denote the +aggregate of fire, water, and earth. + +11. (The assertion that there is scriptural authority for the pradhana, +&c. can) also not (be based) on the mention of the number (of the +Sankhya categories), on account of the diversity (of the categories) and +on account of the excess (over the number of those categories). + +The attempt to base the Sa@nkhya doctrine on the mantra speaking of the +aja having failed, the Sa@nkhya again comes forward and points to +another mantra: 'He in whom the five "five-people" and the ether rest, +him alone I believe to be the Self; I who know believe him to be +Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 17). In this mantra we have one word which +expresses the number five, viz. the five-people, and then another word, +viz. five, which qualifies the former; these two words together +therefore convey the idea of five pentads, i.e. twenty-five. Now as many +beings as the number twenty-five presupposes, just so many categories +the Sankhya system counts. Cp. Sa@nkhya Karika, 3: 'The fundamental +causal substance (i.e. the pradhana) is not an effect. Seven +(substances), viz. the Great one (Intellect), and so on, are causal +substances as well as effects. Sixteen are effects. The soul is neither +a causal substance nor an effect.' As therefore the number twenty-five, +which occurs in the scriptural passage quoted, clearly refers to the +twenty-five categories taught in the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti, it follows that +the doctrine of the pradhana, &c. rests on a scriptural basis. + +To this reasoning we make the following reply.--It is impossible to base +the assertion that the pradhana, &c. have Scripture in their favour on +the reference to their number which you pretend to find in the text, 'on +account of the diversity of the Sa@nkhya categories.' The Sa@nkhya +categories have each their individual difference, and there are no +attributes belonging in common to each pentad on account of which the +number twenty-five could be divided into five times five. For a number +of individually separate things can, in general, not be combined into +smaller groups of two or three, &c. unless there be a special reason for +such combination.--Here the Sa@nkhya will perhaps rejoin that the +expression five (times) five is used only to denote the number +twenty-five which has five pentads for its constituent parts; just as +the poem says, 'five years and seven Indra did not rain,' meaning only +that there was no rain for twelve years.--But this explanation also is +not tenable. In the first place, it is liable to the objection that it +has recourse to indirect indication.[235] In the second place, the +second 'five' constitutes a compound with the word 'people,' the +Brahma/n/a-accent showing that the two form one word only.[236] To the +same conclusion we are led by another passage also (Taitt. Sa/m/h. I, 6, +2, 2, pa/nk/ana/m/ tva pa/nk/ajananam, &c.) where the two terms +constitute one word, have one accent and one case-termination. The word +thus being a compound there is neither a repetition of the word 'five,' +involving two pentads, nor does the one five qualify the other, as the +mere secondary member of a compound cannot be qualified by another +word.--But as the people are already denoted to be five by the compound +'five-people,' the effect of the other 'five' qualifying the compound +will be that we understand twenty-five people to be meant; just as the +expression 'five five-bundles' (pa/nk/a pa/nk/apulya/h/) conveys the +idea of twenty-five bundles.--The instance is not an analogous one, we +reply. The word 'pa/nk/apuli' denotes a unity (i.e. one bundle made up +of five bundles) and hence when the question arises, 'How many such +bundles are there?' it can be qualified by the word 'five,' indicating +that there are five such bundles. The word pa/nk/ajana/h/, on the other +hand, conveys at once the idea of distinction (i.e. of five distinct +things), so that there is no room at all for a further desire to know +how many people there are, and hence no room for a further +qualification. And if the word 'five' be taken as a qualifying word it +can only qualify the numeral five (in five-people); the objection +against which assumption has already been stated.--For all these reasons +the expression the five five-people cannot denote the twenty-five +categories of the Sa@nkhyas.--This is further not possible 'on account +of the excess.' For on the Sa@nkhya interpretation there would be an +excess over the number twenty-five, owing to the circumstance of the +ether and the Self being mentioned separately. The Self is spoken of as +the abode in which the five five-people rest, the clause 'Him I believe +to be the Self' being connected with the 'in whom' of the antecedent +clause. Now the Self is the intelligent soul of the Sa@nkhyas which is +already included in the twenty-five categories, and which therefore, on +their interpretation of the passage, would here be mentioned once as +constituting the abode and once as what rests in the abode! If, on the +other hand, the soul were supposed not to be compiled in the twenty-five +categories, the Sa@nkhya would thereby abandon his own doctrine of the +categories being twenty-five. The same remarks apply to the separate +mention made of the ether.--How, finally, can the mere circumstance of a +certain number being referred to in the sacred text justify the +assumption that what is meant are the twenty-five Sa@nkhya categories of +which Scripture speaks in no other place? especially if we consider that +the word jana has not the settled meaning of category, and that the +number may be satisfactorily accounted for on another interpretation of +the passage. + +How, then, the Sa@nkhya will ask, do you interpret the phrase 'the five +five-people?'--On the ground, we reply, of the rule Pa/n/ini II, 1, 50, +according to which certain compounds formed with numerals are mere +names. The word pa/nk/ajana/h/ thus is not meant to convey the idea of +the number five, but merely to denote certain classes of beings. Hence +the question may present itself, How many such classes are there? and to +this question an answer is given by the added numeral 'five.' There are +certain classes of beings called five-people, and these classes are +five. Analogously we may speak of the seven seven-/ri/shis, where again +the compound denotes a class of beings merely, not their number.--Who +then are those five-people?--To this question the next Sutra replies. + +12. (The pa/nk/ajana/h/ are) the breath and so on, (as is seen) from the +complementary passage. + +The mantra in which the pa/nk/ajana/h/ are mentioned is followed by +another one in which breath and four other things are mentioned for the +purpose of describing the nature of Brahman. 'They who know the breath +of breath, the eye of the eye, the ear of the ear, the food of food, the +mind of mind[237].' Hence we conclude, on the ground of proximity, that +the five-people are the beings mentioned in this latter mantra.--But +how, the Sa@nkhya asks, can the word 'people' be applied to the breath, +the eye, the ear, and so on?--How, we ask in return, can it be applied +to your categories? In both cases the common meaning of the word +'people' has to be disregarded; but in favour of our explanation is the +fact that the breath, the eye, and so on, are mentioned in a +complementary passage. The breath, the eye, &c. may be denoted by the +word 'people' because they are connected with people. Moreover, we find +the word 'person,' which means as much as 'people,' applied to the +pra/n/as in the passage, 'These are the five persons of Brahman' (Ch. +Up. III, 13, 6); and another passage runs, 'Breath is father, breath is +mother,' &c. (Ch. Up. VII, 15, 1). And, owing to the force of +composition, there is no objection to the compound being taken in its +settled conventional meaning[238].--But how can the conventional meaning +be had recourse to, if there is no previous use of the word in that +meaning?--That may be done, we reply, just as in the case of udbhid and +similar words[239]. We often infer that a word of unknown meaning refers +to some known thing because it is used in connexion with the latter. So, +for instance, in the case of the following words: 'He is to sacrifice +with the udbhid; he cuts the yupa; he makes the vedi.' Analogously we +conclude that the term pa/nk/ajana/h/, which, from the grammatical rule +quoted, is known to be a name, and which therefore demands a thing of +which it is the name, denotes the breath, the eye, and so on, which are +connected with it through their being mentioned in a complementary +passage.--Some commentators explain the word pa/nk/ajana/h/ to mean the +Gods, the Fathers, the Gandharvas, the Asuras, and the Rakshas. Others, +again, think that the four castes together with the Nishadas are meant. +Again, some scriptural passage (/Ri/g-veda Sa/m/h. VIII, 53, 7) speaks +of the tribe of 'the five-people,' meaning thereby the created beings in +general; and this latter explanation also might be applied to the +passage under discussion. The teacher (the Sutrakara), on the other +hand, aiming at showing that the passage does not refer to the +twenty-five categories of the Sa@nkhyas, declares that on the ground of +the complementary passage breath, &c. have to be understood. + +Well, let it then be granted that the five-people mentioned in the +Madhyandina-text are breath, &c. since that text mentions food also (and +so makes up the number five). But how shall we interpret the +Ka/n/va-text which does not mention food (and thus altogether speaks of +four things only)?--To this question the next Sutra replies. + +13. In the case of (the text of) some (the Ka/n/vas) where food is not +mentioned, (the number five is made full) by the light (mentioned in the +preceding mantra). + +The Ka/n/va-text, although not mentioning food, makes up the full number +five, by the light mentioned in the mantra preceding that in which the +five-people are spoken of. That mantra describes the nature of Brahman +by saying, 'Him the gods worship as the light of lights.'--If it be +asked how it is accounted for that the light mentioned in both texts +equally is in one text to be employed for the explanation of the +five-people, and not in the other text; we reply that the reason lies in +the difference of the requirements. As the Madhyandinas meet in one and +the same mantra with breath and four other entities enabling them to +interpret the term, 'the five-people,' they are in no need of the light +mentioned in another mantra. The Ka/n/vas, on the other hand, cannot do +without the light. The case is analogous to that of the +Sho/d/a/s/in-cup, which, according to different passages, is either to +be offered or not to be offered at the atiratra-sacrifice. + +We have proved herewith that Scripture offers no basis for the doctrine +of the pradhana. That this doctrine cannot be proved either by Sm/ri/ti +or by ratiocination will be shown later on. + +14. (Although there is a conflict of the Vedanta-passages with regard to +the things created, such as) ether and so on; (there is no such conflict +with regard to the Lord) on account of his being represented (in one +passage) as described (in other passages), viz. as the cause (of the +world). + +In the preceding part of the work the right definition of Brahman has +been established; it has been shown that all the Vedanta-texts have +Brahman for their common topic; and it has been proved that there is no +scriptural authority for the doctrine of the pradhana.--But now a new +objection presents itself. + +It is not possible--our opponent says--to prove either that Brahman is +the cause of the origin, &c. of the world, or that all Vedanta-texts +refer to Brahman; because we observe that the Vedanta-texts contradict +one another. All the Vedanta-passages which treat of the creation +enumerate its successive steps in different order, and so in reality +speak of different creations. In one place it is said that from the Self +there sprang the ether (Taitt. Up. II, 1); in another place that the +creation began with fire (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 3); in another place, again, +that the Person created breath and from breath faith (Pr. Up. VI, 4); in +another place, again, that the Self created these worlds, the water +(above the heaven), light, the mortal (earth), and the water (below the +earth) (Ait. Ar. II, 4, 1, 2; 3). There no order is stated at all. +Somewhere else it is said that the creation originated from the +Non-existent. 'In the beginning this was non-existent; from it was born +what exists' (Taitt. Up. II, 7); and, 'In the beginning this was +non-existent; it became existent; it grew' (Ch. Up. III, 19, 1). In +another place, again, the doctrine of the Non-existent being the +antecedent of the creation is impugned, and the Existent mentioned in +its stead. 'Others say, in the beginning there was that only which is +not; but how could it be thus, my dear? How could that which is be born +of that which is not?' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1; 2.) And in another place, +again, the development of the world is spoken of as having taken place +spontaneously, 'Now all this was then undeveloped. It became developed +by form and name' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 7).--As therefore manifold +discrepancies are observed, and as no option is possible in the case of +an accomplished matter[240], the Vedanta-passages cannot be accepted as +authorities for determining the cause of the world, but we must rather +accept some other cause of the world resting on the authority of +Sm/ri/ti and Reasoning. + +To this we make the following reply.--Although the Vedanta-passages may +be conflicting with regard to the order of the things created, such as +ether and so on, they do not conflict with regard to the creator, 'on +account of his being represented as described.' That means: such as the +creator is described in any one Vedanta-passage, viz. as all-knowing, +the Lord of all, the Self of all, without a second, so he is represented +in all other Vedanta-passages also. Let us consider, for instance, the +description of Brahman (given in Taitt. Up. II, 1 ff.). There it is said +at first, 'Truth, knowledge, infinite is Brahman.' Here the word +'knowledge,' and so likewise the statement, made later on, that Brahman +desired (II, 6), intimate that Brahman is of the nature of intelligence. +Further, the text declares[241] that the cause of the world is the +general Lord, by representing it as not dependent on anything else. It +further applies to the cause of the world the term 'Self' (II, 1), and +it represents it as abiding within the series of sheaths beginning with +the gross body; whereby it affirms it to be the internal Self within all +beings. Again--in the passage, 'May I be many, may I grow forth'--it +tells how the Self became many, and thereby declares that the creator is +non-different from the created effects. And--in the passage, 'He created +all this whatever there is'--it represents the creator as the Cause of +the entire world, and thereby declares him to have been without a second +previously to the creation. The same characteristics which in the above +passages are predicated of Brahman, viewed as the Cause of the world, we +find to be predicated of it in other passages also, so, for instance, +'Being only, my dear, was this in the beginning, one only, without a +second. It thought, may I be many, may I grow forth. It sent forth fire' +(Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1; 3), and 'In the beginning all this was Self, one +only; there was nothing else blinking whatsoever. He thought, shall I +send forth worlds?' (Ait. Ar. II, 4, 1, 1; 2.) The Vedanta-passages +which are concerned with setting forth the cause of the world are thus +in harmony throughout.--On the other hand, there are found conflicting +statements concerning the world, the creation being in some places said +to begin with ether, in other places with fire, and so on. But, in the +first place, it cannot be said that the conflict of statements +concerning the world affects the statements concerning the cause, i.e. +Brahman, in which all the Vedanta-texts are seen to agree--for that +would be an altogether unfounded generalization;--and, in the second +place, the teacher will reconcile later on (II, 3) those conflicting +passages also which refer to the world. And, to consider the matter more +thoroughly, a conflict of statements regarding the world would not even +matter greatly, since the creation of the world and similar topics are +not at all what Scripture wishes to teach. For we neither observe nor +are told by Scripture that the welfare of man depends on those matters +in any way; nor have we the right to assume such a thing; because we +conclude from the introductory and concluding clauses that the passages +about the creation and the like form only subordinate members of +passages treating of Brahman. That all the passages setting forth the +creation and so on subserve the purpose of teaching Brahman, Scripture +itself declares; compare Ch. Up. VI, 8, 4, 'As food too is an offshoot, +seek after its root, viz. water. And as water too is an offshoot, seek +after its root, viz. fire. And as fire too is an offshoot, seek after +its root, viz. the True.' We, moreover, understand that by means of +comparisons such as that of the clay (Ch. Up. VI, 1, 4) the creation is +described merely for the purpose of teaching us that the effect is not +really different from the cause. Analogously it is said by those who +know the sacred tradition, 'If creation is represented by means of (the +similes of) clay, iron, sparks, and other things; that is only a means +for making it understood that (in reality) there is no difference +whatever' (Gau/d/ap. Ka. III, 15).--On the other hand, Scripture +expressly states the fruits connected with the knowledge of Brahman, 'He +who knows Brahman obtains the highest' (Taitt. Up. II, 1); 'He who knows +the Self overcomes grief' (Ch. Up. VII, 1, 3); 'A man who knows him +passes over death' (/S/ve. Up. III, 8). That fruit is, moreover, +apprehended by intuition (pratyaksha), for as soon as, by means of the +doctrine, 'That art thou,' a man has arrived at the knowledge that the +Self is non-transmigrating, its transmigrating nature vanishes for him. + +It remains to dispose of the assertion that passages such as 'Non-being +this was in the beginning' contain conflicting statements about the +nature of the cause. This is done in the next Sutra. + +15. On account of the connexion (with passages treating of Brahman, the +passages speaking of the Non-being do not intimate absolute +Non-existence). + +The passage 'Non-being indeed was this in the beginning' (Taitt. Up. II, +7) does not declare that the cause of the world is the absolutely +Non-existent which is devoid of all Selfhood. For in the preceding +sections of the Upanishad Brahman is distinctly denied to be the +Non-existing, and is defined to be that which is ('He who knows the +Brahman as non-existing becomes himself non-existing. He who knows the +Brahman as existing him we know himself as existing'); it is further, by +means of the series of sheaths, viz. the sheath of food, &c., +represented as the inner Self of everything. This same Brahman is again +referred to in the clause, 'He wished, may I be many;' is declared to +have originated the entire creation; and is finally referred to in the +clause, 'Therefore the wise call it the true.' Thereupon the text goes +on to say, with reference to what has all along been the topic of +discussion, 'On this there is also this /s/loka, Non-being indeed was +this in the beginning,' &c.--If here the term 'Non-being' denoted the +absolutely Non-existent, the whole context would be broken; for while +ostensibly referring to one matter the passage would in reality treat of +a second altogether different matter. We have therefore to conclude +that, while the term 'Being' ordinarily denotes that which is +differentiated by names and forms, the term 'Non-being' denotes the same +substance previous to its differentiation, i.e. that Brahman is, in a +secondary sense of the word, called Non-being, previously to the +origination of the world. The same interpretation has to be applied to +the passage 'Non-being this was in the beginning' (Ch. Up. III, 19, 1); +for that passage also is connected with another passage which runs, 'It +became being;' whence it is evident that the 'Non-being' of the former +passage cannot mean absolute Non-existence. And in the passage, 'Others +say, Non-being this was in the beginning' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1), the +reference to the opinion of 'others' does not mean that the doctrine +referred, to (according to which the world was originally absolutely +non-existent) is propounded somewhere in the Veda; for option is +possible in the case of actions but not in the case of substances. The +passage has therefore to be looked upon as a refutation of the tenet of +primitive absolute non-existence as fancifully propounded by some +teachers of inferior intelligence; a refutation undertaken for the +purpose of strengthening the doctrine that this world has sprung from +that which is.--The following passage again, 'Now this was then +undeveloped,' &c. (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 7), does not by any means assert +that the evolution of the world took place without a ruler; as we +conclude from the circumstance of its being connected with another +passage in which the ruler is represented as entering into the evolved +world of effects, 'He entered thither to the very tips of the +finger-nails' &c. If it were supposed that the evolution of the world +takes place without a ruler, to whom could the subsequent pronoun 'he' +refer (in the passage last quoted) which manifestly is to be connected +with something previously intimated? And as Scripture declares that the +Self, after having entered into the body, is of the nature of +intelligence ('when seeing, eye by name; when hearing, ear by name; when +thinking, mind by name'), it follows that it is intelligent at the time +of its entering also.--We, moreover, must assume that the world was +evolved at the beginning of the creation in the same way as it is at +present seen to develop itself by names and forms, viz. under the +rulership of an intelligent creator; for we have no right to make +assumptions contrary to what is at present actually observed. Another +scriptural passage also declares that the evolution of the world took +place under the superintendence of a ruler, 'Let me now enter these +beings with this living Self, and let me then evolve names and forms' +(Ch. Up. VI, 3, 2). The intransitive expression 'It developed itself' +(vyakriyata; it became developed) is to be viewed as having reference to +the ease with which the real agent, viz. the Lord, brought about that +evolution. Analogously it is said, for instance, that 'the cornfield +reaps itself' (i.e. is reaped with the greatest ease), although there is +the reaper sufficient (to account for the work being done).--Or else we +may look on the form vyakriyata as having reference to a necessarily +implied agent; as is the case in such phrases as 'the village is being +approached' (where we necessarily have to supply 'by Devadatta or +somebody else'). + +16. (He whose work is this is Brahman), because (the 'work') denotes the +world. + +In the Kaushitaki-brahma/n/a, in the dialogue of Balaki and +Ajata/s/atru, we read, 'O Balaki, he who is the maker of those persons, +he of whom this is the work, he alone is to be known' (Kau. Up. IV, 19). +The question here arises whether what is here inculcated as the object +of knowledge is the individual soul or the chief vital air or the +highest Self. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the vital air is meant. For, in the +first place, he says, the clause 'of whom this is the work' points to +the activity of motion, and that activity rests on the vital air. In the +second place, we meet with the word 'pra/n/a' in a complementary passage +('Then he becomes one with that pra/n/a alone'), and that word is well +known to denote the vital air. In the third place, pra/n/a is the maker +of all the persons, the person in the sun, the person in the moon, &c., +who in the preceding part of the dialogue had been enumerated by Balaki; +for that the sun and the other divinities are mere differentiations of +pra/n/a we know from another scriptural passage, viz. 'Who is that one +god (in whom all the other gods are contained)? Pra/n/a and he is +Brahman, and they call him That' (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 9).--Or else, the +purvapakshin continues, the passage under discussion represents the +individual soul as the object of knowledge. For of the soul also it can +be said that 'this is the work,' if we understand by 'this' all +meritorious and non-meritorious actions; and the soul also, in so far as +it is the enjoyer, can be viewed as the maker of the persons enumerated +in so far as they are instrumental to the soul's fruition. The +complementary passage, moreover, contains an inferential mark of the +individual soul. For Ajata/s/atru, in order to instruct Balaki about the +'maker of the persons' who had been proposed as the object of knowledge, +calls a sleeping man by various names and convinces Balaki, by the +circumstance that the sleeper does not hear his shouts, that the pra/n/a +and so on are not the enjoyers; he thereupon wakes the sleeping man by +pushing him with his stick, and so makes Balaki comprehend that the +being capable of fruition is the individual soul which is distinct from +the pra/n/a. A subsequent passage also contains an inferential mark of +the individual soul, viz. 'And as the master feeds with his people, nay, +as his people feed on the master, thus does this conscious Self feed +with the other Selfs, thus those Selfs feed on the conscious Self' (Kau. +Up. IV, 20). And as the individual soul is the support of the pra/n/a, +it may itself be called pra/n/a.--We thus conclude that the passage +under discussion refers either to the individual soul or to the chief +vital air; but not to the Lord, of whom it contains no inferential marks +whatever. + +To this we make the following reply.--The Lord only can be the maker of +the persons enumerated, on account of the force of the introductory part +of the section. Balaki begins his colloquy with Ajata/s/atru with the +offer, 'Shall I tell you Brahman?' Thereupon he enumerates some +individual souls residing in the sun, the moon, and so on, which +participate in the sight of the secondary Brahman, and in the end +becomes silent. Ajata/s/atru then sets aside Balaki's doctrine as not +referring to the chief Brahman--with the words, 'Vainly did you +challenge me, saying, Shall I tell you Brahman,' &c.--and proposes the +maker of all those individual souls as a new object of knowledge. If now +that maker also were merely a soul participating in the sight of the +secondary Brahman, the introductory statement which speaks of Brahman +would be futile. Hence it follows that the highest Lord himself is +meant.--None, moreover, but the highest Lord is capable of being the +maker of all those persons as he only is absolutely +independent.--Further, the clause 'of whom this is the work' does not +refer either to the activity of motion nor to meritorious and +non-meritorious actions; for neither of those two is the topic of +discussion or has been mentioned previously. Nor can the term 'work' +denote the enumerated persons, since the latter are mentioned +separately--in the clause, 'He who is the maker of those persons'--and +as inferential marks (viz. the neuter gender and the singular number of +the word karman, work) contradict that assumption. Nor, again, can the +term 'work' denote either the activity whose object the persons are, or +the result of that activity, since those two are already implied in the +mention of the agent (in the clause, 'He who is the maker'). Thus there +remains no other alternative than to take the pronoun 'this' (in 'He of +whom this is the work') as denoting the perceptible world and to +understand the same world--as that which is made--by the term +'work.'--We may indeed admit that the world also is not the previous +topic of discussion and has not been mentioned before; still, as no +specification is mentioned, we conclude that the term 'work' has to be +understood in a general sense, and thus denotes what first presents +itself to the mind, viz. everything which exists in general. It is, +moreover, not true that the world is not the previous topic of +discussion; we are rather entitled to conclude from the circumstance +that the various persons (in the sun, the moon, &c.) which constitute a +part of the world had been specially mentioned before, that the passage +in question is concerned with the whole world in general. The +conjunction 'or' (in 'or he of whom,' &c.) is meant to exclude the idea +of limited makership; so that the whole passage has to be interpreted as +follows, 'He who is the maker of those persons forming a part of the +world, or rather--to do away with this limitation--he of whom this +entire world without any exception is the work.' The special mention +made of the persons having been created has for its purpose to show that +those persons whom Balaki had proclaimed to be Brahman are not Brahman. +The passage therefore sets forth the maker of the world in a double +aspect, at first as the creator of a special part of the world and +thereupon as the creator of the whole remaining part of the world; a way +of speaking analogous to such every-day forms of expression as, 'The +wandering mendicants are to be fed, and then the Brahma/n/as[242].' And +that the maker of the world is the highest Lord is affirmed in all +Vedanta-texts. + +17. If it be said that this is not so, on account of the inferential +marks of the individual soul and the chief vital air; we reply that that +has already been explained. + +It remains for us to refute the objection that on account of the +inferential marks of the individual soul and the chief vital air, which +are met with in the complementary passage, either the one or the other +must be meant in the passage under discussion, and not the highest +Lord.--We therefore remark that that objection has already been disposed +of under I, 1, 31. There it was shown that from an interpretation +similar to the one here proposed by the purvapakshin there would result +a threefold meditation one having Brahman for its object, a second one +directed on the individual soul, and a third one connected with the +chief vital air. Now the same result would present itself in our case, +and that would be unacceptable as we must infer from the introductory as +well as the concluding clauses, that the passage under discussion refers +to Brahman. With reference to the introductory clause this has been +already proved; that the concluding passage also refers to Brahman, we +infer from the fact of there being stated in it a pre-eminently high +reward, 'Warding off all evil he who knows this obtains pre-eminence +among all beings, sovereignty, supremacy.'--But if this is so, the sense +of the passage under discussion is already settled by the discussion of +the passage about Pratarda/n/a (I, 1, 31); why, then, the present +Sutra?--No, we reply; the sense of our passage is not yet settled, since +under I, 1, 31 it has not been proved that the clause, 'Or he whose work +is this,' refers to Brahman. Hence there arises again, in connexion with +the present passage, a doubt whether the individual soul and the chief +vital air may not be meant, and that doubt has again to be refuted.--The +word pra/n/a occurs, moreover, in the sense of Brahman, so in the +passage, 'The mind settles down on pra/n/a' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 2).--The +inferential marks of the individual soul also have, on account of the +introductory and concluding clauses referring to Brahman, to be +explained so as not to give rise to any discrepancy. + +18. But Jaimini thinks that (the reference to the individual soul) has +another purport, on account of the question and answer; and thus some +also (read in their text). + +Whether the passage under discussion is concerned with the individual +soul or with Brahman, is, in the opinion of the teacher Jaimini, no +matter for dispute, since the reference to the individual soul has a +different purport, i.e. aims at intimating Brahman. He founds this his +opinion on a question and a reply met with in the text. After +Ajata/s/atru has taught Balaki, by waking the sleeping man, that the +soul is different from the vital air, he asks the following question, +'Balaki, where did this person here sleep? Where was he? Whence came he +thus back?' This question clearly refers to something different from the +individual soul. And so likewise does the reply, 'When sleeping he sees +no dream, then he becomes one with that pra/n/a alone;' and, 'From that +Self all pra/n/as proceed, each towards its place, from the pra/n/as the +gods, from the gods the worlds.'--Now it is the general Vedanta doctrine +that at the time of deep sleep the soul becomes one with the highest +Brahman, and that from the highest Brahman the whole world proceeds, +inclusive of pra/n/a, and so on. When Scripture therefore represents as +the object of knowledge that in which there takes place the deep sleep +of the soul, characterised by absence of consciousness and utter +tranquillity, i.e. a state devoid of all those specific cognitions which +are produced by the limiting adjuncts of the soul, and from which the +soul returns when the sleep is broken; we understand that the highest +Self is meant.--Moreover, the Vajasaneyi/s/akha, which likewise contains +the colloquy of Balaki and Ajata/s/atru, clearly refers to the +individual soul by means of the term, 'the person consisting of +cognition' (vij/n/anamaya), and distinguishes from it the highest Self +('Where was then the person consisting of cognition? and from whence did +he thus come back?' B/ri/. Up. II, 1, 16); and later on, in the reply to +the above question, declares that 'the person consisting of cognition +lies in the ether within the heart.' Now we know that the word 'ether' +may be used to denote the highest Self, as, for instance, in the passage +about the small ether within the lotus of the heart (Ch. Up. VIII, 1, +1). Further on the B/ri/. Up. says, 'All the Selfs came forth from that +Self;' by which statement of the coming forth of all the conditioned +Selfs it intimates that the highest Self is the one general cause.--The +doctrine conveyed by the rousing of the sleeping person, viz. that the +individual soul is different from the vital air, furnishes at the same +time a further argument against the opinion that the passage under +discussion refers to the vital air. + +19. (The Self to be seen, to be heard, &c. is the highest Self) on +account of the connected meaning of the sentences. + +We read in the B/ri/hadara/n/yaka, in the Maitreyi-brahma/n/a the +following passage, 'Verily, a husband is not dear that you may love the +husband, &c. &c.; verily, everything is not dear that you may love +everything; but that you may love the Self therefore everything is dear. +Verily, the Self is to be seen, to be heard, to be perceived, to be +marked, O Maitreyi! When the Self has been seen, heard, perceived, and +known, then all this is known' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 6).--Here the doubt +arises whether that which is represented as the object to be seen, to be +heard, and so on, is the cognitional Self (the individual soul) or the +highest Self.--But whence the doubt?--Because, we reply, the Self is, on +the one hand, by the mention of dear things such as husband and so on, +indicated as the enjoyer whence it appears that the passage refers to +the individual soul; and because, on the other hand, the declaration +that through the knowledge of the Self everything becomes known points +to the highest Self. + +The purvapakshin maintains that the passage refers to the individual +soul, on account of the strength of the initial statement. The text +declares at the outset that all the objects of enjoyment found in this +world, such as husband, wife, riches, and so on, are dear on account of +the Self, and thereby gives us to understand that the enjoying (i.e. the +individual) Self is meant; if thereupon it refers to the Self as the +object of sight and so on, what other Self should it mean than the same +individual Self?--A subsequent passage also (viz. 'Thus does this great +Being, endless, unlimited, consisting of nothing but knowledge, rise +from out of these elements, and vanish again after them. When he has +departed there is no more knowledge'), which describes how the great +Being under discussion rises, as the Self of knowledge, from the +elements, shows that the object of sight is no other than the +cognitional Self, i.e. the individual soul. The concluding clause +finally, 'How, O beloved, should he know the knower?' shows, by means of +the term 'knower,' which denotes an agent, that the individual soul is +meant. The declaration that through the cognition of the Self everything +becomes known must therefore not be interpreted in the literal sense, +but must be taken to mean that the world of objects of enjoyment is +known through its relation to the enjoying soul. + +To this we make the following reply.--The passage makes a statement +about the highest Self, on account of the connected meaning of the +entire section. If we consider the different passages in their mutual +connexion, we find that they all refer to the highest Self. After +Maitreyi has heard from Yaj/n/avalkya that there is no hope of +immortality by wealth, she expresses her desire of immortality in the +words, 'What should I do with that by which I do not become immortal? +What my Lord knoweth tell that to me;' and thereupon Yaj/n/avalkya +expounds to her the knowledge of the Self. Now Scripture as well as +Sm/ri/ti declares that immortality is not to be reached but through the +knowledge of the highest Self.--The statement further that through the +knowledge of the Self everything becomes known can be taken in its +direct literal sense only if by the Self we understand the highest +cause. And to take it in a non-literal sense (as the purvapakshin +proposes) is inadmissible, on account of the explanation given of that +statement in a subsequent passage, viz. 'Whosoever looks for the Brahman +class elsewhere than in the Self, is abandoned by the Brahman class.' +Here it is said that whoever erroneously views this world with its +Brahmans and so on, as having an independent existence apart from the +Self, is abandoned by that very world of which he has taken an erroneous +view; whereby the view that there exists any difference is refuted. And +the immediately subsequent clause, 'This everything is the Self,' gives +us to understand that the entire aggregate of existing things is +non-different from the Self; a doctrine further confirmed by the similes +of the drum and so on.--By explaining further that the Self about which +he had been speaking is the cause of the universe of names, forms, and +works ('There has been breathed forth from this great Being what we have +as /Ri/gveda,' &c.) Yaj/n/avalkya again shows that it is the highest +Self.--To the same conclusion he leads us by declaring, in the paragraph +which treats of the natural centres of things, that the Self is the +centre of the whole world with the objects, the senses and the mind, +that it has neither inside nor outside, that it is altogether a mass of +knowledge.--From all this it follows that what the text represents as +the object of sight and so on is the highest Self. + +We now turn to the remark made by the purvapakshin that the passage +teaches the individual soul to be the object of sight, because it is, in +the early part of the chapter denoted as something dear. + +20. (The circumstance of the soul being represented as the object of +sight) indicates the fulfilment of the promissory statement; so +A/s/marathya thinks. + +The fact that the text proclaims as the object of sight that Self which +is denoted as something, dear indicates the fulfilment of the promise +made in the passages, 'When the Self is known all this is known,' 'All +this is that Self.' For if the individual soul were different from the +highest Self, the knowledge of the latter would not imply the knowledge +of the former, and thus the promise that through the knowledge of one +thing everything is to be known would not be fulfilled. Hence the +initial statement aims at representing the individual Self and the +highest Self as non-different for the purpose of fulfilling the promise +made.--This is the opinion of the teacher A/s/marathya[243]. + +21. (The initial statement identifies the individual soul and the +highest Self) because the soul when it will depart (from the body) is +such (i.e. one with the highest Self); thus Au/d/ulomi thinks. + +The individual soul which is inquinated by the contact with its +different limiting adjuncts, viz. body, senses, and mind (mano-buddhi), +attains through the instrumentality of knowledge, meditation, and so on, +a state of complete serenity, and thus enables itself, when passing at +some future time out of the body, to become one with the highest Self; +hence the initial statement in which it is represented as non-different +from the highest Self. This is the opinion of the teacher +Au/d/ulomi.--Thus Scripture says, 'That serene being arising from this +body appears in its own form as soon as it has approached the highest +light' (Ch. Up. VIII, 12, 3).--In another place Scripture intimates, by +means of the simile of the rivers, that name and form abide in the +individual soul, 'As the flowing rivers disappear in the sea, having +lost their name and their form, thus a wise man freed from name and form +goes to the divine Person who is greater than the great' (Mu. Up. III, +2, 8). I.e. as the rivers losing the names and forms abiding in them +disappear in the sea, so the individual soul also losing the name and +form abiding in it becomes united with the highest person. That the +latter half of the passage has the meaning here assigned to it, follows +from the parallelism which we must assume to exist between the two +members of the comparison[244]. + +22. (The initial statement is made) because (the highest Self) exists in +the condition (of the individual soul); so Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna thinks. + +Because the highest Self exists also in the condition of the individual +soul, therefore, the teacher Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna thinks, the initial +statement which aims at intimating the non-difference of the two is +possible. That the highest Self only is that which appears as the +individual soul, is evident from the Brahma/n/a-passage, 'Let me enter +into them with this living Self and evolve names and forms,' and similar +passages. We have also mantras to the same effect, for instance, 'The +wise one who, having produced all forms and made all names, sits calling +the things by their names' (Taitt. Ar. III, 12, 7)[245]. And where +Scripture relates the creation of fire and the other elements, it does +not at the same time relate a separate creation of the individual soul; +we have therefore no right to look on the soul as a product of the +highest Self, different from the latter.--In the opinion of the teacher +Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna the non-modified highest Lord himself is the individual +soul, not anything else. A/s/marathya, although meaning to say that the +soul is not (absolutely) different from the highest Self, yet intimates +by the expression, 'On account of the fulfilment of the promise'--which +declares a certain mutual dependence--that there does exist a certain +relation of cause and effect between the highest Self and the individual +soul[246]. The opinion of Au/d/ulomi again clearly implies that the +difference and non-difference of the two depend on difference of +condition[247]. Of these three opinions we conclude that the one held by +Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna accords with Scripture, because it agrees with what all +the Vedanta-texts (so, for instance, the passage, 'That art thou') aim +at inculcating. Only on the opinion of Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna immortality can +be viewed as the result of the knowledge of the soul; while it would be +impossible to hold the same view if the soul were a modification +(product) of the Self and as such liable to lose its existence by being +merged in its causal substance. For the same reason, name and form +cannot abide in the soul (as was above attempted to prove by means of +the simile of the rivers), but abide in the limiting adjunct and are +ascribed to the soul itself in a figurative sense only. For the same +reason the origin of the souls from the highest Self, of which Scripture +speaks in some places as analogous to the issuing of sparks from the +fire, must be viewed as based only on the limiting adjuncts of the soul. + +The last three Sutras have further to be interpreted so as to furnish +replies to the second of the purvapakshin's arguments, viz. that the +B/ri/hadara/n/yaka passage represents as the object of sight the +individual soul, because it declares that the great Being which is to be +seen arises from out of these elements. 'There is an indication of the +fulfilment of the promise; so A/s/marathya thinks.' The promise is made +in the two passages, 'When the Self is known, all this is known,' and +'All this is that Self.' That the Self is everything, is proved by the +declaration that the whole world of names, forms, and works springs from +one being, and is merged in one being[248]; and by its being +demonstrated, with the help of the similes of the drum, and so on, that +effect and cause are non-different. The fulfilment of the promise is, +then, finally indicated by the text declaring that that great Being +rises, in the form of the individual soul, from out of these elements; +thus the teacher A/s/marathya thinks. For if the soul and the highest +Self are non-different, the promise that through the knowledge of one +everything becomes known is capable of fulfilment.--'Because the soul +when it will depart is such; thus Au/d/ulomi thinks.' The statement as +to the non-difference of the soul and the Self (implied in the +declaration that the great Being rises, &c.) is possible, because the +soul when--after having purified itself by knowledge, and so on--it will +depart from the body, is capable of becoming one with the highest Self. +This is Au/d/ulomi's opinion.--'Because it exists in the condition of +the soul; thus Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna opines.' Because the highest Self itself +is that which appears as the individual soul, the statement as to the +non-difference of the two is well-founded. This is the view of the +teacher Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna. + +But, an objection may be raised, the passage, 'Rising from out of these +elements he vanishes again after them. When he has departed there is no +more knowledge,' intimates the final destruction of the soul, not its +identity with the highest Self!--By no means, we reply. The passage +means to say only that on the soul departing from the body all specific +cognition vanishes, not that the Self is destroyed. For an objection +being raised--in the passage, 'Here thou hast bewildered me, Sir, when +thou sayest that having departed there is no more knowledge'. Scripture +itself explains that what is meant is not the annihilation of the Self, +'I say nothing that is bewildering. Verily, beloved, that Self is +imperishable, and of an indestructible nature. But there takes place +non-connexion with the matras.' That means: The eternally unchanging +Self, which is one mass of knowledge, cannot possibly perish; but by +means of true knowledge there is effected its dissociation from the +matras, i.e. the elements and the sense organs, which are the product of +Nescience. When the connexion has been solved, specific cognition, which +depended on it, no longer takes place, and thus it can be said, that +'When he has departed there is no more knowledge.' + +The third argument also of the purvapakshin, viz. that the word +'knower'--which occurs in the concluding passage, 'How should he know +the knower?'--denotes an agent, and therefore refers to the individual +soul as the object of sight, is to be refuted according to the view of +Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna.--Moreover, the text after having enumerated--in the +passage, 'For where there is duality as it were, there one sees the +other,' &c.--all the kinds of specific cognition which belong to the +sphere of Nescience declares--in the subsequent passage, 'But when the +Self only is all this, how should he see another?'--that in the sphere +of true knowledge all specific cognition such as seeing, and so on, is +absent. And, again, in order to obviate the doubt whether in the absence +of objects the knower might not know himself, Yaj/n/avalkya goes on, +'How, O beloved, should he know himself, the knower?' As thus the latter +passage evidently aims at proving the absence of specific cognition, we +have to conclude that the word 'knower' is here used to denote that +being which is knowledge, i.e. the Self.--That the view of +Ka/s/ak/ri/tsna is scriptural, we have already shown above. And as it is +so, all the adherents of the Vedanta must admit that the difference of +the soul and the highest Self is not real, but due to the limiting +adjuncts, viz. the body, and so on, which are the product of name and +form as presented by Nescience. That view receives ample confirmation +from Scripture; compare, for instance, 'Being only, my dear, this was in +the beginning, one, without a second' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1); 'The Self is +all this' (Ch. Up. VII, 25, 2); 'Brahman alone is all this' (Mu. Up. II, +2, 11); 'This everything is that Self' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 6); 'There is +no other seer but he' (B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 23); 'There is nothing that +sees but it' (B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 11).--It is likewise confirmed by +Sm/ri/ti; compare, for instance, 'Vasudeva is all this' (Bha. Gi. VII, +19); 'Know me, O Bharata, to be the soul in all bodies' (Bha. Gi. XIII, +2); 'He who sees the highest Lord abiding alike within all creatures' +(Bha. Gi. XIII, 27).--The same conclusion is supported by those passages +which deny all difference; compare, for instance, 'If he thinks, that is +one and I another; he does not know' (B/ri/. Up. I, 4, 10); 'From death +to death he goes who sees here any diversity' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 19). +And, again, by those passages which negative all change on the part of +the Self; compare, for instance, 'This great unborn Self, undecaying, +undying, immortal, fearless is indeed Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. IV, +24).--Moreover, if the doctrine of general identity were not true, those +who are desirous of release could not be in the possession of +irrefutable knowledge, and there would be no possibility of any matter +being well settled; while yet the knowledge of which the Self is the +object is declared to be irrefutable and to satisfy all desire, and +Scripture speaks of those, 'Who have well ascertained the object of the +knowledge of the Vedanta' (Mu. Up. III, 2, 6). Compare also the passage, +'What trouble, what sorrow can there be to him who has once beheld that +unity?' (I/s/. Up. 7.)--And Sm/ri/ti also represents the mind of him who +contemplates the Self as steady (Bha. Gi. II, 54). + +As therefore the individual soul and the highest Self differ in name +only, it being a settled matter that perfect knowledge has for its +object the absolute oneness of the two; it is senseless to insist (as +some do) on a plurality of Selfs, and to maintain that the individual +soul is different from the highest Self, and the highest Self from the +individual soul. For the Self is indeed called by many different names, +but it is one only. Nor does the passage, 'He who knows Brahman which is +real, knowledge, infinite, as hidden in the cave' (Taitt. Up. II, 1), +refer to some one cave (different from the abode of the individual +soul)[249]. And that nobody else but Brahman is hidden in the cave we +know from a subsequent passage, viz. 'Having sent forth he entered into +it' (Taitt. Up. II, 6), according to which the creator only entered into +the created beings.--Those who insist on the distinction of the +individual and the highest Self oppose themselves to the true sense of +the Vedanta-texts, stand thereby in the way of perfect knowledge, which +is the door to perfect beatitude, and groundlessly assume release to be +something effected, and therefore non-eternal[250]. (And if they attempt +to show that moksha, although effected, is eternal) they involve +themselves in a conflict with sound logic. + +23. (Brahman is) the material cause also, on account of (this view) not +being in conflict with the promissory statements and the illustrative +instances. + +It has been said that, as practical religious duty has to be enquired +into because it is the cause of an increase of happiness, so Brahman has +to be enquired into because it is the cause of absolute beatitude. And +Brahman has been defined as that from which there proceed the +origination, sustentation, and retractation of this world. Now as this +definition comprises alike the relation of substantial causality in +which clay and gold, for instance, stand to golden ornaments and earthen +pots, and the relation of operative causality in which the potter and +the goldsmith stand to the things mentioned; a doubt arises to which of +these two kinds the causality of Brahman belongs. + +The purvapakshin maintains that Brahman evidently is the operative cause +of the world only, because Scripture declares his creative energy to be +preceded by reflection. Compare, for instance, Pra. Up. VI, 3; 4: 'He +reflected, he created pra/n/a.' For observation shows that the action of +operative causes only, such as potters and the like, is preceded by +reflection, and moreover that the result of some activity is brought +about by the concurrence of several factors[251]. It is therefore +appropriate that we should view the prime creator in the same light. The +circumstance of his being known as 'the Lord' furnishes another +argument. For lords such as kings and the son of Vivasvat are known only +as operative causes, and the highest Lord also must on that account be +viewed as an operative cause only.--Further, the effect of the creator's +activity, viz. this world, is seen to consist of parts, to be +non-intelligent and impure; we therefore must assume that its cause also +is of the same nature; for it is a matter of general observation that +cause and effect are alike in kind. But that Brahman does not resemble +the world in nature, we know from many scriptural passages, such as 'It +is without parts, without actions, tranquil, without fault, without +taint' (/Sv/e. Up. VI, 19). Hence there remains no other alternative but +to admit that in addition to Brahman there exists a material cause of +the world of impure nature, such as is known from Sm/ri/ti[252], and to +limit the causality of Brahman, as declared by Scripture, to operative +causality. + +To this we make the following reply.--Brahman is to be acknowledged as +the material cause as well as the operative cause; because this latter +view does not conflict with the promissory statements and the +illustrative instances. The promissory statement chiefly meant is the +following one, 'Have you ever asked for that instruction by which that +which is not heard becomes heard; that which is not perceived, +perceived; that which is not known, known?' (Ch. Up. VI, 1, 3.) This +passage intimates that through the cognition of one thing everything +else, even if (previously) unknown, becomes known. Now the knowledge of +everything is possible through the cognition of the material cause, +since the effect is non-different from the material cause. On the other +hand, effects are not non-different from their operative causes; for we +know from ordinary experience that the carpenter, for instance, is +different from the house he has built.--The illustrative example +referred to is the one mentioned (Ch. Up. VI, 1, 4), 'My dear, as by one +clod of clay all that is made of clay is known, the modification (i.e. +the effect) being a name merely which has its origin in speech, while +the truth is that it is clay merely;' which passage again has reference +to the material cause. The text adds a few more illustrative instances +of similar nature, 'As by one nugget of gold all that is made of gold is +known; as by one pair of nail-scissors all that is made of iron is +known.'--Similar promissory statements are made in other places also, +for instance, 'What is that through which if it is known everything else +becomes known?' (Mu. Up. I, 1, 3.) An illustrative instance also is +given in the same place, 'As plants grow on the earth' (I, 1, +7).--Compare also the promissory statement in B/ri/. Up. IV, 5, 6, 'When +the Self has been seen, heard, perceived, and known, then all this is +known;' and the illustrative instance quoted (IV, 5, 8), 'Now as the +sounds of a drum if beaten cannot be seized externally, but the sound is +seized when the drum is seized or the beater of the drum.'--Similar +promissory statements and illustrative instances which are to be found +in all Vedanta-texts are to be viewed as proving, more or less, that +Brahman is also the material cause of the world. The ablative case also +in the passage, 'That from whence (yata/h/) these beings are born,' has +to be considered as indicating the material cause of the beings, +according to the grammatical rule, Pa/n/. I, 4, 30.--That Brahman is at +the same time the operative cause of the world, we have to conclude from +the circumstance that there is no other guiding being. Ordinarily +material causes, indeed, such as lumps of clay and pieces of gold, are +dependent, in order to shape themselves into vessels and ornaments, on +extraneous operative causes such as potters and goldsmiths; but outside +Brahman as material cause there is no other operative cause to which the +material cause could look; for Scripture says that previously to +creation Brahman was one without a second.--The absence of a guiding +principle other than the material cause can moreover be established by +means of the argument made use of in the Sutra, viz. accordance with the +promissory statements and the illustrative examples. If there were +admitted a guiding principle different from the material cause, it would +follow that everything cannot be known through one thing, and thereby +the promissory statements as well as the illustrative instances would be +stultified.--The Self is thus the operative cause, because there is no +other ruling principle, and the material cause because there is no other +substance from which the world could originate. + +24. And on account of the statement of reflection (on the part of the +Self). + +The fact of the sacred texts declaring that the Self reflected likewise +shows that it is the operative as well as the material cause. Passages +like 'He wished, may I be many, may I grow forth,' and 'He thought, may +I be many, may I grow forth,' show, in the first place, that the Self is +the agent in the independent activity which is preceded by the Self's +reflection; and, in the second place, that it is the material cause +also, since the words 'May I be many' intimate that the reflective +desire of multiplying itself has the inward Self for its object. + +25. And on account of both (i.e. the origin and the dissolution of the +world) being directly declared (to have Brahman for their material +cause). + +This Sutra supplies a further argument for Brahman's being the general +material cause.--Brahman is the material cause of the world for that +reason also that the origination as well as the dissolution of the world +is directly spoken of in the sacred texts as having Brahman for their +material cause, 'All these beings take their rise from the ether and +return into the ether' (Ch. Up. I, 9, 1). That that from which some +other thing springs and into which it returns is the material cause of +that other thing is well known. Thus the earth, for instance, is the +material cause of rice, barley, and the like.--The word 'directly' (in +the Sutra) notifies that there is no other material cause, but that all +this sprang from the ether only.--Observation further teaches that +effects are not re-absorbed into anything else but their material +causes. + +26. (Brahman is the material cause) on account of (the Self) making +itself; (which is possible) owing to modification. + +Brahman is the material cause for that reason also that Scripture--in +the passage, 'That made itself its Self' (Taitt. Up. II, 7)--represents +the Self as the object of action as well as the agent.--But how can the +Self which as agent was in full existence previously to the action be +made out to be at the same time that which is effected by the +action?--Owing to modification, we reply. The Self, although in full +existence previously to the action, modifies itself into something +special, viz. the Self of the effect. Thus we see that causal +substances, such as clay and the like, are, by undergoing the process of +modification, changed into their products.--The word 'itself' in the +passage quoted intimates the absence of any other operative cause but +the Self. + +The word 'pari/n/amat' (in the Sutra) may also be taken as constituting +a separate Sutra by itself, the sense of which would be: Brahman is the +material cause of the world for that reason also, that the sacred text +speaks of Brahman and its modification into the Self of its effect as +co-ordinated, viz. in the passage, 'It became sat and tyat, defined and +undefined' (Taitt. Up. II, 6). + +27. And because Brahman is called the source. + +Brahman is the material cause for that reason also that it is spoken of +in the sacred texts as the source (yoni); compare, for instance, 'The +maker, the Lord, the person who has his source in Brahman' (Mu. Up. III, +1, 3); and 'That which the wise regard as the source of all beings' (Mu. +Up. I, 1, 6). For that the word 'source' denotes the material cause is +well known from the use of ordinary language; the earth, for instance, +is called the yoni of trees and herbs. In some places indeed the word +yoni means not source, but merely place; so, for instance, in the +mantra, 'A yoni, O Indra, was made for you to sit down upon' (/Ri/k. +Sa/m/h. I, 104, 1). But that in the passage quoted it means 'source' +follows from a complementary passage, 'As the spider sends forth and +draws in its threads,' &c.--It is thus proved that Brahman is the +material cause of the world.--Of the objection, finally, that in +ordinary life the activity of operative causal agents only, such as +potters and the like, is preceded by reflection, we dispose by the +remark that, as the matter in hand is not one which can be known through +inferential reasoning, ordinary experience cannot be used to settle it. +For the knowledge of that matter we rather depend on Scripture +altogether, and hence Scripture only has to be appealed to. And that +Scripture teaches that the Lord who reflects before creation is at the +same time the material cause, we have already explained. The subject +will, moreover, be discussed more fully later on. + +28. Hereby all (the doctrines concerning the origin of the world which +are opposed to the Vedanta) are explained, are explained. + +The doctrine according to which the pradhana is the cause of the world +has, in the Sutras beginning with I, 1, 5, been again and again brought +forward and refuted. The chief reason for the special attention given to +that doctrine is that the Vedanta-texts contain some passages which, to +people deficient in mental penetration, may appear to contain +inferential marks pointing to it. The doctrine, moreover, stands +somewhat near to the Vedanta doctrine since, like the latter, it admits +the non-difference of cause and effect, and it, moreover, has been +accepted by some of the authors of the Dharma-sutras, such as Devala, +and so on. For all these reasons we have taken special trouble to refute +the pradhana doctrine, without paying much attention to the atomic and +other theories. These latter theories, however, must likewise be +refuted, as they also are opposed to the doctrine of Brahman being the +general cause, and as slow-minded people might think that they also are +referred to in some Vedic passages. Hence the Sutrakara formally +extends, in the above Sutra, the refutation already accomplished of the +pradhana doctrine to all similar doctrines which need not be demolished +in detail after their great protagonist, the pradhana doctrine, has been +so completely disposed of. They also are, firstly, not founded on any +scriptural authority; and are, secondly, directly contradicted by +various Vedic passages.--The repetition of the phrase 'are explained' is +meant to intimate that the end of the adhyaya has been reached. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 228: The Great one is the technical Sa@nkhya-term for buddhi, +avyakta is a common designation of pradhana or prak/ri/ti, and purusha +is the technical name of the soul. Compare, for instance, Sa@nkhya Kar. +2, 3.] + +[Footnote 229: Sa/m/kalpavikalparupamanana/s/aktya haira/n/yagarbhi +buddhir manas tasya/h/ vyash/t/imana/h/su samash/t/itaya vyaptim aha +mahan iti. Sa/m/kalpadi/s/ktitaya tarhi sa/m/dehatmatva/m/ tatraha matir +iti. Mahatvam upapadayati brahmeti. Bhogyajatadharatvam aha pur iti. +Ni/sk/ayatmakatvam aha buddhir iti. Kirti/s/aktimattvam aha khyatir iti. +Niyamana/s/aktimatvam aha i/s/vara iti. Loke yat prak/ri/sh/t/a/m/ +j/n/anam tatosnatirekam aha praj/n/eti. Tatphalam api tato +narthantaravishayam ity aha sa/m/vid iti. /K/itpradhanatvam aha /k/itir +iti. J/n/atasarvartbanusa/m/dhana/s/aktim aha sm/ri/tis /k/eti. Ananda +Giri.] + +[Footnote 230: Nanu na bija/s/aktir vidyaya dahyate vastutvad atmavan +nety aha avidyeti. Ke/k/it tu pratijivam avidya/s/aktibhedam i/kkh/anti +tan na avyaktavyak/ri/tadi/s/abdayas tasya bhedakabhavad ekatvexpi +sva/s/aktya vi/k/itrakaryakaratvad ity aha avyakteti. Na /k/a tasya +jiva/s/rayatva/m/ jiva/s/abdava/k/yasya kalpitatvad avidyarupatvat +ta/kkh/abdalakshyasya brahmavyatirekad ity aha parame/s/vareti. +Mayavidyayor bhedad i/s/varasya maya/s/rayatva/m/ jivanam +avidya/s/rayateti vadanta/m/ pratyaha mayamayiti. Yatha mayavino maya +paratantra tathaishapity artha/h/. Pratitau tasya/s/ /k/etanapeksham aha +mahasuptir iti. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 231: Sutradvayasya v/ri/ttik/ri/dvyakhyanam utthapayati. Go. +An. A/k/aryade/s/iyamatam utthapayati. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 232: The commentators give different explanations of the +Sattamatra of the text.--Sattamatre sattvapradhanaprak/ri/ter +adyapari/n/ame. Go. An.--Bhogapavargapurusharthasya +maha/kkh/abditabuddhikaryatvat purushapekshitaphalakara/n/a/m/ sad +u/k/yate tatra bhavapratyayos'pi svarupartho na samanyava/k/i +karyanumeya/m/ mahan na pratyaksham iti matra/s/abda/h/. Ananda Giri.] + +[Footnote 233: As the meaning of the word aja is going to be discussed, +and as the author of the Sutras and /S/a@nkara seem to disagree as to +its meaning (see later on), I prefer to leave the word untranslated in +this place.--/S/a@nkara reads--and explains,--in the mantra, sarupa/h/ +(not sarupam) and bhuktabhogam, not bhuktabhogyam.] + +[Footnote 234: Here there seems to be a certain discrepancy between the +views of the Sutra writer and /S/a@nkara. Govindananda notes that +according to the Bhashyak/ri/t aja means simply maya--which +interpretation is based on prakara/n/a--while, according to the +Sutra-k/ri/t, who explains aja on the ground of the Chandogya-passage +treating of the three primary elements, aja denotes the aggregate of +those three elements constituting an avantaraprak/ri/ti.--On +/S/a@nkara's explanation the term aja presents no difficulties, for maya +is aja, i.e. unborn, not produced. On the explanation of the Sutra +writer, however, aja cannot mean unborn, since the three primary +elements are products. Hence we are thrown back on the ru/dh/i +signification of aja, according to which it means she-goat. But how can +the avantara-prak/ri/ti be called a she-goat? To this question the next +Sutra replies.] + +[Footnote 235: Indication (laksha/n/a, which consists in this case in +five times five being used instead of twenty-five) is considered as an +objectionable mode of expression, and therefore to be assumed in +interpretation only where a term can in no way be shown to have a direct +meaning.] + +[Footnote 236: That pa/nk/ajana/h/ is only one word appears from its +having only one accent, viz. the udatta on the last syllable, which +udatta becomes anudatta according to the rules laid down in the Bhashika +Sutra for the accentuation of the /S/atapatha-brahma/n/a.] + +[Footnote 237: So in the Madhyandina recension of the Upanishad; the +Ka/n/va recension has not the clause 'the food of food.'] + +[Footnote 238: This in answer to the Sankhya who objects to jana when +applied to the prana, &c. being interpreted with the help of laksha/n/a; +while if referred to the pradhana, &c. it may be explained to have a +direct meaning, on the ground of yaugika interpretation (the pradhana +being jana because it produces, the mahat &c. being jana because they +are produced). The Vedantin points out that the compound pa/nk/ajana/h/ +has its own ru/dh/i-meaning, just as a/s/vakar/n/a, literally horse-ear, +which conventionally denotes a certain plant.] + +[Footnote 239: We infer that udbhid is the name of a sacrifice because +it is mentioned in connexion with the act of sacrificing; we infer that +the yupa is a wooden post because it is said to be cut, and so on.] + +[Footnote 240: Option being possible only in the case of things to be +accomplished, i.e. actions.] + +[Footnote 241: According to Go. An. in the passage, 'That made itself +its Self' (II, 7); according to An. Giri in the passage, 'He created +all' (II, 6).] + +[Footnote 242: By the Brahma/n/as being meant all those Brahma/n/as who +are not at the same time wandering mendicants.] + +[Footnote 243: The comment of the Bhamati on the Sutra runs as follows: +As the sparks issuing from a fire are not absolutely different from the +fire, because they participate in the nature of the fire; and, on the +other hand, are not absolutely non-different from the fire, because in +that case they could be distinguished neither from the fire nor from +each other; so the individual souls also--which are effects of +Brahman--are neither absolutely different from Brahman, for that would +mean that they are not of the nature of intelligence; nor absolutely +non-different from Brahman, because in that case they could not be +distinguished from each other, and because, if they were identical with +Brahman and therefore omniscient, it would be useless to give them any +instruction. Hence the individual souls are somehow different from +Brahman and somehow non-different.--The technical name of the doctrine +here represented by A/s/marathya is bhedabhedavada.] + +[Footnote 244: Bhamati: The individual soul is absolutely different from +the highest Self; it is inquinated by the contact with its different +limiting adjuncts. But it is spoken of, in the Upanishad, as +non-different from the highest Self because after having purified itself +by means of knowledge and meditation it may pass out of the body and +become one with the highest Self. The text of the Upanishad thus +transfers a future state of non-difference to that time when difference +actually exists. Compare the saying of the Pa/nk/aratrikas: 'Up to the +moment of emancipation being reached the soul and the highest Self are +different. But the emancipated soul is no longer different from the +highest Self, since there is no further cause of difference.'--The +technical name of the doctrine advocated by Au/d/ulomi is +satyabhedavada.] + +[Footnote 245: Compare the note to the same mantra as quoted above under +I, 1, 11.] + +[Footnote 246: And not the relation of absolute identity.] + +[Footnote 247: I.e. upon the state of emancipation and its absence.] + +[Footnote 248: Upapadita/m/ /k/eti, sarvasyatmamatratvam iti /s/esha/h/. +Upapadanaprakara/m/ su/k/ayati eketi. Sa yathardrendhanagner +ityadinaikaprasavatvam, yatha sarvasam apam ityadina +/k/aikapralayatva/m/ sarvasyoktam. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 249: So according to Go. An. and An. Gi., although their +interpretations seem not to account sufficiently for the ekam of the +text.--Ka/mk/id evaikam iti jivasthanad anyam ity artha/h/. Go. +An.--Jivabhavena pratibimbadharatiriktam ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 250: While release, as often remarked, is eternal, it being in +fact not different from the eternally unchanging Brahman.] + +[Footnote 251: I.e. that the operative cause and the substantial cause +are separate things.] + +[Footnote 252: Viz. the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti.] + + + + +SECOND ADHYAYA. + +FIRST PADA. + +REVERENCE TO THE HIGHEST SELF! + + +1. If it be objected that (from the doctrine expounded hitherto) there +would result the fault of there being no room for (certain) Sm/ri/tis; +we do not admit that objection, because (from the rejection of our +doctrine) there would result the fault of want of room for other +Sm/ri/tis. + +It has been shown in the first adhyaya that the omniscient Lord of all +is the cause of the origin of this world in the same way as clay is the +material cause of jars and gold of golden ornaments; that by his +rulership he is the cause of the subsistence of this world once +originated, just as the magician is the cause of the subsistence of the +magical illusion; and that he, lastly, is the cause of this emitted +world being finally reabsorbed into his essence, just as the four +classes of creatures are reabsorbed into the earth. It has further been +proved, by a demonstration of the connected meaning of all the +Vedanta-texts, that the Lord is the Self of all of us. Moreover, the +doctrines of the pradhana, and so on, being the cause of this world have +been refuted as not being scriptural.--The purport of the second +adhyaya, which we now begin, is to refute the objections (to the +doctrine established hitherto) which might be founded on Sm/ri/ti and +Reasoning, and to show that the doctrines of the pradhana, &c. have only +fallacious arguments to lean upon, and that the different Vedanta-texts +do not contradict one another with regard to the mode of creation and +similar topics.--The first point is to refute the objections based on +Sm/ri/ti. + +Your doctrine (the purvapakshin says) that the omniscient Brahman only +is the cause of this world cannot be maintained, 'because there results +from it the fault of there being no room for (certain) Sm/ri/tis.' Such +Sm/ri/tis are the one called Tantra which was composed by a /ri/shi and +is accepted by authoritative persons, and other Sm/ri/tis based on +it[253]; for all of which there would be no room if your interpretation +of the Veda were the true one. For they all teach that the +non-intelligent pradhana is the independent cause of the world. There is +indeed room (a raison d'etre) for Sm/ri/tis like the Manu-sm/ri/ti, +which give information about matters connected with the whole body of +religious duty, characterised by injunction[254] and comprising the +agnihotra and similar performances. They tell us at what time and with +what rites the members of the different castes are to be initiated; how +the Veda has to be studied; in what way the cessation of study has to +take place; how marriage has to be performed, and so on. They further +lay down the manifold religious duties, beneficial to man, of the four +castes and a/s/ramas[255]. The Kapila Sm/ri/ti, on the other hand, and +similar books are not concerned with things to be done, but were +composed with exclusive reference to perfect knowledge as the means of +final release. If then no room were left for them in that connexion +also, they would be altogether purposeless; and hence we must explain +the Vedanta-texts in such a manner as not to bring them into conflict +with the Sm/ri/tis mentioned[256].--But how, somebody may ask the +purvapakshin, can the eventual fault of there being left no room for +certain Sm/ri/tis be used as an objection against that sense of /S/ruti +which--from various reasons as detailed under I, 1 and ff.--has been +ascertained by us to be the true one, viz. that the omniscient Brahman +alone is the cause of the world?--Our objection, the purvapakshin +replies, will perhaps not appear valid to persons of independent +thought; but as most men depend in their reasonings on others, and are +unable to ascertain by themselves the sense of /S/ruti, they naturally +rely on Sm/ri/tis, composed by celebrated authorities, and try to arrive +at the sense of /S/ruti with their assistance; while, owing to their +esteem for the authors of the Sm/ri/tis, they have no trust in our +explanations. The knowledge of men like Kapila Sm/ri/ti declares to have +been /ri/shi-like and unobstructed, and moreover there is the following +/S/ruti-passage, 'It is he who, in the beginning, bears in his thoughts +the son, the /ri/shi, kapila[257], whom he wishes to look on while he is +born' (/S/ve. Up. V, 2). Hence their opinion cannot be assumed to be +erroneous, and as they moreover strengthen their position by +argumentation, the objection remains valid, and we must therefore +attempt to explain the Vedanta-texts in conformity with the Sm/ri/tis. + +This objection we dispose of by the remark, 'It is not so because +therefrom would result the fault of want of room for other +Sm/ri/tis.'--If you object to the doctrine of the Lord being the cause +of the world on the ground that it would render certain Sm/ri/tis +purposeless, you thereby render purposeless other Sm/ri/tis which +declare themselves in favour of the said doctrine. These latter +Sm/ri/ti-texts we will quote in what follows. In one passage the highest +Brahman is introduced as the subject of discussion, 'That which is +subtle and not to be known;' the text then goes on, 'That is the +internal Self of the creatures, their soul,' and after that remarks +'From that sprang the Unevolved, consisting of the three gu/n/as, O best +of Brahma/n/as.' And in another place it is said that 'the Unevolved is +dissolved in the Person devoid of qualities, O Brahma/n/a.'--Thus we +read also in the Pura/n/a, 'Hear thence this short statement: The +ancient Naraya/n/a is all this; he produces the creation at the due +time, and at the time of reabsorption he consumes it again.' And so in +the Bhagavadgita also (VII, 6), 'I am the origin and the place of +reabsorption of the whole world.' And Apastamba too says with reference +to the highest Self, 'From him spring all bodies; he is the primary +cause, he is eternal, he is unchangeable' (Dharma Sutra I, 8, 23, 2). In +this way Sm/ri/ti, in many places, declares the Lord to be the efficient +as well as the material cause of the world. As the purvapakshin opposes +us on the ground of Sm/ri/ti, we reply to him on the ground of Sm/ri/ti +only; hence the line of defence taken up in the Sutra. Now it has been +shown already that the /S/ruti-texts aim at conveying the doctrine that +the Lord is the universal cause, and as wherever different Sm/ri/tis +conflict those maintaining one view must be accepted, while those which +maintain the opposite view must be set aside, those Sm/ri/tis which +follow /S/ruti are to be considered as authoritative, while all others +are to be disregarded; according to the Sutra met with in the chapter +treating of the means of proof (Mim. Sutra I, 3, 3), 'Where there is +contradiction (between /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti) (Sm/ri/ti) is to be +disregarded; in case of there being no (contradiction) (Sm/ri/ti is to +be recognised) as there is inference (of Sm/ri/ti being founded on +/S/ruti).'--Nor can we assume that some persons are able to perceive +supersensuous matters without /S/ruti, as there exists no efficient +cause for such perception. Nor, again, can it be said that such +perception may be assumed in the case of Kapila and others who possessed +supernatural powers, and consequently unobstructed power of cognition. +For the possession of supernatural powers itself depends on the +performance of religious duty, and religious duty is that which is +characterised by injunction[258]; hence the sense of injunctions (i.e. +of the Veda) which is established first must not be fancifully +interpreted in reference to the dicta of men 'established' (i.e. made +perfect, and therefore possessing supernatural powers) afterwards only. +Moreover, even if those 'perfect' men were accepted as authorities to be +appealed to, still, as there are many such perfect men, we should have, +in all those cases where the Sm/ri/tis contradict each other in the +manner described, no other means of final decision than an appeal to +/S/ruti.--As to men destitute of the power of independent judgment, we +are not justified in assuming that they will without any reason attach +themselves to some particular Sm/ri/ti; for if men's inclinations were +so altogether unregulated, truth itself would, owing to the multiformity +of human opinion, become unstable. We must therefore try to lead their +judgment in the right way by pointing out to them the conflict of the +Sm/ri/tis, and the distinction founded on some of them following /S/ruti +and others not.--The scriptural passage which the purvapakshin has +quoted as proving the eminence of Kapila's knowledge would not justify +us in believing in such doctrines of Kapila (i.e. of some Kapila) as are +contrary to Scripture; for that passage mentions the bare name of Kapila +(without specifying which Kapila is meant), and we meet in tradition +with another Kapila, viz. the one who burned the sons of Sagara and had +the surname Vasudeva. That passage, moreover, serves another purpose, +(viz. the establishment of the doctrine of the highest Self,) and has on +that account no force to prove what is not proved by any other means, +(viz. the supereminence of Kapila's knowledge.) On the other hand, we +have a /S/ruti-passage which proclaims the excellence of Manu[259], viz. +'Whatever Manu said is medicine' (Taitt. Sa/m/h. II, 2, 10, 2). Manu +himself, where he glorifies the seeing of the one Self in everything +('he who equally sees the Self in all beings and all beings in the Self, +he as a sacrificer to the Self attains self-luminousness,' i.e. becomes +Brahman, Manu Sm/ri/ti XII, 91), implicitly blames the doctrine of +Kapila. For Kapila, by acknowledging a plurality of Selfs, does not +admit the doctrine of there being one universal Self. In the Mahabharata +also the question is raised whether there are many persons (souls) or +one; thereupon the opinion of others is mentioned, 'There are many +persons, O King, according to the Sa@nkhya and Yoga philosophers;' that +opinion is controverted 'just as there is one place of origin, (viz. the +earth,) for many persons, so I will proclaim to you that universal +person raised by his qualities;' and, finally, it is declared that there +is one universal Self, 'He is the internal Self of me, of thee, and of +all other embodied beings, the internal witness of all, not to be +apprehended by any one. He the all-headed, all-armed, all-footed, +all-eyed, all-nosed one moves through all beings according to his will +and liking.' And Scripture also declares that there is one universal +Self, 'When to a man who understands the Self has become all things, +what sorrow, what trouble can there be to him who once beheld that +unity?' (I/s/. Up 7); and other similar passages. All which proves that +the system of Kapila contradicts the Veda, and the doctrine of Manu who +follows the Veda, by its hypothesis of a plurality of Selfs also, not +only by the assumption of an independent pradhana. The authoritativeness +of the Veda with regard to the matters stated by it is independent and +direct, just as the light of the sun is the direct means of our +knowledge of form and colour; the authoritativeness of human dicta, on +the other hand, is of an altogether different kind, as it depends on an +extraneous basis (viz. the Veda), and is (not immediate but) mediated by +a chain of teachers and tradition. + +Hence the circumstance that the result (of our doctrine) is want of room +for certain Sm/ri/tis, with regard to matters contradicted by the Veda, +furnishes no valid objection.--An additional reason for this our opinion +is supplied by the following Sutra. + +2. And on account of the non-perception of the others (i.e. the effects +of the pradhana, according to the Sa@nkhya system). + +The principles different from the pradhana, but to be viewed as its +modifications which the (Sa@nkhya) Sm/ri/ti assumes, as, for instance, +the great principle, are perceived neither in the Veda nor in ordinary +experience. Now things of the nature of the elements and the sense +organs, which are well known from the Veda, as well as from experience, +may be referred to in Sm/ri/ti; but with regard to things which, like +Kapila's great principle, are known neither from the Veda nor from +experience--no more than, for instance, the objects of a sixth +sense--Sm/ri/ti is altogether impossible. That some scriptural passages +which apparently refer to such things as the great principle have in +reality quite a different meaning has already been shown under I, 4, 1. +But if that part of Sm/ri/ti which is concerned with the effects (i.e. +the great principle, and so on) is without authority, the part which +refers to the cause (the pradhana) will be so likewise. This is what the +Sutra means to say.--We have thus established a second reason, proving +that the circumstance of there being no room left for certain Sm/ri/tis +does not constitute a valid objection to our doctrine.--The weakness of +the trust in reasoning (apparently favouring the Sa@nkhya doctrine) will +be shown later on under II, 1, 4 ff. + +3. Thereby the Yoga (Sm/ri/ti) is refuted. + +This Sutra extends the application of the preceding argumentation, and +remarks that by the refutation of the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti the +Yoga-sm/ri/ti also is to be considered as refuted; for the latter also +assumes, in opposition to Scripture, a pradhana as the independent cause +of the world, and the 'great principle,' &c. as its effects, although +neither the Veda nor common experience favour these views.--But, if the +same reasoning applies to the Yoga also, the latter system is already +disposed of by the previous arguments; of what use then is it formally +to extend them to the Yoga? (as the Sutra does.)--We reply that here an +additional cause of doubt presents itself, the practice of Yoga being +enjoined in the Veda as a means of obtaining perfect knowledge; so, for +instance, B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5, '(The Self) is to be heard, to be +thought, to be meditated upon[260].' In the /S/veta/s/vatara Upanishad, +moreover, we find various injunctions of Yoga-practice connected with +the assumption of different positions of the body; &c.; so, for +instance, 'Holding his body with its three erect parts even,' &c. (II, +8). + +Further, we find very many passages in the Veda which (without expressly +enjoining it) point to the Yoga, as, for instance, Ka. Up. II, 6, 11, +'This, the firm holding back of the senses, is what is called Yoga;' +'Having received this knowledge and the whole rule of Yoga' (Ka. Up. II, +6, 18); and so on. And in the Yoga-/s/astra itself the passage, 'Now +then Yoga, the means of the knowledge of truth,' &c. defines the Yoga as +a means of reaching perfect knowledge. As thus one topic of the /s/astra +at least (viz. the practice of Yoga) is shown to be authoritative, the +entire Yoga-sm/ri/ti will have to be accepted as unobjectionable, just +as the Sm/ri/ti referring to the ash/t/akas[261].--To this we reply that +the formal extension (to the Yoga, of the arguments primarily directed +against the Sa@nkhya) has the purpose of removing the additional doubt +stated in the above lines; for in spite of a part of the Yoga-sm/ri/ti +being authoritative, the disagreement (between Sm/ri/ti and /S/ruti) on +other topics remains as shown above.--Although[262] there are many +Sm/ri/tis treating of the soul, we have singled out for refutation the +Sa@nkhya and Yoga because they are widely known as offering the means +for accomplishing the highest end of man and have found favour with many +competent persons. Moreover, their position is strengthened by a Vedic +passage referring to them, 'He who has known that cause which is to be +apprehended by Sa@nkhya and Yoga he is freed from all fetters' (/S/ve. +Up. VI, 13). (The claims which on the ground of this last passage might +be set up for the Sa@nkhya and Yoga-sm/ri/tis in their entirety) we +refute by the remark that the highest beatitude (the highest aim of man) +is not to be attained by the knowledge of the Sa@nkhya-sm/ri/ti +irrespective of the Veda, nor by the road of Yoga-practice. For +Scripture itself declares that there is no other means of obtaining the +highest beatitude but the knowledge of the unity of the Self which is +conveyed by the Veda, 'Over death passes only the man who knows him; +there is no other path to go' (/S/ve. Up. III, 8). And the Sa@nkhya and +Yoga-systems maintain duality, do not discern the unity of the Self. In +the passage quoted ('That cause which is to be apprehended by Sa@nkhya +and Yoga') the terms 'Sa@nkhya' and 'Yoga' denote Vedic knowledge and +meditation, as we infer from proximity[263]. We willingly allow room for +those portions of the two systems which do not contradict the Veda. In +their description of the soul, for instance, as free from all qualities +the Sa@nkhyas are in harmony with the Veda which teaches that the person +(purusha) is essentially pure; cp. B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 16. 'For that +person is not attached to anything.' The Yoga again in giving rules for +the condition of the wandering religious mendicant admits that state of +retirement from the concerns of life which is known from scriptural +passages such as the following one, 'Then the parivrajaka with +discoloured (yellow) dress, shaven, without any possessions,' &c. +(Jabala Upan. IV). + +The above remarks will serve as a reply to the claims of all +argumentative Sm/ri/tis. If it be said that those Sm/ri/tis also assist, +by argumentation and proof, the cognition of truth, we do not object to +so much, but we maintain all the same that the truth can be known from +the Vedanta-texts only; as is stated by scriptural passages such as +'None who does not know the Veda perceives that great one' (Taitt. Br. +III, 12, 9, 7); 'I now ask thee that person taught in the Upanishads' +(B/ri/. Up, III, 9, 26); and others. + +4. (Brahman can) not (be the cause of the world) on account of the +difference of character of that, (viz. the world); and its being such, +(i.e. different from Brahman) (we learn) from Scripture. + +The objections, founded on Sm/ri/ti, against the doctrine of Brahman +being the efficient and the material cause of this world have been +refuted; we now proceed to refute those founded on Reasoning.--But (to +raise an objection at the outset) how is there room for objections +founded on Reasoning after the sense of the sacred texts has once been +settled? The sacred texts are certainly to be considered absolutely +authoritative with regard to Brahman as well as with regard to religious +duty (dharma).--(To this the purvapakshin replies), The analogy between +Brahman and dharma would hold good if the matter in hand were to be +known through the holy texts only, and could not be approached by the +other means of right knowledge also. In the case of religious duties, +i.e. things to be done, we indeed entirely depend on Scripture. But now +we are concerned with Brahman which is an accomplished existing thing, +and in the case of accomplished things there is room for other means of +right knowledge also, as, for instance, the case of earth and the other +elements shows. And just as in the case of several conflicting +scriptural passages we explain all of them in such a manner as to make +them accord with one, so /S/ruti, if in conflict with other means of +right knowledge, has to be bent so as to accord with the letter. +Moreover, Reasoning, which enables us to infer something not actually +perceived in consequence of its having a certain equality of attributes +with what is actually perceived, stands nearer to perception than +/S/ruti which conveys its sense by tradition merely. And the knowledge +of Brahman which discards Nescience and effects final release terminates +in a perception (viz. the intuition--sakshatkara--of Brahman), and as +such must be assumed to have a seen result (not an unseen one like +dharma)[264]. Moreover, the scriptural passage, 'He is to be heard, to +be thought,' enjoins thought in addition to hearing, and thereby shows +that Reasoning also is to be resorted to with regard to Brahman. Hence +an objection founded on Reasoning is set forth, 'Not so, on account of +the difference of nature of this (effect).'--The Vedantic opinion that +the intelligent Brahman is the material cause of this world is untenable +because the effect would in that case be of an altogether different +character from the cause. For this world, which the Vedantin considers +as the effect of Brahman, is perceived to be non-intelligent and impure, +consequently different in character from Brahman; and Brahman again is +declared by the sacred texts to be of a character different from the +world, viz. intelligent and pure. But things of an altogether different +character cannot stand to each other in the relation of material cause +and effect. Such effects, for instance, as golden ornaments do not have +earth for their material cause, nor is gold the material cause of +earthen vessels; but effects of an earthy nature originate from earth +and effects of the nature of gold from gold. In the same manner this +world, which is non-intelligent and comprises pleasure, pain, and +dulness, can only be the effect of a cause itself non-intelligent and +made up of pleasure, pain, and dulness; but not of Brahman which is of +an altogether different character. The difference in character of this +world from Brahman must be understood to be due to its impurity and its +want of intelligence. It is impure because being itself made up of +pleasure, pain, and dulness, it is the cause of delight, grief, +despondency, &c., and because it comprises in itself abodes of various +character such as heaven, hell, and so on. It is devoid of intelligence +because it is observed to stand to the intelligent principle in the +relation of subserviency, being the instrument of its activity. For the +relation of subserviency of one thing to another is not possible on the +basis of equality; two lamps, for instance, cannot be said to be +subservient to each other (both being equally luminous).--But, it will +be said, an intelligent instrument also might be subservient to the +enjoying soul; just as an intelligent servant is subservient to his +master.--This analogy, we reply, does not hold good, because in the case +of servant and master also only the non-intelligent element in the +former is subservient to the intelligent master. For a being endowed +with intelligence subserves another intelligent being only with the +non-intelligent part belonging to it, viz. its internal organ, sense +organs, &c.; while in so far as it is intelligent itself it acts neither +for nor against any other being. For the Sa@nkhyas are of opinion that +the intelligent beings (i.e. the souls) are incapable of either taking +in or giving out anything[265], and are non-active. Hence that only +which is devoid of intelligence can be an instrument. Nor[266] is there +anything to show that things like pieces of wood and clods of earth are +of an intelligent nature; on the contrary, the dichotomy of all things +which exist into such as are intelligent and such as are non-intelligent +is well established. This world therefore cannot have its material cause +in Brahman from which it is altogether different in character.--Here +somebody might argue as follows. Scripture tells us that this world has +originated from an intelligent cause; therefore, starting from the +observation that the attributes of the cause survive in the effect, I +assume this whole world to be intelligent. The absence of manifestation +of intelligence (in this world) is to be ascribed to the particular +nature of the modification[267]. Just as undoubtedly intelligent beings +do not manifest their intelligence in certain states such as sleep, +swoon, &c., so the intelligence of wood and earth also is not manifest +(although it exists). In consequence of this difference produced by the +manifestation and non-manifestation of intelligence (in the case of men, +animals, &c., on the one side, and wood, stones, &c. on the other side), +and in consequence of form, colour, and the like being present in the +one case and absent in the other, nothing prevents the instruments of +action (earth, wood, &c.) from standing to the souls in the relation of +a subordinate to a superior thing, although in reality both are equally +of an intelligent nature. And just as such substances as flesh, broth, +pap, and the like may, owing to their individual differences, stand in +the relation of mutual subserviency, although fundamentally they are all +of the same nature, viz. mere modifications of earth, so it will be in +the case under discussion also, without there being done any violence to +the well-known distinction (of beings intelligent and +non-intelligent).--This reasoning--the purvapakshin replies--if valid +might remove to a certain extent that difference of character between +Brahman and the world which is due to the circumstance of the one being +intelligent and the other non-intelligent; there would, however, still +remain that other difference which results from the fact that the one is +pure and the other impure. But in reality the argumentation of the +objector does not even remove the first-named difference; as is declared +in the latter part of the Sutra, 'And its being such we learn from +Scripture.' For the assumption of the intellectuality of the entire +world--which is supported neither by perception nor by inference, +&c.--must be considered as resting on Scripture only in so far as the +latter speaks of the world as having originated from an intelligent +cause; but that scriptural statement itself is contradicted by other +texts which declare the world to be 'of such a nature,' i.e. of a nature +different from that of its material cause. For the scriptural passage, +'It became that which is knowledge and that which is devoid of +knowledge' (Taitt. Up. II, 6), which teaches that a certain class of +beings is of a non-intelligent nature intimates thereby that the +non-intelligent world is different from the intelligent +Brahman.--But--somebody might again object--the sacred texts themselves +sometimes speak of the elements and the bodily organs, which are +generally considered to be devoid of intelligence, as intelligent +beings. The following passages, for instance, attribute intelligence to +the elements. 'The earth spoke;' 'The waters spoke' (/S/at. Br. VI, 1, +3, 2; 4); and, again, 'Fire thought;' 'Water thought' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 3; +4). Other texts attribute intelligence to the bodily organs, 'These +pra/n/as when quarrelling together as to who was the best went to +Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. VI, 1, 7); and, again, 'They said to Speech: Do +thou sing out for us' (B/ri/. Up. I, 3, 2).--To this objection the +purvapakshin replies in the following Sutra. + +5. But (there takes place) denotation of the superintending (deities), +on account of the difference and the connexion. + +The word 'but' discards the doubt raised. We are not entitled to base +the assumption of the elements and the sense organs being of an +intellectual nature on such passages as 'the earth spoke,' &c. because +'there takes place denotation of that which presides.' In the case of +actions like speaking, disputing, and so on, which require intelligence, +the scriptural passages denote not the mere material elements and +organs, but rather the intelligent divinities which preside over earth, +&c., on the one hand, and Speech, &c., on the other hand. And why so? +'On account of the difference and the connexion.' The difference is the +one previously referred to between the enjoying souls, on the one hand, +and the material elements and organs, on the other hand, which is +founded on the distinction between intelligent and non-intelligent +beings; that difference would not be possible if all beings were +intelligent. Moreover, the Kaushitakins in their account of the dispute +of the pra/n/as make express use of the word 'divinities' in order to +preclude the idea of the mere material organs being meant, and in order +to include the superintending intelligent beings. They say, 'The deities +contending with each for who was the best;' and, again, 'All these +deities having recognised the pre-eminence in pra/n/a' (Kau. Up. II, +14).--And, secondly, Mantras, Arthavadas, Itihasas, Pura/n/as, &c. all +declare that intelligent presiding divinities are connected with +everything. Moreover, such scriptural passages as 'Agni having become +Speech entered into the mouth' (Ait. Ar. II, 4, 2, 4) show that each +bodily organ is connected with its own favouring divinity. And in the +passages supplementary to the quarrel of the pra/n/as we read in one +place how, for the purpose of settling their relative excellence, they +went to Prajapati, and how they settled their quarrel on the ground of +presence and absence, each of them, as Prajapati had advised, departing +from the body for some time ('They went to their father Prajapati and +said,' &c,; Ch. Up. V, 1, 7); and in another place it is said that they +made an offering to pra/n/a (B/ri/. Up. VI, 1, 13), &c.; all of them +proceedings which are analogous to those of men, &c., and therefore +strengthen the hypothesis that the text refers to the superintending +deities. In the case of such passages as, 'Fire thought,' we must assume +that the thought spoken of is that of the highest deity which is +connected with its effects as a superintending principle.--From all this +it follows that this world is different in nature from Brahman, and +hence cannot have it for its material cause. + +To this objection raised by the purvapakshin the next Sutra replies. + +6. But it is seen. + +The word 'but' discards the purvapaksha. + +Your assertion that this world cannot have originated from Brahman on +account of the difference of its character is not founded on an +absolutely true tenet. For we see that from man, who is acknowledged to +be intelligent, non-intelligent things such as hair and nails originate, +and that, on the other hand, from avowedly non-intelligent matter, such +as cow-dung, scorpions and similar animals are produced.--But--to state +an objection--the real cause of the non-intelligent hair and nails is +the human body which is itself non-intelligent, and the non-intelligent +bodies only of scorpions are the effects of non-intelligent dung.--Even +thus, we reply, there remains a difference in character (between the +cause, for instance, the dung, and the effect, for instance, the body of +the scorpion), in so far as some non-intelligent matter (the body) is +the abode of an intelligent principle (the scorpion's soul), while other +non-intelligent matter (the dung) is not. Moreover, the difference of +nature--due to the cause passing over into the effect--between the +bodies of men on the one side and hair and nails on the other side, is, +on account of the divergence of colour, form, &c., very considerable +after all. The same remark holds good with regard to cow-dung and the +bodies of scorpions, &c. If absolute equality were insisted on (in the +case of one thing being the effect of another), the relation of material +cause and effect (which after all requires a distinction of the two) +would be annihilated. If, again, it be remarked that in the case of men +and hair as well as in that of scorpions and cow-dung there is one +characteristic feature, at least, which is found in the effect as well +as in the cause, viz. the quality of being of an earthy nature; we reply +that in the case of Brahman and the world also one characteristic +feature, viz. that of existence (satta), is found in ether, &c. (which +are the effects) as well as in Brahman (which is the cause).--He, +moreover, who on the ground of the difference of the attributes tries to +invalidate the doctrine of Brahman being the cause of the world, must +assert that he understands by difference of attributes either the +non-occurrence (in the world) of the entire complex of the +characteristics of Brahman, or the non-occurrence of any (some or other) +characteristic, or the non-occurrence of the characteristic of +intelligence. The first assertion would lead to the negation of the +relation of cause and effect in general, which relation is based on the +fact of there being in the effect something over and above the cause +(for if the two were absolutely identical they could not be +distinguished). The second assertion is open to the charge of running +counter to what is well known; for, as we have already remarked, the +characteristic quality of existence which belongs to Brahman is found +likewise in ether and so on. For the third assertion the requisite +proving instances are wanting; for what instances could be brought +forward against the upholder of Brahman, in order to prove the general +assertion that whatever is devoid of intelligence is seen not to be an +effect of Brahman? (The upholder of Brahman would simply not admit any +such instances) because he maintains that this entire complex of things +has Brahman for its material cause. And that all such assertions are +contrary to Scripture, is clear, as we have already shown it to be the +purport of Scripture that Brahman is the cause and substance of the +world. It has indeed been maintained by the purvapakshin that the other +means of proof also (and not merely sacred tradition) apply to Brahman, +on account of its being an accomplished entity (not something to be +accomplished as religious duties are); but such an assertion is entirely +gratuitous. For Brahman, as being devoid of form and so on, cannot +become an object of perception; and as there are in its case no +characteristic marks (on which conclusions, &c. might be based), +inference also and the other means of proof do not apply to it; but, +like religious duty, it is to be known solely on the ground of holy +tradition. Thus Scripture also declares, 'That doctrine is not to be +obtained by argument, but when it is declared by another then, O +dearest! it is easy to understand' (Ka. Up. I, 2, 9). And again, 'Who in +truth knows it? Who could here proclaim it, whence this creation +sprang?' (/Ri/g-v. Sa/m/h. X, 129, 6). These two mantras show that the +cause of this world is not to be known even by divine beings +(i/s/vara)[268] of extraordinary power and wisdom. + +There are also the following Sm/ri/ti passages to the same effect: 'Do +not apply reasoning to those things which are uncognisable[269];' +'Unevolved he is called, uncognisable, unchangeable;' 'Not the legions +of the gods know my origin, not the great /ri/shis. For I myself am in +every way the origin of the gods and great /ri/shis' (Bha. Gi. X, +2).--And if it has been maintained above that the scriptural passage +enjoining thought (on Brahman) in addition to mere hearing (of the +sacred texts treating of Brahman) shows that reasoning also is to be +allowed its place, we reply that the passage must not deceitfully be +taken as enjoining bare independent ratiocination, but must be +understood to represent reasoning as a subordinate auxiliary of +intuitional knowledge. By reasoning of the latter type we may, for +instance, arrive at the following conclusions; that because the state of +dream and the waking state exclude each other the Self is not connected +with those states; that, as the soul in the state of deep sleep leaves +the phenomenal world behind and becomes one with that whose Self is pure +Being, it has for its Self pure Being apart from the phenomenal world; +that as the world springs from Brahman it cannot be separate from +Brahman, according to the principle of the non-difference of cause and +effect, &c.[270] The fallaciousness of mere reasoning will moreover be +demonstrated later on (II, 1, 11).--He[271], moreover, who merely on the +ground of the sacred tradition about an intelligent cause of the world +would assume this entire world to be of an intellectual nature would +find room for the other scriptural passage quoted above ('He became +knowledge and what is devoid of knowledge') which teaches a distinction +of intellect and non-intellect; for he could avail himself of the +doctrine of intellect being sometimes manifested and sometimes +non-manifested. His antagonist, on the other hand (i.e. the Sa@nkhya), +would not be able to make anything of the passage, for it distinctly +teaches that the highest cause constitutes the Self of the entire world. + +If, then, on account of difference of character that which is +intelligent cannot pass over into what is non-intelligent, that also +which is non-intelligent (i.e. in our case, the non-intelligent pradhana +of the Sa@nkhyas) cannot pass over into what is intelligent.--(So much +for argument's sake,) but apart from that, as the argument resting on +difference of character has already been refuted, we must assume an +intelligent cause of the world in agreement with Scripture. + +7. If (it is said that the effect is) non-existent (before its +origination); we do not allow that because it is a mere negation +(without an object). + +If Brahman, which is intelligent, pure, and devoid of qualities such as +sound, and so on, is supposed to be the cause of an effect which is of +an opposite nature, i.e. non-intelligent, impure, possessing the +qualities of sound, &c., it follows that the effect has to be considered +as non-existing before its actual origination. But this consequence +cannot be acceptable to you--the Vedantin--who maintain the doctrine of +the effect existing in the cause already. + +This objection of yours, we reply, is without any force, on account of +its being a mere negation. If you negative the existence of the effect +previous to its actual origination, your negation is a mere negation +without an object to be negatived. The negation (implied in +'non-existent') can certainly not have for its object the existence of +the effect previous to its origination, since the effect must be viewed +as 'existent,' through and in the Self of the cause, before its +origination as well as after it; for at the present moment also this +effect does not exist independently, apart from the cause; according to +such scriptural passages as, 'Whosoever looks for anything elsewhere +than in the Self is abandoned by everything' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 6). In +so far, on the other hand, as the effect exists through the Self of the +cause, its existence is the same before the actual beginning of the +effect (as after it).--But Brahman, which is devoid of qualities such as +sound, &c., is the cause of this world (possessing all those +qualities)!--True, but the effect with all its qualities does not exist +without the Self of the cause either now or before the actual beginning +(of the effect); hence it cannot be said that (according to our +doctrine) the effect is non-existing before its actual beginning.--This +point will be elucidated in detail in the section treating of the +non-difference of cause and effect. + +8. On account of such consequences at the time of reabsorption (the +doctrine maintained hitherto) is objectionable. + +The purvapakshin raises further objections.--If an effect which is +distinguished by the qualities of grossness, consisting of parts, +absence of intelligence, limitation, impurity, &c., is admitted to have +Brahman for its cause, it follows that at the time of reabsorption (of +the world into Brahman), the effect, by entering into the state of +non-division from its cause, inquinates the latter with its properties. +As therefore--on your doctrine--the cause (i.e. Brahman) as well as the +effect is, at the time of reabsorption, characterised by impurity and +similar qualities, the doctrine of the Upanishads, according to which an +omniscient Brahman is the cause of the world, cannot be upheld.--Another +objection to that doctrine is that in consequence of all distinctions +passing at the time of reabsorption into the state of non-distinction +there would be no special causes left at the time of a new beginning of +the world, and consequently the new world could not arise with all the +distinctions of enjoying souls, objects to be enjoyed and so on (which +are actually observed to exist).--A third objection is that, if we +assume the origin of a new world even after the annihilation of all +works, &c. (which are the causes of a new world arising) of the enjoying +souls which enter into the state of non-difference from the highest +Brahman, we are led to the conclusion that also those (souls) which have +obtained final release again appear in the new world.--If you finally +say, 'Well, let this world remain distinct from the highest Brahman even +at the time of reabsorption,' we reply that in that case a reabsorption +will not take place at all, and that, moreover, the effect's existing +separate from the cause is not possible.--For all these reasons the +Vedanta doctrine is objectionable. + +To this the next Sutra replies. + +9. Not so; as there are parallel instances. + +There is nothing objectionable in our system.--The objection that the +effect when being reabsorbed into its cause would inquinate the latter +with its qualities does not damage our position 'because there are +parallel instances,' i.e. because there are instances of effects not +inquinating with their qualities the causes into which they are +reabsorbed. Things, for instance, made of clay, such as pots, &c., which +in their state of separate existence are of various descriptions, do +not, when they are reabsorbed into their original matter (i.e. clay), +impart to the latter their individual qualities; nor do golden ornaments +impart their individual qualities to their elementary material, i.e. +gold, into which they may finally be reabsorbed. Nor does the fourfold +complex of organic beings which springs from earth impart its qualities +to the latter at the time of reabsorption. You (i.e. the purvapakshin), +on the other hand, have not any instances to quote in your favour. For +reabsorption could not take place at all if the effect when passing back +into its causal substance continued to subsist there with all its +individual properties. And[272] that in spite of the non-difference of +cause and effect the effect has its Self in the cause, but not the cause +in the effect, is a point which we shall render clear later on, under +II, 1, 14. + +Moreover, the objection that the effect would impart its qualities to +the cause at the time of reabsorption is formulated too narrowly +because, the identity of cause and effect being admitted, the same would +take place during the time of the subsistence (of the effect, previous +to its reabsorption). That the identity of cause and effect (of Brahman +and the world) holds good indiscriminately with regard to all time (not +only the time of reabsorption), is declared in many scriptural passages, +as, for instance, 'This everything is that Self' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 6); +'The Self is all this' (Ch. Up. VII, 25, 2); 'The immortal Brahman is +this before' (Mu. Up. II, 2, 11); 'All this is Brahman' (Ch. Up. III, +14, 1). + +With regard to the case referred to in the /S/ruti-passages we refute +the assertion of the cause being affected by the effect and its +qualities by showing that the latter are the mere fallacious +superimpositions of nescience, and the very same argument holds good +with reference to reabsorption also.--We can quote other examples in +favour of our doctrine. As the magician is not at any time affected by +the magical illusion produced by himself, because it is unreal, so the +highest Self is not affected by the world-illusion. And as one dreaming +person is not affected by the illusory visions of his dream because they +do not accompany the waking state and the state of dreamless sleep; so +the one permanent witness of the three states (viz. the highest Self +which is the one unchanging witness of the creation, subsistence, and +reabsorption of the world) is not touched by the mutually exclusive +three states. For that the highest Self appears in those three states, +is a mere illusion, not more substantial than the snake for which the +rope is mistaken in the twilight. With reference to this point teachers +knowing the true tradition of the Vedanta have made the following +declaration, 'When the individual soul which is held in the bonds of +slumber by the beginningless Maya awakes, then it knows the eternal, +sleepless, dreamless non-duality' (Gau/d/ap. Kar. I, 16). + +So far we have shown that--on our doctrine--there is no danger of the +cause being affected at the time of reabsorption by the qualities of the +effect, such as grossness and the like.--With regard to the second +objection, viz. that if we assume all distinctions to pass (at the time +of reabsorption) into the state of non-distinction there would be no +special reason for the origin of a new world affected with distinctions, +we likewise refer to the 'existence of parallel instances.' For the case +is parallel to that of deep sleep and trance. In those states also the +soul enters into an essential condition of non-distinction; +nevertheless, wrong knowledge being not yet finally overcome, the old +state of distinction re-establishes itself as soon as the soul awakes +from its sleep or trance. Compare the scriptural passage, 'All these +creatures when they have become merged in the True, know not that they +are merged in the True. Whatever these creatures are here, whether a +lion, or a wolf, or a boar, or a worm, or a midge, or a gnat, or a +mosquito, that they become again' (Ch. Up. VI, 9, 2; 3) For just as +during the subsistence of the world the phenomenon of multifarious +distinct existence, based on wrong knowledge, proceeds unimpeded like +the vision of a dream, although there is only one highest Self devoid of +all distinction; so, we conclude, there remains, even after +reabsorption, the power of distinction (potential distinction) founded +on wrong knowledge.--Herewith the objection that--according to our +doctrine--even the finally released souls would be born again is already +disposed of. They will not be born again because in their case wrong +knowledge has been entirely discarded by perfect knowledge.--The last +alternative finally (which the purvapakshin had represented as open to +the Vedantin), viz. that even at the time of reabsorption the world +should remain distinct from Brahman, precludes itself because it is not +admitted by the Vedantins themselves.--Hence the system founded on the +Upanishads is in every way unobjectionable. + +10. And because the objections (raised by the Sa@nkhya against the +Vedanta doctrine) apply to his view also. + +The doctrine of our opponent is liable to the very same objections which +he urges against us, viz. in the following manner.--The objection that +this world cannot have sprung from Brahman on account of its difference +of character applies no less to the doctrine of the pradhana being the +cause of the world; for that doctrine also assumes that from a pradhana +devoid of sound and other qualities a world is produced which possesses +those very qualities. The beginning of an effect different in character +being thus admitted, the Sa@nkhya is equally driven to the doctrine that +before the actual beginning the effect was non-existent. And, moreover, +it being admitted (by the Sa@nkhya also) that at the time of +reabsorption the effect passes back into the state of non-distinction +from the cause, the case of the Sa@nkhya here also is the same as +ours.--And, further, if (as the Sa@nkhya also must admit) at the time of +reabsorption the differences of all the special effects are obliterated +and pass into a state of general non-distinction, the special fixed +conditions, which previous to reabsorption were the causes of the +different worldly existence of each soul, can, at the time of a new +creation, no longer be determined, there being no cause for them; and if +you assume them to be determined without a cause, you are driven to the +admission that even the released souls have to re-enter a state of +bondage, there being equal absence of a cause (in the case of the +released and the non-released souls). And if you try to avoid this +conclusion by assuming that at the time of reabsorption some individual +differences pass into the state of non-distinction, others not, we reply +that in that case the latter could not be considered as effects of the +pradhana[273].--It thus appears that all those difficulties (raised by +the Sa@nkhya) apply to both views, and cannot therefore be urged against +either only. But as either of the two doctrines must necessarily be +accepted, we are strengthened--by the outcome of the above +discussion--in the opinion that the alleged difficulties are no real +difficulties[274]. + +11. If it be said that, in consequence of the ill-foundedness of +reasoning, we must frame our conclusions otherwise; (we reply that) thus +also there would result non-release. + +In matters to be known from Scripture mere reasoning is not to be relied +on for the following reason also. As the thoughts of man are altogether +unfettered, reasoning which disregards the holy texts and rests on +individual opinion only has no proper foundation. We see how arguments, +which some clever men had excogitated with great pains, are shown, by +people still more ingenious, to be fallacious, and how the arguments of +the latter again are refuted in their turn by other men; so that, on +account of the diversity of men's opinions, it is impossible to accept +mere reasoning as having a sure foundation. Nor can we get over this +difficulty by accepting as well-founded the reasoning of some person of +recognised mental eminence, may he now be Kapila or anybody else; since +we observe that even men of the most undoubted mental eminence, such as +Kapila, Ka/n/ada, and other founders of philosophical schools, have +contradicted one another. + +But (our adversary may here be supposed to say), we will fashion our +reasoning otherwise, i.e. in such a manner as not to lay it open to the +charge of having no proper foundation. You cannot, after all, maintain +that no reasoning whatever is well-founded; for you yourself can found +your assertion that reasoning has no foundation on reasoning only; your +assumption being that because some arguments are seen to be devoid of +foundation other arguments as belonging to the same class are likewise +devoid of foundation. Moreover, if all reasoning were unfounded, the +whole course of practical human life would have to come to an end. For +we see that men act, with a view to obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain +in the future time, on the assumption that the past, the present, and +the future are uniform.--Further, in the case of passages of Scripture +(apparently) contradicting each other, the ascertainment of the real +sense, which depends on a preliminary refutation of the apparent sense, +can be effected only by an accurate definition of the meaning of +sentences, and that involves a process of reasoning. Thus Manu also +expresses himself: 'Perception, inference, and the /s/astra according to +the various traditions, this triad is to be known well by one desiring +clearness in regard to right.--He who applies reasoning not contradicted +by the Veda to the Veda and the (Sm/ri/ti) doctrine of law, he, and no +other, knows the law' (Manu Sm/ri/ti XII, 105, 106). And that 'want of +foundation', to which you object, really constitutes the beauty of +reasoning, because it enables us to arrive at unobjectionable arguments +by means of the previous refutation of objectionable arguments[275]. (No +fear that because the purvapaksha is ill-founded the siddhanta should be +ill-founded too;) for there is no valid reason to maintain that a man +must be stupid because his elder brother was stupid.--For all these +reasons the want of foundation cannot be used as an argument against +reasoning. + +Against this argumentation we remark that thus also there results 'want +of release.' For although with regard to some things reasoning is +observed to be well founded, with regard to the matter in hand there +will result 'want of release,' viz. of the reasoning from this very +fault of ill-foundedness. The true nature of the cause of the world on +which final emancipation depends cannot, on account of its excessive +abstruseness, even be thought of without the help of the holy texts; +for, as already remarked, it cannot become the object of perception, +because it does not possess qualities such as form and the like, and as +it is devoid of characteristic signs, it does not lend itself to +inference and the other means of right knowledge.--Or else (if we adopt +another explanation of the word 'avimoksha') all those who teach the +final release of the soul are agreed that it results from perfect +knowledge. Perfect knowledge has the characteristic mark of uniformity, +because it depends on accomplished actually existing things; for +whatever thing is permanently of one and the same nature is acknowledged +to be a true or real thing, and knowledge conversant about such is +called perfect knowledge; as, for instance, the knowledge embodied in +the proposition, 'fire is hot.' Now, it is clear that in the case of +perfect knowledge a mutual conflict of men's opinions is impossible. But +that cognitions founded on reasoning do conflict is generally known; for +we continually observe that what one logician endeavours to establish as +perfect knowledge is demolished by another, who, in his turn, is treated +alike by a third. How therefore can knowledge, which is founded on +reasoning, and whose object is not something permanently uniform, be +perfect knowledge?--Nor can it be said that he who maintains the +pradhana to be the cause of the world (i.e. the Sa@nkhya) is the best of +all reasoners, and accepted as such by all philosophers; which would +enable us to accept his opinion as perfect knowledge.--Nor can we +collect at a given moment and on a given spot all the logicians of the +past, present, and future time, so as to settle (by their agreement) +that their opinion regarding some uniform object is to be considered +perfect knowledge. The Veda, on the other hand, which is eternal and the +source of knowledge, may be allowed to have for its object firmly +established things, and hence the perfection of that knowledge which is +founded on the Veda cannot be denied by any of the logicians of the +past, present, or future. We have thus established the perfection of +this our knowledge which reposes on the Upanishads, and as apart from it +perfect knowledge is impossible, its disregard would lead to 'absence of +final release' of the transmigrating souls. Our final position therefore +is, that on the ground of Scripture and of reasoning subordinate to +Scripture, the intelligent Brahman is to be considered the cause and +substance of the world. + +12. Thereby those (theories) also which are not accepted by competent +persons are explained. + +Hitherto we have refuted those objections against the Vedanta-texts +which, based on reasoning, take their stand on the doctrine of the +pradhana being the cause of the world; (which doctrine deserves to be +refuted first), because it stands near to our Vedic system, is supported +by somewhat weighty arguments, and has, to a certain extent, been +adopted by some authorities who follow the Veda.--But now some +dull-witted persons might think that another objection founded on +reasoning might be raised against the Vedanta, viz. on the ground of the +atomic doctrine. The Sutrakara, therefore, extends to the latter +objection the refutation of the former, considering that by the conquest +of the most dangerous adversary the conquest of the minor enemies is +already virtually accomplished. Other doctrines, as, for instance, the +atomic doctrine of which no part has been accepted by either Manu or +Vyasa or other authorities, are to be considered as 'explained,' i.e. +refuted by the same reasons which enabled us to dispose of the pradhana +doctrine. As the reasons on which the refutation hinges are the same, +there is no room for further doubt. Such common arguments are the +impotence of reasoning to fathom the depth of the transcendental cause +of the world, the ill-foundedness of mere Reasoning, the impossibility +of final release, even in case of the conclusions being shaped +'otherwise' (see the preceding Sutra), the conflict of Scripture and +Reasoning, and so on. + +13. If it be said that from the circumstance of (the objects of +enjoyment) passing over into the enjoyer (and vice versa) there would +result non-distinction (of the two); we reply that (such distinction) +may exist (nevertheless), as ordinary experience shows. + +Another objection, based on reasoning, is raised against the doctrine of +Brahman being the cause of the world.--Although Scripture is +authoritative with regard to its own special subject-matter (as, for +instance, the causality of Brahman), still it may have to be taken in a +secondary sense in those cases where the subject-matter is taken out of +its grasp by other means of right knowledge; just as mantras and +arthavadas have occasionally to be explained in a secondary sense (when +the primary, literal sense is rendered impossible by other means of +right knowledge[276]). Analogously reasoning is to be considered invalid +outside its legitimate sphere; so, for instance, in the case of +religious duty and its opposite[277].--Hence Scripture cannot be +acknowledged to refute what is settled by other means of right +knowledge. And if you ask, 'Where does Scripture oppose itself to what +is thus established?' we give you the following instance. The +distinction of enjoyers and objects of enjoyment is well known from +ordinary experience, the enjoyers being intelligent, embodied souls, +while sound and the like are the objects of enjoyment. Devadatta, for +instance, is an enjoyer, the dish (which he eats) an object of +enjoyment. The distinction of the two would be reduced to non-existence +if the enjoyer passed over into the object of enjoyment, and vice versa. +Now this passing over of one thing into another would actually result +from the doctrine of the world being non-different from Brahman. But the +sublation of a well-established distinction is objectionable, not only +with regard to the present time when that distinction is observed to +exist, but also with regard to the past and the future, for which it is +inferred. The doctrine of Brahman's causality must therefore be +abandoned, as it would lead to the sublation of the well-established +distinction of enjoyers and objects of enjoyment. + +To the preceding objection we reply, 'It may exist as in ordinary +experience.' Even on our philosophic view the distinction may exist, as +ordinary experience furnishes us with analogous instances. We see, for +instance, that waves, foam, bubbles, and other modifications of the sea, +although they really are not different from the sea-water, exist, +sometimes in the state of mutual separation, sometimes in the state of +conjunction, &c. From the fact of their being non-different from the +sea-water, it does not follow that they pass over into each other; and, +again, although they do not pass over into each other, still they are +not different from the sea. So it is in the case under discussion also. +The enjoyers and the objects of enjoyment do not pass over into each +other, and yet they are not different from the highest Brahman. And +although the enjoyer is not really an effect of Brahman, since the +unmodified creator himself, in so far as he enters into the effect, is +called the enjoyer (according to the passage, 'Having created he entered +into it,' Taitt. Up. II, 6), still after Brahman has entered into its +effects it passes into a state of distinction, in consequence of the +effect acting as a limiting adjunct; just as the universal ether is +divided by its contact with jars and other limiting adjuncts. The +conclusion is, that the distinction of enjoyers and objects of enjoyment +is possible, although both are non-different from Brahman, their highest +cause, as the analogous instance of the sea and its waves demonstrates. + +14. The non-difference of them (i.e. of cause and effect) results from +such terms as 'origin' and the like. + +The[278] refutation contained in the preceding Sutra was set forth on +the condition of the practical distinction of enjoyers and objects of +enjoyment being acknowledged. In reality, however, that distinction does +not exist because there is understood to be non-difference (identity) of +cause and effect. The effect is this manifold world consisting of ether +and so on; the cause is the highest Brahman. Of the effect it is +understood that in reality it is non-different from the cause, i.e. has +no existence apart from the cause.--How so?--'On account of the +scriptural word "origin" and others.' The word 'origin' is used in +connexion with a simile, in a passage undertaking to show how through +the knowledge of one thing everthing is known; viz. Ch. Up. VI, 1, 4, +'As, my dear, by one clod of clay all that is made of clay is known, the +modification (i.e. the effect; the thing made of clay) being a name +merely which has its origin in speech, while the truth is that it is +clay merely; thus,' &c.--The meaning of this passage is that, if there +is known a lump of clay which really and truly is nothing but clay[279], +there are known thereby likewise all things made of clay, such as jars, +dishes, pails, and so on, all of which agree in having clay for their +true nature. For these modifications or effects are names only, exist +through or originate from speech only, while in reality there exists no +such thing as a modification. In so far as they are names (individual +effects distinguished by names) they are untrue; in so far as they are +clay they are true.--This parallel instance is given with reference to +Brahman; applying the phrase 'having its origin in speech' to the case +illustrated by the instance quoted we understand that the entire body of +effects has no existence apart from Brahman.--Later on again the text, +after having declared that fire, water, and earth are the effects of +Brahman, maintains that the effects of these three elements have no +existence apart from them, 'Thus has vanished the specific nature of +burning fire, the modification being a mere name which has its origin in +speech, while only the three colours are what is true' (Ch. Up. VI, 4, +1).--Other sacred texts also whose purport it is to intimate the unity +of the Self are to be quoted here, in accordance with the 'and others' +of the Sutra. Such texts are, 'In that all this has its Self; it is the +True, it is the Self, thou art that' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 7); 'This +everything, all is that Self' (/Bri/. Up. II, 4, 6); 'Brahman alone is +all this' (Mu. Up. II, 2, 11); 'The Self is all this' (Ch. Up. VII, 25, +2); 'There is in it no diversity' (Bri. Up. IV, 4, 25).--On any other +assumption it would not be possible to maintain that by the knowledge of +one thing everything becomes known (as the text quoted above declares). +We therefore must adopt the following view. In the same way as those +parts of ethereal space which are limited by jars and waterpots are not +really different from the universal ethereal space, and as the water of +a mirage is not really different from the surface of the salty +steppe--for the nature of that water is that it is seen in one moment +and has vanished in the next, and moreover, it is not to be perceived by +its own nature (i.e. apart from the surface of the desert[280])--; so +this manifold world with its objects of enjoyment, enjoyers and so on +has no existence apart from Brahman.--But--it might be objected--Brahman +has in itself elements of manifoldness. As the tree has many branches, +so Brahman possesses many powers and energies dependent on those powers. +Unity and manifoldness are therefore both true. Thus, a tree considered +in itself is one, but it is manifold if viewed as having branches; so +the sea in itself is one, but manifold as having waves and foam; so the +clay in itself is one, but manifold if viewed with regard to the jars +and dishes made of it. On this assumption the process of final release +resulting from right knowledge may be established in connexion with the +element of unity (in Brahman), while the two processes of common worldly +activity and of activity according to the Veda--which depend on the +karmaka/nd/a--may be established in connexion with the element of +manifoldness. And with this view the parallel instances of clay &c. +agree very well. + +This theory, we reply, is untenable because in the instance (quoted in +the Upanishad) the phrase 'as clay they are true' asserts the cause only +to be true while the phrase 'having its origin in speech' declares the +unreality of all effects. And with reference to the matter illustrated +by the instance given (viz. the highest cause, Brahman) we read, 'In +that all this has its Self;' and, again, 'That is true;' whereby it is +asserted that only the one highest cause is true. The following passage +again, 'That is the Self; thou art that, O /S/vetaketu!' teaches that +the embodied soul (the individual soul) also is Brahman. (And we must +note that) the passage distinctly teaches that the fact of the embodied +soul having its Self in Brahman is self-established, not to be +accomplished by endeavour. This doctrine of the individual soul having +its Self in Brahman, if once accepted as the doctrine of the Veda, does +away with the independent existence of the individual soul, just as the +idea of the rope does away with the idea of the snake (for which the +rope had been mistaken). And if the doctrine of the independent +existence of the individual soul has to be set aside, then the opinion +of the entire phenomenal world--which is based on the individual +soul--having an independent existence is likewise to be set aside. But +only for the establishment of the latter an element of manifoldness +would have to be assumed in Brahman, in addition to the element of +unity.--Scriptural passages also (such as, 'When the Self only is all +this, how should he see another?' B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 13) declare that for +him who sees that everything has its Self in Brahman the whole +phenomenal world with its actions, agents, and results of actions is +non-existent. Nor can it be said that this non-existence of the +phenomenal world is declared (by Scripture) to be limited to certain +states; for the passage 'Thou art that' shows that the general fact of +Brahman being the Self of all is not limited by any particular state. +Moreover, Scripture, showing by the instance of the thief (Ch. VI, 16) +that the false-minded is bound while the true-minded is released, +declares thereby that unity is the one true existence while manifoldness +is evolved out of wrong knowledge. For if both were true how could the +man who acquiesces in the reality of this phenomenal world be called +false-minded[281]? Another scriptural passage ('from death to death goes +he who perceives therein any diversity,' B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 19) declares +the same, by blaming those who perceive any distinction.--Moreover, on +the doctrine, which we are at present impugning, release cannot result +from knowledge, because the doctrine does not acknowledge that some kind +of wrong knowledge, to be removed by perfect knowledge, is the cause of +the phenomenal world. For how can the cognition of unity remove the +cognition of manifoldness if both are true? + +Other objections are started.--If we acquiesce in the doctrine of +absolute unity, the ordinary means of right knowledge, perception, &c., +become invalid because the absence of manifoldness deprives them of +their objects; just as the idea of a man becomes invalid after the right +idea of the post (which at first had been mistaken for a man) has +presented itself. Moreover, all the texts embodying injunctions and +prohibitions will lose their purport if the distinction on which their +validity depends does not really exist. And further, the entire body of +doctrine which refers to final release will collapse, if the distinction +of teacher and pupil on which it depends is not real. And if the +doctrine of release is untrue, how can we maintain the truth of the +absolute unity of the Self, which forms an item of that doctrine? + +These objections, we reply, do not damage our position because the +entire complex of phenomenal existence is considered as true as long as +the knowledge of Brahman being the Self of all has not arisen; just as +the phantoms of a dream are considered to be true until the sleeper +wakes. For as long as a person has not reached the true knowledge of the +unity of the Self, so long it does not enter his mind that the world of +effects with its means and objects of right knowledge and its results of +actions is untrue; he rather, in consequence of his ignorance, looks on +mere effects (such as body, offspring, wealth, &c.) as forming part of +and belonging to his Self, forgetful of Brahman being in reality the +Self of all. Hence, as long as true knowledge does not present itself, +there is no reason why the ordinary course of secular and religious +activity should not hold on undisturbed. The case is analogous to that +of a dreaming man who in his dream sees manifold things, and, up to the +moment of waking, is convinced that his ideas are produced by real +perception without suspecting the perception to be a merely apparent +one.--But how (to restate an objection raised above) can the +Vedanta-texts if untrue convey information about the true being of +Brahman? We certainly do not observe that a man bitten by a rope-snake +(i.e. a snake falsely imagined in a rope) dies, nor is the water +appearing in a mirage used for drinking or bathing[282].--This +objection, we reply, is without force (because as a matter of fact we do +see real effects to result from unreal causes), for we observe that +death sometimes takes place from imaginary venom, (when a man imagines +himself to have been bitten by a venomous snake,) and effects (of what +is perceived in a dream) such as the bite of a snake or bathing in a +river take place with regard to a dreaming person.--But, it will be +said, these effects themselves are unreal!--These effects themselves, we +reply, are unreal indeed; but not so the consciousness which the +dreaming person has of them. This consciousness is a real result; for it +is not sublated by the waking consciousness. The man who has risen from +sleep does indeed consider the effects perceived by him in his dream +such as being bitten by a snake, bathing in a river, &c. to be unreal, +but he does not on that account consider the consciousness he had of +them to be unreal likewise.--(We remark in passing that) by this fact of +the consciousness of the dreaming person not being sublated (by the +waking consciousness) the doctrine of the body being our true Self is to +be considered as refuted[283].--Scripture also (in the passage, 'If a +man who is engaged in some sacrifice undertaken for some special wish +sees in his dream a woman, he is to infer therefrom success in his +work') declares that by the unreal phantom of a dream a real result such +as prosperity may be obtained. And, again, another scriptural passage, +after having declared that from the observation of certain unfavourable +omens a man is to conclude that he will not live long, continues 'if +somebody sees in his dream a black man with black teeth and that man +kills him,' intimating thereby that by the unreal dream-phantom a real +fact, viz. death, is notified.--It is, moreover, known from the +experience of persons who carefully observe positive and negative +instances that such and such dreams are auspicious omens, others the +reverse. And (to quote another example that something true can result +from or be known through something untrue) we see that the knowledge of +the real sounds A. &c. is reached by means of the unreal written +letters. Moreover, the reasons which establish the unity of the Self are +altogether final, so that subsequently to them nothing more is required +for full satisfaction[284]. An injunction as, for instance, 'He is to +sacrifice' at once renders us desirous of knowing what is to be +effected, and by what means and in what manner it is to be effected; but +passages such as, 'Thou art that,' 'I am Brahman,' leave nothing to be +desired because the state of consciousness produced by them has for its +object the unity of the universal Self. For as long as something else +remains a desire is possible; but there is nothing else which could be +desired in addition to the absolute unity of Brahman. Nor can it be +maintained that such states of consciousness do not actually arise; for +scriptural passages such as, 'He understood what he said' (Ch. Up. VII, +18, 2), declare them to occur, and certain means are enjoined to bring +them about, such as the hearing (of the Veda from a teacher) and the +recital of the sacred texts. Nor, again, can such consciousness be +objected to on the ground either of uselessness or of erroneousness, +because, firstly, it is seen to have for its result the cessation of +ignorance, and because, secondly, there is no other kind of knowledge by +which it could be sublated. And that before the knowledge of the unity +of the Self has been reached the whole real-unreal course of ordinary +life, worldly as well as religious, goes on unimpeded, we have already +explained. When, however, final authority having intimated the unity of +the Self, the entire course of the world which was founded on the +previous distinction is sublated, then there is no longer any +opportunity for assuming a Brahman comprising in itself various +elements. + +But--it may be said--(that would not be a mere assumption, but) +Scripture itself, by quoting the parallel instances of clay and so on, +declares itself in favour of a Brahman capable of modification; for we +know from experience that clay and similar things do undergo +modifications.--This objection--we reply--is without force, because a +number of scriptural passages, by denying all modification of Brahman, +teach it to be absolutely changeless (ku/t/astha). Such passages are, +'This great unborn Self; undecaying, undying, immortal, fearless, is +indeed Brahman' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 25); 'That Self is to be described by +No, no' (B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 26); 'It is neither coarse nor fine' (B/ri/. +Up. III, 8, 8). For to the one Brahman the two qualities of being +subject to modification and of being free from it cannot both be +ascribed. And if you say, 'Why should they not be both predicated of +Brahman (the former during the time of the subsistence of the world, the +latter during the period of reabsorption) just as rest and motion may be +predicated (of one body at different times)?' we remark that the +qualification, 'absolutely changeless' (ku/t/astha), precludes this. For +the changeless Brahman cannot be the substratum of varying attributes. +And that, on account of the negation of all attributes, Brahman really +is eternal and changeless has already been demonstrated.--Moreover, +while the cognition of the unity of Brahman is the instrument of final +release, there is nothing to show that any independent result is +connected with the view of Brahman, by undergoing a modification, +passing over into the form of this world. Scripture expressly declares +that the knowledge of the changeless Brahman being the universal Self +leads to a result; for in the passage which begins, 'That Self is to be +described by No, no,' we read later on, 'O Janaka, you have indeed +reached fearlessness' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 2, 4). We have then[285] to accept +the following conclusion that, in the sections treating of Brahman, an +independent result belongs only to the knowledge of Brahman as devoid of +all attributes and distinctions, and that hence whatever is stated as +having no special fruit of its own--as, for instance, the passages about +Brahman modifying itself into the form of this world--is merely to be +applied as a means for the cognition of the absolute Brahman, but does +not bring about an independent result; according to the principle that +whatever has no result of its own, but is mentioned in connexion with +something else which has such a result, is subordinate to the +latter[286]. For to maintain that the result of the knowledge of Brahman +undergoing modifications would be that the Self (of him who knows that) +would undergo corresponding modifications[287] would be inappropriate, +as the state of filial release (which the soul obtains through the +knowledge of Brahman) is eternally unchanging. + +But, it is objected, he who maintains the nature of Brahman to be +changeless thereby contradicts the fundamental tenet according to which +the Lord is the cause of the world, since the doctrine of absolute unity +leaves no room for the distinction of a Ruler and something ruled.--This +objection we ward off by remarking that omniscience, &c. (i.e. those +qualities which belong to Brahman only in so far as it is related to a +world) depend on the evolution of the germinal principles called name +and form, whose essence is Nescience. The fundamental tenet which we +maintain (in accordance with such scriptural passages as, 'From that +Self sprang ether,' &c.; Taitt. Up. II, 1) is that the creation, +sustentation, and reabsorption of the world proceed from an omniscient, +omnipotent Lord, not from a non-intelligent pradhana or any other +principle. That tenet we have stated in I, 1, 4, and here we do not +teach anything contrary to it.--But how, the question may be asked, can +you make this last assertion while all the while you maintain the +absolute unity and non-duality of the Self?--Listen how. Belonging to +the Self, as it were, of the omniscient Lord, there are name and form, +the figments of Nescience, not to be defined either as being (i.e. +Brahman), nor as different from it[288], the germs of the entire expanse +of the phenomenal world, called in /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti the illusion +(maya), power (/s/akti), or nature (prak/ri/ti) of the omniscient Lord. +Different from them is the omniscient Lord himself, as we learn from +scriptural passages such as the following, 'He who is called ether is +the revealer of all forms and names; that within which these forms and +names are contained is Brahman' (Ch. Up. VIII, 14, 1); 'Let me evolve +names and forms' (Ch. Up. VI, 3, 2); 'He, the wise one, who having +divided all forms and given all names, sits speaking (with those names)' +(Taitt. Ar. III, 12, 7); 'He who makes the one seed manifold' (/S/ve. +Up. VI, l2).--Thus the Lord depends (as Lord) upon the limiting adjuncts +of name and form, the products of Nescience; just as the universal ether +depends (as limited ether, such as the ether of a jar, &c.) upon the +limiting adjuncts in the shape of jars, pots, &c. He (the Lord) stands +in the realm of the phenomenal in the relation of a ruler to the +so-called jivas (individual souls) or cognitional Selfs (vij/n/anatman), +which indeed are one with his own Self--just as the portions of ether +enclosed in jars and the like are one with the universal ether--but are +limited by aggregates of instruments of action (i.e. bodies) produced +from name and form, the presentations of Nescience. Hence the Lord's +being a Lord, his omniscience, his omnipotence, &c. all depend on the +limitation due to the adjuncts whose Self is Nescience; while in reality +none of these qualities belong to the Self whose true nature is cleared, +by right knowledge, from all adjuncts whatever. Thus Scripture also +says, 'Where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands +nothing else, that is the Infinite' (Ch. Up. VII, 24, 1); 'But when the +Self only has become all this, how should he see another?' (B/ri/. Up. +II, 4, 13.) In this manner the Vedanta-texts declare that for him who +has reached the state of truth and reality the whole apparent world does +not exist. The Bhagavadgita also ('The Lord is not the cause of actions, +or of the capacity of performing actions, or of the connexion of action +and fruit; all that proceeds according to its own nature. The Lord +receives no one's sin or merit. Knowledge is enveloped by Ignorance; +hence all creatures are deluded;' Bha. Gi. V, 14; 15) declares that in +reality the relation of Ruler and ruled does not exist. That, on the +other hand, all those distinctions are valid, as far as the phenomenal +world is concerned, Scripture as well as the Bhagavadgita states; +compare B/ri/. Up. IV, 4, 22, 'He is the Lord of all, the king of all +things, the protector of all things; he is a bank and boundary, so that +these worlds may not be confounded;' and Bha. Gi. XVIII, 61, 'The Lord, +O Arjuna, is seated in the region of the heart of all beings, turning +round all beings, (as though) mounted on a machine, by his delusion.' +The Sutrakara also asserts the non-difference of cause and effect only +with regard to the state of Reality; while he had, in the preceding +Sutra, where he looked to the phenomenal world, compared Brahman to the +ocean, &c., that comparison resting on the assumption of the world of +effects not yet having been refuted (i.e. seen to be unreal).--The view +of Brahman as undergoing modifications will, moreover, be of use in the +devout meditations on the qualified (sagu/n/a) Brahman. + +15. And because only on the existence (of the cause) (the effect) is +observed. + +For the following reason also the effect is non-different from the +cause, because only when the cause exists the effect is observed to +exist, not when it does not exist. For instance, only when the clay +exists the jar is observed to exist, and the cloth only when the threads +exist. That it is not a general rule that when one thing exists another +is also observed to exist, appears, for instance, from the fact, that a +horse which is other (different) from a cow is not observed to exist +only when a cow exists. Nor is the jar observed to exist only when the +potter exists; for in that case non-difference does not exist, although +the relation between the two is that of an operative cause and its +effect[289].--But--it may be objected--even in the case of things other +(i.e. non-identical) we find that the observation of one thing regularly +depends on the existence of another; smoke, for instance, is observed +only when fire exists.--We reply that this is untrue, because sometimes +smoke is observed even after the fire has been extinguished; as, for +instance, in the case of smoke being kept by herdsmen in jars.--Well, +then--the objector will say--let us add to smoke a certain qualification +enabling us to say that smoke of such and such a kind[290] does not +exist unless fire exists.--Even thus, we reply, your objection is not +valid, because we declare that the reason for assuming the +non-difference of cause and effect is the fact of the internal organ +(buddhi) being affected (impressed) by cause and effect jointly[291]. +And that does not take place in the case of fire and smoke.--Or else we +have to read (in the Sutra) 'bhavat,' and to translate, 'and on account +of the existence or observation.' The non-difference of cause and effect +results not only from Scripture but also from the existence of +perception. For the non-difference of the two is perceived, for +instance, in an aggregate of threads, where we do not perceive a thing +called 'cloth,' in addition to the threads, but merely threads running +lengthways and crossways. So again, in the threads we perceive finer +threads (the aggregate of which is identical with the grosser threads), +in them again finer threads, and so on. On the ground of this our +perception we conclude that the finest parts which we can perceive are +ultimately identical with their causes, viz. red, white, and black (the +colours of fire, water, and earth, according to Ch. Up. VI, 4); those, +again, with air, the latter with ether, and ether with Brahman, which is +one and without a second. That all means of proof lead back to Brahman +(as the ultimate cause of the world; not to pradhana, &c.), we have +already explained. + +16. And on account of that which is posterior (i.e. the effect) being +that which is. + +For the following reason also the effect is to be considered as +non-different (from the cause). That which is posterior in time, i.e. +the effect, is declared by Scripture to have, previous to its actual +beginning, its Being in the cause, by the Self of the cause merely. For +in passages like, 'In the beginning, my dear, this was that only which +is' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 3); and, 'Verily, in the beginning this was Self, +one only' (Ait. Ar. II, 4, 1, 1), the effect which is denoted by the +word 'this' appears in grammatical co-ordination with (the word +denoting) the cause (from which it appears that both inhere in the same +substratum). A thing, on the other hand, which does not exist in another +thing by the Self of the latter is not produced from that other thing; +for instance, oil is not produced from sand. Hence as there is +non-difference before the production (of the effect), we understand that +the effect even after having been produced continues to be non-different +from the cause. As the cause, i.e. Brahman, is in all time neither more +nor less than that which is, so the effect also, viz. the world, is in +all time only that which is. But that which is is one only; therefore +the effect is non-different from the cause. + +17. If it be said that on account of being denoted as that which is not +(the effect does) not (exist before it is actually produced); (we reply) +not so, (because the term 'that which is not' denotes) another quality +(merely); (as appears) from the complementary sentence. + +But, an objection will be raised, in some places Scripture speaks of the +effect before its production as that which is not; so, for instance, 'In +the beginning this was that only which is not' (Ch. Up. III, 19, 1); and +'Non-existent[292] indeed this was in the beginning' (Taitt. Up. II, 7). +Hence Being (sattvam) cannot be ascribed to the effect before its +production. + +This we deny. For by the Non-existence of the effect previous to its +production is not meant absolute Non-existence, but only a different +quality or state, viz. the state of name and form being unevolved, which +state is different from the state of name and form being evolved. With +reference to the latter state the effect is called, previous to its +production, non-existent although then also it existed identical with +its cause. We conclude this from the complementary passage, according to +the rule that the sense of a passage whose earlier part is of doubtful +meaning is determined by its complementary part. With reference to the +passage. 'In the beginning this was non-existent only,' we remark that +what is there denoted by the word 'Non-existing' is--in the +complementary passage, 'That became existent'--referred to by the word +'that,' and qualified as 'Existent.' + +The word 'was' would, moreover, not apply to the (absolutely) +Non-existing, which cannot be conceived as connected with prior or +posterior time.--Hence with reference to the other passage also, +'Non-existing indeed,' &c., the complementary part, 'That made itself +its Self,' shows, by the qualification which it contains, that absolute +Non-existence is not meant.--It follows from all this that the +designation of 'Non-existence' applied to the effect before its +production has reference to a different state of being merely. And as +those things which are distinguished by name and form are in ordinary +language called 'existent,' the term 'non-existent' is figuratively +applied to them to denote the state in which they were previously to +their differentiation. + +18. From reasoning and from another Vedic passage. + +That the effect exists before its origination and is non-different from +the cause, follows from reasoning as well as from a further scriptural +passage. + +We at first set forth the argumentation.--Ordinary experience teaches us +that those who wish to produce certain effects, such as curds, or +earthen jars, or golden ornaments, employ for their purpose certain +determined causal substances such as milk, clay, and gold; those who +wish to produce sour milk do not employ clay, nor do those who intend to +make jars employ milk and so on. But, according to that doctrine which +teaches that the effect is non-existent (before its actual production), +all this should be possible. For if before their actual origination all +effects are equally non-existent in any causal substance, why then +should curds be produced from milk only and not from clay also, and jars +from clay only and not from milk as well?--Let us then maintain, the +asatkaryavadin rejoins, that there is indeed an equal non-existence of +any effect in any cause, but that at the same time each causal substance +has a certain capacity reaching beyond itself (ati/s/aya) for some +particular effect only and not for other effects; that, for instance, +milk only, and not clay, has a certain capacity for curds; and clay +only, and not milk, an analogous capacity for jars.--What, we ask in +return, do you understand by that 'ati/s/aya?' If you understand by it +the antecedent condition of the effect (before its actual origination), +you abandon your doctrine that the effect does not exist in the cause, +and prove our doctrine according to which it does so exist. If, on the +other hand, you understand by the ati/s/aya a certain power of the cause +assumed to the end of accounting for the fact that only one determined +effect springs from the cause, you must admit that the power can +determine the particular effect only if it neither is other (than cause +and effect) nor non-existent; for if it were either, it would not be +different from anything else which is either non-existent or other than +cause and effect, (and how then should it alone be able to produce the +particular effect?) Hence it follows that that power is identical with +the Self of the cause, and that the effect is identical with the Self of +that power.--Moreover, as the ideas of cause and effect on the one hand +and of substance and qualities on the other hand are not separate ones, +as, for instance, the ideas of a horse and a buffalo, it follows that +the identity of the cause and the effect as well as of the substance and +its qualities has to be admitted. Let it then be assumed, the opponent +rejoins, that the cause and the effect, although really different, are +not apprehended as such, because they are connected by the so-called +samavaya connexion[293].--If, we reply, you assume the samavaya +connexion between cause and effect, you have either to admit that the +samavaya itself is joined by a certain connexion to the two terms which +are connected by samavaya, and then that connexion will again require a +new connexion (joining it to the two terms which it binds together), and +you will thus be compelled to postulate an infinite series of +connexions; or else you will have to maintain that the samavaya is not +joined by any connexion to the terms which it binds together, and from +that will result the dissolution of the bond which connects the two +terms of the samavaya relation[294].--Well then, the opponent rejoins, +let us assume that the samavaya connexion as itself being a connexion +may be connected with the terms which it joins without the help of any +further connexion.--Then, we reply, conjunction (sa/m/yoga) also must be +connected with the two terms which it joins without the help of the +samavaya connexion; for conjunction also is a kind of +connexion[295].--Moreover, as substances, qualities, and so on are +apprehended as standing in the relation of identity, the assumption of +the samavaya relation has really no purport. + +In what manner again do you--who maintain that the cause and the effect +are joined by the samavaya relation--assume a substance consisting of +parts which is an effect to abide in its causes, i.e. in the material +parts of which it consists? Does it abide in all the parts taken +together or in each particular part?--If you say that it abides in all +parts together, it follows that the whole as such cannot be perceived, +as it is impossible that all the parts should be in contact with the +organs of perception. (And let it not be objected that the whole may be +apprehended through some of the parts only), for manyness which abides +in all its substrates together (i.e. in all the many things), is not +apprehended so long as only some of those substrates are +apprehended.--Let it then be assumed that the whole abides in all the +parts by the mediation of intervening aggregates of parts[296].--In that +case, we reply, we should have to assume other parts in addition to the +primary originative parts of the whole, in order that by means of those +other parts the whole could abide in the primary parts in the manner +indicated by you. For we see (that one thing which abides in another +abides there by means of parts different from those of that other +thing), that the sword, for instance, pervades the sheath by means of +parts different from the parts of the sheath. But an assumption of that +kind would lead us into a regressus in infinitum, because in order to +explain how the whole abides in certain given parts we should always +have to assume further parts[297].--Well, then, let us maintain the +second alternative, viz. that the whole abides in each particular +part.--That also cannot be admitted; for if the whole is present in one +part it cannot be present in other parts also; not any more than +Devadatta can be present in /S/rughna and in Pa/t/aliputra on one and +the same day. If the whole were present in more than one part, several +wholes would result, comparable to Devadatta and Yaj/n/adatta, who, as +being two different persons, may live one of them at /S/rughna and the +other at Pa/t/aliputra.--If the opponent should rejoin that the whole +may be fully present in each part, just as the generic character of the +cow is fully present in each individual cow; we point out that the +generic attributes of the cow are visibly perceived in each individual +cow, but that the whole is not thus perceived in each particular part. +If the whole were fully present in each part, the consequence would be +that the whole would produce its effects indifferently with any of its +parts; a cow, for instance, would give milk from her horns or her tail. +But such things are not seen to take place. + +We proceed to consider some further arguments opposed to the doctrine +that the effect does not exist in the cause.--That doctrine involves the +conclusion that the actual origination of an effect is without an agent +and thus devoid of substantial being. For origination is an action, and +as such requires an agent[298], just as the action of walking does. To +speak of an action without an agent would be a contradiction. But if you +deny the pre-existence of the effect in the cause, it would have to be +assumed that whenever the origination of a jar, for instance, is spoken +of the agent is not the jar (which before its origination did not exist) +but something else, and again that when the origination of the two +halves of the jar is spoken of the agent is not the two halves but +something else. From this it would follow that the sentence, 'the jar is +originated' means as much as 'the potter and the other (operative) +causes are originated[299].' But as a matter of fact the former sentence +is never understood to mean the latter; and it is, moreover, known that +at the time when the jar originates, the potter, &c. are already in +existence.--Let us then say, the opponent resumes, that origination is +the connexion of the effect with the existence of its cause and its +obtaining existence as a Self.--How, we ask in reply, can something +which has not yet obtained existence enter into connexion with something +else? A connexion is possible of two existing things only, not of one +existing and one non-existing thing or of two non-existing things. To +something non-existing which on that account is indefinable, it is +moreover not possible to assign a limit as the opponent does when +maintaining that the effect is non-existing before its origination; for +experience teaches us that existing things only such as fields and +houses have limits, but not non-existing things. If somebody should use, +for instance, a phrase such as the following one, 'The son of a barren +woman was king previously to the coronation of Pur/n/avarman' the +declaration of a limit in time implied in that phrase does not in +reality determine that the son of the barren woman, i.e. a mere +non-entity, either was or is or will be king. If the son of a barren +woman could become an existing thing subsequently to the activity of +some causal agent, in that case it would be possible also that the +non-existing effect should be something existing, subsequently to the +activity of some causal agent. But we know that the one thing can take +place no more than the other thing; the non-existing effect and the son +of the barren woman are both equally non-entities and can never +be.--But, the asatkaryavadin here objects, from your doctrine there +follows the result that the activity of causal agents is altogether +purposeless. For if the effect were lying already fully accomplished in +the cause and were non-different from it, nobody would endeavour to +bring it about, no more than anybody endeavours to bring about the cause +which is already fully accomplished previously to all endeavour. But as +a matter of fact causal agents do endeavour to bring about effects, and +it is in order not to have to condemn their efforts as altogether +useless that we assume the non-existence of the effect previously to its +origination.--Your objection is refuted, we reply, by the consideration +that the endeavour of the causal agent may be looked upon as having a +purpose in so far as it arranges the causal substance in the form of the +effect. That, however, even the form of the effect (is not something +previously non-existing, but) belongs to the Self of the cause already +because what is devoid of Selfhood cannot be begun at all, we have +already shown above.--Nor does a substance become another substance +merely by appearing under a different aspect. Devadatta may at one time +be seen with his arms and legs closely drawn up to his body, and another +time with his arms and legs stretched out, and yet he remains the same +substantial being, for he is recognised as such. Thus the persons also +by whom we are surrounded, such as fathers, mothers, brothers, &c., +remain the same, although we see them in continually changing states and +attitudes; for they are always recognised as fathers, mothers, brothers, +and so on. If our opponent objects to this last illustrative example on +the ground that fathers, mothers, and so on remain the same substantial +beings, because the different states in which they appear are not +separated from each other by birth or death, while the effect, for +instance a jar, appears only after the cause, for instance the clay, has +undergone destruction as it were (so that the effect may be looked upon +as something altogether different from the cause); we rebut this +objection by remarking that causal substances also such as milk, for +instance, are perceived to exist even after they have entered into the +condition of effects such as curds and the like (so that we have no +right to say that the cause undergoes destruction). And even in those +cases where the continued existence of the cause is not perceived, as, +for instance, in the case of seeds of the fig-tree from which there +spring sprouts and trees, the term 'birth' (when applied to the sprout) +only means that the causal substance, viz. the seed, becomes visible by +becoming a sprout through the continual accretion of similar particles +of matter; and the term 'death' only means that, through the secession +of those particles, the cause again passes beyond the sphere of +visibility. Nor can it be said that from such separation by birth and +death as described just now it follows that the non-existing becomes +existing, and the existing non-existing; for if that were so, it would +also follow that the unborn child in the mother's womb and the new-born +babe stretched out on the bed are altogether different beings. + +It would further follow that a man is not the same person in childhood, +manhood, and old age, and that terms such as father and the like are +illegitimately used.--The preceding arguments may also be used to refute +the (Bauddha doctrine) of all existence being momentary only[300]. + +The doctrine that the effect is non-existent previously to its actual +origination, moreover, leads to the conclusion that the activity of the +causal agent has no object; for what does not exist cannot possibly be +an object; not any more than the ether can be cleft by swords and other +weapons for striking or cutting. The object can certainly not be the +inherent cause; for that would lead to the erroneous conclusion that +from the activity of the causal agent, which has for its object the +inherent cause, there results something else (viz. the effect). And if +(in order to preclude this erroneous conclusion) the opponent should say +that the effect is (not something different from the cause, but) a +certain relative power (ati/s/aya) of the inherent cause; he thereby +would simply concede our doctrine, according to which the effect exists +in the cause already. + +We maintain, therefore, as our final conclusion, that milk and other +substances are called effects when they are in the state of curds and so +on, and that it is impossible, even within hundreds of years, ever to +bring about an effect which is different from its cause. The fundamental +cause of all appears in the form of this and that effect, up to the last +effect of all, just as an actor appears in various robes and costumes, +and thereby becomes the basis for all the current notions and terms +concerning the phenomenal world. + +The conclusion here established, on the ground of reasoning, viz. that +the effect exists already before its origination, and is non-different +from its cause, results also from a different scriptural passage. As +under the preceding Sutra a Vedic passage was instanced which speaks of +the non-existing, the different passage referred to in the present Sutra +is the one (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 1) which refers to that which is. That +passage begins, 'Being only was this in the beginning, one without a +second,' refers, thereupon, to the doctrine of the Non-existent being +the cause of the world ('Others say, Non-being was this in the +beginning'), raises an objection against that doctrine ('How could that +which is be born of that which is not?'), and, finally, reaffirms the +view first set forth, 'Only Being was this in the beginning.' The +circumstance that in this passage the effect, which is denoted by the +word 'this,' is by Scripture, with reference to the time previous to its +origination, coordinated with the cause denoted by the term 'Being,' +proves that the effect exists in--and is non-different from--the cause. +If it were before its origination non-existing and after it inhered in +its cause by samavaya, it would be something different from the cause, +and that would virtually imply an abandonment of the promise made in the +passage, 'That instruction by which we hear what is not heard,' &c. (VI, +1, 3). The latter assertion is ratified, on the other hand, through the +comprehension that the effect exists in--and is not different from-the +cause. + +19. And like a piece of cloth. + +As of a folded piece of cloth we do not know clearly whether it is a +piece of cloth or some other thing, while on its being unfolded it +becomes manifest that the folded thing was a piece of cloth; and as, so +long as it is folded, we perhaps know that it is a piece of cloth but +not of what definite length and width it is, while on its being unfolded +we know these particulars, and at the same time that the cloth is not +different from the folded object; in the same way an effect, such as a +piece of cloth, is non-manifest as long as it exists in its causes, i.e. +the threads, &c. merely, while it becomes manifest and is clearly +apprehended in consequence of the operations of shuttle, loom, weaver, +and so on.--Applying this instance of the piece of cloth, first folded +and then unfolded, to the general case of cause and effect, we conclude +that the latter is non-different from the former. + +20. And as in the case of the different vital airs. + +It is a matter of observation that when the operations of the different +kinds of vital air--such as pra/n/a the ascending vital air, apana the +descending vital air, &c.--are suspended, in consequence of the breath +being held so that they exist in their causes merely, the only effect +which continues to be accomplished is life, while all other effects, +such as the bending and stretching of the limbs and so on, are stopped. +When, thereupon, the vital airs again begin to act, those other effects +also are brought about, in addition to mere life.--Nor must the vital +airs, on account of their being divided into classes, be considered as +something else than vital air; for wind (air) constitutes their common +character. Thus (i.e. in the manner illustrated by the instance of the +vital airs) the non-difference of the effect from the cause is to be +conceived.--As, therefore, the whole world is an effect of Brahman and +non-different from it, the promise held out in the scriptural passage +that 'What is not heard is heard, what is not perceived is perceived, +what is not known is known' (Ch. Up. VI, 1, 3) is fulfilled[301]. + +21. On account of the other (i.e. the individual soul) being designated +(as non-different from Brahman) there would attach (to Brahman) various +faults, as, for instance, not doing what is beneficial. + +Another objection is raised against the doctrine of an intelligent cause +of the world.--If that doctrine is accepted, certain faults, as, for +instance, doing what is not beneficial, will attach (to the intelligent +cause, i.e. Brahman), 'on account of the other being designated.' For +Scripture declares the other, i.e. the embodied soul, to be one with +Brahman, as is shown by the passage, 'That is the Self; that art thou, O +/S/vetaketu!' (Ch. Up. VI, 8, 7.)--Or else (if we interpret 'the other' +of the Sutra in a different way) Scripture declares the other, i.e. +Brahman, to be the Self of the embodied soul. For the passage, 'Having +created that he entered into it,' declares the creator, i.e. the +unmodified Brahman, to constitute the Self of the embodied soul, in +consequence of his entering into his products. The following passage +also, 'Entering (into them) with this living Self I will evolve names +and forms' (Ch. Up. VI, 3, 2), in which the highest divinity designates +the living (soul) by the word 'Self,' shows that the embodied Self is +not different from Brahman. Therefore the creative power of Brahman +belongs to the embodied Self also, and the latter, being thus an +independent agent, might be expected to produce only what is beneficial +to itself, and not things of a contrary nature, such as birth, death, +old age, disease, and whatever may be the other meshes of the net of +suffering. For we know that no free person will build a prison for +himself, and take up his abode in it. Nor would a being, itself +absolutely stainless, look on this altogether unclean body as forming +part of its Self. It would, moreover, free itself, according to its +liking, of the consequences of those of its former actions which result +in pain, and would enjoy the consequences of those actions only which +are rewarded by pleasure. Further, it would remember that it had created +this manifold world; for every person who has produced some clearly +appearing effect remembers that he has been the cause of it. And as the +magician easily retracts, whenever he likes, the magical illusion which +he had emitted, so the embodied soul also would be able to reabsorb this +world into itself. The fact is, however, that the embodied soul cannot +reabsorb its own body even. As we therefore see that 'what would be +beneficial is not done,' the hypothesis of the world having proceeded +from an intelligent cause is unacceptable. + +22. But the separate (Brahman, i.e. the Brahman separate from the +individual souls) (is the creator); (the existence of which separate +Brahman we learn) from the declaration of difference. + +The word 'but' discards the purvapaksha.--We rather declare that that +omniscient, omnipotent Brahman, whose essence is eternal pure cognition +and freedom, and which is additional to, i.e. different from the +embodied Self, is the creative principle of the world. The faults +specified above, such as doing what is not beneficial, and the like, do +not attach to that Brahman; for as eternal freedom is its characteristic +nature, there is nothing either beneficial to be done by it or +non-beneficial to be avoided by it. Nor is there any impediment to its +knowledge and power; for it is omniscient and omnipotent. The embodied +Self, on the other hand, is of a different nature, and to it the +mentioned faults adhere. But then we do not declare it to be the creator +of the world, on account of 'the declaration of difference.' For +scriptural passages (such as, 'Verily, the Self is to be seen, to be +heard, to be perceived, to be marked,' B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5; 'The Self we +must search out, we must try to understand,' Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1; 'Then +he becomes united with the True,' Ch. Up. VI, 8, 1; 'This embodied Self +mounted by the intelligent Self,' B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 35) declare +differences founded on the relations of agent, object, and so on, and +thereby show Brahman to be different from the individual soul.--And if +it be objected that there are other passages declaratory of +non-difference (for instance, 'That art thou'), and that difference and +non-difference cannot co-exist because contradictory, we reply that the +possibility of the co-existence of the two is shown by the parallel +instance of the universal ether and the ether limited by a +jar.--Moreover, as soon as, in consequence of the declaration of +non-difference contained in such passages as 'that art thou,' the +consciousness of non-difference arises in us, the transmigratory state +of the individual soul and the creative quality of Brahman vanish at +once, the whole phenomenon of plurality, which springs from wrong +knowledge, being sublated by perfect knowledge, and what becomes then of +the creation and the faults of not doing what is beneficial, and the +like? For that this entire apparent world, in which good and evil +actions are done, &c., is a mere illusion, owing to the +non-discrimination of (the Self's) limiting adjuncts, viz. a body, and +so on, which spring from name and form the presentations of Nescience, +and does in reality not exist at all, we have explained more than once. +The illusion is analogous to the mistaken notion we entertain as to the +dying, being born, being hurt, &c. of ourselves (our Selfs; while in +reality the body only dies, is born, &c.). And with regard to the state +in which the appearance of plurality is not yet sublated, it follows +from passages declaratory of such difference (as, for instance, 'That we +must search for,' &c.) that Brahman is superior to the individual soul; +whereby the possibility of faults adhering to it is excluded. + +23. And because the case is analogous to that of stones, &c. (the +objections raised) cannot be established. + +As among minerals, which are all mere modifications of earth, +nevertheless great variety is observed, some being precious gems, such +as diamonds, lapis lazuli, &c., others, such as crystals and the like, +being of medium value, and others again stones only fit to be flung at +dogs or crows; and as from seeds which are placed in one and the same +ground various plants are seen to spring, such as sandalwood and +cucumbers, which show the greatest difference in their leaves, blossoms, +fruits, fragrancy, juice, &c.; and as one and the same food produces +various effects, such as blood and hair; so the one Brahman also may +contain in itself the distinction of the individual Selfs and the +highest Self, and may produce various effects. Hence the objections +imagined by others (against the doctrine of Brahman being the cause of +the world) cannot be maintained.--Further[302] arguments are furnished +by the fact of all effect having, as Scripture declares, their origin in +speech only, and by the analogous instance of the variety of dream +phantoms (while the dreaming person remains one). + +24. If you object on the ground of the observation of the employment (of +instruments); (we say), No; because as milk (transforms itself, so +Brahman does). + +Your assertion that the intelligent Brahman alone, without a second, is +the cause of the world cannot be maintained, on account of the +observation of employment (of instruments). For in ordinary life we see +that potters, weavers, and other handicraftsmen produce jars, cloth, and +the like, after having put themselves in possession of the means thereto +by providing themselves with various implements, such as clay, staffs, +wheels, string, &c.; Brahman, on the other hand, you conceive to be +without any help; how then can it act as a creator without providing +itself with instruments to work with? We therefore maintain that Brahman +is not the cause of the world. + +This objection is not valid, because causation is possible in +consequence of a peculiar constitution of the causal substance, as in +the case of milk. Just as milk and water turn into curds and ice +respectively, without any extraneous means, so it is in the case of +Brahman also. And if you object to this analogy for the reason that +milk, in order to turn into curds, does require an extraneous agent, +viz. heat, we reply that milk by itself also undergoes a certain amount +of definite change, and that its turning is merely accelerated by heat. +If milk did not possess that capability of itself, heat could not compel +it to turn; for we see that air or ether, for instance, is not compelled +by the action of heat to turn into sour milk. By the co-operation of +auxiliary means the milk's capability of turning into sour milk is +merely completed. The absolutely complete power of Brahman, on the other +hand, does not require to be supplemented by any extraneous help. Thus +Scripture also declares, 'There is no effect and no instrument known of +him, no one is seen like unto him or better; his high power is revealed +as manifold, as inherent, acting as force and knowledge' (/S/ve. Up. VI, +8). Therefore Brahman, although one only, is, owing to its manifold +powers, able to transform itself into manifold effects; just as milk is. + +25. And (the case of Brahman is) like that of gods and other beings in +ordinary experience. + +Well, let it be admitted that milk and other non-intelligent things have +the power of turning themselves into sour milk, &c. without any +extraneous means, since it is thus observed. But we observe, on the +other hand, that intelligent agents, as, for instance, potters, proceed +to their several work only after having provided themselves with a +complete set of instruments. How then can it be supposed that Brahman, +which is likewise of an intelligent nature, should proceed without any +auxiliary? + +We reply, 'Like gods and others.' As gods, fathers, /ri/shis, and other +beings of great power, who are all of intelligent nature, are seen to +create many and various objects, such as palaces, chariots, &c., without +availing themselves of any extraneous means, by their mere intention, +which is effective in consequence of those beings' peculiar power--a +fact vouchsafed by mantras, arthavadas, itihasas, and pura/n/as;--and as +the spider emits out of itself the threads of its web; and as the female +crane conceives without a male; and as the lotus wanders from one pond +to another without any means of conveyance; so the intelligent Brahman +also may be assumed to create the world by itself without extraneous +means. + +Perhaps our opponent will argue against all this in the following +style.--The gods and other beings, whom you have quoted as parallel +instances, are really of a nature different from that of Brahman. For +the material causes operative in the production of palaces and other +material things are the bodies of the gods, and not their intelligent +Selfs. And the web of the spider is produced from its saliva which, +owing to the spider's devouring small insects, acquires a certain degree +of consistency. And the female crane conceives from hearing the sound of +thunder. And the lotus flower indeed derives from its indwelling +intelligent principle the impulse of movement, but is not able actually +to move in so far as it is a merely intelligent being[303]; it rather +wanders from pond to pond by means of its non-intelligent body, just as +the creeper climbs up the tree.--Hence all these illustrative examples +cannot be applied to the case of Brahman. + +To this we reply, that we meant to show merely that the case of Brahman +is different from that of potters and similar agents. For while potters, +&c., on the one side, and gods, &c., on the other side, possess the +common attribute of intelligence, potters require for their work +extraneous means (i.e. means lying outside their bodies) and gods do +not. Hence Brahman also, although intelligent, is assumed to require no +extraneous means. So much only we wanted to show by the parallel +instance of the gods, &c. Our intention is to point out that a +peculiarly conditioned capability which is observed in some one case (as +in that of the potter) is not necessarily to be assumed in all other +cases also. + +26. Either the consequence of the entire (Brahman undergoing change) has +to be accepted, or else a violation of the texts declaring Brahman to be +without parts. + +Hitherto we have established so much that Brahman, intelligent, one, +without a second, modifying itself without the employment of any +extraneous means, is the cause of the world.--Now, another objection is +raised for the purpose of throwing additional light on the point under +discussion.--The consequence of the Vedanta doctrine, it is said, will +be that we must assume the entire Brahman to undergo the change into its +effects, because it is not composed of parts. If Brahman, like earth and +other matter, consisted of parts, we might assume that a part of it +undergoes the change, while the other part remains as it is. But +Scripture distinctly declares Brahman to be devoid of parts. Compare, +'He who is without parts, without actions, tranquil, without fault, +without taint' (/Sv/e. Up. VI, 19); 'That heavenly person is without +body, he is both without and within, not produced' (Mu. Up. II, 1, 2); +'That great Being is endless, unlimited, consisting of nothing but +knowledge' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 12); 'He is to be described by No, no' +(B/ri/. Up. III, 9, 2,6); 'It is neither coarse nor fine' (B/ri/. Up. +III, 8, 8); all which passages deny the existence of any distinctions in +Brahman.--As, therefore, a partial modification is impossible, a +modification of the entire Brahman has to be assumed. But that involves +a cutting off of Brahman from its very basis.--Another consequence of +the Vedantic view is that the texts exhorting us to strive 'to see' +Brahman become purposeless; for the effects of Brahman may be seen +without any endeavour, and apart from them no Brahman exists.--And, +finally, the texts declaring Brahman to be unborn are contradicted +thereby.--If, on the other hand--in order to escape from these +difficulties--we assume Brahman to consist of parts, we thereby do +violence to those texts which declare Brahman not to be made up of +parts. Moreover, if Brahman is made up of parts, it follows that it is +non-eternal.--Hence the Vedantic point of view cannot be maintained in +any way. + +27. But (this is not so), on account of scriptural passages, and on +account of (Brahman) resting on Scripture (only). + +The word 'but' discards the objection.--We deny this and maintain that +our view is not open to any objections.--That the entire Brahman +undergoes change, by no means follows from our doctrine, 'on account of +sacred texts.' For in the same way as Scripture speaks of the origin of +the world from Brahman, it also speaks of Brahman subsisting apart from +its effects. This appears from the passages indicating the difference of +cause and effect '(That divinity thought) let me enter into these three +divinities with this living Self and evolve names and forms;' and, 'Such +is the greatness of it, greater than it is the Person; one foot of him +are all things, three feet are what is immortal in heaven' (Ch. Up. III, +12, 6); further, from the passages declaring the unmodified Brahman to +have its abode in the heart, and from those teaching that (in dreamless +sleep) the individual soul is united with the True. For if the entire +Brahman had passed into its effects, the limitation (of the soul's union +with Brahman) to the state of dreamless sleep which is declared in the +passage, 'then it is united with the True, my dear,' would be out of +place; since the individual soul is always united with the effects of +Brahman, and since an unmodified Brahman does not exist (on that +hypothesis). Moreover, the possibility of Brahman becoming the object of +perception by means of the senses is denied while its effects may thus +be perceived. For these reasons the existence of an unmodified Brahman +has to be admitted.--Nor do we violate those texts which declare Brahman +to be without parts; we rather admit Brahman to be without parts just +because Scripture reveals it. For Brahman which rests exclusively on the +holy texts, and regarding which the holy texts alone are +authoritative--not the senses, and so on--must be accepted such as the +texts proclaim it to be. Now those texts declare, on the one hand, that +not the entire Brahman passes over into its effects, and, on the other +hand, that Brahman is without parts. Even certain ordinary things such +as gems, spells, herbs, and the like possess powers which, owing to +difference of time, place, occasion, and so on, produce various opposite +effects, and nobody unaided by instruction is able to find out by mere +reflection the number of these powers, their favouring conditions, their +objects, their purposes, &c.; how much more impossible is it to conceive +without the aid of Scripture the true nature of Brahman with its powers +unfathomable by thought! As the Pura/n/a says: 'Do not apply reasoning +to what is unthinkable! The mark of the unthinkable is that it is above +all material causes[304].' Therefore the cognition of what is +supersensuous is based on the holy texts only. + +But--our opponent will say--even the holy texts cannot make us +understand what is contradictory. Brahman, you say, which is without +parts undergoes a change, but not the entire Brahman. If Brahman is +without parts, it does either not change at all or it changes in its +entirety. If, on the other hand, it be said that it changes partly and +persists partly, a break is effected in its nature, and from that it +follows that it consists of parts. It is true that in matters connected +with action (as, for instance, in the case of the two Vedic injunctions +'at the atiratra he is to take the sho/d/a/s/in-cup,' and 'at the +atiratra he is not to take the sho/d/a/s/in-cup') any contradiction +which may present itself to the understanding is removed by the optional +adoption of one of the two alternatives presented as action is dependent +on man; but in the case under discussion the adoption of one of the +alternatives does not remove the contradiction because an existent thing +(like Brahman) does not (like an action which is to be accomplished) +depend on man. We are therefore met here by a real difficulty. + +No, we reply, the difficulty is merely an apparent one; as we maintain +that the (alleged) break in Brahman's nature is a mere figment of +Nescience. By a break of that nature a thing is not really broken up +into parts, not any more than the moon is really multiplied by appearing +double to a person of defective vision. By that element of plurality +which is the fiction of Nescience, which is characterised by name and +form, which is evolved as well as non-evolved, which is not to be +defined either as the Existing or the Non-existing, Brahman becomes the +basis of this entire apparent world with its changes, and so on, while +in its true and real nature it at the same time remains unchanged, +lifted above the phenomenal universe. And as the distinction of names +and forms, the fiction of Nescience, originates entirely from speech +only, it does not militate against the fact of Brahman being without +parts.--Nor have the scriptural passages which speak of Brahman as +undergoing change the purpose of teaching the fact of change; for such +instruction would have no fruit. They rather aim at imparting +instruction about Brahman's Self as raised above this apparent world; +that being an instruction which we know to have a result of its own. For +in the scriptural passage beginning 'He can only be described by No, no' +(which passage conveys instruction about the absolute Brahman) a result +is stated at the end, in the words 'O Janaka, you have indeed reached +fearlessness' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 2, 4).--Hence our view does not involve +any real difficulties. + +28. For thus it is in the (individual) Self also, and various (creations +exist in gods[305], &c.). + +Nor is there any reason to find fault with the doctrine that there can +be a manifold creation in the one Self, without destroying its +character. For Scripture teaches us that there exists a multiform +creation in the one Self of a dreaming person, 'There are no chariots in +that state, no horses, no roads, but he himself creates chariots, +horses, and roads' (B/ri/. Up. IV, 3, 10). In ordinary life too +multiform creations, elephants, horses, and the like are seen to exist +in gods, &c., and magicians without interfering with the unity of their +being. Thus a multiform creation may exist in Brahman also, one as it +is, without divesting it of its character of unity. + +29. And because the objection (raised against our view) lies against his +(the opponent's) view likewise. + +Those also who maintain that the world has sprung from the pradhana +implicitly teach that something not made up of parts, unlimited, devoid +of sound and other qualities--viz. the pradhana--is the cause of an +effect--viz. the world--which is made up of parts, is limited and is +characterised by the named qualities. Hence it follows from that +doctrine also either that the pradhana as not consisting of parts has to +undergo a change in its entirety, or else that the view of its not +consisting of parts has to be abandoned.--But--it might be pleaded in +favour of the Sa@nkhyas--they do not maintain their pradhana to be +without parts; for they define it as the state of equilibrium of the +three gu/n/as, Goodness, Passion, and Darkness, so that the pradhana +forms a whole containing the three gu/n/as as its parts.--We reply that +such a partiteness as is here proposed does not remove the objection in +hand because still each of the three qualities is declared to be in +itself without parts[306]. And each gu/n/a by itself assisted merely by +the two other gu/n/as constitutes the material cause of that part of the +world which resembles it in its nature[307].--So that the objection lies +against the Sa@nkhya view likewise.--Well, then, as the reasoning (on +which the doctrine of the impartiteness of the pradhana rests) is not +absolutely safe, let us assume that the pradhana consists of parts.--If +you do that, we reply, it follows that the pradhana cannot be eternal, +and so on.--Let it then be said that the various powers of the pradhana +to which the variety of its effects is pointing are its parts.--Well, we +reply, those various powers are admitted by us also who see the cause of +the world in Brahman. + +The same objections lie against the doctrine of the world having +originated from atoms. For on that doctrine one atom when combining with +another must, as it is not made up of parts, enter into the combination +with its whole extent, and as thus no increase of bulk takes place we do +not get beyond the first atom.[308] If, on the other hand, you maintain +that the atom enters into the combination with a part only, you offend +against the assumption of the atoms having no parts. + +As therefore all views are equally obnoxious to the objections raised, +the latter cannot be urged against any one view in particular, and the +advocate of Brahman has consequently cleared his doctrine. + +30. And (the highest divinity is) endowed with all (powers) because that +is seen (from Scripture). + +We have stated that this multiform world of effects is possible to +Brahman, because, although one only, it is endowed with various +powers.--How then--it may be asked--do you know that the highest Brahman +is endowed with various powers?--He is, we reply, endowed with all +powers, 'because that is seen.' For various scriptural passages declare +that the highest divinity possesses all powers, 'He to whom all actions, +all desires, all odours, all tastes belong, he who embraces all this, +who never speaks, and is never surprised' (Ch. Up. III, 14, 4); 'He who +desires what is true and imagines what is true' (Ch. Up. VIII, 7, 1); +'He who knows all (in its totality), and cognizes all (in its detail') +(Mu. Up. I, 1, 9); 'By the command of that Imperishable, O Gargi, sun +and moon stand apart' (B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 9); and other similar +passages. + +31. If it be said that (Brahman is devoid of powers) on account of the +absence of organs; (we reply that) this has been explained (before). + +Let this be granted.--Scripture, however, declares the highest divinity +to be without (bodily) organs of action[309]; so, for instance, in the +passage, 'It is without eyes, without ears, without speech, without +mind' (B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 8). Being such, how should it be able to +produce effects, although it may be endowed with all powers? For we know +(from mantras, arthavadas, &c.) that the gods and other intelligent +beings, though endowed with all powers, are capable of producing certain +effects only because they are furnished with bodily instruments of +action. And, moreover, how can the divinity, to whom the scriptural +passage, 'No, no,' denies all attributes, be endowed with all powers? + +The appropriate reply to this question has been already given above. The +transcendent highest Brahman can be fathomed by means of Scripture only, +not by mere reasoning. Nor are we obliged to assume that the capacity of +one being is exactly like that which is observed in another. It has +likewise been explained above that although all qualities are denied of +Brahman we nevertheless may consider it to be endowed with powers, if we +assume in its nature an element of plurality, which is the mere figment +of Nescience. Moreover, a scriptural passage ('Grasping without hands, +hastening without feet, he sees without eyes, he hears without ears' +/S/ve. Up. III, 19) declares that Brahman although devoid of bodily +organs, possesses all possible capacities. + +32. (Brahman is) not (the creator of the world), on account of (beings +engaging in any action) having a motive. + +Another objection is raised against the doctrine of an intelligent cause +of the world.--The intelligent highest Self cannot be the creator of the +sphere of this world, 'on account of actions having a purpose.'--We know +from ordinary experience that man, who is an intelligent being, begins +to act after due consideration only, and does not engage even in an +unimportant undertaking unless it serves some purpose of his own; much +less so in important business. There is also a scriptural passage +confirming this result of common experience, 'Verily everything is not +dear that you may have everything; but that you may love the Self +therefore everything is dear' (B/ri/. Up. II, 4, 5). Now the undertaking +of creating the sphere of this world, with all its various contents, is +certainly a weighty one. If, then, on the one hand, you assume it to +serve some purpose of the intelligent highest Self, you thereby sublate +its self-sufficiency vouched for by Scripture; if, on the other hand, +you affirm absence of motive on its part, you must affirm absence of +activity also.--Let us then assume that just as sometimes an intelligent +person when in a state of frenzy proceeds, owing to his mental +aberration, to action without a motive, so the highest Self also created +this world without any motive.--That, we reply, would contradict the +omniscience of the highest Self, which is vouched for by +Scripture.--Hence the doctrine of the creation proceeding from an +intelligent Being is untenable. + +33. But (Brahman's creative activity) is mere sport, such as we see in +ordinary life. + +The word 'but' discards the objection raised.--We see in every-day life +that certain doings of princes or other men of high position who have no +unfulfilled desires left have no reference to any extraneous purpose; +but proceed from mere sportfulness, as, for instance, their recreations +in places of amusement. We further see that the process of inhalation +and exhalation is going on without reference to any extraneous purpose, +merely following the law of its own nature. Analogously, the activity of +the Lord also may be supposed to be mere sport, proceeding from his own +nature[310], without reference to any purpose. For on the ground neither +of reason nor of Scripture can we construe any other purpose of the +Lord. Nor can his nature be questioned.[311]--Although the creation of +this world appears to us a weighty and difficult undertaking, it is mere +play to the Lord, whose power is unlimited. And if in ordinary life we +might possibly, by close scrutiny, detect some subtle motive, even for +sportful action, we cannot do so with regard to the actions of the Lord, +all whose wishes are fulfilled, as Scripture says.--Nor can it be said +that he either does not act or acts like a senseless person; for +Scripture affirms the fact of the creation on the one hand, and the +Lord's omniscience on the other hand. And, finally, we must remember +that the scriptural doctrine of creation does not refer to the highest +reality; it refers to the apparent world only, which is characterised by +name and form, the figments of Nescience, and it, moreover, aims at +intimating that Brahman is the Self of everything. + +34. Inequality (of dispensation) and cruelty (the Lord can) not (be +reproached with), on account of his regarding (merit and demerit); for +so (Scripture) declares. + +In order to strengthen the tenet which we are at present defending, we +follow the procedure of him who shakes a pole planted in the ground (in +order to test whether it is firmly planted), and raise another objection +against the doctrine of the Lord being the cause of the world.--The +Lord, it is said, cannot be the cause of the world, because, on that +hypothesis, the reproach of inequality of dispensation and cruelty would +attach to him. Some beings, viz. the gods and others, he renders +eminently happy; others, as for instance the animals, eminently unhappy; +to some again, as for instance men, he allots an intermediate position. +To a Lord bringing about such an unequal condition of things, passion +and malice would have to be ascribed, just as to any common person +acting similarly; which attributes would be contrary to the essential +goodness of the Lord affirmed by /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti. Moreover, as the +infliction of pain and the final destruction of all creatures would form +part of his dispensation, he would have to be taxed with great cruelty, +a quality abhorred by low people even. For these two reasons Brahman +cannot be the cause of the world. + +The Lord, we reply, cannot be reproached with inequality of dispensation +and cruelty, "because he is bound by regards." If the Lord on his own +account, without any extraneous regards, produced this unequal creation, +he would expose himself to blame; but the fact is, that in creating he +is bound by certain regards, i.e. he has to look to merit and demerit. +Hence the circumstance of the creation being unequal is due to the merit +and demerit of the living creatures created, and is not a fault for +which the Lord is to blame. The position of the Lord is to be looked on +as analogous to that of Parjanya, the Giver of rain. For as Parjanya is +the common cause of the production of rice, barley, and other plants, +while the difference between the various species is due to the various +potentialities lying hidden in the respective seeds, so the Lord is the +common cause of the creation of gods, men, &c., while the differences +between these classes of beings are due to the different merit belonging +to the individual souls. Hence the Lord, being bound by regards, cannot +be reproached with inequality of dispensation and cruelty.--And if we +are asked how we come to know that the Lord, in creating this world with +its various conditions, is bound by regards, we reply that Scripture +declares that; compare, for instance, the two following passages, 'For +he (the Lord) makes him, whom he wishes to lead up from these worlds, do +a good deed; and the same makes him, whom he wishes to lead down from +these worlds, do a bad deed' (Kaush. Up. III, 8)[312]; and, 'A man +becomes good by good work, bad by bad work' (B/ri/. Up. III, 2, 13). +Sm/ri/ti passages also declare the favour of the Lord and its opposite +to depend on the different quality of the works of living beings; so, +for instance, 'I serve men in the way in which they approach me' (Bha. +Gi. IV, 11). + +35. If it be objected that it (viz. the Lord's having regard to merit +and demerit) is impossible on account of the non-distinction (of merit +and demerit, previous to the first creation); we refute the objection on +the ground of (the world) being without a beginning. + +But--an objection is raised--the passage, 'Being only this was in the +beginning, one, without a second,' affirms that before the creation +there was no distinction and consequently no merit on account of which +the creation might have become unequal. And if we assume the Lord to +have been guided in his dispensations by the actions of living beings +subsequent to the creation, we involve ourselves in the circular +reasoning that work depends on diversity of condition of life, and +diversity of condition again on work. The Lord may be considered as +acting with regard to religious merit after distinction had once arisen; +but as before that the cause of inequality, viz. merit, did not exist, +it follows that the first creation must have been free, from +inequalities. + +This objection we meet by the remark, that the transmigratory world is +without beginning.--The objection would be valid if the world had a +beginning; but as it is without beginning, merit and inequality are, +like seed and sprout, caused as well as causes, and there is therefore +no logical objection to their operation.--To the question how we know +that the world is without a beginning, the next Sutra replies. + +36. (The beginninglessness of the world) recommends itself to reason and +is seen (from Scripture). + +The beginninglessness of the world recommends itself to reason. For if +it had a beginning it would follow that, the world springing into +existence without a cause, the released souls also would again enter +into the circle of transmigratory existence; and further, as then there +would exist no determining cause of the unequal dispensation of pleasure +and pain, we should have to acquire in the doctrine of rewards and +punishments being allotted, without reference to previous good or bad +action. That the Lord is not the cause of the inequality, has already +been remarked. Nor can Nescience by itself be the cause, and it is of a +uniform nature. On the other hand, Nescience may be the cause of +inequality, if it be considered as having regard to merit accruing from +action produced by the mental impressions or wrath, hatred, and other +afflicting passions[313]. Without merit and demerit nobody can enter +into existence, and again, without a body merit and demerit cannot be +formed; so that--on the doctrine of the world having a beginning--we are +led into a logical see-saw. The opposite doctrine, on the other hand, +explains all matters in a manner analogous to the case of the seed and +sprout, so that no difficulty remains.--Moreover, the fact of the world +being without a beginning, is seen in /S/ruti and Sm/ri/ti. In the first +place, we have the scriptural passage, 'Let me enter with this living +Self (jiva)', &c. (Ch. Up. VI, 3, 2). Here the circumstance of the +embodied Self (the individual soul) being called, previously to +creation, 'the living Self'--a name applying to it in so far as it is +the sustaining principle of the pra/n/as--shows that this phenomenal +world is without a beginning. For if it had a beginning, the pra/n/as +would not exist before that beginning, and how then could the embodied +Self be denoted, with reference to the time of the world's beginning, by +a name which depends on the existence of those pra/n/as. Nor can it be +said that it is so designated with a view to its future relation to the +pra/n/as; it being a settled principle that a past relation, as being +already existing, is of greater force than a mere future +relation.--Moreover, we have the mantra, 'As the creator formerly +devised (akalpaya) sun and moon (/Ri/. Sa/m/h. X, 190, 3), which +intimates the existence of former Kalpas. Sm/ri/ti also declares the +world to be without a beginning, 'Neither its form is known here, nor +its end, nor its beginning, nor its support' (Bha. Gi. XV, 3). And the +Pura/n/a also declares that there is no measure of the past and the +future Kalpas. + +37. And because all the qualities (required in the cause of the world) +are present (in Brahman). + +The teacher has now refuted all the objections, such as difference of +character, and the like, which other teachers have brought forward +against what he had established as the real sense of the Veda, viz. that +the intelligent Brahman is the cause and matter of this world. + +Now, before entering on a new chapter, whose chief aim it will be to +refute the (positive) opinions held by other teachers, he sums up the +foregoing chapter, the purport of which it was to show why his view +should be accepted.--Because, if that Brahman is acknowledged as the +cause of the world, all attributes required in the cause (of the world) +are seen to be present--Brahman being all-knowing, all-powerful, and +possessing the great power of Maya,--on that account this our system, +founded on the Upanishads, is not open to any objections. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 253: The Sm/ri/ti called Tantra is the Sa@nkhya/s/astra as +taught by Kapila; the Sm/ri/ti-writers depending on him are Asuri, +Pa/nk/a/s/ikha, and others.] + +[Footnote 254: Mima/m/sa Su. I, 1, 2: /k/odanalaksha/n/osxrtho +dharma/h/. Commentary: /k/odana iti kriyaya/h/ pravartaka/m/ va/k/anam +ahu/h/.] + +[Footnote 255: Purushartha; in opposition to the rules referred to in +the preceding sentence which are kratvartha, i.e. the acting according +to which secures the proper performance of certain rites.] + +[Footnote 256: It having been decided by the Purva Mima/m/sa already +that Sm/ri/tis contradicted by /S/ruti are to be disregarded.] + +[Footnote 257: On the meaning of 'kapila' in the above passage, compare +the Introduction to the Upanishads, translated by Max Mueller, vol. ii, +p. xxxviii ff.--As will be seen later on, /S/a@nkara, in this bhashya, +takes the Kapila referred to to be some /ri/shi.] + +[Footnote 258: I.e. religious duty is known only from the injunctive +passages of the Veda.] + +[Footnote 259: After it has been shown that Kapila the dvaitavadin is +not mentioned in /S/ruti, it is now shown that Manu the sarvatmavadin is +mentioned there.] + +[Footnote 260: In which passage the phrase 'to be meditated upon' +(nididhyasa) indicates the act of mental concentration characteristic of +the Yoga.] + +[Footnote 261: The ash/t/akas (certain oblations to be made on the +eighth days after the full moons of the seasons hemanta and /s/i/s/ira) +furnish the stock illustration for the doctrine of the Purva Mim. that +Sm/ri/ti is authoritative in so far as it is based on /S/ruti.] + +[Footnote 262: But why--it will be asked--do you apply yourself to the +refutation of the Sa@nkhya and Yoga only, and not also to that of other +Sm/ri/tis conflicting with the Vedanta views?] + +[Footnote 263: I.e. from the fact of these terms being employed in a +passage standing close to other passages which refer to Vedic +knowledge.] + +[Footnote 264: The cognition of Brahman terminates in an act of +anubhava; hence as it has been shown that reasoning is more closely +connected with anubhava than /S/ruti is, we have the right to apply +reasoning to /S/ruti.--Ananda Giri comments on the passage from +anubhavavasanam as follows: brahmasakshatkarasya mokshopayataya +pradhanyat tatra /s/abdad api parokshago/k/arad +aparoksharthasadharmyago/k/aras tarkosxntara@ngam iti tasyaiva +balavatvam ity artha/h/. Aitihyamatre/n/a pravadaparamparyamatre/n/a +parokshatayeti yavat. Anubhavasya pradhanye tarkasyoktanyayena tasminn +antara@ngatvad agamasya /k/a bahira@ngatvad antara@ngabahira@ngayor +antara@nga/m/ balavad ity nyayad ukta/m/ tarkasya balavattvam. +Anubhavapradhanya/m/ tu nadyapi siddham ity a/s/a@nkyahanubhaveti. Nanu +Brahmaj/n/adna/m/ vaidikatvad dharmavad ad/ri/sh/t/aphalam esh/t/avya/m/ +tat kutosxsyanubhavavasanavidyanivartakatva/m/ tatraha moksheti. +Adhish/th/anasakshatkarasya /s/uktyadj/n/ane +tadavidyatatkaryanivartakatvad/ri/sh/t/e/h/, brahmaj/n/anasyapi +tarkava/s/ad asambhavanadinirasadvara sakshatkaravasayinas +tadavidyadinivartakatvenaiva muktihetuteti nad/ri/sh/t/aphalatety +artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 265: Nirati/s/aya/h/, upajanapayadharma/s/unyatva/m/ +nirati/s/ayatvam. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 266: A sentence replying to the possible objection that the +world, as being the effect of the intelligent Brahman, might itself be +intelligent.] + +[Footnote 267: In the case of things commonly considered +non-intelligent, intelligence is not influenced by an internal organ, +and on that account remains unperceived; samaste jagati satoszpi +/k/aitanyasya tatra tatranta/h/kara/n/apari/n/amanuparagad anupalabdhir +aviruddha. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 268: On i/s/vara in the above meaning, compare Deussen, p. 69, +note 41.] + +[Footnote 269: The line 'prak/ri/tibhya/h/ param,' &c. is wanting in all +MSS. I have consulted.] + +[Footnote 270: Ananda Giri on the above passage: /s/rutyaka@nkshita/m/ +tarkam eva mananavidhivishayam udaharati svapnanteti. Svapnajagaritayor +mithovyabhi/k/arad atmana/h/ svabhavatas tadvattvabhavad avastha dvayena +tasya svatosxsa/m/p/ri/ktatvam ato jivasyavasthavatvena nabrahmatvam ity +artha/h/. Tathapi dehaditadatmyenatmano bhavan na +ni/h/prapa/nk/abrahmatety a/s/a@nkyaha sa/m/prasade /k/eti. Sata somya +tada sa/m/panno bhavatiti /s/rute/h/ sushupte +ni/h/prapa/nk/asadatmatvavagamad atmanas tathavidhabrahmatvasiddhir ity +artha/h/. Dvaitagrahipratyakshadivirodhat katham +atmanosxdvitiyabrahmatvam ity a/s/a@nkya tajjatvadihetuna +brahmatiriktavastvabhavasiddher adhyakshadinam atatvavedakaprama/n/yad +avirodhad yuktam atmano xsvitiyabrahmatvam ity aha prapa/nk/asyeti.] + +[Footnote 271: Let us finally assume, merely for argument's sake, that a +vailaksha/n/ya of cause and effect is not admissible, and enquire +whether that assumption can be reconciled more easily with an +intelligent or a non-intelligent cause of the world.] + +[Footnote 272: Nanu pralayakale karyadharma/s/ /k/en navatish/th/eran na +tarhi kara/n/adharma api tish/th/eyus tayor abhedat +tatrahananyatveszpiti. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 273: For if they are effects of the pradhana they must as such +be reabsorbed into it at the time of general reabsorption.] + +[Footnote 274: And that the Vedanta view is preferable because the +nullity of the objections has already been demonstrated in its case.] + +[Footnote 275: The whole style of argumentation of the Mima/m/sa would +be impossible, if all reasoning were sound; for then no purvapaksha view +could be maintained.] + +[Footnote 276: The following arthavada-passage, for instance, 'the +sacrificial post is the sun,' is to be taken in a metaphorical sense; +because perception renders it impossible for us to take it in its +literal meaning.] + +[Footnote 277: Which are to be known from the Veda only.] + +[Footnote 278: Pari/n/amavadam avalambyapatato virodha/m/ samadhaya +vivartavadam a/s/ritya paramasamadhanam aha. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 279: Ananda Giri construes differently: etad uktam iti, +paramarthato vij/n/atam iti sambandha/h/.] + +[Footnote 280: D/ri/sh/t/eti kada/k/id dr/ri/sh/t/a/m/ punar nash/t/am +anityam iti yavat.--D/ri/sh/t/agraha/n/asu/k/ita/m/ pratitikalesxpi +sattarahitya/m/ tatraiva hetvantaram aha svarupe/n/eti. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 281: In the passage alluded to he is called so by implication, +being compared to the 'false-minded' thief who, knowing himself to be +guilty, undergoes the ordeal of the heated hatchet.] + +[Footnote 282: I.e. ordinary experience does not teach us that real +effects spring from unreal causes.] + +[Footnote 283: Svapnajagraddehayor vyabhi/k/arezpi pratyabhij/n/anat +tadanugatatmaikyasiddhe/s/ /k/aitanyasya /k/a dehadharmatve rutmano +dehadvayatiredkasiddher dehatratmavado na yukta ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 284: As long as the 'vyavahara' presents itself to our mind, +we might feel inclined to assume in Brahman an element of manifoldness +whereby to account for the vyavahara; but as soon as we arrive at true +knowledge, the vyavahara vanishes, and there remains no longer any +reason for qualifying in any way the absolute unity of Brahman.] + +[Footnote 285: Tatreti, s/ri/sh/t/yadi/s/rutina/m/ svarthe phatavaikalye +satiti yavat. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 286: A Mima/m/sa principle. A sacrificial act, for instance, +is independent when a special result is assigned to it by the sacred +texts; an act which is enjoined without such a specification is merely +auxiliary to another act.] + +[Footnote 287: According to the /S/ruti 'in whatever mode he worships +him into that mode he passes himself.'] + +[Footnote 288: Tattvanyatvabhyam iti, na hisvaratvena te niru/k/yete +ja/d/ajadayor abhedayogat napi tatoxnyatvenax niruktim arhata/h/ +svatantrye/n/a sattasphurtyasambhavat na hi j/ad/am aga/d/anapekshya/m/ +sattasphurtimad upalakshyate ja/d/atvabha@ngaprasa@ngat tasmad +avidyatmake namarupe ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 289: So that from the instance of the potter and the jar we +cannot conclude that the relation of clay and the jar is only that of +nimitta and naimittika, not that of non-difference.] + +[Footnote 290: For instance, smoke extending in a long line whose base +is connected with some object on the surface of the earth.] + +[Footnote 291: I.e. (as An. Gi. explains) because we assume the relation +of cause and effect not merely on the ground of the actual existence of +one thing depending on that upon another, but on the additional ground +of the mental existence, the consciousness of the one not being possible +without the consciousness of the other.--Tadbhavanuvidhayibhavatvam +tadbhananuvidhayibhanatva/m/ /k/a karyasya kara/n/ananyatve hetur +dhumavi/s/eshasya /k/agnibhavanuvidhayibhavatvesxpi na +tadbhananuvidhayibhanatvam agnibhanasya dhumabhanadhinatvat.] + +[Footnote 292: For simplicity's sake, asat will be translated henceforth +by non-existing.] + +[Footnote 293: Samavaya, commonly translated by inherence or intimate +relation, is, according to the Nyaya, the relation connecting a whole +and its parts, substances, and qualities, &c.] + +[Footnote 294: Samavayasya svatantryapaksha/m/ dushayati +anabhyupagamyamane/k/eti. Samavayasya samavayibhi/h/ sambandho neshyate +ki/m/ tu svatantryam evety atravayavavayavinor dravyagu/n/adina/m/ /k/a. +viprakarsha/h/ syat sa/m/nidhayakabhavad ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 295: A conclusion which is in conflict with the Nyaya tenet +that sa/m/yoga, conjunction, as, for instance, of the jar and the ground +on which it stands, is a quality (gu/n/a) inherent in the two conjoined +substances by means of the samavaya relation.] + +[Footnote 296: So that the whole can be apprehended by us as such if we +apprehend a certain part only; analogously to our apprehending the whole +thread on which a garland of flowers is strung as soon as we apprehend +some few of the flowers.] + +[Footnote 297: Kalpantaram utthapayati atheti, tatha /k/a +yathavayavai/h/ sutra/m/ kusumani vyapnuvat katipayakusumagraha/n/expi +g/r/ihyate tatha katipayavayavagraha/n/expi bhavaty avayavino graha/n/am +ity artha/h/. Tatra kim arambhakavayavair eva teshv avayavi vartteta +ki/m/ va tadatiriklavayavair iti vikalpyadyam pratyaha tadapiti. Yatra +yad varttate tat tadatiriktavayavair eva tatra vartamana/m/ drish/l/am +iti d/ri/sh/t/antagarbha/m/ hetum a/k/ash/l/e ko/s/eti. Dvitiyam +dushayati anavastheti. Kalpitanantavayavavyavahitataya +prak/ri/tavayavino duraviprakarshat tantunish/th/atvam pa/t/asya na syad +iti bhava/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 298: I.e. a something in which the action inheres; not a +causal agent.] + +[Footnote 299: Every action, /S/a@nkara says, requires an agent, i.e. a +substrate in which the action takes place. If we deny that the jar +exists in the clay even before it is actually originated, we lose the +substrate for the action of origination, i.e. entering into existence +(for the non-existing jar cannot be the substratum of any action), and +have to assume, for that action, other substrates, such as the operative +causes of the jar.] + +[Footnote 300: Which doctrine will be fully discussed in the second pada +of this adhyaya.] + +[Footnote 301: Because it has been shown that cause and effect are +identical; hence if the cause is known, the effect is known also.] + +[Footnote 302: Which arguments, the commentators say, are hinted at by +the 'and' of the Sutra.] + +[Footnote 303: The right reading appears to be 'svayam eva /k/etana' as +found in some MSS. Other MSS. read /k/etana/h/.] + +[Footnote 304: Prak/ri/tibhya iti, +pratyakshad/ri/sh/t/apadarthasvabhavebhyo yat para/m/ vilaksha/n/am +a/k/aryadyupade/s/agamya/m/ tad a/k/intyam ity arta/h/ An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 305: This is the way in which /S/a@nkara divides the Sutra; +An. Gi. remarks to 'lokezspo, &c.: atmani /k/eti vyakhyaya vi/k/itra/s/ +/k/a hiti vya/k/ash/t/e.'] + +[Footnote 306: So that if it undergoes modifications it must either +change in its entirety, or else--against the assumption--consist of +parts.] + +[Footnote 307: The last clause precludes the justificatory remark that +the stated difficulties can be avoided if we assume the three gu/n/as in +combination only to undergo modification; if this were so the inequality +of the different effects could not be accounted for.] + +[Footnote 308: As an atom has no parts it cannot enter into partial +contact with another, and the only way in which the two can combine is +entire interpenetration; in consequence of which the compound of two +atoms would not occupy more space than one atom.] + +[Footnote 309: The Sutra is concerned with the body only as far as it is +an instrument; the case of extraneous instruments having already been +disposed of in Sutra 24.] + +[Footnote 310: The nature (svabhava) of the Lord is, the commentators +say, Maya joined with time and karman.] + +[Footnote 311: This clause is an answer to the objection that the Lord +might remain at rest instead of creating a world useless to himself and +the cause of pain to others. For in consequence of his conjunction with +Maya the creation is unavoidable. Go. An. Avidya naturally tends towards +effects, without any purpose. Bha. + +An. Gi. remarks: Nanu liladav asmadadinam akasmad eva niv/ri/tter api +darsanad i/s/varasyapi mayamayyam lilayam tatha-bhave vinapi +sa/my/agj/n/ana/m/ sa/m/sarasamu/kkh/ittir ili tatraha na /ke/ti. +Anirva/ky/a khalv avidya paras/yes/varasya /k/a. svabhavo lileti +/kok/yate tatra na pratitikasvabhavayam anupapattir avataratity +artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 312: From this passage we must not--the commentators +say--infer injustice on the part of the Lord; for the previous merit or +demerit of a being determines the specific quality of the actions which +he performs in his present existence, the Lord acting as the common +cause only (as Parjanya does).] + +[Footnote 313: Ragadveshamoha ragadayas le /k/a purusha/m/ dukhadibhi/h/ +kli/s/yantita kle/s/as tesb/am/ kartneapia/vi/uyanugu/rr/as tabhir +aksbipta/m/ dharmadilaksbilaksha/n/a/m/ kurma tadapekshavidya. An. Gi.] + + + + +SECOND PADA. + +REVERENCE TO THE HIGHEST SELF! + + +1. That which is inferred (by the Sa@nkhyas, viz. the pradhana) cannot +be the cause (of the world), on account of the orderly arrangement (of +the world) being impossible (on that hypothesis). + +Although it is the object of this system to define the true meaning of +the Vedanta-texts and not, like the science of Logic, to establish or +refute some tenet by mere ratiocination, still it is incumbent on +thorough students of the Vedanta to refute the Sa@nkhya and other +systems which are obstacles in the way of perfect knowledge. For this +purpose a new chapter is begun. (Nor must it be said that the refutation +of the other systems ought to have preceded the establishment of the +Vedanta position; for) as the determination of the sense of the +Vedanta-passages directly subserves perfect knowledge, we have at first, +by means of such a determination, established our own position, since +this is a task more important than the refutation of the views +entertained by others. + +Here an opponent might come forward and say that we are indeed entitled +to establish our own position, so as to define perfect knowledge which +is the means of release to those desirous of it, but that no use is +apparent of a refutation of other opinions, a proceeding productive of +nothing but hate and anger.--There is a use, we reply. For there is some +danger of men of inferior intelligence looking upon the Sa@nkhya and +similar systems as requisite for perfect knowledge, because those +systems have a weighty appearance, have been adopted by authoritative +persons, and profess to lead to perfect knowledge. Such people might +therefore think that those systems with their abstruse arguments were +propounded by omniscient sages, and might on that account have faith in +them. For this reason we must endeavour to demonstrate their intrinsic +worthlessness. + +But, it might be said, the Sa@nkhya and similar systems have already +been impugned in several Sutras of the first adhyaya (I, 1, 5, 18; I, 4, +28); why, then, controvert them again?--The task--we reply--which we are +now about to undertake differs from what we have already accomplished. +As the Sa@nkhyas and other philosophers also quote, in order to +establish their own positions, the Vedanta-passages and interpret them +in such a manner as to make them agree with their own systems, we have +hitherto endeavoured to show that their interpretations are altogether +fallacious. Now, however, we are going to refute their arguments in an +independent manner, without any reference to the Vedanta-texts. + +The Sa@nkhyas, to make a beginning with them, argue as follows.--Just as +jars, dishes, and other products which possess the common quality of +consisting of clay are seen to have for their cause clay in general; so +we must suppose that all the outward and inward (i.e. inanimate and +animate) effects which are endowed with the characteristics of pleasure, +pain, and dulness[314] have for their causes pleasure, pain, and dulness +in general. Pleasure, pain, and dulness in their generality together +constitute the threefold pradhana. This pradhana which is +non-intelligent evolves itself spontaneously into multiform +modifications[315], in order thus to effect the purposes (i.e. +enjoyment, release, and so on) of the intelligent soul.--The existence +of the pradhana is to be inferred from other circumstances also, such as +the limitation of all effects and the like[316]. + +Against this doctrine we argue as follows.--If you Sankhyas base your +theory on parallel instances merely, we point out that a non-intelligent +thing which, without being guided by an intelligent being, spontaneously +produces effects capable of subserving the purposes of some particular +person is nowhere observed in the world. We rather observe that houses, +palaces, couches, pleasure-grounds, and the like--things which according +to circumstances are conducive to the obtainment of pleasure or the +avoidance of pain--are made by workmen endowed with intelligence. Now +look at this entire world which appears, on the one hand, as external +(i.e. inanimate) in the form of earth and the other elements enabling +(the souls) to enjoy the fruits of their various actions, and, on the +other hand, as animate, in the form of bodies which belong to the +different classes of beings, possess a definite arrangement of organs, +and are therefore capable of constituting the abodes of fruition; look, +we say, at this world, of which the most ingenious workmen cannot even +form a conception in their minds, and then say if a non-intelligent +principle like the pradhana is able to fashion it! Other non-intelligent +things such as stones and clods of earth are certainly not seen to +possess analogous powers. We rather must assume that just as clay and +similar substances are seen to fashion themselves into various forms, if +worked upon by potters and the like, so the pradhana also (when +modifying itself into its effects) is ruled by some intelligent +principle. When endeavouring to determine the nature of the primal cause +(of the world), there is no need for us to take our stand on those +attributes only which form part of the nature of material causes such as +clay, &c., and not on those also which belong to extraneous agents such +as potters, &c.[317] Nor (if remembering this latter point) do we enter +into conflict with any means of right knowledge; we, on the contrary, +are in direct agreement with Scripture which teaches that an intelligent +cause exists.--For the reason detailed in the above, i.e. on account of +the impossibility of the 'orderly arrangement' (of the world), a +non-intelligent cause of the world is not to be inferred.--The word +'and' (in the Sutra) adds other reasons on account of which the pradhana +cannot be inferred, viz. 'on account of the non-possibility of +endowment,' &c. For it cannot be maintained[318] that all outward and +inward effects are 'endowed' with the nature of pleasure, pain, and +dulness, because pleasure, &c. are known as inward (mental) states, +while sound, &c. (i.e. the sense-objects) are known as being of a +different nature (i.e. as outward things), and moreover as being the +operative causes of pleasure, &c.[319] And, further, although the +sense-object such as sound and so on is one, yet we observe that owing +to the difference of the mental impressions (produced by it) differences +exist in the effects it produces, one person being affected by it +pleasantly, another painfully, and so on[320].--(Turning to the next +Sa@nkhya argument which infers the existence of the pradhana from the +limitation of all effects), we remark that he who concludes that all +inward and outward effects depend on a conjunction of several things, +because they are limited (a conclusion based on the observation that +some limited effects such as roof and sprout, &c. depend on the +conjunction of several things), is driven to the conclusion that the +three constituents of the pradhana, viz. Goodness, Passion, and +Darkness, likewise depend on the conjunction of several +antecedents[321]; for they also are limited[322].--Further[323], it is +impossible to use the relation of cause and effect as a reason for +assuming that all effects whatever have a non-intelligent principle for +their antecedent; for we have shown already that that relation exists in +the case of couches and chairs also, over whose production intelligence +presides. + +2. And on account of (the impossibility of) activity. + +Leaving the arrangement of the world, we now pass on to the activity by +which it is produced.--The three gu/n/as, passing out of the state of +equipoise and entering into the condition of mutual subordination and +superordination, originate activities tending towards the production of +particular effects.--Now these activities also cannot be ascribed to a +non-intelligent pradhana left to itself, as no such activity is seen in +clay and similar substances, or in chariots and the like. For we observe +that clay and the like, and chariots--which are in their own nature +non-intelligent--enter on activities tending towards particular effects +only when they are acted upon by intelligent beings such as potters, &c. +in the one case, and horses and the like in the other case. From what is +seen we determine what is not seen. Hence a non-intelligent cause of the +world is not to be inferred because, on that hypothesis, the activity +without which the world cannot be produced would be impossible. + +But, the Sa@nkhya rejoins, we do likewise not observe activity on the +part of mere intelligent beings.--True; we however see activity on the +part of non-intelligent things such as chariots and the like when they +are in conjunction with intelligent beings.--But, the Sa@nkhya again +objects, we never actually observe activity on the part of an +intelligent being even when in conjunction with a non-intelligent +thing.--Very well; the question then arises: Does the activity belong to +that in which it is actually observed (as the Sa@nkhya says), or to that +on account of the conjunction with which it is observed (as the Vedantin +avers)?--We must, the Sa@nkhya replies, attribute activity to that in +which it is actually seen, since both (i.e. the activity and its abode) +are matter of observation. A mere intelligent being, on the other hand, +is never observed as the abode of activity while a chariot is. The[324] +existence of an intelligent Self joined to a body and so on which are +the abode of activity can be established (by inference) only; the +inference being based on the difference observed between living bodies +and mere non-intelligent things, such as chariots and the like. For this +very reason, viz. that intelligence is observed only where a body is +observed while it is never seen without a body, the Materialists +consider intelligence to be a mere attribute of the body.--Hence +activity belongs only to what is non-intelligent. + +To all this we--the Vedantins--make the following reply.--We do not mean +to say that activity does not belong to those non-intelligent things in +which it is observed; it does indeed belong to them; but it results from +an intelligent principle, because it exists when the latter is present +and does not exist when the latter is absent. Just as the effects of +burning and shining, which have their abode in wood and similar +material, are indeed not observed when there is mere fire (i.e. are not +due to mere fire; as mere fire, i.e. fire without wood, &c., does not +exist), but at the same time result from fire only as they are seen when +fire is present and are not seen when fire is absent; so, as the +Materialists also admit, only intelligent bodies are observed to be the +movers of chariots and other non-intelligent things. The motive power of +intelligence is therefore incontrovertible.--But--an objection will be +raised--your Self even if joined to a body is incapable of exercising +moving power, for motion cannot be effected by that the nature of which +is pure intelligence.--A thing, we reply, which is itself devoid of +motion may nevertheless move other things. The magnet is itself devoid +of motion, and yet it moves iron; and colours and the other objects of +sense, although themselves devoid of motion, produce movements in the +eyes and the other organs of sense. So the Lord also who is all-present, +the Self of all, all-knowing and all-powerful may, although himself +unmoving, move the universe.--If it finally be objected that (on the +Vedanta doctrine) there is no room for a moving power as in consequence +of the oneness (aduality) of Brahman no motion can take place; we reply +that such objections have repeatedly been refuted by our pointing to the +fact of the Lord being fictitiously connected with Maya, which consists +of name and form presented by Nescience.--Hence motion can be reconciled +with the doctrine of an all-knowing first cause; but not with the +doctrine of a non-intelligent first cause. + +3. If it be said (that the pradhana moves) like milk or water, (we reply +that) there also (the motion is due to intelligence). + +Well, the Sa@nkhya resumes, listen then to the following instances.--As +non-sentient milk flows forth from its own nature merely for the +nourishment of the young animal, and as non-sentient water, from its own +nature, flows along for the benefit of mankind, so the pradhana also, +although non-intelligent, may be supposed to move from its own nature +merely for the purpose of effecting the highest end of man. + +This argumentation, we reply, is unsound again; for as the adherents of +both doctrines admit that motion is not observed in the case of merely +non-intelligent things such as chariots, &c., we infer that water and +milk also move only because they are directed by intelligent powers. +Scriptural passages, moreover (such as 'He who dwells in the water and +within the water, who rules the water within,' B/ri/. Up. III, 7, 4; +and, 'By the command of that Akshara, O Gargi, some rivers flow to the +East,' &c., B/ri/. Up. III, 8, 9), declare that everything in this world +which flows is directed by the Lord. Hence the instances of milk and +water as belonging themselves to that class of cases which prove our +general principle[325] cannot be used to show that the latter is too +wide.--Moreover, the cow, which is an intelligent being and loves her +calf, makes her milk flow by her wish to do so, and the milk is in +addition drawn forth by the sucking of the calf. Nor does water move +either with absolute independence--for its flow depends on the declivity +of the soil and similar circumstances--or independently of an +intelligent principle, for we have shown that the latter is present in +all cases.--If, finally, our opponent should point to Sutra II, 1, 24 as +contradicting the present Sutra, we remark that there we have merely +shown on the ground of ordinary experience that an effect may take place +in itself independently of any external instrumental cause; a conclusion +which does not contradict the doctrine, based on Scripture, that all +effects depend on the Lord. + +4. And because (the pradhana), on account of there existing nothing +beyond it, stands in no relation; (it cannot be active.) + +The three gu/n/as of the Sa@nkhyas when in a state of equipoise form the +pradhana. Beyond the pradhana there exists no external principle which +could either impel the pradhana to activity or restrain it from +activity. The soul (purusha), as we know, is indifferent, neither moves +to--nor restrains from--action. As therefore the pradhana stands in no +relation, it is impossible to see why it should sometimes modify itself +into the great principle (mahat) and sometimes not. The activity and +non-activity (by turns) of the Lord, on the other hand, are not contrary +to reason, on account of his omniscience and omnipotence, and his being +connected with the power of illusion (maya). + +5. Nor (can it be said that the pradhana modifies itself spontaneously) +like grass, &c. (which turn into milk); for (milk) does not exist +elsewhere (but in the female animal). + +Let this be (the Sa@nkhya resumes). Just as grass, herbs, water, &c. +independently of any other instrumental cause transform themselves, by +their own nature, into milk; so, we assume, the pradhana also transforms +itself into the great principle, and so on. And, if you ask how we know +that grass transforms itself independently of any instrumental cause; we +reply, 'Because no such cause is observed.' For if we did perceive some +such cause, we certainly should apply it to grass, &c. according to our +liking, and thereby produce milk. But as a matter of fact we do no such +thing. Hence the transformation of grass and the like must be considered +to be due to its own nature merely; and we may infer therefrom that the +transformation of the pradhana is of the same kind. + +To this we make the following reply.--The transformation of the pradhana +might be ascribed to its own nature merely if we really could admit that +grass modifies itself in the manner stated by you; but we are unable to +admit that, since another instrumental cause is observed. How? 'Because +it does not exist elsewhere.' For grass becomes milk only when it is +eaten by a cow or some other female animal, not if it is left either +uneaten or is eaten by a bull. If the transformation had no special +cause, grass would become milk even on other conditions than that of +entering a cow's body. Nor would the circumstance of men not being able +to produce milk according to their liking prove that there is no +instrumental cause; for while some effects can be produced by men, +others result from divine action only[326]. The fact, however, is that +men also are able, by applying a means in their power, to produce milk +from grass and herbs; for when they wish to procure a more abundant +supply of milk they feed the cow more plentifully and thus obtain more +milk from her.--For these reasons the spontaneous modification of the +pradhana cannot be proved from the instance of grass and the like. + +6. Even if we admit (the Sa@nkhya position refuted in what precedes, it +is invalidated by other objections) on account of the absence of a +purpose (on the part of the pradhana). + +Even if we, accommodating ourselves to your (the Sa@nkhya's) belief, +should admit what has been disproved in the preceding Sutra, viz. that +the pradhana is spontaneously active, still your opinion would lie open +to an objection 'on account of the absence of a purpose.' For if the +spontaneous activity of the pradhana has, as you say, no reference to +anything else, it will have no reference not only to any aiding +principle, but also to any purpose or motive, and consequently your +doctrine that the pradhana is active in order to effect the purpose of +man will become untenable. If you reply that the pradhana does not +indeed regard any aiding principle, but does regard a purpose, we remark +that in that case we must distinguish between the different possible +purposes, viz. either enjoyment (on the part of the soul), or final +release, or both. If enjoyment, what enjoyment, we ask, can belong to +the soul which is naturally incapable of any accretion (of pleasure or +pain)[327]? Moreover, there would in that case be no opportunity for +release[328].--If release, then the activity of the pradhana would be +purposeless, as even antecedently to it the soul is in the state of +release; moreover, there would then be no occasion for the perception of +sounds, &c.[329]--If both, then, on account of the infinite number of +the objects of pradhana to be enjoyed (by the soul)[330], there would be +no opportunity for final release. Nor can the satisfaction of a desire +be considered as the purpose of the activity of the pradhana; for +neither the non-intelligent pradhana nor the essentially pure soul can +feel any desire.--If, finally, you should assume the pradhana to be +active, because otherwise the power of sight (belonging to the soul on +account of its intelligent nature) and the creative power (belonging to +the pradhana) would be purposeless; it would follow that, as the +creative power of the pradhana does not cease at any time any more than +the soul's power of sight does, the apparent world would never come to +an end, so that no final release of the soul could take place[331].--It +is, therefore, impossible to maintain that the pradhana enters on its +activity for the purposes of the soul. + +7. And if you say (that the soul may move the pradhana) as the (lame) +man (moves the blind one) or as the magnet (moves the iron); thus also +(the difficulty is not overcome). + +Well then--the Sa@nkhya resumes, endeavouring to defend his position by +parallel instances--let us say that, as some lame man devoid of the +power of motion, but possessing the power of sight, having mounted the +back of a blind man who is able to move but not to see, makes the latter +move; or as the magnet not moving itself, moves the iron, so the soul +moves the pradhana.--Thus also, we reply, you do not free your doctrine +from all shortcomings; for this your new position involves an +abandonment of your old position, according to which the pradhana is +moving of itself, and the (indifferent, inactive) soul possesses no +moving power. And how should the indifferent soul move the pradhana? A +man, although lame, may make a blind man move by means of words and the +like; but the soul which is devoid of action and qualities cannot +possibly put forth any moving energy. Nor can it be said that it moves +the pradhana by its mere proximity as the magnet moves the iron; for +from the permanency of proximity (of soul and pradhana) a permanency of +motion would follow. The proximity of the magnet, on the other hand (to +the iron), is not permanent, but depends on a certain activity and the +adjustment of the magnet in a certain position; hence the (lame) man and +the magnet do not supply really parallel instances.--The pradhana then +being non-intelligent and the soul indifferent, and there being no third +principle to connect them, there can be no connexion of the two. If we +attempted to establish a connexion on the ground of capability (of being +seen on the part of the pradhana, of seeing on the part of the soul), +the permanency of such capability would imply the impossibility of final +release.--Moreover, here as well as before (in the preceding Sutra) the +different alternatives connected with the absence of purpose (on the +pradhana's part) have to be considered[332].--The highest Self, on the +other hand (which is the cause of the world, according to the +Vedantins), is characterised by non-activity inherent in its own nature, +and, at the same time, by moving power inherent in Maya and is thus +superior (to the soul of the Sa@nkhyas). + +8. And, again, (the pradhana cannot be active) because the relation of +principal (and subordinate matter) is impossible (between the three +gu/n/as). + +For the following reason also activity on the part of the pradhana is +not possible.--The condition of the pradhana consists in the three +gu/n/as, viz. goodness, passion, and darkness, abiding in themselves in +a state of equipoise without standing to one another in the relation of +mutual superiority or inferiority. In that state the gu/n/as cannot +possibly enter into the relation of mutual subserviency because thereby +they would forfeit their essential characteristic, viz. absolute +independence. And as there exists no extraneous principle to stir up the +gu/n/as, the production of the great principle and the other +effects--which would acquire for its operative cause a non-balanced +state of the gu/n/as--is impossible. + +9. And although another inference be made, (the objections remain in +force) on account of the (pradhana) being devoid of the power of +intelligence. + +But--the Sa@nkhya resumes--we draw another inference, so as to leave no +room for the objection just stated. We do not acknowledge the gu/n/as to +be characterised by absolute irrelativity and unchangeableness, since +there is no proof for such an assumption. We rather infer the +characteristics of the gu/n/as from those of their effects, presuming +that their nature must be such as to render the production of the +effects possible. Now the gu/n/as are admitted to be of an unsteady +nature; hence the gu/n/as themselves are able to enter into the relation +of mutual inequality, even while they are in a state of equipoise. + +Even in that case, we reply, the objections stated above which were +founded on the impossibility of an orderly arrangement of the world, +&c., remain in force on account of the pradhana being devoid of the +power of intelligence. And if (to escape those objections) the Sa@nkhya +should infer (from the orderly arrangement of the world, &c.), that the +primal cause is intelligent, he would cease to be an antagonist, since +the doctrine that there is one intelligent cause of this multiform world +would be nothing else but the Vedantic doctrine of Brahman.--Moreover, +if the gu/n/as were capable of entering into the relation of mutual +inequality even while in the state of equipoise, one of two things would +happen; they would either not be in the condition of inequality on +account of the absence of an operative cause; or else, if they were in +that condition, they would always remain in it; the absence of an +operative cause being a non-changing circumstance. And thus the doctrine +would again be open to the objection stated before[333]. + +10. And moreover (the Sa@nkhya doctrine) is objectionable on account of +its contradictions. + +The doctrine of the Sa@nkhyas, moreover, is full of contradictions. +Sometimes they enumerate seven senses, sometimes eleven[334]. In some +places they teach that the subtle elements of material things proceed +from the great principle, in other places again that they proceed from +self-consciousness. Sometimes they speak of three internal organs, +sometimes of one only[335]. That their doctrine, moreover, contradicts +/S/ruti, which teaches that the Lord is the cause of the world, and +Sm/ri/ti, based on /S/ruti, is well known.--For these reasons also the +Sa@nkhya system is objectionable. + +Here the Sa@nkhya again brings a countercharge--The system of the +Vedantins also, he says, must be declared to be objectionable; for it +does not admit that that which suffers and that which causes +suffering[336] are different classes of things (and thereby renders +futile the well-established distinction of causes of suffering and +suffering beings). For those who admit the one Brahman to be the Self of +everything and the cause of the whole world, have to admit also that the +two attributes of being that which causes suffering and that which +suffers belong to the one supreme Self (not to different classes of +beings). If, then, these two attributes belong to one and the same Self, +it never can divest itself of them, and thus Scripture, which teaches +perfect knowledge for the purpose of the cessation of all suffering, +loses all its meaning. For--to adduce a parallel case--a lamp as long as +it subsists as such is never divested of the two qualities of giving +heat and light. And if the Vedantin should adduce the case of water with +its waves, ripples, foam, &c.[337], we remark that there also the waves, +&c. constitute attributes of the water which remain permanently, +although they by turns manifest themselves, and again enter into the +state of non-manifestation; hence the water is never really destitute of +waves, not any more than the lamp is ever destitute of heat and +light.--That that which causes suffering, and that which suffers +constitute different classes of things is, moreover, well known from +ordinary experience. For (to consider the matter from a more general +point of view) the person desiring and the thing desired[338] are +understood to be separate existences. If the object of desire were not +essentially different and separate from the person desiring, the state +of being desirous could not be ascribed to the latter, because the +object with reference to which alone he can be called desiring would +already essentially be established in him (belong to him). The latter +state of things exists in the case of a lamp and its light, for +instance. Light essentially belongs to the lamp, and hence the latter +never can stand in want of light; for want or desire can exist only if +the thing wanted or desired is not yet obtained. + +(And just as there could be no desiring person, if the object of desire +and the desiring person were not essentially separate), so the object of +desire also would cease to be an object for the desiring person, and +would be an object for itself only. As a matter of fact, however, this +is not the case; for the two ideas (and terms), 'object of desire' and +'desiring person,' imply a relation (are correlative), and a relation +exists in two things, not in one only. Hence the desiring person and the +object of desire are separate.--The same holds good with regard to what +is not desired (object of aversion; anartha) and the non-desiring person +(anarthin). + +An object of desire is whatever is of advantage to the desiring person, +an object of aversion whatever is of disadvantage; with both one person +enters into relation by turns. On account of the comparative paucity of +the objects of desire, and the comparative multitude of the objects of +aversion, both may be comprised under the general term, 'object of +aversion.' Now, these objects of aversion we mean when we use the term +'causes of suffering,' while by the term 'sufferer' we understand the +soul which, being one, enters into successive relations with both (i.e. +the objects of desire and the objects of aversion). If, then, the causes +of suffering and the sufferer constitute one Self (as the Vedanta +teaches), it follows that final release is impossible.--But if, on the +other hand, the two are assumed to constitute separate classes, the +possibility of release is not excluded, since the cause of the connexion +of the two (viz. wrong knowledge) may be removed. + +All this reasoning--we, the Vedantins, reply--is futile, because on +account of the unity of the Self the relation, whose two terms are the +causes of suffering, and the sufferer cannot exist (in the Self).--Our +doctrine would be liable to your objection if that which causes +suffering and that which suffers did, while belonging to one and the +same Self, stand to each other in the relation of object and subject. +But they do not stand in that relation just because they are one. If +fire, although it possesses different attributes, such as heat and +light, and is capable of change, does neither burn nor illumine itself +since it is one only; how can the one unchangeable Brahman enter with +reference to itself into the relation of cause of suffering and +sufferer?--Where then, it may be asked, does the relation discussed +(which after all cannot be denied altogether) exist?--That, we reply, is +not difficult to see[339]. The living body which is the object of the +action of burning is the sufferer; the sun, for instance, is a cause of +suffering (burning).--But, the opponent rejoins, burning is a pain, and +as such can affect an intelligent being only, not the non-intelligent +body; for if it were an affection of the mere body, it would, on the +destruction of the body, cease of itself, so that it would be needless +to seek for means to make it cease.--But it is likewise not observed, we +reply, that a mere intelligent being destitute of a body is burned and +suffers pain.--Nor would you (the Sa@nkhya) also assume that the +affection called burning belongs to a mere intelligent being. Nor can +you admit[340] a real connexion of the soul and the body, because +through such a connexion impurity and similar imperfections would attach +to the soul[341]. Nor can suffering itself be said to suffer. And how +then, we ask, can you explain the relation existing between a sufferer +and the causes of suffering? If (as a last refuge) you should maintain +that the sattva-gu/n/a is that which suffers, and the gu/n/a called +passion that which causes suffering, we again object, because the +intelligent principle (the soul) cannot be really connected with these +two[342]. And if you should say that the soul suffers as it were because +it leans towards[343] the sattva-gu/n/a, we point out that the +employment of the phrase, 'as it were,' shows that the soul does not +really suffer. + +If it is understood that its suffering is not real, we do not object to +the phrase 'as it were[344].' For the amphisbena also does not become +venomous because it is 'a serpent as it were' ('like a serpent'), nor +does the serpent lose its venom because it is 'like an amphisbena.' You +must therefore admit that the relation of causes of suffering and of +sufferers is not real, but the effect of Nescience. And if you admit, +that, then my (the Vedantic) doctrine also is free from objections[345]. + +But perhaps you (the Sa@nkhya) will say that, after all, suffering (on +the part of the soul) is real[346]. In that case, however, the +impossibility of release is all the more undeniable[347], especially as +the cause of suffering (viz. the pradhana) is admitted to be +eternal.--And if (to get out of this difficulty) you maintain that, +although the potentialities of suffering (on the part of the soul) and +of causing suffering (on the part of the pradhana) are eternal, yet +suffering, in order to become actual, requires the conjunction of the +two--which conjunction in its turn depends on a special reason, viz. the +non-discrimination of the pradhana by the soul--and that hence, when +that reason no longer exists, the conjunction of the two comes to an +absolute termination, whereby the absolute release of the soul becomes +possible; we are again unable to accept your explanation, because that +on which the non-discrimination depends, viz. the gu/n/a, called +Darkness, is acknowledged by you to be eternal. + +And as[348] there is no fixed rule for the (successive) rising and +sinking of the influence of the particular gu/n/as, there is also no +fixed rule for the termination of the cause which effects the +conjunction of soul and pradhana (i.e. non-discrimination); hence the +disjunction of the two is uncertain, and so the Sa@nkhyas cannot escape +the reproach of absence of final release resulting from their doctrine. +To the Vedantin, on the other hand, the idea of final release being +impossible cannot occur in his dreams even; for the Self he acknowledges +to be one only, and one thing cannot enter into the relation of subject +and object, and Scripture, moreover, declares that the plurality of +effects originates from speech only. For the phenomenal world, on the +other hand, we may admit the relation of sufferer and suffering just as +it is observed, and need neither object to it nor refute it. + +Herewith we have refuted the doctrine which holds the pradhana to be the +cause of the world. We have now to dispose of the atomic theory. + +We begin by refuting an objection raised by the atomists against the +upholders of Brahman.--The Vai/s/eshikas argue as follows: The qualities +which inhere in the substance constituting the cause originate qualities +of the same kind in the substance constituting the effect; we see, for +instance, that from white threads white cloth is produced, but do not +observe what is contrary (viz. white threads resulting in a piece of +cloth of a different colour). Hence, if the intelligent Brahman is +assumed as the cause of the world, we should expect to find intelligence +inherent in the effect also, viz. the world. But this is not the case, +and consequently the intelligent Brahman cannot be the cause of the +world.--This reasoning the Sutrakara shows to be fallacious, on the +ground of the system of the Vai/s/eshikas themselves. + +II. Or (the world may originate from Brahman) as the great and the long +originate from the short and the atomic. + +The system of the Vai/s/eshikas is the following:--The atoms which +possess, according to their special kind[349], the qualities of colour, +&c., and which are of spherical form[350], subsist during a certain +period[351] without producing any effects[352]. After that, the unseen +principle (ad/ri/sh/ta/), &c.[353], acting as operative causes and +conjunction constituting the non-inherent cause[354], they produce the +entire aggregate of effected things, beginning with binary atomic +compounds. At the same time the qualities of the causes (i.e. of the +simple atoms) produce corresponding qualities in the effects. Thus, when +two atoms produce a binary atomic compound, the special qualities +belonging to the simple atoms, such as white colour, &c., produce a +corresponding white colour in the binary compound. One special quality, +however, of the simple atoms, viz. atomic sphericity, does not produce +corresponding sphericity in the binary compound; for the forms of +extension belonging to the latter are said to be minuteness (a/n/utva) +and shortness. And, again, when two binary compounds combining produce a +quaternary atomic compound, the qualities, such as whiteness, &c., +inherent in the binary compounds produce corresponding qualities in the +quaternary compounds; with the exception, however, of the two qualities +of minuteness and shortness. For it is admitted that the forms of +extension belonging to quaternary compounds are not minuteness and +shortness, but bigness (mahattva) and length. The same happens[355] when +many simple atoms or many binary compounds or a simple atom and a binary +compound combine to produce new effects. + +Well, then, we say, just as from spherical atoms binary compounds are +produced, which are minute and short, and ternary compounds which are +big and long, but not anything spherical; or as from binary compounds, +which are minute and short, ternary compounds, &c., are produced which +are big and long, not minute and short; so this non-intelligent world +may spring from the intelligent Brahman. This is a doctrine to which +you--the Vai/s/eshika--cannot, on your own principles, object. + +Here the Vai/s/eshika will perhaps come forward with the following +argumentation[356]. As effected substances, such as binary compounds and +so on, are engrossed by forms of extension contrary to that of the +causal substances, the forms of extension belonging to the latter, viz. +sphericity and so on, cannot produce similar qualities in the effects. +The world, on the other hand, is not engrossed by any quality contrary +to intelligence owing to which the intelligence inherent in the cause +should not be able to originate a new intelligence in the effect. For +non-intelligence is not a quality contrary to intelligence, but merely +its negation. As thus the case of sphericity is not an exactly parallel +one, intelligence may very well produce an effect similar to itself. + +This argumentation, we rejoin, is not sound. Just as the qualities of +sphericity and so on, although existing in the cause, do not produce +corresponding effects, so it is with intelligence also; so that the two +cases are parallel so far. Nor can the circumstance of the effects being +engrossed by a different form of extension be alleged as the reason of +sphericity, &c. not originating qualities similar to themselves; for the +power of originating effects belongs to sphericity, &c. before another +form of extension begins to exist. For it is admitted that the substance +produced remains for a moment devoid of qualities, and that thereupon +only (i.e. after that moment) its qualities begin to exist. Nor, again, +can it be said that sphericity, &c. concentrate their activity on +originating other forms of extension[357], and therefore do not +originate forms of extension belonging to the same class as their own; +for it is admitted that the origin of other forms is due to other +causes; as the Sutras of Ka/n/abhuj (Ka/n/ada) themselves declare +(Vai/s/. Sut. VII, 1, 9, 'Bigness is produced from plurality inherent in +the causes, from bigness of the cause and from a kind of accumulation;' +VII, 1, 10, 'The contrary of this (the big) is the minute;' VII, 1, 17, +'Thereby length and shortness are explained[358]').--Nor, again, can it +be said that plurality, &c. inherent in the cause originate (like +effects) in consequence of some peculiar proximity (in which they are +supposed to stand to the effected substance), while sphericity, &c. (not +standing in a like proximity) do not; for when a new substance or a new +quality is originated, all the qualities of the cause stand in the same +relation of inherence to their abode (i.e. the causal substance in which +they inhere). For these reasons the fact of sphericity, &c. not +originating like effects can be explained from the essential nature of +sphericity, &c. only, and the same may therefore be maintained with +regard to intelligence[359]. + +Moreover, from that observed fact also, that from conjunction +(sa/m/yoga) there originate substances, &c. belonging to a class +different (from that to which conjunction itself belongs), it follows +that the doctrine of effects belonging to the same class as the causes +from which they spring is too wide. If you remark against this last +argument that, as we have to do at present with a substance (viz. +Brahman), it is inappropriate to instance a quality (viz. conjunction) +as a parallel case; we point out that at present we only wish to explain +the origination of effects belonging to a different class in general. +Nor is there any reason for the restriction that substances only are to +be adduced as examples for substances, and qualities only for qualities. +Your own Sutrakara adduces a quality as furnishing a parallel case for a +substance (Vai/s/. Sut. IV, 2, 2, 'On account of the conjunction of +things perceptible and things imperceptible being imperceptible the body +is not composed of five elements'). Just as the conjunction which +inheres in the perceptible earth and the imperceptible ether is not +perceptible, the body also, if it had for its inherent cause the five +elements which are part of them perceptible, part of them imperceptible, +would itself be imperceptible; but, as a matter of fact, it is +perceptible; hence it is not composed of the five elements. Here +conjunction is a quality and the body a substance.--The origin of +effects different in nature (from the cause) has, moreover, been already +treated of under II, 1; 6.--Well then, this being so, the matter has +been settled there already (why then is it again discussed +here?)-Because, we reply, there we argued against the Sa@nkhya, and at +present we have to do with the Vai/s/eshika.--But, already once, before +(II, 1, 3) a line of argument equally applicable to a second case was +simply declared to extend to the latter also; (why then do you not +simply state now that the arguments used to defeat the Sa@nkhya are +equally valid against the Vai/s/eshika?)--Because here, we reply, at the +beginning of the examination of the Vai/s/eshika system we prefer to +discuss the point with arguments specially adapted to the doctrine of +the Vai/s/eshikas. + +12. In both cases also (in the cases of the ad/ri/sh/t/a inhering either +in the atoms or the soul) action (of the atoms) is not (possible); hence +absence of that (viz. creation and pralaya). + +The Sutrakara now proceeds to refute the doctrine of atoms being the +cause of the world.--This doctrine arises in the following manner. We +see that all ordinary substances which consist of parts as, for +instance, pieces of cloth originate from the substances connected with +them by the relation of inherence, as for instance threads, conjunction +co-operating (with the parts to form the whole). We thence draw the +general conclusion that whatever consists of parts has originated from +those substances with which it is connected by the relation of +inherence, conjunction cooperating. That thing now at which the +distinction of whole and parts stops and which marks the limit of +division into minuter parts is the atom.--This whole world, with its +mountains, oceans, and so on, is composed of parts; because it is +composed of parts it has a beginning and an end[360]; an effect may not +be assumed without a cause; therefore the atoms are the cause of the +world. Such is Ka/n/ada's doctrine.--As we observe four elementary +substances consisting of parts, viz. earth, water, fire, and air (wind), +we have to assume four different kinds of atoms. These atoms marking the +limit of subdivision into minuter parts cannot be divided themselves; +hence when the elements are destroyed they can be divided down to atoms +only; this state of atomic division of the elements constitutes the +pralaya (the periodical destruction of the world). After that when the +time for creation comes, motion (karman) springs up in the aerial atoms. +This motion which is due to the unseen principle[361] joins the atom in +which it resides to another atom; thus binary compounds, &c. are +produced, and finally the element of air. In a like manner are produced +fire, water, earth, the body with its organs. Thus the whole world +originates from atoms. From the qualities inhering in the atoms the +qualities belonging to the binary compounds are produced, just as the +qualities of the cloth result from the qualities of the threads.--Such, +in short, is the teaching of the followers of Ka/n/ada. + +This doctrine we controvert in the following manner.--It must be +admitted that the atoms when they are in a state of isolation require +action (motion) to bring about their conjunction; for we observe that +the conjunction of threads and the like is effected by action. Action +again, which is itself an effect, requires some operative cause by which +it is brought about; for unless some such cause exists, no original +motion can take place in the atoms. If, then, some operative cause is +assumed, we may, in the first place, assume some cause analogous to seen +causes, such as endeavour or impact. But in that case original motion +could not occur at all in the atoms, since causes of that kind are, at +the time, impossible. For in the pralaya state endeavour, which is a +quality of the soul, cannot take place because no body exists then. For +the quality of the soul called endeavour originates when the soul is +connected with the internal organ which abides in the body. The same +reason precludes the assumption of other seen causes such as impact and +the like. For they all are possible only after the creation of the world +has taken place, and cannot therefore be the causes of the original +action (by which the world is produced).--If, in the second place, the +unseen principle is assumed as the cause of the original motion of the +atoms, we ask: Is this unseen principle to be considered as inhering in +the soul or in the atom? In both cases it cannot be the cause of motion +in the atoms, because it is non-intelligent. For, as we have shown above +in our examination of the Sa@nkhya system, a non-intelligent thing which +is not directed by an intelligent principle cannot of itself either act +or be the cause of action, and the soul cannot be the guiding principle +of the ad/ri/sh/t/a because at the time of pralaya its intelligence has +not yet arisen[362]. If, on the other hand, the unseen principle is +supposed to inhere in the soul, it cannot be the cause of motion in the +atoms, because there exists no connexion of it with the latter. If you +say that the soul in which the unseen principle inheres is connected +with the atoms, then there would result, from the continuity of +connexion[363], continuity of action, as there is no other restricting +principle.--Hence, there being no definite cause of action, original +action cannot take place in the atoms; there being no action, +conjunction of the atoms which depends on action cannot take place; +there being no conjunction, all the effects depending on it, viz. the +formation of binary atomic compounds, &c., cannot originate. + +How, moreover, is the conjunction of one atom with another to be +imagined? Is it to be total interpenetration of the two or partial +conjunction? If the former, then no increase of bulk could take place, +and consequently atomic size only would exist; moreover, it would be +contrary to what is observed, as we see that conjunction takes place +between substances having parts (prade/s/a). If the latter, it would +follow that the atoms are composed of parts.--Let then the atoms be +imagined to consist of parts.--If so, imagined things being unreal, the +conjunction also of the atoms would be unreal and thus could not be the +non-inherent cause of real things. And without non-inherent causes +effected substances such as binary compounds, &c. could not originate. +And just as at the time of the first creation motion of the atoms +leading to their conjunction could not take place, there being no cause +of such motion; thus at the time of a general pralaya also no action +could take place leading to their separation, since for that occurrence +also no definite seen cause could be alleged. Nor could the unseen +principle be adduced as the cause, since its purport is to effect +enjoyment (of reward and punishment on the part of the soul), not to +bring about the pralaya. There being then no possibility of action to +effect either the conjunction or the separation of the atoms, neither +conjunction nor separation would actually take place, and hence neither +creation nor pralaya of the world.--For these reasons the doctrine of +the atoms being the cause of the world must be rejected. + +13. And because in consequence of samavaya being admitted a regressus in +infinitum results from parity of reasoning. + +You (the Vai/s/eshika) admit that a binary compound which originates +from two atoms, while absolutely different from them, is connected with +them by the relation of inherence; but on that assumption the doctrine +of the atoms being the general cause cannot be established, 'because +parity involves here a retrogressus ad infinitum.' For just as a binary +compound which is absolutely different from the two constituent atoms is +connected with them by means of the relation of inherence (samavaya), so +the relation of inherence itself being absolutely different from the two +things which it connects, requires another relation of inherence to +connect it with them, there being absolute difference in both cases. For +this second relation of inherence again, a third relation of inherence +would have to be assumed and so on ad infinitum.--But--the Vai/s/eshika +is supposed to reply--we are conscious of the so-called samavaya +relation as eternally connected with the things between which it exists, +not as either non-connected with them or as depending on another +connexion; we are therefore not obliged to assume another connexion, and +again another, and so on, and thus to allow ourselves to be driven into +a regressus in infinitum.--Your defence is unavailing, we reply, for it +would involve the admission that conjunction (sa/m/yoga) also as being +eternally connected with the things which it joins does, like samavaya, +not require another connexion[364]. If you say that conjunction does +require another connexion because it is a different thing[365] we reply +that then samavaya also requires another connexion because it is +likewise a different thing. Nor can you say that conjunction does +require another connexion because it is a quality (gu/n/a), and samavaya +does not because it is not a quality; for (in spite of this difference) +the reason for another connexion being required is the same in both +cases[366], and not that which is technically called 'quality' is the +cause (of another connexion being required)[367].--For these reasons +those who acknowledge samavaya to be a separate existence are driven +into a regressus in infinitum, in consequence of which, the +impossibility of one term involving the impossibility of the entire +series, not even the origination of a binary compound from two atoms can +be accounted for.--For this reason also the atomic doctrine is +inadmissible. + +14. And on account of the permanent existence (of activity or +non-activity). + +Moreover, the atoms would have to be assumed as either essentially +active (moving) or essentially non-active, or both or neither; there +being no fifth alternative. But none of the four alternatives stated is +possible. If they were essentially active, their activity would be +permanent so that no pralaya could take place. If they were essentially +non-active, their non-activity would be permanent, and no creation could +take place. Their being both is impossible because self-contradictory. +If they were neither, their activity and non-activity would have to +depend on an operative cause, and then the operative causes such as the +ad/ri/sh/t/a being in permanent proximity to the atoms, permanent +activity would result; or else the ad/ri/sh/t/a and so on not being +taken as operative causes, the consequence would be permanent +non-activity on the part of the atoms.--For this reason also the atomic +doctrine is untenable. + +15. And on account of the atoms having colour, &c., the reverse (of the +Vai/s/eshika tenet would take place); as thus it is observed. + +Let us suppose, the Vai/s/eshikas say, all substances composed of parts +to be disintegrated into their parts; a limit will finally be reached +beyond which the process of disintegration cannot be continued. What +constitutes that limit are the atoms, which are eternal (permanent), +belong to four different classes, possess the qualities of colour, &c., +and are the originating principles of this whole material world with its +colour, form, and other qualities. + +This fundamental assumption of the Vai/s/eshikas we declare to be +groundless because from the circumstance of the atoms having colour and +other qualities there would follow the contrary of atomic minuteness and +permanency, i.e. it would follow that, compared to the ultimate cause, +they are gross and non-permanent. For ordinary experience teaches that +whatever things possess colour and other qualities are, compared to +their cause, gross and non-permanent. A piece of cloth, for instance, is +gross compared to the threads of which it consists, and non permanent; +and the threads again are non-permanent and gross compared to the +filaments of which they are made up. Therefore the atoms also which the +Vai/s/eshikas admit to have colour, &c. must have causes compared to +which they are gross and non-permanent. Hence that reason also which +Ka/n/ada gives for the permanence of the atoms (IV, 1, 1, 'that which +exists without having a cause is permanent') does not apply at all to +the atoms because, as we have shown just now, the atoms are to be +considered as having a cause.--The second reason also which Ka/n/ada +brings forward for the permanency of the atoms, viz. in IV, 1, 4, 'the +special negation implied in the term non-eternal would not be +possible[368]' (if there did not exist something eternal, viz. the +atoms), does not necessarily prove the permanency of the atoms; for +supposing that there exists not any permanent thing, the formation of a +negative compound such as 'non-eternal' is impossible. Nor does the +existence of the word 'non-permanent' absolutely presuppose the +permanency of atoms; for there exists (as we Vedantins maintain) another +permanent ultimate Cause, viz. Brahman. Nor can the existence of +anything be established merely on the ground of a word commonly being +used in that sense, since there is room for common use only if word and +matter are well-established by some other means of right knowledge.--The +third reason also given in the Vai/s/. Sutras (IV, 1, 5) for the +permanency of the atoms ('and Nescience') is unavailing. For if we +explain that Sutra to mean 'the non-perception of those actually +existing causes whose effects are seen is Nescience,' it would follow +that the binary atomic compounds also are permanent[369]. And if we +tried to escape from that difficulty by including (in the explanation of +the Sutra as given above) the qualification 'there being absence of +(originating) substances,' then nothing else but the absence of a cause +would furnish the reason for the permanency of the atoms, and as that +reason had already been mentioned before (in IV, 1, 1) the Sutra IV, 1, +5 would be a useless restatement.--Well, then (the Vai/s/eshika might +say), let us understand by 'Nescience' (in the Sutra) the impossibility +of conceiving a third reason of the destruction (of effects), in +addition to the division of the causal substance into its parts, and the +destruction of the causal substance; which impossibility involves the +permanency of the atoms[370].--There is no necessity, we reply, for +assuming that a thing when perishing must perish on account of either of +those two reasons. That assumption would indeed have to be made if it +were generally admitted that a new substance is produced only by the +conjunction of several causal substances. But if it is admitted that a +causal substance may originate a new substance by passing over into a +qualified state after having previously existed free from +qualifications, in its pure generality, it follows that the effected +substance may be destroyed by its solidity being dissolved, just as the +hardness of ghee is dissolved by the action of fire[371].--Thus there +would result, from the circumstance of the atoms having colour, &c., the +opposite of what the Vai/s/eshikas mean. For this reason also the atomic +doctrine cannot be maintained. + +16. And as there are difficulties in both cases. + +Earth has the qualities of smell, taste, colour, and touch, and is +gross; water has colour, taste, and touch, and is fine; fire has colour +and touch, and is finer yet; air is finest of all, and has the quality +of touch only. The question now arises whether the atoms constituting +the four elements are to be assumed to possess the same greater or +smaller number of qualities as the respective elements.--Either +assumption leads to unacceptable consequences. For if we assume that +some kinds of atoms have more numerous qualities, it follows that their +solid size (murti) will be increased thereby, and that implies their +being atoms no longer. That an increase of qualities cannot take place +without a simultaneous increase of size we infer from our observations +concerning effected material bodies.--If, on the other hand, we assume, +in order to save the equality of atoms of all kinds, that there is no +difference in the number of their qualities, we must either suppose that +they have all one quality only; but in that case we should not perceive +touch in fire nor colour and touch in water, nor taste, colour, and +touch in earth, since the qualities of the effects have for their +antecedents the qualities of the causes. Or else we must suppose all +atoms to have all the four qualities; but in that case we should +necessarily perceive what we actually do not perceive, viz. smell in +water, smell and taste in fire, smell, taste, and colour in air.--Hence +on this account also the atomic doctrine shows itself to be +unacceptable. + +17. And as the (atomic theory) is not accepted (by any authoritative +persons) it is to be disregarded altogether. + +While the theory of the pradhana being the cause of the world has been +accepted by some adherents of the Veda--as, for instance, Manu--with a +view to the doctrines of the effect existing in the cause already, and +so on, the atomic doctrine has not been accepted by any persons of +authority in any of its parts, and therefore is to be disregarded +entirely by all those who take their stand on the Veda. + +There are, moreover, other objections to the Vai/s/eshika doctrine.--The +Vai/s/eshikas assume six categories, which constitute the subject-matter +of their system, viz. substance, quality, action, generality, +particularity, and inherence. These six categories they maintain to be +absolutely different from each other, and to have different +characteristics; just as a man, a horse, a hare differ from one another. +Side by side with this assumption they make another which contradicts +the former one, viz. that quality, action, &c. have the attribute of +depending on substance. But that is altogether inappropriate; for just +as ordinary things, such as animals, grass, trees, and the like, being +absolutely different from each other do not depend on each other, so the +qualities, &c. also being absolutely different from substance, cannot +depend on the latter. Or else let the qualities, &c. depend on +substance; then it follows that, as they are present where substance is +present, and absent where it is absent, substance only exists, and, +according to its various forms, becomes the object of different terms +and conceptions (such as quality, action, &c.); just as Devadatta, for +instance, according to the conditions in which he finds himself is the +object of various conceptions and names. But this latter alternative +would involve the acceptation of the Sa@nkhya doctrine[372] and the +abandonment of the Vai/s/eshika standpoint.--But (the Vai/s/eshika may +say) smoke also is different from fire and yet it is dependent on +it.--True, we reply; but we ascertain the difference of smoke and fire +from the fact of their being apperceived in separation. Substance and +quality, on the other hand, are not so apperceived; for when we are +conscious of a white blanket, or a red cow, or a blue lotus, the +substance is in each case cognised by means of the quality; the latter +therefore has its Self in the substance. The same reasoning applies to +action, generality, particularity, and inherence. + +If you (the Vai/s/eshika) say that qualities, actions, &c. (although not +non-different from substances) may yet depend on the latter because +substances and qualities stand in the relation of one not being able to +exist without the other (ayutasiddhi[373]); we point out that things +which are ayutasiddha must either be non-separate in place, or +non-separate in time, or non-separate in nature, and that none of these +alternatives agrees with Vai/s/eshika principles. For the first +alternative contradicts your own assumptions according to which the +cloth originating from the threads occupies the place of the threads +only, not that of the cloth, while the qualities of the cloth, such as +its white colour, occupy the place of the cloth only, not that of the +threads. So the Vai/s/eshika-sutras say (I, 1, 10), 'Substances +originate another substance and qualities another quality.' The threads +which constitute the causal substance originate the effected substance, +viz. the cloth, and the qualities of the threads, such as white colour, +&c., produce in the cloth new corresponding qualities. But this doctrine +is clearly contradicted by the assumption of substance and quality being +non-separate in place.--If, in the second place, you explain +ayutasiddhatva as non-separation in time, it follows also that, for +instance, the right and the left horn of a cow would be +ayutasiddha.--And if, finally, you explain it to mean 'non-separation in +character,' it is impossible to make any further distinction between the +substance and the quality, as then quality is conceived as being +identical with substance. + +Moreover, the distinction which the Vai/s/eshikas make between +conjunction (sa/m/yoga) as being the connexion of things which can exist +separately, and inherence (samavaya) as being the connexion of things +which are incapable of separate existence is futile, since the cause +which exists before the effect[374] cannot be said to be incapable of +separate existence. Perhaps the Vai/s/eshika will say that his +definition refers to one of the two terms only, so that samavaya is the +connexion, with the cause, of the effect which is incapable of separate +existence. But this also is of no avail; for as a connexion requires two +terms, the effect as long as it has not yet entered into being cannot be +connected with the cause. And it would be equally unavailing to say that +the effect enters into the connexion after it has begun to exist; for if +the Vai/s/eshika admits that the effect may exist previous to its +connexion with the cause, it is no longer ayutasiddha (incapable of +separate existence), and thereby the principle that between effect and +cause conjunction and disjunction do not take place is violated.[375] +And[376] just as conjunction, and not samavaya, is the connexion in +which every effected substance as soon as it has been produced stands +with the all-pervading substances as ether, &c.--although no motion has +taken place on the part of the effected substance--so also the connexion +of the effect with the cause will be conjunction merely, not samavaya. + +Nor is there any proof for the existence of any connexion, samavaya or +sa/m/yoga, apart from the things which it connects. If it should be +maintained that sa/m/yoga and samavaya have such an existence because we +observe that there are names and ideas of them in addition to the names +and ideas of the things connected, we point out that one and the same +thing may be the subject of several names and ideas if it is considered +in its relations to what lies without it. Devadatta although being one +only forms the object of many different names and notions according as +he is considered in himself or in his relations to others; thus he is +thought and spoken of as man, Brahma/n/a learned in the Veda, generous, +boy, young man, father, grandson, brother, son-in-law, &c. So, again, +one and the same stroke is, according to the place it is connected with, +spoken of and conceived as meaning either ten, or hundred, or thousand, +&c. Analogously, two connected things are not only conceived and denoted +as connected things, but in addition constitute the object of the ideas +and terms 'conjunction' or 'inherence' which however do not prove +themselves to be separate entities.--Things standing thus, the +non-existence of separate entities (conjunction, &c.), which entities +would have to be established on the ground of perception, follows from +the fact of their non-perception.--Nor, again[377], does the +circumstance of the word and idea of connexion having for its object the +things connected involve the connexion's permanent existence, since we +have already shown above that one thing may, on account of its relations +to other things, be conceived and denoted in different ways. + +Further[378], conjunction cannot take place between the atoms, the soul, +and the internal organ, because they have no parts; for we observe that +conjunction takes place only of such substances as consist of parts. If +the Vai/s/eshika should say that parts of the atoms, soul and mind may +be assumed (in order to explain their alleged conjunction), we remark +that the assumption of actually non-existing things would involve the +result that anything might be established; for there is no restrictive +rule that only such and such non-existing things--whether contradictory +to reason or not--should be assumed and not any other, and assumptions +depend on one's choice only and may be carried to any extent. If we once +allow assumptions, there is no reason why there should not be assumed a +further hundred or thousand things, in addition to the six categories +assumed by the Vai/s/eshikas. Anybody might then assume anything, and we +could neither stop a compassionate man from assuming that this +transmigratory world which is the cause of so much misery to living +beings is not to be, nor a malicious man from assuming that even the +released souls are to enter on a new cycle of existences. + +Further, it is not possible that a binary atomic compound, which +consists of parts, should be connected with the simple indivisible atoms +by an intimate connexion (sa/ms/lesha) any more than they can thus be +connected with ether; for between ether and earth, &c. there does not +exist that kind of intimate connexion which exists, for instance, +between wood and varnish[379]. + +Let it then be said (the Vai/s/eshika resumes) that the samavaya +relation must be assumed, because otherwise the relation of that which +abides and that which forms the abode--which relation actually exists +between the effected substance and the causal substance--is not +possible.--That would, we reply, involve the vice of mutual dependence; +for only when the separateness of cause and effect is established, the +relation of the abode and that which abides can be established; and only +when the latter relation is established, the relation of separateness +can be established. For the Vedantins acknowledge neither the +separateness of cause and effect, nor their standing to each other in +the relation of abode and thing abiding, since according to their +doctrine the effect is only a certain state of the +cause[380].--Moreover, as the atoms are limited (not of infinite +extension), they must in reality consist of as many parts as we +acknowledge regions of space[381], whether those be six or eight or ten, +and consequently they cannot be permanent; conclusions contrary to the +Vai/s/eshika doctrine of the indivisibility and permanency of the +atoms.--If the Vai/s/eshika replies that those very parts which are +owing to the existence of the different regions of space are his +(indestructible) atoms; we deny that because all things whatever, +forming a series of substances of ever-increasing minuteness, are +capable of dissolution, until the highest cause (Brahman) is reached. +Earth--which is, in comparison with a binary compound, the grossest +thing of all--undergoes decomposition; so do the substances following +next which belong to the same class as earth; so does the binary +compound; and so does, finally, the atom which (although the minutest +thing of all) still belongs to the same general class (i.e. matter) with +earth, &c. The objection (which the Vai/s/eshika might possibly raise +here again) that things can be decomposed only by the separation of +their parts[382], we have already disposed of above, where we pointed +out that decomposition may take place in a manner analogous to the +melting of ghee. Just as the hardness of ghee, gold, and the like, is +destroyed in consequence of those substances being rendered liquid by +their contact with fire, no separation of the parts taking place all the +while; so the solid shape of the atoms also may be decomposed by their +passing back into the indifferenced condition of the highest cause. In +the same way the origination of effects also is brought about not merely +in the way of conjunction of parts; for we see that milk, for instance, +and water originate effects such as sour milk and ice without there +taking place any conjunction of parts. + +It thus appears that the atomic doctrine is supported by very weak +arguments only, is opposed to those scriptural passages which declare +the Lord to be the general cause, and is not accepted by any of the +authorities taking their stand on Scripture, such as Manu and others. +Hence it is to be altogether disregarded by highminded men who have a +regard for their own spiritual welfare. + +18. (If there be assumed) the (dyad of) aggregates with its two causes, +(there takes place) non-establishment of those (two aggregates). + +The reasons on account of which the doctrine of the Vai/s/eshikas cannot +be accepted have been stated above. That doctrine may be called +semi-destructive (or semi-nihilistic[383]). That the more thorough +doctrine which teaches universal non-permanency is even less worthy of +being taken into consideration, we now proceed to show. + +That doctrine is presented in a variety of forms, due either to the +difference of the views (maintained by Buddha at different times), or +else to the difference of capacity on the part of the disciples (of +Buddha). Three principal opinions may, however, be distinguished; the +opinion of those who maintain the reality of everything (Realists, +sarvastitvavadin); the opinion of those who maintain that thought only +is real (Idealists, vij/n/anavadin); and the opinion of those who +maintain that everything is void (unreal; Nihilists, +/s/unyavadin[384]).--We first controvert those who maintain that +everything, external as well as internal, is real. What is external is +either element (bhuta) or elementary (bhautika); what is internal is +either mind (/k/itta) or mental (/k/aitta). The elements are earth, +water, and so on; elemental are colour, &c. on the one hand, and the eye +and the other sense-organs on the other hand. Earth and the other three +elements arise from the aggregation of the four different kinds of +atoms; the atoms of earth being hard, those of water viscid, those of +fire hot, those of air mobile.:--The inward world consists of the five +so-called 'groups' (skandha), the group of sensation (rupaskandha), the +group of knowledge (vij/n/anaskandha), the group of feeling +(vedanaskandha), the group of verbal knowledge (samj/n/askandha), and +the group of impressions (sa/m/skaraskandha)[385]; which taken together +constitute the basis of all personal existence[386]. + +With reference to this doctrine we make the following remarks.--Those +two aggregates, constituting two different classes, and having two +different causes which the Bauddhas assume, viz. the aggregate of the +elements and elementary things whose cause the atoms are, and the +aggregate of the five skandhas whose cause the skandhas are, cannot, on +Bauddha principles, be established, i.e. it cannot be explained how the +aggregates are brought about. For the parts constituting the (material) +aggregates are devoid of intelligence, and the kindling (abhijvalana) of +intelligence depends on an aggregate of atoms having been brought about +previously[387]. And the Bauddhas do not admit any other permanent +intelligent being, such as either an enjoying soul or a ruling Lord, +which could effect the aggregation of the atoms. Nor can the atoms and +skandhas be assumed to enter on activity on their own account; for that +would imply their never ceasing to be active[388]. Nor can the cause of +aggregation be looked for in the so-called abode (i.e. the +alayavij/n/ana-pravaha, the train of self-cognitions); for the latter +must be described either as different from the single cognitions or as +not different from them. (In the former case it is either permanent, and +then it is nothing else but the permanent soul of the Vedantins; or +non-permanent;) then being admitted to be momentary merely, it cannot +exercise any influence and cannot therefore be the cause of the motion +of the atoms[389]. (And in the latter case we are not further advanced +than before.)--For all these reasons the formation of aggregates cannot +be accounted for. But without aggregates there would be an end of the +stream of mundane existence which presupposes those aggregates. + +19. If it be said that (the formation of aggregates may be explained) +through (Nescience, &c.) standing in the relation of mutual causality; +we say 'No,' because they merely are the efficient causes of the origin +(of the immediately subsequent links). + +Although there exists no permanent intelligent principle of the nature +either of a ruling Lord or an enjoying soul, under whose influence the +formation of aggregates could take place, yet the course of mundane +existence is rendered possible through the mutual causality[390] of +Nescience and so on, so that we need not look for any other combining +principle. + +The series beginning with Nescience comprises the following members: +Nescience, impression, knowledge, name and form, the abode of the six, +touch, feeling, desire, activity, birth, species, decay, death, grief, +lamentation, pain, mental affliction, and the like[391]. All these terms +constitute a chain of causes and are as such spoken of in the Bauddha +system, sometimes cursorily, sometimes at length. They are, moreover, +all acknowledged as existing, not by the Bauddhas only, but by the +followers of all systems. And as the cycles of Nescience, &c. forming +uninterrupted chains of causes and effects revolve unceasingly like +water-wheels, the existence of the aggregates (which constitute bodies +and minds) must needs be assumed, as without such Nescience and so on +could not take place. + +This argumentation of the Bauddha we are unable to accept, because it +merely assigns efficient causes for the origination of the members of +the series, but does not intimate an efficient cause for the formation +of the aggregates. If the Bauddha reminds us of the statement made above +that the existence of aggregates must needs be inferred from the +existence of Nescience and so on, we point out that, if he means thereby +that Nescience and so on cannot exist without aggregates and hence +require the existence of such, it remains to assign an efficient cause +for the formation of the aggregates. But, as we have already shown--when +examining the Vaijeshika doctrine--that the formation of aggregates +cannot be accounted for even on the assumption of permanent atoms and +individual souls in which the ad/ri/sh/t/a abides[392]; how much less +then are aggregates possible if there exist only momentary atoms not +connected with enjoying souls and devoid of abodes (i.e. souls), and +that which abides in them (the ad/ri/sh/t/a).--Let us then assume (the +Bauddha says) that Nescience, &c. themselves are the efficient cause of +the aggregate.--But how--we ask--can they be the cause of that without +which--as their abode--they themselves are not capable of existence? +Perhaps you will say that in the eternal sa/m/sara the aggregates +succeed one another in an unbroken chain, and hence also Nescience, and +so on, which abide in those aggregates. But in that case you will have +to assume either that each aggregate necessarily produces another +aggregate of the same kind, or that, without any settled rule, it may +produce either a like or an unlike one. In the former case a human body +could never pass over into that of a god or an animal or a being of the +infernal regions; in the latter case a man might in an instant be turned +into an elephant or a god and again become a man; either of which +consequences would be contrary to your system.--Moreover, that for the +purpose of whose enjoyment the aggregate is formed is, according to your +doctrine, not a permanent enjoying soul, so that enjoyment subserves +itself merely and cannot be desired by anything else; hence final +release also must, according to you, be considered as subserving itself +only, and no being desirous of release can be assumed. If a being +desirous of both were assumed, it would have to be conceived as +permanently existing up to the time of enjoyment and release, and that +would be contrary to your doctrine of general impermanency.--There may +therefore exist a causal relation between the members of the series +consisting of Nescience, &c., but, in the absence of a permanent +enjoying soul, it is impossible to establish on that ground the +existence of aggregates. + +20. (Nor can there be a causal relation between Nescience, &c.), because +on the origination of the subsequent (moment) the preceding one ceases +to be. + +We have hitherto argued that Nescience, and so on, stand in a causal +relation to each other merely, so that they cannot be made to account +for the existence of aggregates; we are now going to prove that they +cannot even be considered as efficient causes of the subsequent members +of the series to which they belong. + +Those who maintain that everything has a momentary existence only admit +that when the thing existing in the second moment[393] enters into being +the thing existing in the first moment ceases to be. On this admission +it is impossible to establish between the two things the relation of +cause and effect, since the former momentary existence which ceases or +has ceased to be, and so has entered into the state of non-existence, +cannot be the cause of the later momentary existence.--Let it then be +said that the former momentary existence when it has reached its full +development becomes the cause of the later momentary existence.--That +also is impossible; for the assumption that a fully developed existence +exerts a further energy, involves the conclusion that it is connected +with a second moment (which contradicts the doctrine of universal +momentariness).--Then let the mere existence of the antecedent entity +constitute its causal energy.--That assumption also is fruitless, +because we cannot conceive the origination of an effect which is not +imbued with the nature of the cause (i.e. in which the nature of the +cause does not continue to exist). And to assume that the nature of the +cause does continue to exist in the effect is impossible (on the Bauddha +doctrine), as that would involve the permanency of the cause, and thus +necessitate the abandonment of the doctrine of general +non-permanency.--Nor can it be admitted that the relation of cause and +effect holds good without the cause somehow giving its colouring to the +effect; for that doctrine might unduly be extended to all +cases[394].--Moreover, the origination and cessation of things of which +the Bauddha speaks must either constitute a thing's own form or another +state of it, or an altogether different thing. But none of these +alternatives agrees with the general Bauddha principles. If, in the +first place, origination and cessation constituted the form of a thing, +it would follow that the word 'thing' and the words 'origination' and +'cessation' are interchangeable (which is not the case).--Let then, +secondly, the Bauddha says, a certain difference be assumed, in +consequence of which the terms 'origination' and 'cessation' may denote +the initial and final states of that which in the intermediate state is +called thing.--In that case, we reply, the thing will be connected with +three moments, viz. the initial, the intermediate, and the final one, so +that the doctrine of general momentariness will have to be +abandoned.--Let then, as the third alternative, origination and +cessation be altogether different from the thing, as much as a buffalo +is from a horse.--That too cannot be, we reply; for it would lead to the +conclusion that the thing, because altogether disconnected with +origination and cessation, is everlasting. And the same conclusion would +be led up to, if we understood by the origination and cessation of a +thing merely its perception and non-perception; for the latter are +attributes of the percipient mind only, not of the thing itself.--Hence +we have again to declare the Bauddha doctrine to be untenable. + +21. On the supposition of there being no (cause: while yet the effect +takes place), there results contradiction of the admitted principle; +otherwise simultaneousness (of cause and effect). + +It has been shown that on the doctrine of general non-permanency, the +former momentary existence, as having already been merged in +non-existence, cannot be the cause of the later one.--Perhaps now the +Bauddha will say that an effect may arise even when there is no +cause.--That, we reply, implies the abandonment of a principle admitted +by yourself, viz. that the mind and the mental modifications originate +when in conjunction with four kinds of causes[395]. Moreover, if +anything could originate without a cause, there would be nothing to +prevent that anything might originate at any time.--If, on the other +hand, you should say that we may assume the antecedent momentary +existence to last until the succeeding one has been produced, we point +out that that would imply the simultaneousness of cause and effect, and +so run counter to an accepted Bauddha tenet, viz. that all things[396] +are momentary merely. + +22. Cessation dependent on a sublative act of the mind, and cessation +not so dependent cannot be established, there being no (complete) +interruption. + +The Bauddhas who maintain that universal destruction is going on +constantly, assume that 'whatever forms an object of knowledge and is +different from the triad is produced (sa/m/sk/ri/ta) and momentary.' To +the triad there mentioned they give the names 'cessation dependent on a +sublative act of the mind,' 'cessation not dependent on such an act,' +and 'space.' This triad they hold to be non-substantial, of a merely +negative character (abhavamatra), devoid of all positive +characteristics. By 'cessation dependent on a sublative act of the +mind,' we have to understand such destruction of entities as is preceded +by an act of thought[397]; by 'cessation not so dependent' is meant +destruction of the opposite kind[398]; by 'space' is meant absence in +general of something covering (or occupying space). Out of these three +non-existences 'space' will be refuted later on (Sutra 24), the two +other ones are refuted in the present Sutra. + +Cessation which is dependent on a sublative act of the mind, and +cessation which is not so dependent are both impossible, 'on account of +the absence of interruption.' For both kinds of cessation must have +reference either to the series (of momentary existences) or to the +single members constituting the series.--The former alternative is +impossible, because in all series (of momentary existences) the members +of the series stand in an unbroken relation of cause and effect so that +the series cannot be interrupted[399].--The latter alternative is +likewise inadmissible, for it is impossible to maintain that any +momentary existence should undergo complete annihilation entirely +undefinable and disconnected (with the previous state of existence), +since we observe that a thing is recognised in the various states +through which it may pass and thus has a connected existence[400]. And +in those cases also where a thing is not clearly recognised (after +having undergone a change) we yet infer, on the ground of actual +observations made in other cases, that one and the same thing continues +to exist without any interruption.--For these reasons the two kinds of +cessation which the Bauddhas assume cannot be proved. + +23. And on account of the objections presenting themselves in either +case. + +The cessation of Nescience, &c. which, on the assumption of the +Bauddhas, is included in the two kinds of cessation discussed hitherto, +must take place either in consequence of perfect knowledge together with +its auxiliaries, or else of its own accord. But the former alternative +would imply the abandonment of the Bauddha doctrine that destruction +takes place without a cause, and the latter alternative would involve +the uselessness of the Bauddha instruction as to the 'path'[401]. As +therefore both alternatives are open to objections, the Bauddha doctrine +must be declared unsatisfactory. + +24. And in the case of space also (the doctrine of its being a +non-entity is untenable) on account of its not differing (from the two +other kinds of non-entity). + +We have shown so far that of the triad declared by the Bauddhas to be +devoid of all positive characteristics, and therefore non-definable, two +(viz. prati-sa/m/khyavirodha and aprati) cannot be shown to be such; we +now proceed to show the same with regard to space (ether, aka/s/a). + +With regard to space also it cannot be maintained that it is +non-definable, since substantiality can be established in the case of +space no less than in the case of the two so-called non-entities treated +of in the preceding Sutras. That space is a real thing follows in the +first place from certain scriptural passages, such as 'space sprang from +the Self.'--To those, again, who (like the Bauddhas) disagree with us as +to the authoritativeness of Scripture we point out that the real +existence of space is to be inferred from the quality of sound, since we +observe that earth and other real things are the abodes of smell and the +other qualities.--Moreover, if you declare that space is nothing but the +absence in general of any covering (occupying) body, it would follow +that while one bird is flying--whereby space is occupied--there would be +no room for a second bird wanting to fly at the same time. And if you +should reply that the second bird may fly there where there is absence +of a covering body, we point out that that something by which the +absence of covering bodies is distinguished must be a positive entity, +viz. space in our sense, and not the mere non-existence of covering +bodies[402].--Moreover, the Bauddha places himself, by his view of +space, in opposition to other parts of his system. For we find, in the +Bauddha Scriptures, a series of questions and answers (beginning, 'On +what, O reverend Sir, is the earth founded?'), in which the following +question occurs, 'On what is the air founded?' to which it is replied +that the air is founded on space (ether). Now it is clear that this +statement is appropriate only on the supposition of space being a +positive entity, not a mere negation.--Further, there is a +self-contradiction in the Bauddha statements regarding all the three +kinds of negative entities, it being said, on the one hand, that they +are not positively definable, and, on the other hand, that they are +eternal. Of what is not real neither eternity nor non-eternity can be +predicated, since the distinction of subjects and predicates of +attribution is founded entirely on real things. Anything with regard to +which that distinction holds good we conclude to be a real thing, such +as jars and the like are, not a mere undefinable negation. + +25. And on account of remembrance. + +The philosopher who maintains that all things are momentary only would +have to extend that doctrine to the perceiving person (upalabdh/ri/) +also; that is, however, not possible, on account of the remembrance +which is consequent on the original perception. That remembrance can +take place only if it belongs to the same person who previously made the +perception; for we observe that what one man has experienced is not +remembered by another man. How, indeed, could there arise the conscious +state expressed in the sentences, 'I saw that thing, and now I see this +thing,' if the seeing person were not in both cases the same? That the +consciousness of recognition takes place only in the case of the +observing and remembering subject being one, is a matter known to every +one; for if there were, in the two cases, different subjects, the state +of consciousness arising in the mind of the remembering person would be, +'_I_ remember; another person made the observation.' But no such state +of consciousness does arise.--When, on the other hand, such a state of +consciousness does arise, then everybody knows that the person who made +the original observation, and the person who remembers, are different +persons, and then the state of consciousness is expressed as follows, 'I +remember that that other person saw that and that.'--In the case under +discussion, however, the Vaina/s/ika himself--whose state of +consciousness is, 'I saw that and that'--knows that there is one +thinking subject only to which the original perception as well as the +remembrance belongs, and does not think of denying that the past +perception belonged to himself, not any more than he denies that fire is +hot and gives light. + +As thus one agent is connected with the two moments of perception and +subsequent remembrance, the Vaina/s/ika has necessarily to abandon the +doctrine of universal momentariness. And if he further recognises all +his subsequent successive cognitions, up to his last breath, to belong +to one and the same subject, and in addition cannot but attribute all +his past cognitions, from the moment of his birth, to the same Self, how +can he maintain, without being ashamed of himself, that everything has a +momentary existence only? Should he maintain that the recognition (of +the subject as one and the same) takes place on account of the +similarity (of the different self-cognitions; each, however, being +momentary only), we reply that the cognition of similarity is based on +two things, and that for that reason the advocate of universal +momentariness who denies the existence of one (permanent) subject able +mentally to grasp the two similar things simply talks deceitful nonsense +when asserting that recognition is founded on similarity. Should he +admit, on the other hand, that there is one mind grasping the similarity +of two successive momentary existences, he would thereby admit that one +entity endures for two moments and thus contradict the tenet of +universal momentariness.--Should it be said that the cognition 'this is +similar to that' is a different (new) cognition, not dependent on the +apperception of the earlier and later momentary existences, we refute +this by the remark that the fact of different terms--viz. 'this' and +'that'--being used points to the existence of different things (which +the mind grasps in a judgment of similarity). If the mental act of which +similarity is the object were an altogether new act (not concerned with +the two separate similar entities), the expression 'this is similar to +that' would be devoid of meaning; we should in that case rather speak of +'similarity' only.--Whenever (to add a general reflexion) something +perfectly well known from ordinary experience is not admitted by +philosophers, they may indeed establish their own view and demolish the +contrary opinion by means of words, but they thereby neither convince +others nor even themselves. Whatever has been ascertained to be such and +such must also be represented as such and such; attempts to represent it +as something else prove nothing but the vain talkativeness of those who +make those attempts. Nor can the hypothesis of mere similarity being +cognised account for ordinary empirical life and thought; for (in +recognising a thing) we are conscious of it being that which we were +formerly conscious of, not of it being merely similar to that. We admit +that sometimes with regard to an external thing a doubt may arise +whether it is that or merely is similar to that; for mistakes may be +made concerning what lies outside our minds. But the conscious subject +never has any doubt whether it is itself or only similar to itself; it +rather is distinctly conscious that it is one and the same subject which +yesterday had a certain sensation and to-day remembers that +sensation.--For this reason also the doctrine of the Nihilists is to be +rejected. + +26. (Entity) does not spring from non-entity on account of that not +being observed. + +The system of the Vaina/s/ikas is objectionable for this reason also +that those who deny the existence of permanent stable causes are driven +to maintain that entity springs from non-entity. This latter tenet is +expressly enunciated by the Bauddhas where they say, 'On account of the +manifestation (of effects) not without previous destruction (of the +cause).' For, they say, from the decomposed seed only the young plant +springs, spoilt milk only turns into curds, and the lump of clay has +ceased to be a lump when it becomes a jar. If effects did spring from +the unchanged causes, all effects would originate from all causes at +once, as then no specification would be required[403]. Hence, as we see +that young plants, &c. spring from seeds, &c. only after the latter have +been merged in non-existence, we hold that entity springs from +non-entity. + +To this Bauddha tenet we reply, '(Entity does) not (spring) from +non-entity, on account of that not being observed.' If entity did spring +from non-entity, the assumption of special causes would be purportless, +since non-entity is in all cases one and the same. For the non-existence +of seeds and the like after they have been destroyed is of the same kind +as the non-existence of horns of hares and the like, i.e. non-existence +is in all cases nothing else but the absence of all character of +reality, and hence there would be no sense (on the doctrine of +origination from non-existence) in assuming that sprouts are produced +from seeds only, curds from milk only, and so on. And if +non-distinguished non-existence were admitted to have causal efficiency, +we should also have to assume that sprouts, &c. originate from the horns +of hares, &c.--a thing certainly not actually observed.--If, again, it +should be assumed that there are different kinds of non-existence having +special distinctions--just as, for instance, blueness and the like are +special qualities of lotuses and so on--we point out that in that case +the fact of there being such special distinctions would turn the +non-entities into entities no less real than lotuses and the like. In no +case non-existence would possess causal efficiency, simply because, like +the horn of a hare, it is non-existence merely.--Further, if existence +sprang from non-existence, all effects would be affected with +non-existence; while as a matter of fact they are observed to be merely +positive entities distinguished by their various special +characteristics. Nor[404] does any one think that things of the nature +of clay, such as pots and the like, are the effects of threads and the +like; but everybody knows that things of the nature of clay are the +effects of clay only.--The Bauddha's tenet that nothing can become a +cause as long as it remains unchanged, but has to that end to undergo +destruction, and that thus existence springs from non-existence only is +false; for it is observed that only things of permanent nature which are +always recognised as what they are, such as gold, &c., are the causes of +effects such as golden ornaments, and so on. In those cases where a +destruction of the peculiar nature of the cause is observed to take +place, as in the case of seeds, for instance, we have to acknowledge as +the cause of the subsequent condition (i.e. the sprout) not the earlier +condition in so far as it is destroyed, but rather those permanent +particles of the seed which are not destroyed (when the seed as a whole +undergoes decomposition).--Hence as we see on the one hand that no +entities ever originate from nonentities such as the horns of a hare, +and on the other hand that entities do originate from entities such as +gold and the like the whole Bauddha doctrine of existence springing from +non-existence has to be rejected.--We finally point out that, according +to the Bauddhas, all mind and all mental modifications spring from the +four skandhas discussed above and all material aggregates from the +atoms; why then do they stultify this their own doctrine by the fanciful +assumption of entity springing from non-entity and thus needlessly +perplex the mind of every one? + +27. And thus (on that doctrine) there would be an accomplishment (of +ends) in the case of non-active people also. + +If it were admitted that entity issues from non-entity, lazy inactive +people also would obtain their purposes, since 'non-existence' is a +thing to be had without much trouble. Rice would grow for the husbandman +even if he did not cultivate his field; vessels would shape themselves +even if the potter did not fashion the clay; and the weaver too lazy to +weave the threads into a whole, would nevertheless have in the end +finished pieces of cloth just as if he had been weaving. And nobody +would have to exert himself in the least either for going to the +heavenly world or for obtaining final release. All which of course is +absurd and not maintained by anybody.--Thus the doctrine of the +origination of entity from non-entity again shows itself to be futile. + +28. The non-existence (of external things) cannot be maintained, on +account of (our) consciousness (of them). + +There having been brought forward, in what precedes, the various +objections which lie against the doctrine of the reality of the external +world (in the Bauddha sense), such as the impossibility of accounting +for the existence of aggregates, &c., we are now confronted by those +Bauddhas who maintain that only cognitions (or ideas, vij/n/ana) +exist.--The doctrine of the reality of the external world was indeed +propounded by Buddha conforming himself to the mental state of some of +his disciples whom he perceived to be attached to external things; but +it does not represent his own true view according to which cognitions +alone are real. + +According to this latter doctrine the process, whose constituting +members are the act of knowledge, the object of knowledge, and the +result of knowledge[405], is an altogether internal one, existing in so +far only as it is connected with the mind (buddhi). Even if external +things existed, that process could not take place but in connexion with +the mind. If, the Bauddhas say, you ask how it is known that that entire +process is internal and that no outward things exist apart from +consciousness, we reply that we base our doctrine on the impossibility +of external things. For if external things are admitted, they must be +either atoms or aggregates of atoms such as posts and the like. But +atoms cannot be comprehended under the ideas of posts and the like, it +being impossible for cognition to represent (things as minute as) atoms. +Nor, again, can the outward things be aggregates of atoms such as +pillars and the like, because those aggregates can neither be defined as +different nor as non-different from the atoms[406].--In the same way we +can show that the external things are not universals and so on[407]. + +Moreover, the cognitions--which are of a uniform nature only in so far +as they are states of consciousness--undergo, according to their +objects, successive modifications, so that there is presented to the +mind now the idea of a post, now the idea of a wall, now the idea of a +jar, and so on. Now this is not possible without some distinction on the +part of the ideas themselves, and hence we must necessarily admit that +the ideas have the same forms as their objects. But if we make this +admission, from which it follows that the form of the objects is +determined by the ideas, the hypothesis of the existence of external +things becomes altogether gratuitous. From the fact, moreover, of our +always being conscious of the act of knowledge and the object of +knowledge simultaneously it follows that the two are in reality +identical. When we are conscious of the one we are conscious of the +other also; and that would not happen if the two were essentially +distinct, as in that case there would be nothing to prevent our being +conscious of one apart from the other. For this reason also we maintain +that there are no outward things.-- + +Perception is to be considered as similar to a dream and the like. The +ideas present to our minds during a dream, a magical illusion, a mirage +and so on, appear in the twofold form of subject and object, although +there is all the while no external object; hence we conclude that the +ideas of posts and the like which occur in our waking state are likewise +independent of external objects; for they also are simply ideas.--If we +be asked how, in the absence of external things, we account for the +actual variety of ideas, we reply that that variety is to be explained +from the impressions left by previous ideas[408]. In the beginningless +sa/m/sara ideas and mental impressions succeed each other as causes and +effects, just as the plant springs from the seed and seeds are again +produced from the plant, and there exists therefore a sufficient reason +for the variety of ideas actually experienced. That the variety of ideas +is solely due to the impressions left on the mind by past ideas follows, +moreover, from the following affirmative and negative judgments: we both +(the Vedantins as well as the Bauddhas) admit that in dreams, &c. there +presents itself a variety of ideas which arise from mental impressions, +without any external object; we (the Bauddhas) do not admit that any +variety of ideas can arise from external objects, without mental +impressions.--Thus we are again led to conclude that no outward things +exist. + +To all this we (the Vedantins) make the following reply.--The +non-existence of external things cannot be maintained because we are +conscious of external things. In every act of perception we are +conscious of some external thing corresponding to the idea, whether it +be a post or a wall or a piece of cloth or a jar, and that of which we +are conscious cannot but exist. Why should we pay attention to the words +of a man who, while conscious of an outward thing through its +approximation to his senses, affirms that he is conscious of no outward +thing, and that no such thing exists, any more than we listen to a man +who while he is eating and experiencing the feeling of satisfaction +avers that he does not eat and does not feel satisfied?--If the Bauddha +should reply that he does not affirm that he is conscious of no object +but only that he is conscious of no object apart from the act of +consciousness, we answer that he may indeed make any arbitrary statement +he likes, but that he has no arguments to prove what he says. That the +outward thing exists apart from consciousness, has necessarily to be +accepted on the ground of the nature of consciousness itself. Nobody +when perceiving a post or a wall is conscious of his perception only, +but all men are conscious of posts and walls and the like as objects of +their perceptions. That such is the consciousness of all men, appears +also from the fact that even those who contest the existence of external +things bear witness to their existence when they say that what is an +internal object of cognition appears like something external. For they +practically accept the general consciousness, which testifies to the +existence of an external world, and being at the same time anxious to +refute it they speak of the external things as 'like something +external.' If they did not themselves at the bottom acknowledge the +existence of the external world, how could they use the expression 'like +something external?' No one says, 'Vish/n/umitra appears like the son of +a barren mother.' If we accept the truth as it is given to us in our +consciousness, we must admit that the object of perception appears to us +as something external, not like something external.--But--the Bauddha +may reply--we conclude that the object of perception is only like +something external because external things are impossible.--This +conclusion we rejoin is improper, since the possibility or impossibility +of things is to be determined only on the ground of the operation or +non-operation of the means of right knowledge; while on the other hand, +the operation and non-operation of the means of right knowledge are not +to be made dependent on preconceived possibilities or impossibilities. +Possible is whatever is apprehended by perception or some other means of +proof; impossible is what is not so apprehended. Now the external things +are, according to their nature, apprehended by all the instruments of +knowledge; how then can you maintain that they are not possible, on the +ground of such idle dilemmas as that about their difference or +non-difference from atoms?--Nor, again, does the non-existence of +objects follow from the fact of the ideas having the same form as the +objects; for if there were no objects the ideas could not have the forms +of the objects, and the objects are actually apprehended as +external.--For the same reason (i.e. because the distinction of thing +and idea is given in consciousness) the invariable concomitance of idea +and thing has to be considered as proving only that the thing +constitutes the means of the idea, not that the two are identical. +Moreover, when we are conscious first of a pot and then of a piece of +cloth, consciousness remains the same in the two acts while what varies +are merely the distinctive attributes of consciousness; just as when we +see at first a black and then a white cow, the distinction of the two +perceptions is due to the varying blackness and whiteness while the +generic character of the cow remains the same. The difference of the one +permanent factor (from the two--or more--varying factors) is proved +throughout by the two varying factors, and vice versa the difference of +the latter (from the permanent factor) by the presence of the one +(permanent factor). Therefore thing and idea are distinct. The same view +is to be held with regard to the perception and the remembrance of a +jar; there also the perception and the remembrance only are distinct +while the jar is one and the same; in the same way as when conscious of +the smell of milk and the taste of milk we are conscious of the smell +and taste as different things but of the milk itself as one only. + +Further, two ideas which occupy different moments of time and pass away +as soon as they have become objects of consciousness cannot +apprehend--or be apprehended by--each other. From this it follows that +certain doctrines forming part of the Bauddha system cannot be upheld; +so the doctrine that ideas are different from each other; the doctrine +that everything is momentary, void, &c.; the doctrine of the distinction +of individuals and classes; the doctrine that a former idea leaves an +impression giving rise to a later idea; the doctrine of the distinction, +owing to the influence of Nescience, of the attributes of existence and +non-existence; the doctrine of bondage and release (depending on absence +and presence of right knowledge)[409]. + +Further, if you say that we are conscious of the idea, you must admit +that we are also conscious of the external thing. And if you rejoin that +we are conscious of the idea on its own account because it is of a +luminous nature like a lamp, while the external thing is not so; we +reply that by maintaining the idea to be illuminated by itself you make +yourself guilty of an absurdity no less than if you said that fire burns +itself. And at the same time you refuse to accept the common and +altogether rational opinion that we are conscious of the external thing +by means of the idea different from the thing! Indeed a proof of +extraordinary philosophic insight!--It cannot, moreover, be asserted in +any way that the idea apart from the thing is the object of our +consciousness; for it is absurd to speak of a thing as the object of its +own activity. Possibly you (the Bauddha) will rejoin that, if the idea +is to be apprehended by something different from it, that something also +must be apprehended by something different and so on ad infinitum. And, +moreover, you will perhaps object that as each cognition is of an +essentially illuminating nature like a lamp, the assumption of a further +cognition is uncalled for; for as they are both equally illuminating the +one cannot give light to the other.--But both these objections are +unfounded. As the idea only is apprehended, and there is consequently no +necessity to assume something to apprehend the Self which witnesses the +idea (is conscious of the idea), there results no regressus ad +infinitum. And the witnessing Self and the idea are of an essentially +different nature, and may therefore stand to each other in the relation +of knowing subject and object known. The existence of the witnessing +Self is self-proved and cannot therefore be denied.--Moreover, if you +maintain that the idea, lamplike, manifests itself without standing in +need of a further principle to illuminate it, you maintain thereby that +ideas exist which are not apprehended by any of the means of knowledge, +and which are without a knowing being; which is no better than to assert +that a thousand lamps burning inside some impenetrable mass of rocks +manifest themselves. And if you should maintain that thereby we admit +your doctrine, since it follows from what we have said that the idea +itself implies consciousness; we reply that, as observation shows, the +lamp in order to become manifest requires some other intellectual agent +furnished with instruments such as the eye, and that therefore the idea +also, as equally being a thing to be illuminated, becomes manifest only +through an ulterior intelligent principle. And if you finally object +that we, when advancing the witnessing Self as self-proved, merely +express in other words the Bauddha tenet that the idea is +self-manifested, we refute you by remarking that your ideas have the +attributes of originating, passing away, being manifold, and so on +(while our Self is one and permanent).--We thus have proved that an +idea, like a lamp, requires an ulterior intelligent principle to render +it manifest. + +29. And on account of their difference of nature (the ideas of the +waking state) are not like those of a dream. + +We now apply ourselves to the refutation of the averment made by the +Bauddha, that the ideas of posts, and so on, of which we are conscious +in the waking state, may arise in the absence of external objects, just +as the ideas of a dream, both being ideas alike.--The two sets of ideas, +we maintain, cannot be treated on the same footing, on account of the +difference of their character. They differ as follows.--The things of +which we are conscious in a dream are negated by our waking +consciousness. 'I wrongly thought that I had a meeting with a great man; +no such meeting took place, but my mind was dulled by slumber, and so +the false idea arose.' In an analogous manner the things of which we are +conscious when under the influence of a magic illusion, and the like, +are negated by our ordinary consciousness. Those things, on the other +hand, of which we are conscious in our waking state, such as posts and +the like, are never negated in any state.--Moreover, the visions of a +dream are acts of remembrance, while the visions of the waking state are +acts of immediate consciousness; and the distinction between remembrance +and immediate consciousness is directly cognised by every one as being +founded on the absence or presence of the object. When, for instance, a +man remembers his absent son, he does not directly perceive him, but +merely wishes so to perceive him. As thus the distinction between the +two states is evident to every one, it is impossible to formulate the +inference that waking consciousness is false because it is mere +consciousness, such as dreaming consciousness; for we certainly cannot +allow would-be philosophers to deny the truth of what is directly +evident to themselves. Just because they feel the absurdity of denying +what is evident to themselves, and are consequently unable to +demonstrate the baselessness of the ideas of the waking state from those +ideas themselves, they attempt to demonstrate it from their having +certain attributes in common with the ideas of the dreaming state. But +if some attribute cannot belong to a thing on account of the latter's +own nature, it cannot belong to it on account of the thing having +certain attributes in common with some other thing. Fire, which is felt +to be hot, cannot be demonstrated to be cold, on the ground of its +having attributes in common with water. And the difference of nature +between the waking and the sleeping state we have already shown. + +30. The existence (of mental impressions) is not possible on the +Bauddha view, on account of the absence of perception (of external +things). + +We now proceed to that theory of yours, according to which the variety +of ideas can be explained from the variety of mental impressions, +without any reference to external things, and remark that on your +doctrine the existence of mental impressions is impossible, as you do +not admit the perception of external things. For the variety of mental +impressions is caused altogether by the variety of the things perceived. +How, indeed, could various impressions originate if no external things +were perceived? The hypothesis of a beginningless series of mental +impressions would lead only to a baseless regressus ad infinitum, +sublative of the entire phenomenal world, and would in no way establish +your position.--The same argument, i.e. the one founded on the +impossibility of mental impressions which are not caused by external +things, refutes also the positive and negative judgments, on the ground +of which the denier of an external world above attempted to show that +ideas are caused by mental impressions, not by external things. We +rather have on our side a positive and a negative judgment whereby to +establish our doctrine of the existence of external things, viz. 'the +perception of external things is admitted to take place also without +mental impressions,' and 'mental impressions are not admitted to +originate independently of the perception of external +things.'--Moreover, an impression is a kind of modification, and +modifications cannot, as experience teaches, take place unless there is +some substratum which is modified. But, according to your doctrine, such +a substratum of impressions does not exist, since you say that it cannot +be cognised through any means of knowledge. + +31. And on account of the momentariness (of the alayavij/n/ana, it +cannot be the abode of mental impressions). + +If you maintain that the so-called internal cognition +(alayavij/n/ana[410]) assumed by you may constitute the abode of the +mental impressions, we deny that, because that cognition also being +admittedly momentary, and hence non-permanent, cannot be the abode of +impressions any more than the quasi-external cognitions +(prav/ri/ttivij/n/ana). For unless there exists one continuous principle +equally connected with the past, the present, and the future[411], or an +absolutely unchangeable (Self) which cognises everything, we are unable +to account for remembrance, recognition, and so on, which are subject to +mental impressions dependent on place, time, and cause. If, on the other +hand, you declare your alayavij/n/ana to be something permanent, you +thereby abandon your tenet of the alayavij/n/ana as well as everything +else being momentary.--Or (to explain the Sutra in a different way) as +the tenet of general momentariness is characteristic of the systems of +the idealistic as well as the realistic Bauddhas, we may bring forward +against the doctrines of the former all those arguments dependent on the +principle of general momentariness which we have above urged against the +latter. + +We have thus refuted both nihilistic doctrines, viz. the doctrine which +maintains the (momentary) reality of the external world, and the +doctrine which asserts that ideas only exist. The third variety of +Bauddha doctrine, viz. that everything is empty (i.e. that absolutely +nothing exists), is contradicted by all means of right knowledge, and +therefore requires no special refutation. For this apparent world, whose +existence is guaranteed by all the means of knowledge, cannot be denied, +unless some one should find out some new truth (based on which he could +impugn its existence)--for a general principle is proved by the absence +of contrary instances. + +32. And on account of its general deficiency in probability. + +No further special discussion is in fact required. From whatever new +points of view the Bauddha system is tested with reference to its +probability, it gives way on all sides, like the walls of a well dug in +sandy soil. It has, in fact, no foundation whatever to rest upon, and +hence the attempts to use it as a guide in the practical concerns of +life are mere folly.--Moreover, Buddha by propounding the three mutually +contradictory systems, teaching respectively the reality of the external +world, the reality of ideas only, and general nothingness, has himself +made it clear either that he was a man given to make incoherent +assertions, or else that hatred of all beings induced him to propound +absurd doctrines by accepting which they would become thoroughly +confused.--So that--and this the Sutra means to indicate--Buddha's +doctrine has to be entirely disregarded by all those who have a regard +for their own happiness. + +33. On account of the impossibility (of contradictory attributes) in one +thing, (the Jaina doctrine is) not (to be accepted). + +Having disposed of the Bauddha doctrine we now turn to the system of the +Gymnosophists (Jainas). + +The Jainas acknowledge seven categories (tattvas), viz. soul (jiva), +non-soul (ajiva), the issuing outward (asrava), restraint (sa/m/vara), +destruction (nirjara), bondage (bandha), and release (moksha)[412]. +Shortly it may be said that they acknowledge two categories, viz. soul +and non-soul, since the five other categories may be subsumed under +these two.--They also set forth a set of categories different from the +two mentioned. They teach that there are five so-called astikayas +('existing bodies,' i.e. categories), viz. the categories of soul +(jiva), body (pudgala), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), and space +(aka/s/a). All these categories they again subdivide in various fanciful +ways[413].--To all things they apply the following method of reasoning, +which they call the saptabha@nginaya: somehow it is; somehow it is not; +somehow it is and is not; somehow it is indescribable; somehow it is and +is indescribable; somehow it is not and is indescribable; somehow it is +and is not and is indescribable. + +To this unsettling style of reasoning they submit even such conceptions +as that of unity and eternity[414]. + +This doctrine we meet as follows.--Your reasoning, we say, is +inadmissible 'on account of the impossibility in one thing.' That is to +say, it is impossible that contradictory attributes such as being and +non-being should at the same time belong to one and the same thing; just +as observation teaches us that a thing cannot be hot and cold at the +same moment. The seven categories asserted by you must either be so many +and such or not be so many and such; the third alternative expressed in +the words 'they either are such or not such' results in a cognition of +indefinite nature which is no more a source of true knowledge than doubt +is. If you should plead that the cognition that a thing is of more than +one nature is definite and therefore a source of true knowledge, we deny +this. For the unlimited assertion that all things are of a non-exclusive +nature is itself something, falls as such under the alternative +predications 'somehow it is,' 'somehow it is not,' and so ceases to be a +definite assertion. The same happens to the person making the assertion +and to the result of the assertion; partly they are, partly they are +not. As thus the means of knowledge, the object of knowledge, the +knowing subject, and the act of knowledge are all alike indefinite, how +can the Tirthakara (Jina) teach with any claim to authority, and how can +his followers act on a doctrine the matter of which is altogether +indeterminate? Observation shows that only when a course of action is +known to have a definite result people set about it without hesitation. +Hence a man who proclaims a doctrine of altogether indefinite contents +does not deserve to be listened to any more than a drunken man or a +madman.--Again, if we apply the Jaina reasoning to their doctrine of the +five categories, we have to say that on one view of the matter they are +five and on another view they are not five; from which latter point of +view it follows that they are either fewer or more than five. Nor is it +logical to declare the categories to be indescribable. For if they are +so, they cannot be described; but, as a matter of fact, they are +described so that to call them indescribable involves a contradiction. +And if you go on to say that the categories on being described are +ascertained to be such and such, and at the same time are not +ascertained to be such and such, and that the result of their being +ascertained is perfect knowledge or is not perfect knowledge, and that +imperfect knowledge is the opposite of perfect knowledge or is not the +opposite; you certainly talk more like a drunken or insane man than like +a sober, trustworthy person.--If you further maintain that the heavenly +world and final release exist or do not exist and are eternal or +non-eternal, the absence of all determinate knowledge which is implied +in such statements will result in nobody's acting for the purpose of +gaining the heavenly world and final release. And, moreover, it follows +from your doctrine that soul, non-soul, and so on, whose nature you +claim to have ascertained, and which you describe as having existed from +all eternity, relapse all at once into the condition of absolute +indetermination.--As therefore the two contradictory attributes of being +and non-being cannot belong to any of the categories--being excluding +non-being and vice versa non-being excluding being--the doctrine of the +Arhat must be rejected.--The above remarks dispose likewise of the +assertions made by the Jainas as to the impossibility of deciding +whether of one thing there is to be predicated oneness or plurality, +permanency or non-permanency, separateness or norn-separateness, and so +on.--The Jaina doctrine that aggregates are formed from the atoms--by +them called pudgalas--we do not undertake to refute separately as its +refutation is already comprised in that of the atomistic doctrine given +in a previous part of this work. + +34. And likewise (there results from the Jaina, doctrine) +non-universality of the Self. + +We have hitherto urged against the Jaina doctrine an objection resulting +from the syadvada, viz. that one thing cannot have contradictory +attributes. We now turn to the objection that from their doctrine it +would follow that the individual Self is not universal, i.e. not +omnipresent.--The Jainas are of opinion that the soul has the same size +as the body. From this it would follow that the soul is not of infinite +extension, but limited, and hence non-eternal like jars and similar +things. Further, as the bodies of different classes of creatures are of +different size, it might happen that the soul of a man--which is of the +size of the human body--when entering, in consequence of its former +deeds, on a new state of existence in the body of an elephant would not +be able to fill the whole of it; or else that a human soul being +relegated to the body of an ant would not be able to find sufficient +room in it. The same difficulty would, moreover, arise with regard to +the successive stages of one state of existence, infancy, youth, and old +age.--But why, the Jaina may ask, should we not look upon the soul as +consisting of an infinite number of parts capable of undergoing +compression in a small body and dilatation in a big one?--Do you, we ask +in return, admit or not admit that those countless particles of the soul +may occupy the same place or not?--If you do not admit it, it follows +that the infinite number of particles cannot be contained in a body of +limited dimensions.--If you do admit it, it follows that, as then the +space occupied by all the particles may be the space of one particle +only, the extension of all the particles together will remain +inconsiderable, and hence the soul be of minute size (not of the size of +the body). You have, moreover, no right to assume that a body of limited +size contains an infinite number of soul particles. + +Well the, the Jaina may reply, let us assume that by turns whenever the +soul enters a big body some particles accede to it while some withdraw +from it whenever it enters a small body.--To this hypothesis the next +Sutra furnishes a reply. + +35. Nor is non-contradiction to be derived from the succession (of parts +acceding to and departing from the soul), on account of the change, &c. +(of the soul). + +Nor can the doctrine of the soul having the same size as the body be +satisfactorily established by means of the hypothesis of the successive +accession and withdrawal of particles. For this hypothesis would involve +the soul's undergoing changes and the like. If the soul is continually +being repleted and depleted by the successive addition and withdrawal of +parts, it of course follows that it undergoes change, and if it is +liable to change it follows that it is non-permanent, like the skin and +similar substances. From that, again, it follows that the Jaina doctrine +of bondage and release is untenable; according to which doctrine 'the +soul, which in the state of bondage is encompassed by the ogdoad of +works and sunk in the ocean of sa/m/sara, rises when its bonds are +sundered, as the gourd rises to the surface of the water when it is +freed from the encumbering clay[415].'--Moreover, those particles which +in turns come and depart have the attributes of coming and going, and +cannot, on that account, be of the nature of the Self any more than the +body is. And if it be said that the Self consists of some permanently +remaining parts, we remark that it would be impossible to determine +which are the permanent and which the temporary parts.--We have further +to ask from whence those particles originate when they accede to the +soul, and into what they are merged when they detach themselves from it. +They cannot spring from the material elements and re-enter the elements; +for the soul is immaterial. Nor have we any means to prove the existence +of some other, general or special, reservoir of +soul-particles.--Moreover, on the hypothesis under discussion the soul +would be of indefinite nature, as the size of the particles acceding and +departing is itself indefinite.--On account of all these and similar +difficulties it cannot be maintained that certain particles by turns +attach themselves to, and detach themselves from, the soul. + +The Sutra may be taken in a different sense also. The preceding Sutra +has proved that the soul if of the same size as the body cannot be +permanent, as its entering into bigger and smaller bodies involves its +limitation. To this the Gymnosophist may be supposed to rejoin that +although the soul's size successively changes it may yet be permanent, +just as the stream of water is permanent (although the water continually +changes). An analogous instance would be supplied by the permanency of +the stream of ideas while the individual ideas, as that of a red cloth +and so on, are non-permanent.--To this rejoinder our Sutra replies that +if the stream is not real we are led back to the doctrine of a general +void, and that, if it is something real, the difficulties connected with +the soul's changing, &c. present themselves and render the Jaina view +impossible. + +36. And on account of the permanency of the final (size of the soul) and +the resulting permanency of the two (preceding sizes) there is no +difference (of size, at any time). + +Moreover, the Jainas themselves admit the permanency of the final size +of the soul which it has in the state of release. From this it follows +also that its initial size and its intervening sizes must be +permanent[416], and that hence there is no difference between the three +sizes. But this would involve the conclusion that the different bodies +of the soul have one and the same size, and that the soul cannot enter +into bigger and smaller bodies.--Or else (to explain the Sutra in a +somewhat different way) from the fact that the final size of the soul is +permanent, it follows that its size in the two previous conditions also +is permanent. Hence the soul must be considered as being always of the +same size--whether minute or infinite--and not of the varying size of +its bodies.--For this reason also the doctrine of the Arhat has to be +set aside as not in any way more rational than the doctrine of Buddha. + +37. The Lord (cannot be the cause of the world), on account of the +inappropriateness (of that doctrine). + +The Sutrakara now applies himself to the refutation of that doctrine, +according to which the Lord is the cause of the world only in so far as +he is the general ruler.--But how do you know that that is the purport +of the Sutra (which speaks of the Lord 'without any +qualification')?--From the circumstance, we reply, that the teacher +himself has proved, in the previous sections of the work, that the Lord +is the material cause as well as the ruler of the world. Hence, if the +present Sutra were meant to impugn the doctrine of the Lord in general, +the earlier and later parts of the work would be mutually contradictory, +and the Sutrakara would thus be in conflict with himself. We therefore +must assume that the purport of the present Sutra is to make an +energetic attack on the doctrine of those who maintain that the Lord is +not the material cause, but merely the ruler, i.e. the operative cause +of the world; a doctrine entirely opposed to the Vedantic tenet of the +unity of Brahman. + +The theories about the Lord which are independent of the Vedanta are of +various nature. Some taking their stand on the Sa@nkhya and Yoga systems +assume that the Lord acts as a mere operative cause, as the ruler of the +pradhana and of the souls, and that pradhana, soul, and Lord are of +mutually different nature.--The Mahe/s/varas (/S/aivas) maintain that +the five categories, viz. effect, cause, union, ritual, the end of pain, +were taught by the Lord Pa/s/upati (/S/iva) to the end of breaking the +bonds of the animal (i.e. the soul); Pa/s/upati is, according to them, +the Lord, the operative cause.--Similarly, the Vai/s/eshikas and others +also teach, according to their various systems, that the Lord is somehow +the operative cause of the world. + +Against all these opinions the Sutra remarks 'the Lord, on account of +the inappropriateness.' I.e. it is not possible that the Lord as the +ruler of the pradhana and the soul should be the cause of the world, on +account of the inappropriateness of that doctrine. For if the Lord is +supposed to assign to the various classes of animate creatures low, +intermediate, and high positions, according to his liking, it follows +that he is animated by hatred, passion, and so on, is hence like one of +us, and is no real Lord. Nor can we get over this difficulty by assuming +that he makes his dispositions with a view to the merit and demerit of +the living beings; for that assumption would lead us to a logical +see-saw, the Lord as well as the works of living beings having to be +considered in turns both as acting and as acted upon. This difficulty is +not removed by the consideration that the works of living beings and the +resulting dispositions made by the Lord form a chain which has no +beginning; for in past time as well as in the present mutual +interdependence of the two took place, so that the beginningless series +is like an endless chain of blind men leading other blind men. It is, +moreover, a tenet set forth by the Naiyayikas themselves that +'imperfections have the characteristic of being the causes of action' +(Nyaya Sutra I, 1, 18). Experience shows that all agents, whether they +be active for their own purposes or for the purposes of something else, +are impelled to action by some imperfection. And even if it is admitted +that an agent even when acting for some extrinsic purpose is impelled by +an intrinsic motive, your doctrine remains faulty all the same; for the +Lord is no longer a Lord, even if he is actuated by intrinsic motives +only (such as the desire of removing the painful feeling connected with +pity).--Your doctrine is finally inappropriate for that reason also that +you maintain the Lord to be a special kind of soul; for from that it +follows that he must be devoid of all activity. + +38. And on account of the impossibility of the connexion (of the Lord +with the souls and the pradhana). + +Against the doctrine which we are at present discussing there lies the +further objection that a Lord distinct from the pradhana and the souls +cannot be the ruler of the latter without being connected with them in a +certain way. But of what nature is that connexion to be? It cannot be +conjunction (sa/m/yoga), because the Lord, as well as the pradhana and +the souls, is of infinite extent and devoid of parts. Nor can it be +inherence, since it would be impossible to define who should be the +abode and who the abiding thing. Nor is it possible to assume some other +connexion, the special nature of which would have to be inferred from +the effect, because the relation of cause and effect is just what is not +settled as yet[417].--How, then, it may be asked, do you--the +Vedantins--establish the relation of cause and effect (between the Lord +and the world)?--There is, we reply, no difficulty in our case, as the +connexion we assume is that of identity (tadatmya). The adherent of +Brahman, moreover, defines the nature of the cause, and so on, on the +basis of Scripture, and is therefore not obliged to render his tenets +throughout conformable to observation. Our adversary, on the other hand, +who defines the nature of the cause and the like according to instances +furnished by experience, may be expected to maintain only such doctrines +as agree with experience. Nor can he put forward the claim that +Scripture, because it is the production of the omniscient Lord, may be +used to confirm his doctrine as well as that of the Vedantin; for that +would involve him in a logical see-saw, the omniscience of the Lord +being established on the doctrine of Scripture, and the authority of +Scripture again being established on the omniscience of the Lord.--For +all these reasons the Sa@nkhya-yoga hypothesis about the Lord is devoid +of foundation. Other similar hypotheses which likewise are not based on +the Veda are to be refuted by corresponding arguments. + +39. And on account of the impossibility of rulership (on the part of the +Lord). + +The Lord of the argumentative philosophers is an untenable hypothesis, +for the following reason also.--Those philosophers are obliged to assume +that by his influence the Lord produces action in the pradhana, &c. just +as the potter produces motion in the clay, &c. But this cannot be +admitted; for the pradhana, which is devoid of colour and other +qualities, and therefore not an object of perception, is on that account +of an altogether different nature from clay and the like, and hence +cannot be looked upon as the object of the Lord's action. + +40. If you say that as the organs (are ruled by the soul so the pradhana +is ruled by the Lord), we deny that on account of the enjoyment, &c. + +Well, the opponent might reply, let us suppose that the Lord rules the +pradhana in the same way as the soul rules the organ of sight and the +other organs which are devoid of colour, and so on, and hence not +objects of perception. + +This analogy also, we reply, proves nothing. For we infer that the +organs are ruled by the soul, from the observed fact that the soul feels +pleasure, pain, and the like (which affect the soul through the organs). +But we do not observe that the Lord experiences pleasure, pain, &c. +caused by the pradhana. If the analogy between the pradhana and the +bodily organs were a complete one, it would follow that the Lord is +affected by pleasure and pain no less than the transmigrating souls are. + +Or else the two preceding Sutras may be explained in a different way. +Ordinary experience teaches us that kings, who are the rulers of +countries, are never without some material abode, i.e. a body; hence, if +we wish to infer the existence of a general Lord from the analogy of +earthly rulers, we must ascribe to him also some kind of body to serve +as the substratum of his organs. But such a body cannot be ascribed to +the Lord, since all bodies exist only subsequently to the creation, not +previously to it. The Lord, therefore, is not able to act because devoid +of a material substratum; for experience teaches us that action requires +a material substrate.--Let us then arbitrarily assume that the Lord +possesses some kind of body serving as a substratum for his organs (even +previously to creation).--This assumption also will not do; for if the +Lord has a body he is subject to the sensations of ordinary +transmigratory souls, and thus no longer is the Lord. + +41. And (there would follow from that doctrine) either finite duration +or absence of omniscience (on the Lord's part). + +The hypothesis of the argumentative philosophers is invalid, for the +following reason also.--They teach that the Lord is omniscient and of +infinite duration, and likewise that the pradhana, as well as the +individual souls, is of infinite duration. Now, the omniscient Lord +either defines the measure of the pradhana, the souls, and himself, or +does not define it. Both alternatives subvert the doctrine under +discussion. For, on the former alternative, the pradhana, the souls, and +the Lord, being all of them of definite measure, must necessarily be of +finite duration; since ordinary experience teaches that all things of +definite extent, such as jars and the like, at some time cease to exist. +The numerical measure of pradhana, souls, and Lord is defined by their +constituting a triad, and the individual measure of each of them must +likewise be considered as defined by the Lord (because he is +omniscient). The number of the souls is a high one[418]. From among this +limited number of souls some obtain release from the sa/m/sara, that +means their sa/m/sara comes to an end, and their subjection to the +samsara comes to an end. Gradually all souls obtain release, and so +there will finally be an end of the entire sa/m/sara and the sa/m/sara +state of all souls. But the pradhana which is ruled by the Lord and +which modifies itself for the purposes of the soul is what is meant by +sa/m/sara. Hence, when the latter no longer exists, nothing is left for +the Lord to rule, and his omniscience and ruling power have no longer +any objects. But if the pradhana, the souls, and the Lord, all have an +end, it follows that they also have a beginning, and if they have a +beginning as well as an end, we are driven to the doctrine of a general +void.--Let us then, in order to avoid these untoward conclusions, +maintain the second alternative, i.e. that the measure of the Lord +himself, the pradhana, and the souls, is not defined by the Lord.--But +that also is impossible, because it would compel us to abandon a tenet +granted at the outset, viz. that the Lord is omniscient. + +For all these reasons the doctrine of the argumentative philosophers, +according to which the Lord is the operative cause of the world, appears +unacceptable. + +42. On account of the impossibility of the origination (of the +individual soul from the highest Lord, the doctrine of the Bhagavatas +cannot be accepted). + +We have, in what precedes, refuted the opinion of those who think that +the Lord is not the material cause but only the ruler, the operative +cause of the world. We are now going to refute the doctrine of those +according to whom he is the material as well as the operative +cause.--But, it may be objected, in the previous portions of the present +work a Lord of exactly the same nature, i.e. a Lord who is the material, +as well as the operative, cause of the world, has been ascertained on +the basis of Scripture, and it is a recognised principle that Sm/ri/ti, +in so far as it agrees with Scripture, is authoritative; why then should +we aim at controverting the doctrine stated?--It is true, we reply, that +a part of the system which we are going to discuss agrees with the +Vedanta system, and hence affords no matter for controversy; another +part of the system, however, is open to objection, and that part we +intend to attack. + +The so-called Bhagavatas are of opinion that the one holy (bhagavat) +Vasudeva, whose nature is pure knowledge, is what really exists, and +that he, dividing himself fourfold, appears in four forms (vyuha), as +Vasudeva, Sa@nkarsha/n/a, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. Vasudeva denotes the +highest Self, Sa@nkarsha/n/a the individual soul, Pradyumna the mind +(manas), Aniruddha the principle of egoity (aha@nkara). Of these four +Vasudeva constitutes the ultimate causal essence, of which the three +others are the effects.--The believer after having worshipped Vasudeva +for a hundred years by means of approach to the temple (abhigamana), +procuring of things to be offered (upadana), oblation (ijya), recitation +of prayers, &c. (svadhyaya), and devout meditation (yoga), passes beyond +all affliction and reaches the highest Being. + +Concerning this system we remark that we do not intend to controvert the +doctrine that Naraya/n/a, who is higher than the Undeveloped, who is the +highest Self, and the Self of all, reveals himself by dividing himself +in multiple ways; for various scriptural passages, such as 'He is +onefold, he is threefold' (Ch. Up. VII, 26, 2), teach us that the +highest Self appears in manifold forms. Nor do we mean to object to the +inculcation of unceasing concentration of mind on the highest Being +which appears in the Bhagavata doctrine under the forms of reverential +approach, &c.; for that we are to meditate on the Lord we know full well +from Sm/ri/ti and Scripture. We, however, must take exception to the +doctrine that Sa@nkarsha/n/a springs from Vasudeva, Pradyumna from +Sa@nkarsha/n/a, Aniruddha from Pradyumna. It is not possible that from +Vasudeva, i.e. the highest Self, there should originate Sa@nkarsha/n/a, +i.e. the individual soul; for if such were the case, there would attach +to the soul non-permanency, and all the other imperfections which belong +to things originated. And thence release, which consists in reaching the +highest Being, could not take place; for the effect is absorbed only by +entering into its cause.--That the soul is not an originated thing, the +teacher will prove later on (II, 3, 17). For this reason the Bhagavata +hypothesis is unacceptable. + +43. And (it is) not (observed that) the instrument is produced from the +agent. + +The Bhagavata hypothesis is to be rejected for that reason also, that +observation never shows us an instrument, such as a hatchet and the +like, to spring from an agent such as Devadatta, or any other workman. +But the Bhagavatas teach that from an agent, viz. the individual soul +termed Sa@nkarsha/n/a, there springs its instrument, viz. the internal +organ termed Pradyumna, and again from this offspring of the agent +another instrument, viz. the aha@nkara termed Aniruddha. Such doctrines +cannot be settled without observed instances. And we do not meet with +any scriptural passage in their favour. + +44. Or (if) in consequence of the existence of knowledge, &c. (Vasudeva, +&c. be taken as Lords), yet there is non-exclusion of that (i.e. the +objection raised in Sutra 42). + +Let us then--the Bhagavatas may say--understand by Sa@nkarsha/n/a, and +so on, not the individual soul, the mind, &c., but rather Lords, i.e. +powerful beings distinguished by all the qualities characteristic of +rulers, such as pre-eminence of knowledge and ruling capacity, strength, +valour, glory. All these are Vasudevas free from faults, without a +substratum (not sprung from pradhana), without any imperfections. Hence +the objection urged in Sutra 42 does not apply. + +Even on this interpretation of your doctrine, we reply, the +'non-exclusion of that,' i.e. the non-exclusion of the impossibility of +origination, can be established.--Do you, in the first place, mean to +say that the four individual Lords, Vasudeva, and so on, have the same +attributes, but do not constitute one and the same Self?--If so, you +commit the fault of uselessly assuming more than one Lord, while all the +work of the Lord can be done by one. Moreover, you offend thereby +against your own principle, according to which there is only one real +essence, viz. the holy Vasudeva.--Or do you perhaps mean to say that +from the one highest Being there spring those four forms possessing +equal attributes?--In that case the objection urged in Sutra 42 remains +valid. For Sa@nkarsha/n/a cannot be produced from Vasudeva, nor +Pradyumna from Sa@nkarsha/n/a, nor Aniruddha from Pradyumna, since (the +attributes of all of them being the same) there is no supereminence of +any one of them. Observation shows that the relation of cause and effect +requires some superiority on the part of the cause--as, for instance, in +the case of the clay and the jar (where the cause is more extensive than +the effect)--and that without such superiority the relation is simply +impossible. But the followers of the Pa/nk/aratra do not acknowledge any +difference founded on superiority of knowledge, power, &c. between +Vasudeva and the other Lords, but simply say that they all are forms of +Vasudeva, without any special distinctions. The forms of Vasudeva cannot +properly be limited to four, as the whole world, from Brahman down to a +blade of grass, is understood to be a manifestation of the supreme +Being. + +45. And on account of contradictions. + +Moreover, manifold contradictions are met with in the Bhagavata system, +with reference to the assumption of qualities and their bearers. +Eminence of knowledge and ruling capacity, strength, valour, and glory +are enumerated as qualities, and then they are in some other place +spoken of as Selfs, holy Vasudevas, and so on.--Moreover, we meet with +passages contradictory of the Veda. The following passage, for instance, +blames the Veda, 'Not having found the highest bliss in the Vedas +/S/a/nd/ilya studied this /s/astra.'--For this reason also the +Bhagavata doctrine cannot be accepted. + +Notes: + +[Footnote 314: The characteristics of Goodness, Passion, and Darkness, +the three constituent elements (gu/n/a) of the pradhana. Sa. Ka. 12, +13.] + +[Footnote 315: Viz. the great principle (mahat). ahanka a, &c. Sa. Ka. +3.] + +[Footnote 316: The arguments here referred to are enumerated in the Sa. +Ka. 15: Sa. Sutras I, 189 ff.] + +[Footnote 317: If we attempt to infer the nature of the universal cause +from its effects on the ground of parallel instances, as, for instance, +that of an earthen jar whose material cause is clay, we must remember +that the jar has sprung from clay not without the co-operation of an +intelligent being, viz. the potter.] + +[Footnote 318: As had been asserted above for the purpose of inferring +therefrom, according to the principle of the equality of cause and +effect, the existence of the three constituents of the pradhana.] + +[Footnote 319: And a thing cannot consist of that of which it is the +cause.] + +[Footnote 320: Which differences cannot be reconciled with the Sa@nkhya +hypothesis of the object itself consisting of either pleasure or pain, +&c.--'If things consisted in themselves of pleasure, pain, &c., then +sandal ointment (which is cooling, and on that account pleasant in +summer) would be pleasant in winter also; for sandal never is anything +but sandal.--And as thistles never are anything but thistles they ought, +on the Sa@nkhya hypothesis, to be eaten with enjoyment not only by +camels but by men also.' Bha.] + +[Footnote 321: Sa/m/sargapurvakatvaprasa@nga iti gu/n/ana/m/ +sa/m/s/ri/sh/t/anekavastuprak/ri/tikatvaprasaktir ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 322: For they limit one another.] + +[Footnote 323: To proceed to the argument 'from the separateness of +cause and effect' (Sa. Ka. 15).] + +[Footnote 324: The next sentences furnish the answer to the question how +the intelligent Self is known at all if it is not the object of +perception.--Pratyakshatvabhave katham atmasiddhir ity asa@nkya anumanad +ity aha, prav/ri/ttiti. Anumanasiddhasya /k/etanasya na +pravr/i/ttya/s/rayateti dar/s/ayitum evakara/h/. Katham anumanam ity +apekshaya/m/ tatprakara/m/; su/k/ayati kevaleti. Vailaksha/n/ya/m/ +pra/n/adimattvam. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 325: Viz. that whatever moves or acts does so under the +influence of intelligence.--Sadhyapakshanikshiptatva/m/ sadhyavati +pakshe pravish/t/atvam eva ta/k/ /k/a sapakshanizkshiptatvasyapy +upalaksha/n/am, anpanyaso na vyabhi/k/arabhumin ity artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 326: It might be held that for the transformation of grass +into milk no other cause is required than the digestive heat of the +cow's body; but a reflecting person will acknowledge that there also the +omniscient Lord is active. Bha.] + +[Footnote 327: Anadheyati/s/ayasya +sukhadukhapraptiparihararupati/s/aya/s/unyasyety artha/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 328: For the soul as being of an entirely inactive nature +cannot of itself aim at release, and the pradhana aims--ex +hypothesi--only at the soul's undergoing varied experience.] + +[Footnote 329: I.e. for the various items constituting enjoyment or +experience.] + +[Footnote 330: T/ri/tiyes'pi katipaya/s/abdadyupalabdhir va +samastatadupalabdhir va bhoga iti vikalpyadye sarvesham ekadaiva +mukti/h/ syad iti manvano dvitiya/m/ pratyaha ubhayarthateti. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 331: The MSS. of Ananda Giri omit sa/m/saranu/kkh/edat; the +Bhamati's reading is: Sarga/s/aktyanu/kkh/edavad +d/ri/k/s/aktyanu/kkh/edat.] + +[Footnote 332: On the theory that the soul is the cause of the +pradhana's activity we again have to ask whether the pradhana acts for +the soul's enjoyment or for its release, &c.] + +[Footnote 333: Anantaro dosho mahadadikaryotpadayoga/h/. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 334: In the former case the five intellectual senses are +looked upon as mere modifications of the sense of touch.] + +[Footnote 335: Buddhi in the latter case being the generic name for +buddhi, aha@nkara, and manas.] + +[Footnote 336: Lit. that which burns and that which is burned, which +literal rendering would perhaps be preferable throughout. As it is, the +context has necessitated its retention in some places.--The sufferers +are the individual souls, the cause of suffering the world in which the +souls live.] + +[Footnote 337: In the case of the lamp, light and heat are admittedly +essential; hence the Vedantin is supposed to bring forward the sea with +its waves, and so on, as furnishing a case where attributes pass away +while the substance remains.] + +[Footnote 338: 'Artha,' a useful or beneficial thing, an object of +desire.] + +[Footnote 339: In reality neither suffering nor sufferers exist, as the +Vedantin had pointed out in the first sentences of his reply; but there +can of course be no doubt as to who suffers and what causes suffering in +the vyavaharika-state, i.e. the phenomenal world.] + +[Footnote 340: In order to explain thereby how the soul can experience +pain.] + +[Footnote 341: And that would be against the Sa@nkhya dogma of the +soul's essential purity.] + +[Footnote 342: So that the fact of suffering which cannot take place +apart from an intelligent principle again remains unexplained.] + +[Footnote 343: Atmanas tapte sattve pratibimitatvad yukta taptir iti +/s/a@nkate sattveti. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 344: For it then indicates no more than a fictitious +resemblance.] + +[Footnote 345: The Sa@nkhya Purvapakshin had objected to the Vedanta +doctrine that, on the latter, we cannot account for the fact known from +ordinary experience that there are beings suffering pain and things +causing suffering.--The Vedantin in his turn endeavours to show that on +the Sa@nkhya doctrine also the fact of suffering remains inexplicable, +and is therefore to be considered not real, but fictitious merely, the +product of Nescience.] + +[Footnote 346: Not only 'suffering as it were,' as it had been called +above.] + +[Footnote 347: For real suffering cannot be removed by mere distinctive +knowledge on which--according to the Sa@nkhya also--release depends.] + +[Footnote 348: This in answer to the remark that possibly the +conjunction of soul and pradhana may come to an end when the influence +of Darkness declines, it being overpowered by the knowledge of Truth.] + +[Footnote 349: I.e. according as they are atoms of earth, water, fire, +or air.] + +[Footnote 350: Parima/nd/ala, spherical is the technical term for the +specific form of extension of the atoms, and, secondarily, for the atoms +themselves. The latter must apparently be imagined as infinitely small +spheres. Cp. Vi/s/. Sut. VII, 1, 20.] + +[Footnote 351: Viz. during the period of each pralaya. At that time all +the atoms are isolated and motionless.] + +[Footnote 352: When the time for a new creation has come.] + +[Footnote 353: The &c. implies the activity of the Lord.] + +[Footnote 354: The inherent (material) cause of an atomic compound are +the constituent atoms, the non-inheient cause the conjunction of those +atoms, the operative causes the ad/ri/sh/ta/ and the Lord's activity +which make them enter into conjunction.] + +[Footnote 355: I.e. in all cases the special form of extension of the +effect depends not on the special extension of the cause, but on the +number of atoms composing the cause (and thereby the effect).] + +[Footnote 356: In order to escape the conclusion that the non-acceptance +of the doctrine of Brahman involves the abandonment of a fundamental +Vai/s/eshika principle.] + +[Footnote 357: I.e. forms of extension different from sphericity, &c.] + +[Footnote 358: The first of the three Sutras quoted comprises, in the +present text of the Vai/s/eshika-sutras, only the following words, +'Kara/n/abahutva/k/ /k/a;' the /k/a of the Sutra implying, according to +the commentators, mahattva and pra/k/aya.--According to the +Vai/s/eshikas the form of extension called a/n/u, minute, has for its +cause the dvitva inherent in the material causes, i.e. the two atoms +from which the minute binary atomic compound originates.--The form of +extension called mahat, big, has different causes, among them bahutva, +i.e. the plurality residing in the material causes of the resulting +'big' thing; the cause of the mahattva of a ternary atomic compound, for +instance, is the tritva inherent in the three constituent atoms. In +other cases mahattva is due to antecedent mahattva, in others to +pra/k/aya, i.e. accumulation. See the Upaskara on Vai/s/. Sut. VII, 1, +9; 10.] + +[Footnote 359: I.e. if the Vai/s/eshikas have to admit that it is the +nature of sphericity, &c. not to produce like effects, the Vedantin also +may maintain that Brahman produces an unlike effect, viz. the +non-intelligent world.] + +[Footnote 360: Like other things, let us say a piece of cloth, which +consists of parts.] + +[Footnote 361: Or, more particularly, to the conjunction of the atoms +with the souls to which merit and demerit belong.--Ad/ri/sh/t/apeksham +ad/ri/sh/t/avatkshetraj/n/asa/my/ogapeksham iti yavat. An. Gi.] + +[Footnote 362: According to the Vai/s/eshikas intelligence is not +essential to the soul, but a mere adventitious quality arising only when +the soul is joined to an internal organ.] + +[Footnote 363: The soul being all-pervading.] + +[Footnote 364: Which is inadmissible on Vai/s/eshika principles, because +sa/m/yoga as being a quality is connected with the things it joins by +samavaya.] + +[Footnote 365: Viz. from those things which are united by conjunction. +The argument is that conjunction as an independent third entity requires +another connexion to connect it with the two things related to each +other in the way of conjunction.] + +[Footnote 366: Viz. the absolute difference of samavaya and sa/m/yoga +from the terms which they connect.] + +[Footnote 367: Action (karman), &c. also standing in the samavaya +relation to their substrates.] + +[Footnote 368: Our Vai/s/eshika-sutras read 'pratishedhabhava/h/;' but +as all MSS. of Sa@nkara have 'pratishedhabhava/h/' I have kept the +latter reading and translated according to Anandagiri's explanation: +Karyam anityam iti karye vireshato nityatvanishedho na syad yadi +kara/n/eszpy anityatvam atozs/n/una/m/ kara/n/ana/m/ nityateti +sutrartha/h/.] + +[Footnote 369: Because they also are not perceptible; the ternary +aggregates, the so-called trasare/n/us, constituting the minima +perceptibilia.] + +[Footnote 370: As they have no cause which could either be disintegrated +or destroyed.] + +[Footnote 371: This according to the Vedanta view. If atoms existed they +might have originated from avidya by a mere pari/n/ama and might again +be dissolved into avidya, without either disintegration or destruction +of their cause taking place.] + +[Footnote 372: The Sa@nkhyas looking on everything (except the soul) as +being the pradhana in various forms.--There is no need of assuming with +Govindananda that by the Sa@nkhya of the text we have to understand the +Vedanta.] + +[Footnote 373: Yayor dvayor madhya ekam avina/s/yad apara/s/ritam +evavatish/th/ate tav ayutasiddhau yathavayavavayavinau.] + +[Footnote 374: The connexion of cause and effect is of course samavaya.] + +[Footnote 375: If the effect can exist before having entered into +connexion with the cause, the subsequent connexion of the two is no +longer samavaya but sa/m/yoga; and that contradicts a fundamental +Vai/s/eshika principle.] + +[Footnote 376: This clause replies to the objection that only those +connexions which have been produced by previous motion are to be +considered conjunctions.] + +[Footnote 377: A clause meant to preclude the assumption that the +permanent existence of the things connected involves the permanent +existence of the connexion.] + +[Footnote 378: It having been shown above that atoms cannot enter into +sa/m/yoga with each other, it is shown now that sa/m/yoga of the soul +with the atoms cannot be the cause of the motion of the latter, and that +sa/m/yoga of soul and manas cannot be the cause of cognition.] + +[Footnote 379: Ekasambandhyakarsha/n/e yatra +sambandhyantarakarsha/n/a/m/ tatra sa/m/slesha/h/, sa tu savayavana/m/ +jatukash/th/adina/m/ d/ri/sh/t/o na tu niravayavai/h/ savayavanam, ato +dvya/n/ukasya savayavasya niravayavena parama/n/una sa nopapadyate. +Brahmavidyabh.] + +[Footnote 380: In answer to the question how, in that case, the +practically recognised relation of abode, &c. existing between the cause +and the effect is accounted for.] + +[Footnote 381: For they must in that case have a northern end, an +eastern end, &c.] + +[Footnote 382: And that on that account the atoms which he considers as +the ultimate simple constituents of matter cannot be decomposed.] + +[Footnote 383: Because according to their opinion difference of size +constitutes difference of substance, so that the continuous change of +size in animal bodies, for instance, involves the continual perishing of +old and the continual origination of new substances.] + +[Footnote 384: The following notes on Bauddha doctrines are taken +exclusively from the commentaries on the /S/a@nkarabhashya, and no +attempt has been made to contrast or reconcile the Brahminical accounts +of Bauddha psychology with the teaching of genuine Bauddha books. Cp. on +the chief sects of the Buddhistic philosophers the Bauddha chapter of +the Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha.--The Nihilists are the Madhyamikas; the +Idealists are the Yoga/k/aras; the Sautrantikas and the Vaibhashikas +together constitute the class of the Realists.--I subjoin the account +given of those sects in the Brahmavidyabhara/n/a.--Buddhasya hi +madhyamika-yoga/k/ara-sautrantika-vaibhashikasamj/n/akas /k/atvara/h/ +/s/ishya/h/. Tatra buddhena prathama/m/ yan prati sarva/m/ /s/unyam ity +upadish/t/a/m/ te madhyamikas te hi guru/n/a yathokta/m/ tathaiva +/s/raddhaya g/ri/hitavanta iti k/ri/tva napak/ri/sh/t/a/h/ puna/s/ /k/a +taduktasyarthasya buddhyanusare/n/akshepasyak/ri/tatvan +notk/ri/sh/t/abuddhaya iti madhyamika/h/. Anyais tu /s/ishyair guru/n/a +sarva/s/unyatva upadish/t/e j/n/anatiriktasya sarvasya /s/unyatvam astu +nameti guruktir yoga iti bauddai/h/ paribhashitopeta/h/ tad upari /k/a +j/n/anasya tu /s/unyatva/m/ na sa/m/bhavati tathatve +jagadandhyaprasa@ngat sunyasiddher apy asa/m/bhava/k/ /k/eti buddhamate +a/k/aratvena paribhashita akshepos'pi k/ri/ta iti yoga/k/ara/h/ +vij/n/anamatrastitvavadina/h/. Tadanataram anyai/h/ /s/ishyai/h/ +pratitisiddhasya katha/m/ /s/unyatva/m/ vaktu/m/ /s/akyam ato j/n/anavad +vahyarthos'pi satya ity ukte tarhi tathaiva sos'stu, para/m/ tu so +s'numeyo na tu pratyaksha ity ukte tatha@ngik/ri/tyaiva/m/ /s/ishyamatim +anus/ri/tya kiyatparyanta/m/ sutra/m/ bhavishyatiti tai/h/ p/ri/sh/t/am +atas te sautrantika/h/. Anye punar yady aya/m/ gha/t/a iti pratitibalad +vahyos'rtha upeyate tarhi tasya eva pratiter aparokshatvat sa katha/m/ +parokshos'to vahyos'rtho na pratyaksha iti bhasha viruddhety akshipann +atas te vaibhashika/h/.] + +[Footnote 385: The rupaskandha comprises the senses and their objects, +colour, &c.; the sense-organs were above called bhautika, they here +re-appear as /k/aittika on account of their connexion with thought. +Their objects likewise are classed as /k/aittika in so far as they are +perceived by the senses.--The vij/n/anaskandha comprises the series of +self-cognitions (ahamaham ity alayavj/n/anapravaha/h/), according to all +commentators; and in addition, according to the Brahmavidyabhara/n/a, +the knowledge, determinate and indeterminate, of external things +(savikalpaka/m/ nirvikalpaka/m/ /k/a prav/ri/ttivij/n/anasamj/n/itam).-- +The vedanaskandha comprises pleasure, pain, &c.--The samj/n/askandha +comprises the cognition of things by their names (gaur a/s/va +ityadi/s/abdasamjalpitapratyaya/h/, An. Gi.; gaur a/s/va ityeva/m/ +namavi/s/ish/t/asavikalpaka/h/ pratyaya/h/, Go. An.; sa/m/j/n/a +yaj/n/adattadipadatadullekhi savikalpapratyayo va, dvitiyapakshe +vij/n/anapadena savikalpapratyayo na grahy/h/, Brahmavidyabh.). The +sa/m/skaraskandha comprises passion, aversion, &c., dharma and +adharma.--Compare also the Bhamati.--The vij/n/anaskandha is /k/itta, +the other skandhas /k/aitta.] + +[Footnote 386: It has to be kept in view that the sarvastitvavadins as +well as the other Bauddha sects teach the momentariness (ksha/n/ikatva), +the eternal flux of everything that exists, and are on that ground +controverted by the upholders of the permanent Brahman.] + +[Footnote 387: Mind, on the Bauddha doctrine, presupposes the existence +of an aggregate of atoms, viz. the body.] + +[Footnote 388: In consequence of which no release could take place.] + +[Footnote 389: The Brahmavidyabhara/n/a explains the last clause--from +ksha/n/ikatva/k/ /k/a--somewhat differently: Api /k/a parama/n/unam api +ksha/n/ikatvabhyupagaman melana/m/ na sambhavati, parama/n/una/m/ +melana/m/ parama/n/ukriyadhinam, tatha /k/a svakriya/m/ prati +parama/n/una/m/ kara/n/atvat kriyapuraksha/n/e parama/n/ubhir bhavyam +kriya /s/rayataya kriyaksha/n/eszpi tesham avasthanam apekshitam eva/m/ +melanakshaneszpi, nahi melana/s/rayasyabhave melanarupa prav/ri/ttir +upapadyate, tatha /k/a sthiraparama/n/usadhya melanarupa prav/ri/tti/h/ +katha/m/ tesham ksha/n/ikatve bhavet.--Ananda Giri also divides and +translates differently from the translation in the text.] + +[Footnote 390: The kara/n/atvat of /S/a@nkara explains the pratyayatvat +of the Sutra; karya/m/ praty ayate janakatvena ga/kkh/ati.] + +[Footnote 391: The commentators agree on the whole in their explanations +of the terms of this series.--The following is the substance of the +comment of the Brahmavidyabhara/n/a: Nescience is the error of +considering that which is momentary, impure, &c. to be permanent, pure, +&c.--Impression (affection, sa/m/skara) comprises desire, aversion, &c., +and the activity caused by them.--Knowledge (vij/n/ana) is the +self-consciousness (aham ity alayavij/n/anasya v/ri/ttilabha/h/) +springing up in the embryo.--Name and form is the rudimentary flake--or +bubble-like condition of the embryo.--The abode of the six +(sha/d/ayatana) is the further developed stage of the embryo in which +the latter is the abode of the six senses.--Touch (spar/s/a) is the +sensations of cold, warmth, &c. on the embryo's part.--Feeling (vedana) +the sensations of pleasure and pain resulting therefrom.--Desire +(t/ri/sh/n/a) is the wish to enjoy the pleasurable sensations and to +shun the painful ones.--Activity (upadana) is the effort resulting from +desire,--Birth is the passing out from the uterus.--Species (jati) is +the class of beings to which the new-born creature belongs.--Decay +(jara).--Death (mara/n/am) is explained as the condition of the creature +when about to die (mumursha).--Grief (/s/oka) the frustration of wishes +connected therewith.--Lament (paridevanam) the lamentations on that +account.--Pain (du/h/kha) is such pain as caused by the five +senses.--Durmanas is mental affliction.--The 'and the like' implies +death, the departure to another world and the subsequent return from +there.] + +[Footnote 392: Ananda Giri and Go. Ananda explain: +A/s/raya/s/rayibhuteshv iti bhokt/ri/vi/s/esha/n/am +ad/ri/sh/t/a/s/rayeshv ity artha/h/.--The Brahrma-vidyabhara/n/a says: +Nityeshv a/s/raya/s/rayibhuteshv a/n/ushv abhyupagamyamaneshu +bhokt/ri/shu /k/a satsv ity anvaya/h/. A/s/raya/s/rayibhuteshv ity +asyopakaryopakarakabhavaprapteshv ity artha/h/.--And with regard to the +subsequent a/s/raya/s/rayi/s/unyeshu: a/s/raya/s/rayitva/s/unyeshu, +aya/m/ bhava/h/, sthireshu parama/n/ushu yadanvaye parama/n/una/m/ +sa/m/ghatapatti/h/ yadvyatireke /k/a na tad upakarakam upakarya/h/ +parama/n/ava/h/ yena tatk/ri/to bhoga/h/ prarthyate sa tatra karteti +grahitu/m/ /s/akyate, ksha/n/ikeshu tu param/n/ushu +anvayavyatirekagrahasyanekaksha/n/asadhyasyasa/m/bhavan +nopakaryopakarakabhavo nirdharayitu/m/ /s/akya/h/.--Ananda Giri remarks +on the latter: Ad/ri/sh/t/a/s/rayakart/ri/rahityam aha/s/rayeti. Another +reading appears to be a/s/aya/s/raya/s/unyeshu.] + +[Footnote 393: Bauddhana/m/ ksha/n/apadena gha/t/adir eva padartho +vyavahriyate na tu tadatinkta/h/ ka/sk/it ksha/n/o nama halosti. +Brahmavidyabh.] + +[Footnote 394: And whereupon then could be established the difference of +mere efficient causes such as the potter's staff, &c., and material +causes such as clay, &c.?] + +[Footnote 395: These four causes are the so-called defining cause +(adhipati-pratyaya), the auxiliary cause (sahakaripratyaya), the +immediate cause (samanantarapratyaya), and the substantial cause +(alambanapratyaya).--I extract the explanation from the +Brahmavidyabhara/n/a: Adhipatir indriya/m/ tad dhi /k/akshuradirupam +utpannasya j/n/anasya rupadivishayata/m/ niya/kkh/ati niyamaka/s/ /k/a +lokedhipatir ity u/k/yate. Sahakari aloka/h/. +Samanantarapratyaya/h/purvaj/n/anam, bauddhamate hi +ksha/n/ikaj/n/anasa/m/tatau purvaj/n/anam uttaraj/n/asya karana/m/ tad +eva /k/a mana ity u/k/yate. Alambana/m/ gha/t/adi/h/. Etan hetun pratiya +prapya /k/akshuradijanyam ity adi.] + +[Footnote 396: Sa/m/skara iti, tanmate purvaksha/n/a eva hetubhuta/h/ +sa/m/skaro vasaneti /k/a vyavahriyate karya/m/ tu tadvishayataya +karmavyutpattya sa/m/skara/h/, tatha /k/a karyakara/n/atmaka/m/ sarva/m/ +bhavarupa/m/ ksha/n/ikam iti pratij/n/artha/h/. Brahmavidyabhara/n/a.] + +[Footnote 397: As when a man smashes a jar having previously formed the +intention of doing so.] + +[Footnote 398: I.e. the insensible continual decay of things.--Viparita +iti pratiksha/n/a/m/ gha/t/adina/m/ yuktya sadhyamanoku/s/alair +avagantum a/s/akya/h/ sukshmo vina/s/opratisa/m/khyanirodha/h/. +Brahmav.] + +[Footnote 399: A series of momentary existences constituting a chain of +causes and effects can never be entirely stopped; for the last momentary +existence must be supposed either to produce its effect or not to +produce it. In the former case the series is continued; the latter +alternative would imply that the last link does not really exist, since +the Bauddhas define the satta of a thing as its causal efficiency (cp. +Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha). And the non-existence of the last link +would retrogressively lead to the non-existence of the whole series.] + +[Footnote 400: Thus clay is recognised as such whether it appears in the +form of a jar, or of the potsherds into which the jar is broken, or of +the powder into which the potsherds are ground.--Analogously we infer +that even things which seem to vanish altogether, such as a drop of +water which has fallen on heated iron, yet continue to exist in some +form.] + +[Footnote 401: The knowledge that everything is transitory, pain, &c.] + +[Footnote 402: What does enable us to declare that there is +avara/n/abhava in one place and not in another? Space; which therefore +is something real.] + +[Footnote 403: If the cause were able, without having undergone any +change, to produce effects, it would at the same moment produce all the +effects of which it is capable.--Cp. on this point the +Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha.] + +[Footnote 404: This is added to obviate the remark that it is not a +general rule that effects are of the same nature as their causes, and +that therefore, after all, existent things may spring from +non-existence.] + +[Footnote 405: According to the vij/n/anavadin the cognition specialised +by its various contents, such as, for instance, the idea of blue colour +is the object of knowledge; the cognition in so far as it is +consciousness (avabhasa) is the result of knowledge; the cognition in so +far as it is power is mana, knowledge; in so far as it is the abode of +that power it is pramat/ri/, knowing subject.] + +[Footnote 406: If they are said to be different from the atoms they can +no longer be considered as composed of atoms; if they are non-different +from atoms they cannot be the cause of the mental representations of +gross non-atomic bodies.] + +[Footnote 407: Avayavavayavirupo vahyosrtho nasti /k/en ma bhud +jativyaktyadirupas tu syad ity a/s/rankyaha evam iti. Jatyadina/m/ +vyaktyadinam /k/atyantabhinnatve svatantryaprasa@ngad atyantabhinnatve +tadvadevatadbhavad bhinnabhinnatvasya viruddhatvad avayavavayavibhedavaj +gativyaktyadibhedosxpi nastity artha/h/.] + +[Footnote 408: Vasana, above translated by mental impression, strictly +means any member of the infinite series of ideas which precedes the +present actual idea.] + +[Footnote 409: For all these doctrines depend on the comparison of ideas +which is not possible unless there be a permanent knowing subject in +addition to the transitory ideas.] + +[Footnote 410: The vij/n/anaskandha comprises vij/n/anas of two +different kinds, the alayavij/n/ana and the prav/ri/ttivij/n/ana. The +alayavij/n/ana comprises the series of cognitions or ideas which refer +to the ego; the prav/ri/ttivij/n/ana comprises those ideas which refer +to apparently external objects, such as colour and the like. The ideas +of the latter class are due to the mental impressions left by the +antecedent ideas of the former class.] + +[Footnote 411: Viz. in the present case the principle that what presents +itself to consciousness is not non-existent.] + +[Footnote 412: Soul and non-soul are the enjoying souls and the objects +of their enjoyment; asrava is the forward movement of the senses towards +their objects; sa/m/vara is the restraint of the activity of the senses; +nirjara is self-mortification by which sin is destroyed; the works +constitute bondage; and release is the ascending of the soul, after +bondage has ceased, to the highest regions.--For the details, see +Professor Cowell's translation of the Arhata chapter of the +Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha.] + +[Footnote 413: Cp. translation of Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha, p. 59.] + +[Footnote 414: And so impugn the doctrine of the one eternal Brahman.] + +[Footnote 415: Cp. Sarvadar/s/a/n/asa/m/graha translation, p. 58.] + +[Footnote 416: The inference being that the initial and intervening +sizes of the soul must be permanent because they are sizes of the soul, +like its final size.] + +[Footnote 417: The special nature of the connexion between the Lord and +the pradhana and the souls cannot be ascertained from the world +considered as the effect of the pradhana acted upon by the Lord; for +that the world is the effect of the pradhana is a point which the +Vedantins do not accept as proved.] + +[Footnote 418: I.e. a high one, but not an indefinite one; since the +omniscient Lord knows its measure.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Vedanta-Sutras with the Commentary +by Sankaracarya + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VEDANTA-SUTRAS *** + +***** This file should be named 16295.txt or 16295.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/2/9/16295/ + +Produced by Srinivasan Sriram, David King, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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