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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:49:06 -0700 |
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+ } + + a.note:active { + color: #cc0099; + text-decoration:underline; + } + + a.contents:link { + color:#000000; + text-decoration:none; + } + + a.contents:visited { + color:#000000; + text-decoration:none; + } + + a.contents:hover { + color:blue; + background:#ffffff; + text-decoration:none; + } + + a.contents:active { + color: #cc0099; + text-decoration:underline; + } + + </style> + </head> + + <body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of King Alfred of England, by Jacob Abbott + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: King Alfred of England + Makers of History + +Author: Jacob Abbott + +Release Date: August 18, 2005 [EBook #16545] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KING ALFRED OF ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + <p class="note">Transcriber's Note: There is a sentence which requires 'Old English Text'. + If you do not have this font, there is a link to a footnote image, and a resource address. + (Click <span class="uline">Footnote:</span> to return to the text).</p><br /><br /> + +<a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a> + +<p class="center1"> +<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="321" height="470" alt="Alfred the Great" border="0" /><br /><br /> +ALFRED THE GREAT</p> + +<br /><br /><br /><br /> + + + +<p class="center"> +<img src="images/title-500.jpg" width="337" height="500" alt="Title Page." border="0" /></p> + + +<br /><br /><br /><hr /><br /><br /><br /> + +<p class="center"> +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand<br /> +eight hundred and forty-nine, by</p> +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcaps"> Harper & Brothers</span>,</p> +<p class="center"> +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District<br /> +of New York.</p> + + + + +<br /><br /><br /><hr /><br /><br /><br /> + +<h3>PREFACE.</h3> + +<p> +It is the object of this series of histories to +present a clear, distinct, and connected narrative +of the lives of those great personages who +have in various ages of the world made themselves +celebrated as leaders among mankind, +and, by the part they have taken in the public +affairs of great nations, have exerted the widest +influence on the history of the human race. +The end which the author has had in view is +twofold: first, to communicate such information +in respect to the subjects of his narratives +as is important for the general reader to possess; +and, secondly, to draw such moral lessons from +the events described and the characters delineated +as they may legitimately teach to the people +of the present age. Though written in a +direct and simple style, they are intended for, +and addressed to, minds possessed of some considerable +degree of maturity, for such minds +only can fully appreciate the character and action +which exhibits itself, as nearly all that is +described in these volumes does, in close combination +with the conduct and policy of governments, +and the great events of international +history.</p> + +<br /><br /><br /><hr /><br /><br /><br /> + + +<h2><span class="smcaps"> Contents</span> </h2> + +<table width="80%" align="center" border="0" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td class="left" colspan="2" width="80%" valign="top">CHAPTER<br /><br /></td> + <td class="right" colspan="2" valign="top">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">I.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#I"><span class="smcaps"> The Britons</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">II.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#II"><span class="smcaps"> The Anglo-Saxons</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page34">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">III.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#III"><span class="smcaps"> The Danes</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">IV.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#IV"><span class="smcaps"> Alfred's Early Years</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page76">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">V.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#V"><span class="smcaps"> The State of England</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page94">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">VI. </td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#VI"><span class="smcaps"> Alfred's Accession to the Throne</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">VII.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#VII"><span class="smcaps"> Reverses</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">VIII.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#VIII"><span class="smcaps"> The Seclusion</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">IX.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#IX"><span class="smcaps"> Reassembling of the Army</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page172">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">X.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#X"><span class="smcaps"> The Victory over the Danes</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">XI.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#XI"><span class="smcaps"> The Reign</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page209">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">XII.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#XII"><span class="smcaps"> The Close of Life</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page227">227</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /><hr class="short" /><br /> +<table width="80%" align="center" border="0" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="10%" valign="top">XIII.</td> + <td class="left" width="70%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#XIII"><span class="smcaps">The Sequel</span> </a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page244">244</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<br /><br /><hr /><br /><br /> + +<h3><span class="smcaps"> Illustrations</span> </h3> + +<table width="80%" align="center" border="0" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"> </td> + <td class="right" valign="top">PAGE<br /><br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page31"><span class="smcaps">Wall of Severus</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page41"><span class="smcaps">Saxon Military Chief</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page65"><span class="smcaps">The Sea Kings</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page65">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page103"><span class="smcaps">Lothbroc and his Falcon</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page133"><span class="smcaps">Ancient Coronation Chair</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page148"><span class="smcaps">The First British Fleet</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page161"><span class="smcaps">Alfred Watching the Cakes</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page208"><span class="smcaps">Portrait of Alfred</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page208">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left" width="80%" valign="top"><a class="contents" href="#page229"><span class="smcaps">Hastings Besieged in the Church</span></a></td> + <td class="right" valign="top"><a href="#page229">229</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<br /><br /><br /><hr /><br /><br /><br /> + +<a name="page13" id="page13"></a><span class="left">[page 13]</span> +<h1><a name="I" id="I"></a>ALFRED THE GREAT</h1> + +<h3><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> I.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Britons.</span></h2> + +<p> +Alfred the Great figures in history +as the founder, in some sense, of the British +monarchy. Of that long succession of sovereigns +who have held the scepter of that monarchy, +and whose government has exerted so +vast an influence on the condition and welfare +of mankind, he was not, indeed, actually the +first. There were several lines of insignificant +princes before him, who governed such portions +of the kingdom as they individually possessed, +more like semi-savage chieftains than English +kings. Alfred followed these by the principle +of hereditary right, and spent his life in laying +broad and deep the foundations on which the +enormous superstructure of the British empire +has since been reared. If the tales respecting +his character and deeds which have come down +<a name="page14" id="page14"></a><span class="left">[page 14]</span> +to us are at all worthy of belief, he was an honest, +conscientious, disinterested, and far-seeing +statesman. If the system of hereditary succession +would always furnish such sovereigns +for mankind, the principle of loyalty would have +held its place much longer in the world than it +is now likely to do, and great nations, now republican, +would have been saved a vast deal of +trouble and toil expended in the election of their +rulers.</p> +<p> +Although the period of King Alfred's reign +seems a very remote one as we look back toward +it from the present day, it was still eight +hundred years after the Christian era that he +ascended his throne. Tolerable authentic history +of the British realm mounts up through +these eight hundred years to the time of Julius +Cæsar. Beyond this the ground is covered by +a series of romantic and fabulous tales, pretending +to be history, which extend back eight +hundred years further to the days of Solomon; +so that a much longer portion of the story of +that extraordinary island comes before than +since the days of Alfred. In respect, however +to all that pertains to the interest and importance +of the narrative, the exploits and the arrangements +of Alfred are the beginning.</p> +<a name="page15" id="page15"></a><span class="left">[page 15]</span> +<p> +The histories, in fact, of all nations, ancient +and modern, run back always into misty regions +of romance and fable. Before arts and letters +arrived at such a state of progress as that public +events could be recorded in writing, tradition +was the only means of handing down the +memory of events from generation to generation; +and tradition, among semi-savages, changes +every thing it touches into romantic and +marvelous fiction.</p> +<p> +The stories connected with the earliest discovery +and settlement of Great Britain afford +very good illustrations of the nature of these +fabulous tales. The following may serve as a +specimen:</p> +<p> +At the close of the Trojan war<a name="I1r" id="I1r">,</a><a href="#I1"><sup>1</sup></a> Æneas retired +with a company of Trojans, who escaped +from the city with him, and, after a great variety +of adventures, which Virgil has related, he +landed and settled in Italy. Here, in process +of time, he had a grandson named Silvius, who +had a son named Brutus, Brutus being thus +Æneas's great-grandson.</p> +<p> +One day, while Brutus was hunting in the +forests, he accidentally killed his father with +<a name="page16" id="page16"></a><span class="left">[page 16]</span> +an arrow. His father was at that time King +of Alba—a region of Italy near the spot on +which Rome was subsequently built—and the +accident brought Brutus under such suspicions, +and exposed him to such dangers, that he fled +from the country. After various wanderings +he at last reached Greece, where he collected a +number of Trojan followers, whom he found +roaming about the country, and formed them +into an army. With this half-savage force he +attacked a king of the country named Pandrasus. +Brutus was successful in the war, and +Pandrasus was taken prisoner. This compelled +Pandrasus to sue for peace, and peace was +concluded on the following very extraordinary +terms:</p> +<p> +Pandrasus was to give Brutus his daughter +Imogena for a wife, and a fleet of ships as her +dowry. Brutus, on the other hand, was to take +his wife and all his followers on board of his +fleet, and sail away and seek a home in some +other quarter of the globe. This plan of a monarch's +purchasing his own ransom and peace for +his realm from a band of roaming robbers, by +offering the leader of them his daughter for a +wife, however strange to our ideas, was very +characteristic of the times. Imogena must +<a name="page17" id="page17"></a><span class="left">[page 17]</span> +have found it a hard alternative to choose between +such a husband and such a father.</p> +<p> +Brutus, with his fleet and his bride, betook +themselves to sea, and within a short time +landed on a deserted island, where they found +the ruins of a city. Here there was an ancient +temple of Diana, and an image of the goddess, +which image was endued with the power of uttering +oracular responses to those who consulted +it with proper ceremonies and forms. Brutus +consulted this oracle on the question in +what land he should find a place of final settlement. +His address to it was in ancient verse, +which some chronicler has turned into English +rhyme as follows:</p> + +<p class="indent2"> +"Goddess of shades and huntress, who at will<br /> + Walk'st on the rolling sphere, and through the deep,<br /> +On thy <i>third</i> reign, the earth, look now and tell<br /> + What land, what seat of rest thou bidd'st me seek?"</p> + +<p> +To which the oracle returned the following +answer:</p> + +<p class="indent2"> +"Far to the west, in the ocean wide,<br /> +Beyond the realm of Gaul a land there lies—<br /> +Sea-girt it lies—where giants dwelt of old.<br /> +Now void, it fits thy people; thither bend<br /> +Thy course; there shalt thou find a lasting home."</p> + +<p> +It is scarcely necessary to say that this meant +Britain. Brutus, following the directions which +<a name="page18" id="page18"></a><span class="left">[page 18]</span> +the oracle had given him, set sail from the island, +and proceeded to the westward through the +Mediterranean Sea. He arrived at the Pillars +of Hercules. This was the name by which the +Rock of Gibraltar and the corresponding promontory +on the opposite coast, across the straits, +were called in those days; these cliffs having +been built, according to ancient tales, by Hercules, +as monuments set up to mark the extreme +limits of his western wanderings. Brutus +passed through the strait, and then, turning +northward, coasted along the shores of Spain.</p> +<p> +At length, after enduring great privations +and suffering, and encountering the extreme +dangers to which their frail barks were necessarily +exposed from the surges which roll in +perpetually from the broad Atlantic Ocean upon +the coast of Spain and into the Bay of Biscay, +they arrived safely on the shores of Britain. +They landed and explored the interior. They +found the island robed in the richest drapery of +fruitfulness and verdure, but it was unoccupied +by any thing human. There were wild beasts +roaming in the forests, and the remains of a +race of giants in dens and caves—monsters as +diverse from humanity as the wolves. Brutus +and his followers attacked all these occupants +<a name="page19" id="page19"></a><span class="left">[page 19]</span> +of the land. They drove the wild beasts into +the mountains of Scotland and Wales, and killed +the giants. The chief of them, whose name +was Gogmagog, was hurled by one of Brutus's +followers from the summit of one of the chalky +cliffs which bound the island into the sea.</p> +<p> +The island of Great Britain is in the latitude +of Labrador, which on our side of the continent +is the synonym for almost perpetual ice and +snow; still these wandering Trojans found it a +region of inexhaustible verdure, fruitfulness, +and beauty; and as to its extent, though often, +in modern times, called a little island, they +found its green fields and luxuriant forests extending +very far and wide over the sea. A +length of nearly six hundred miles would seem +almost to merit the name of continent, and the +dimensions of this detached outpost of the habitable +surface of the earth would never have +been deemed inconsiderable, had it not been +that the people, by the greatness of their exploits, +of which the whole world has been the +theater, have made the physical dimensions of +their territory appear so small and insignificant +in comparison. To Brutus and his companions +the land appeared a world. It was nearly four +hundred miles in breadth at the place where +<a name="page20" id="page20"></a><span class="left">[page 20]</span> +they landed, and, wandering northward, they +found it extending, in almost undiminished +beauty and fruitfulness, further than they had +the disposition to explore it. They might have +gone northward until the twilight scarcely disappeared +in the summer nights, and have found +the same verdure and beauty continuing to the +end. There were broad and undulating plains +in the southern regions of the island, and in the +northern, green mountains and romantic glens; +but all, plains, valleys, and mountains, were fertile +and beautiful, and teeming with abundant +sustenance for flocks, for herds, and for man.</p> +<p> +Brutus accordingly established himself upon +the island with all his followers, and founded a +kingdom there, over which he reigned as the +founder of a dynasty. Endless tales are told of +the lives, and exploits, and quarrels of his successors +down to the time of Cæsar. Conflicting +claimants arose continually to dispute with +each other for the possession of power; wars +were made by one tribe upon another; cities, +as they were called—though probably, in fact, +they were only rude collections of hovels—were +built, fortresses were founded, and rivers were +named from princes or princesses drowned in +them, in accidental journeys, or by the violence +<a name="page21" id="page21"></a><span class="left">[page 21]</span> +of rival claimants to their thrones. The pretended +records contain a vast number of legends, +of very little interest or value, as the +reader will readily admit when we tell him that +the famous story of King Lear is the most entertaining +one in the whole collection. It is this:</p> +<p> +There was a king in the line named Lear. +He founded the city now called Leicester. He +had three daughters, whose names were Gonilla, +Regana, and Cordiella. Cordiella was her +father's favorite child. He was, however, jealous +of the affections of them all, and one day +he called them to him, and asked them for some +assurance of their love. The two eldest responded +by making the most extravagant protestations. +They loved their father a thousand +times better than their own souls. They could +not express, they said, the ardor and strength +of their attachment, and called Heaven and +earth to witness that these protestations were +sincere.</p> +<p> +Cordiella, all this time, stood meekly and silently +by, and when her father asked her how +it was with her, she replied, "Father, my love +toward you is as my duty bids. What can a +father ask, or a daughter promise more? They +who pretend beyond this only flatter."</p> +<a name="page22" id="page22"></a><span class="left">[page 22]</span> +<p> +The king, who was old and childish, was +much pleased with the manifestation of love offered +by Gonilla and Regana, and thought that +the honest Cordiella was heartless and cold. +He treated her with greater and greater neglect +and finally decided to leave her without +any portion whatever, while he divided his +kingdom between the other two, having previously +married them to princes of high rank. +Cordiella was, however, at last made choice of +for a wife by a French prince, who, it seems, +knew better than the old king how much more +to be relied upon was unpretending and honest +truth than empty and extravagant profession. +He married the portionless Cordiella, and took +her with him to the Continent.</p> +<p> +The old king now having given up his kingdom +to his eldest daughters, they managed, by +artifice and maneuvering, to get every thing +else away from him, so that he became wholly +dependent upon them, and had to live with +them by turns. This was not all; for, at the +instigation of their husbands, they put so many +indignities and affronts upon him, that his life +at length became an intolerable burden, and +finally he was compelled to leave the realm altogether, +and in his destitution and distress he +<a name="page23" id="page23"></a><span class="left">[page 23]</span> +went for refuge and protection to his rejected +daughter Cordiella. She received her father +with the greatest alacrity and affection. She +raised an army to restore him to his rights, and +went in person with him to England to assist +him in recovering them. She was successful. +The old king took possession of his throne again, +and reigned in peace for the remainder of his +days. The story is of itself nothing very remarkable, +though Shakspeare has immortalized +it by making it the subject of one of his tragedies.</p> +<p> +Centuries passed away, and at length the +great Julius Cæsar, who was extending the +Roman power in every direction, made his way +across the Channel, and landed in England. +The particulars of this invasion are described +in our history of Julius Cæsar. The Romans +retained possession of the island, in a greater or +less degree, for four hundred years.</p> +<p> +They did not, however, hold it in peace all +this time. They became continually involved +in difficulties and contests with the native Britons, +who could ill brook the oppressions of such +merciless masters as Roman generals always +proved in the provinces which they pretended +to govern. One of the most formidable rebellions +<a name="page24" id="page24"></a><span class="left">[page 24]</span> +that the Romans had to encounter during +their disturbed and troubled sway in Britain +was led on by a woman. Her name was Boadicea. +Boadicea, like almost all other heroines, +was coarse and repulsive in appearance. She +was tall and masculine in form. The tones of +her voice were harsh, and she had the countenance +of a savage. Her hair was yellow. It +might have been beautiful if it had been neatly +arranged, and had shaded a face which possessed +the gentle expression that belongs properly +to woman. It would then have been called +golden. As it was, hanging loosely below her +waist and streaming in the wind, it made the +wearer only look the more frightful. Still, Boadicea +was not by any means indifferent to the +appearance she made in the eyes of beholders. +She evinced her desire to make a favorable impression +upon others, in her own peculiar way, +it is true, but in one which must have been effective, +considering what sort of beholders they +were in whose eyes she figured. She was +dressed in a gaudy coat, wrought of various colors, +with a sort of mantle buttoned over it. She +wore a great gold chain about her neck, and +held an ornamented spear in her hand. Thus +equipped, she appeared at the head of an army +<a name="page25" id="page25"></a><span class="left">[page 25]</span> +of a hundred thousand men, and gathering them +around her, she ascended a mound of earth and +harangued them—that is, as many as could +stand within reach of her voice—arousing them +to sentiments of revenge against their hated oppressors, +and urging them to the highest pitch +of determination and courage for the approaching +struggle. Boadicea had reason to deem the +Romans her implacable foes. They had robbed +her of her treasures, deprived her of her kingdom, +imprisoned her, scourged her, and inflicted +the worst possible injuries upon her daughters. +These things had driven the wretched +mother to a perfect phrensy of hate, and aroused +her to this desperate struggle for redress and +revenge. But all was in vain. In encountering +the spears of Roman soldiery, she was encountering +the very hardest and sharpest steel +that a cruel world could furnish. Her army +was conquered, and she killed herself by taking +poison in her despair.</p> +<p> +By struggles such as these the contest between +the Romans and the Britons was carried +on for many generations; the Romans conquering +at every trial, until, at length, the Britons +learned to submit without further resistance to +their sway. In fact, there gradually came upon +<a name="page26" id="page26"></a><span class="left">[page 26]</span> +the stage, during the progress of these centuries, +a new power, acting as an enemy to both +the Picts and Scots; hordes of lawless barbarians, +who inhabited the mountains and morasses +of Scotland and Ireland. These terrible +savages made continual irruptions into the +southern country for plunder, burning and destroying, +as they retired, whatever they could +not carry away. They lived in impregnable +and almost inaccessible fastnesses, among dark +glens and precipitous mountains, and upon +gloomy islands surrounded by iron-bound coasts +and stormy seas. The Roman legions made +repeated attempts to hunt them out of these retreats, +but with very little success. At length +a line of fortified posts was established across +the island, near where the boundary line now +lies between England and Scotland; and by +guarding this line, the Roman generals who +had charge of Britain attempted to protect the +inhabitants of the southern country, who had +learned at length to submit peaceably to their +sway.</p> +<p> +One of the most memorable events which occurred +during the time that the Romans held +possession of the island of Britain was the visit +of one of the emperors to this northern extremity +<a name="page27" id="page27"></a><span class="left">[page 27]</span> +of his dominions. The name of this emperor +was Severus. He was powerful and prosperous +at home, but his life was embittered by +one great calamity, the dissolute character and +the perpetual quarrels of his sons. To remove +them from Rome, where they disgraced both +themselves and their father by their vicious +lives, and the ferocious rivalry and hatred they +bore to each other, Severus planned an excursion +to Britain, taking them with him, in the +hope of turning their minds into new channels +of thought, and awakening in them some new +and nobler ambition.</p> +<p> +At the time when Severus undertook this +expedition, he was advanced in age and very +infirm. He suffered much from the gout, so +that he was unable to travel by any ordinary +conveyance, and was borne, accordingly, almost +all the way upon a litter. He crossed the Channel +with his army, and, leaving one of his sons +in command in the south part of the island, he +advanced with the other, at the head of an enormous +force, determined to push boldly forward +into the heart of Scotland, and to bring the war +with the Picts and Scots to an effectual end.</p> +<p> +He met, however, with very partial success. +His soldiers became entangled in bogs and morasses; +<a name="page28" id="page28"></a><span class="left">[page 28]</span> +they fell into ambuscades; they suffered +every degree of privation and hardship for +want of water and of food, and were continually +entrapped by their enemies in situations where +they had to fight in small numbers and at a +great disadvantage. Then, too, the aged and +feeble general was kept in a continual fever of +anxiety and trouble by Bassianus, the son whom +he had brought with him to the north. The +dissoluteness and violence of his character were +not changed by the change of scene. He formed +plots and conspiracies against his father's +authority; he raised mutinies in the army; he +headed riots; and he was finally detected in a +plan for actually assassinating his father. Severus, +when he discovered this last enormity of +wickedness, sent for his son to come to his imperial +tent. He laid a naked sword before him, +and then, after bitterly reproaching him with +his undutiful and ungrateful conduct, he said, +"If you wish to kill me, do it now. Here I +stand, old, infirm, and helpless. You are young +and strong, and can do it easily. I am ready. +Strike the blow."</p> +<p> +Of course Bassianus shrunk from his father's +reproaches, and went away without committing +the crime to which he was thus reproachfully +<a name="page29" id="page29"></a><span class="left">[page 29]</span> +invited; but his character remained unchanged; +and this constant trouble, added to +all the other difficulties which Severus encountered, +prevented his accomplishing his object of +thoroughly conquering his northern foes. He +made a sort of peace with them, and retiring +south to the line of fortified posts which had +been previously established, he determined to +make it a fixed and certain boundary by building +upon it a permanent wall. He put the +whole force of his army upon the work, and in +one or two years, as is said, he completed the +structure. It is known in history as the Wall +of Severus; and so solid, substantial, and permanent +was the work, that the traces of it have +not entirely disappeared to the present day.</p> +<p> +The wall extended across the island, from the +mouth of the Tyne, on the German Ocean, to +the Solway Frith—nearly seventy miles. It +was twelve feet high, and eight feet wide. It +was faced with substantial masonry on both +sides, the intermediate space being likewise filled +in with stone. When it crossed bays or morasses, +piles were driven to serve as a foundation. +Of course, such a wall as this, by itself, +would be no defense. It was to be garrisoned +by soldiers, being intended, in fact, only as a +<a name="page30" id="page30"></a><span class="left">[page 30]</span> +means to enable a smaller number of troops +than would otherwise be necessary to guard the +line. For these soldiers there were built great +fortresses at intervals along the wall, wherever +a situation was found favorable for such structures. +These were called <i>stations</i>. The stations +were occupied by garrisons of troops, and +small towns of artificers and laborers soon +sprung up around them. Between the stations, +at smaller intervals, were other smaller fortresses +called castles, intended as places of defense, +and rallying points in case of an attack, but not +for garrisons of any considerable number of +men. Then, between the castles, at smaller +intervals still, were turrets, used as watch-towers +and posts for sentinels. Thus the whole +line of the wall was every where defended by +armed men. The whole number thus employed +in the defense of this extraordinary rampart +was said to be ten thousand. There was a +broad, deep, and continuous ditch on the northern +side of the wall, to make the impediment +still greater for the enemy, and a spacious and +well-constructed military road on the southern +side, on which troops, stores, wagons, and baggage +of every kind could be readily transported +along the line, from one end to the other.</p> +<a name="page31" id="page31"></a><span class="left">[page 31]</span> +<br /> + +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/030-1000.jpg"><img src="images/030-500.jpg" width="500" height="290" alt="Wall of Severus" border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Wall of Severus</span></p><br /> +<a name="page33" id="page33"></a><span class="left">[page 33]</span> +<p> +The wall was a good defense as long as Roman +soldiers remained to guard it. But in process +of time—about two centuries after Severus's +day—the Roman empire itself began to +decline, even in the very seat and center of its +power; and then, to preserve their own capital +from destruction, the government were obliged +to call their distant armies home. The wall +was left to the Britons; but they could not defend +it. The Picts and Scots, finding out the +change, renewed their assaults. They battered +down the castles; they made breaches here and +there in the wall; they built vessels, and, passing +round by sea across the mouth of the Solway +Frith and of the River Tyne, they renewed +their old incursions for plunder and destruction. +The Britons, in extreme distress, sent +again and again to recall the Romans to their +aid, and they did, in fact, receive from them +some occasional and temporary succor. At +length, however, all hope of help from this +quarter failed, and the Britons, finding their +condition desperate, were compelled to resort to +a desperate remedy, the nature of which will +be explained in the next chapter.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page34" id="page34"></a><span class="left">[page 34]</span> + +<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter II.</span></h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Anglo-Saxons.</span></h2> + +<p> +Any one who will look around upon the +families of his acquaintance will observe +that family characteristics and resemblances +prevail not only in respect to stature, form, expression +of countenance, and other outward and +bodily tokens, but also in regard to the constitutional +temperaments and capacities of the +soul. Sometimes we find a group in which +high intellectual powers and great energy of +action prevail for many successive generations, +and in all the branches into which the original +stock divides; in other cases, the hereditary +tendency is to gentleness and harmlessness of +character, with a full development of all the +feelings and sensibilities of the soul. Others, +again, exhibit congenital tendencies to great +physical strength and hardihood, and to powers +of muscular exertion and endurance. These +differences, notwithstanding all the exceptions +and irregularities connected with them, are obviously, +where they exist, deeply seated and +<a name="page35" id="page35"></a><span class="left">[page 35]</span> +permanent. They depend very slightly upon +any mere external causes. They have, on the +contrary, their foundation in some hidden principles +connected with the origin of life, and +with the mode of its transmission from parent +to offspring, which the researches of philosophers +have never yet been able to explore.</p> +<p> +These same constitutional and congenital peculiarities +which we see developing themselves +all around us in families, mark, on a greater +scale, the characteristics of the different nations +of the earth, and in a degree much higher still, +the several great and distinct races into which +the whole human family seems to be divided. +Physiologists consider that there are five of +these great races, whose characteristics, mental +as well as bodily, are distinctly, strongly, and +permanently marked. These characteristics +descend by hereditary succession from father to +son, and though education and outward influences +may modify them, they can not essentially +change them. Compare, for example, the +Indian and the African races, each of which has +occupied for a thousand years a continent of +its own, where they have been exposed to the +same variety of climates, and as far as possible +to the same general outward influences. How +<a name="page36" id="page36"></a><span class="left">[page 36]</span> +entirely diverse from each other they are, not +only in form, color, and other physical marks, +but in all the tendencies and characteristics of +the soul! One can no more be changed into +the other, than a wolf, by being tamed and domesticated, +can be made a dog, or a dog, by +being driven into the forests, be transformed +into a tiger. The difference is still greater between +either of these races and the Caucasian +race. This race might probably be called the +European race, were it not that some Asiatic +and some African nations have sprung from it, +as the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Egyptians, +the Carthaginians, and, in modern times, the +Turks. All the nations of this race, whether +European or African, have been distinguished +by the same physical marks in the conformation +of the head and the color of the skin, and still +more by those traits of character—the intellect, +the energy, the spirit of determination and pride—which, +far from owing their existence to outward +circumstances, have always, in all ages, +made all outward circumstances bend to them. +That there have been some great and noble specimens +of humanity among the African race, for +example, no one can deny; but that there is a +marked, and fixed, and permanent constitutional +<a name="page37" id="page37"></a><span class="left">[page 37]</span> +difference between them and the Caucasian +race seems evident from this fact, that for two +thousand years each has held its own continent, +undisturbed, in a great degree, by the rest of +mankind; and while, during all this time, no +nation of the one race has risen, so far as is +known, above the very lowest stage of civilization, +there have been more than fifty entirely +distinct and independent civilizations originated +and fully developed in the other. For three +thousand years the Caucasian race have continued, +under all circumstances, and in every +variety of situation, to exhibit the same traits +and the same indomitable prowess. No calamities, +however great—no desolating wars, no destructive +pestilence, no wasting famine, no night +of darkness, however universal and gloomy—has +ever been able to keep them long in degradation +or barbarism. There is not now a barbarous +people to be found in the whole race, and +there has not been one for a thousand years.</p> +<p> +Nearly all the great exploits, and achievements +too, which have signalized the history of +the world, have been performed by this branch +of the human family. They have given celebrity +to every age in which they have lived, and +to every country that they have ever possessed, +<a name="page38" id="page38"></a><span class="left">[page 38]</span> +by some great deed, or discovery, or achievement, +which their intellectual energies have accomplished. +As Egyptians, they built the Pyramids, +and reared enormous monoliths, which +remain as perfect now as they were when first +completed, thirty centuries ago. As Phœnicians, +they constructed ships, perfected navigation, +and explored, without compass or chart, +every known sea. As Greeks, they modeled +architectural embellishments, and cut sculptures +in marble, and wrote poems and history, +which have been ever since the admiration of +the world. As Romans, they carried a complete +and perfect military organization over fifty +nations and a hundred millions of people, with +one supreme mistress over all, the ruins of +whose splendid palaces and monuments have +not yet passed away. Thus has this race gone +on, always distinguishing itself, by energy, activity, +and intellectual power, wherever it has +dwelt, whatever language it has spoken, and in +whatever period of the world it has lived. It +has invented printing, and filled every country +that it occupies with permanent records of the +past, accessible to all. It has explored the +heavens, and reduced to precise and exact calculations +all the complicated motions there. It +<a name="page39" id="page39"></a><span class="left">[page 39]</span> +has ransacked the earth, systematized, arranged, +and classified the vast melange of plants, +and animals, and mineral products to be found +upon its surface. It makes steam and falling +water do more than half the work necessary for +feeding and clothing the human race; and the +howling winds of the ocean, the very emblems +of resistless destruction and terror, it steadily +employs in interchanging the products of the +world, and bearing the means of comfort and +plenty to every clime.</p> +<p> +The Caucasian race has thus, in all ages, +and in all the varieties of condition in which +the different branches of it have been placed, +evinced the same great characteristics, marking +the existence of some innate and constant +constitutional superiority; and yet, in the different +branches, subordinate differences appear, +which are to be accounted for, perhaps, partly +by difference of circumstances, and partly, perhaps, +by similar constitutional diversities—diversities +by which one branch is distinguished +from other branches, as the whole race is from +the other races with which we have compared +them. Among these branches, we, Anglo-Saxons +ourselves, claim for the Anglo-Saxons the +superiority over all the others.</p> +<a name="page40" id="page40"></a><span class="left">[page 40]</span> +<p> +The Anglo-Saxons commenced their career +as pirates and robbers, and as pirates and robbers +of the most desperate and dangerous description. +In fact, the character which the Anglo-Saxons +have obtained in modern times for +energy and enterprise, and for desperate daring +in their conflicts with foes, is no recent fame. +The progenitors of the present race were celebrated +every where, and every where feared +and dreaded, not only in the days of Alfred, but +several centuries before. All the historians of +those days that speak of them at all, describe +them as universally distinguished above their +neighbors for their energy and vehemence of +character, their mental and physical superiority, +and for the wild and daring expeditions to +which their spirit of enterprise and activity were +continually impelling them. They built vessels, +in which they boldly put forth on the waters +of the German Ocean or of the Baltic Sea +on excursions for conquest or plunder. Like +their present posterity on the British isles and +on the shores of the Atlantic, they cared not, in +these voyages, whether it was summer or winter, +calm or storm. In fact, they sailed often +in tempests and storms by choice, so as to come +upon their enemies the more unexpectedly.</p> + +<a name="page41" id="page41"></a><span class="left">[page 41]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<img src="images/039.jpg" width="389" height="570" alt="Saxon Military Chief" border="0" /><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Saxon Military Chief</span></p><br /> + +<a name="page43" id="page43"></a><span class="left">[page 43]</span> +<p> +They would build small vessels, or rather boats, +of osiers, covering them with skins, and in +fleets of these frail floats they would sally forth +among the howling winds and foaming surges +of the German Ocean. On these expeditions, +they all embarked as in a common cause, and +felt a common interest. The leaders shared in +all the toils and exposures of the men, and the +men took part in the counsels and plans of the +leaders. Their intelligence and activity, and +their resistless courage and ardor, combined +with their cool and calculating sagacity, made +them successful in every attempt. If they +fought, they conquered; if they pursued their +enemies, they were sure to overtake them; if +they retreated, they were sure to make their +escape. They were clothed in a loose and flowing +dress, and wore their hair long and hanging +about their shoulders; and they had the +art, as their descendants have now, of contriving +and fabricating arms of such superior construction +and workmanship, as to give them, +on this account alone, a great advantage over +all <a name="cotemporary" id="cotemporary">cotemporary</a><a href="#IIx"><sup>*</sup></a> nations. There were two other +points in which there was a remarkable similarity +between this parent stock in its rude, early +form, and the extended social progeny which +<a name="page44" id="page44"></a><span class="left">[page 44]</span> +represents it at the present day. One was the +extreme strictness of their ideas of conjugal +fidelity, and the stern and rigid severity with +which all violations of female virtue were judged. +The woman who violated her marriage +vows was compelled to hang herself. Her body +was then burned in public, and the accomplice +of her crime was executed over the ashes. The +other point of resemblance between the ancient +Anglo-Saxons and their modern descendants +was their indomitable pride. They could never +endure any thing like <i>submission</i>. Though +sometimes overpowered, they were never conquered. +Though taken prisoners and carried +captive, the indomitable spirit which animated +them could never be really subdued. The Romans +used sometimes to compel their prisoners +to fight as gladiators, to make spectacles for +the amusement of the people of the city. On +one occasion, thirty Anglo-Saxons, who had +been taken captive and were reserved for this +fate, strangled themselves rather than submit +to this indignity. The whole nation manifested +on all occasions a very unbending and unsubmissive +will, encountering every possible +danger and braving every conceivable ill rather +than succumb or submit to any power except +<a name="page45" id="page45"></a><span class="left">[page 45]</span> +such as they had themselves created for +their own ends; and their descendants, whether +in England or America, evince much the +same spirit still.</p> +<p> +It was the landing of a few boat-loads of these +determined and ferocious barbarians on a small +island near the mouth of the Thames, which +constitutes the great event of the arrival of the +Anglo-Saxons in England, which is so celebrated +in English history as the epoch which marks +the real and true beginning of British greatness +and power. It is true that the history of +England goes back beyond this period to narrate, +as we have done, the events connected +with the contests of the Romans and the aboriginal +Britons, and the incursions and maraudings +of the Picts and Scots; but all these aborigines +passed gradually—after the arrival of +the Anglo-Saxons—off the stage. The old +stock was wholly displaced. The present monarchy +has sprung entirely from its Anglo-Saxon +original; so that all which precedes the arrival +of this new race is introductory and preliminary, +like the history, in this country, of the native +American tribes before the coming of the English +Pilgrims. As, therefore, the landing of +the Pilgrims on the Plymouth Rock marks the +<a name="page46" id="page46"></a><span class="left">[page 46]</span> +true commencement of the history of the American +Republic, so that of the Anglo-Saxon adventurers +on the island of Thanet represents +and marks the origin of the British monarchy. +The event therefore, stands as a great and +conspicuous landmark, though now dim and +distant in the remote antiquity in which it occurred.</p> +<p> +And yet the event, though so wide-reaching +and grand in its bearings and relations, and in +the vast consequences which have flowed and +which still continue to flow from it, was apparently +a minute and unimportant circumstance +at the time when it occurred. There were only +three vessels at the first arrival. Of their size +and character the accounts vary. Some of +these accounts say they contained three hundred +men; others seem to state that the number +which arrived at the first landing was three +thousand. This, however, would seem impossible, +as no three vessels built in those days +could convey so large a number. We must +suppose, therefore, that that number is meant +to include those who came at several of the earlier +expeditions, and which were grouped by +the historian together, or else that several other +vessels or transports accompanied the three, +<a name="page47" id="page47"></a><span class="left">[page 47]</span> +which history has specially commemorated as +the first arriving.</p> +<p> +In fact, very little can now be known in respect +to the form and capacity of the vessels in +which these half-barbarous navigators roamed, +in those days, over the British seas. Their +name, indeed, has come down to us, and that +is nearly all. They were called <i>cyules</i>; though +the name is sometimes spelled, in the ancient +chronicles, <i>ceols</i>, and in other ways. They +were obviously vessels of considerable capacity +and were of such construction and such strength +as to stand the roughest marine exposures. +They were accustomed to brave fearlessly every +commotion and to encounter every danger +raised either by winter tempests or summer +gales in the restless waters of the German +Ocean.</p> +<p> +The names of the commanders who headed +the expedition which first landed have been preserved, +and they have acquired, as might have +been expected, a very wide celebrity. They +were Hengist and Horsa. Hengist and Horsa +were brothers.</p> +<p> +The place where they landed was the island +of Thanet. Thanet is a tract of land at the +mouth of the Thames, on the southern side; a +<a name="page48" id="page48"></a><span class="left">[page 48]</span> +sort of promontory extending into the sea, and +forming the cape at the south side of the estuary +made by the mouth of the river. The extreme +point of land is called the North Foreland +which, as it is the point that thousands of +vessels, coming out of the Thames, have to +round in proceeding southward on voyages to +France, to the Mediterranean, to the Indies, +and to America, is very familiarly known to +navigators throughout the world. The island +of Thanet, of which this North Foreland is the +extreme point, ought scarcely to be called an +island, since it forms, in fact, a portion of the +main land, being separated from it only by a +narrow creek or stream, which in former ages +indeed, was wide and navigable, but is now +nearly choked up and obliterated by the sands +and the sediment, which, after being brought +down by the Thames, are driven into the creek +by the surges of the sea.</p> +<p> +In the time of Hengist and Horsa the creek +was so considerable that its mouth furnished a +sufficient harbor for their vessels. They landed +at a town called Ebbs-fleet, which is now, however, +at some distance inland.</p> +<p> +There is some uncertainty in respect to the +motive which led Hengist and Horsa to make +<a name="page49" id="page49"></a><span class="left">[page 49]</span> +their first descent upon the English coast. +Whether they came on one of their customary +piratical expeditions, or were driven on the +coast accidentally by stress of weather, or were +invited to come by the British king, can not +now be accurately ascertained. Such parties +of Anglo-Saxons had undoubtedly often landed +before under somewhat similar circumstances, +and then, after brief incursions into the interior, +had re-embarked on board their ships and sailed +away. In this case, however, there was a certain +peculiar and extraordinary state of things +in the political condition of the country in which +they had landed, which resulted in first protracting +their stay, and finally in establishing them +so fixedly and permanently in the land, that +they and their followers and descendants soon +became the entire masters of it, and have remained +in possession to the present day. These +circumstances were as follows:</p> +<p> +The name of the king of Britain at this period +was Vortigern. At the time when the Anglo-Saxons +arrived, he and his government were +nearly overwhelmed with the pressure of difficulty +and danger arising from the incursions of +the Picts and Scots; and Vortigern, instead of +being aroused to redoubled vigilance and energy +<a name="page50" id="page50"></a><span class="left">[page 50]</span> +by the imminence of the danger, as Alfred afterward +was in similar circumstances, sank +down, as weak minds always do, in despair, +and gave himself up to dissipation and vice—endeavoring, +like depraved seamen on a wreck, +to drown his mental distress in animal sensations +of pleasure. Such men are ready to seek +relief or rescue from their danger from any +quarter and at any price. Vortigern, instead +of looking upon the Anglo-Saxon intruders as +new enemies, conceived the idea of appealing +to them for succor. He offered to convey to +them a large tract of territory in the part of the +island where they had landed, on condition of +their aiding him in his contests with his other +foes.</p> +<p> +Hengist and Horsa acceded to this proposal. +They marched their followers into battle, and +defeated Vortigern's enemies. They sent across +the sea to their native land, and invited new adventurers +to join them. Vortigern was greatly +pleased with the success of his expedient. The +Picts and Scots were driven back to their fastnesses +in the remote mountains of the north, +and the Britons once more possessed their land +in peace, by means of the protection and the +aid which their new confederates afforded them.</p> +<a name="page51" id="page51"></a><span class="left">[page 51]</span> +<p> +In the mean time the Anglo-Saxons were +establishing and strengthening themselves very +rapidly in the part of the island which Vortigern +had assigned them—which was, as the +reader will understand from what has already +been said in respect to the place of their landing, +the southeastern part—a region which now +constitutes the county of Kent. In addition, +too, to the natural increase of their power from +the increase of their numbers and their military +force, Hengist contrived, if the story is true, to +swell his own personal influence by means of a +matrimonial alliance which he had the adroitness +to effect. He had a daughter named Rowena. +She was very beautiful and accomplished. +Hengist sent for her to come to England. +When she had arrived he made a sumptuous +entertainment for King Vortigern, inviting also +to it, of course, many other distinguished +guests. In the midst of the feast, when the +king was in the state of high excitement produced +on such temperaments by wine and convivial +pleasure, Rowena came in to offer him +more wine. Vortigern was powerfully struck, +as Hengist had anticipated, with her grace and +beauty. Learning that she was Hengist's +daughter, he demanded her hand. Hengist at +<a name="page52" id="page52"></a><span class="left">[page 52]</span> +first declined, but, after sufficiently stimulating +the monarch's eagerness by his pretended opposition, +he yielded, and the king became the general's +son-in-law. This is the story which some +of the old chroniclers tell. Modern historians +are divided in respect to believing it. Some +think it is fact, others fable.</p> +<p> +At all events, the power of Hengist and Horsa +gradually increased, as years passed on, until +the Britons began to be alarmed at their growing +strength and multiplying numbers, and to +fear lest these new friends should prove, in the +end, more formidable than the terrible enemies +whom they had come to expel. Contentions +and then open quarrels began to occur, and at +length both parties prepared for war. The contest +which soon ensued was a terrible struggle, +or rather series of struggles, which continued +for two centuries, during which the Anglo-Saxons +were continually gaining ground and the +Britons losing; the mental and physical superiority +of the Anglo-Saxon race giving them +with very few exceptions, every where and always +the victory.</p> +<p> +There were, occasionally, intervals of peace, +and partial and temporary friendliness. They +accuse Hengist of great treachery on one of +<a name="page53" id="page53"></a><span class="left">[page 53]</span> +these occasions. He invited his son-in-law, +King Vortigern, to a feast, with three hundred +of his officers, and then fomenting a quarrel at +the entertainment, the Britons were all killed +in the affray by means of the superior Saxon +force which had been provided for the emergency. +Vortigern himself was taken prisoner, +and held a captive until he ransomed himself +by ceding three whole provinces to his captor. +Hengist justified this demand by throwing the +responsibility of the feud upon his guests; and +it is not, in fact, at all improbable that they +deserved their share of the condemnation.</p> +<p> +The famous King Arthur, whose Knights of +the Round Table have been so celebrated in +ballads and tales, lived and flourished during +these wars between the Saxons and the Britons. +He was a king of the Britons, and performed +wonderful exploits of strength and valor. He +was of prodigious size and muscular power, and +of undaunted bravery. He slew giants, destroyed +the most ferocious wild beasts, gained +very splendid victories in the battles that he +fought, made long expeditions into foreign countries, +having once gone on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem +to obtain the Holy Cross. His wife +was a beautiful lady, the daughter of a chieftain +<a name="page54" id="page54"></a><span class="left">[page 54]</span> +of Cornwall. Her name was Guenever<a name="II1r" id="II1r">.</a><a href="#II1"><sup>1</sup></a> On +his return from one of his distant expeditions, +he found that his nephew, Medrawd, had won +her affections while he was gone, and a combat +ensued in consequence between him and Medrawd. +The combat took place on the coast of +Cornwall. Both parties fell. Arthur was mortally +wounded. They took him from the field +into a boat, and carried him along the coast till +they came to a river. They ascended the river +till they came to the town of Glastonbury. +They committed the still breathing body to the +care of faithful friends there; but the mortal +blow had been given. The great hero died, and +they buried his body in the Glastonbury churchyard, +very deep beneath the surface of the +ground, in order to place it as effectually as +possible beyond the reach of Saxon rage and +vengeance. Arthur had been a deadly and implacable +foe to the Saxons. He had fought +twelve great pitched battles with them, in every +one of which he had gained the victory. In one +of these battles he had slain, according to the +traditional tale, four hundred and seventy men, +in one day, with his own hand.</p> +<p> +Five hundred years after his death, King +<a name="page55" id="page55"></a><span class="left">[page 55]</span> +Henry the Second, having heard from an ancient +British bard that Arthur's body lay interred +in the Abbey of Glastonbury, and that the +spot was marked by some small pyramids erected +near it, and that the body would be found in +a rude coffin made of a hollowed oak, ordered +search to be made. The ballads and tales +which had been then, for several centuries, circulating +throughout England, narrating and +praising King Arthur's exploits, had given him +so wide a fame, that great interest was felt in +the recovery and the identification of his remains. +The searchers found the pyramids in +the cemetery of the abbey. They dug between +them, and came at length to a stone. Beneath +this stone was a leaden cross, with the inscription +in Latin, "<span class="lc2">H</span><span class="sc2">ERE LIES BURIED THE BODY OF +GREAT</span> <span class="lc2">K</span><span class="sc2">ING</span> <span class="lc2">A</span><span class="sc2">RTHUR</span>." Going down still below +this, they came at length, at the depth of sixteen +feet from the surface, to a great coffin, +made of the trunk of an oak tree, and within it +was a human skeleton of unusual size. The +skull was very large, and showed marks of ten +wounds. Nine of them were closed by concretions +of the bone, indicating that the wounds by +which those contusions or fractures had been +made had been healed while life continued. +<a name="page56" id="page56"></a><span class="left">[page 56]</span> +The tenth fracture remained in a condition +which showed that that had been the mortal +wound.</p> +<p> +The bones of Arthur's wife were found near +those of her husband. The hair was apparently +perfect when found, having all the freshness +and beauty of life; but a monk of the abbey, +who was present at the disinterment, touched +it and it crumbled to dust.</p> +<p> +Such are the tales which the old chronicles +tell of the good King Arthur, the last and greatest +representative of the power of the ancient +British aborigines. It is a curious illustration +of the uncertainty which attends all the early +records of national history, that, notwithstanding +all the above particularity respecting the +life and death of Arthur, it is a serious matter +of dispute among the learned in modern times +whether any such person ever lived.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page57" id="page57"></a><span class="left">[page 57]</span> + +<h3><a name="III" id="III"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> III.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Danes.</span></h2> + +<p> +The landing of Hengist and Horsa, the first +of the Anglo-Saxons, took place in the year +449, according to the commonly received chronology. +It was more than two hundred years +after this before the Britons were entirely subdued, +and the Saxon authority established +throughout the island, unquestioned and supreme. +One or two centuries more passed +away, and then the Anglo-Saxons had, in their +turn, to resist a new horde of invaders, who +came, as they themselves had done, across the +German Ocean. These new invaders were the +Danes.</p> +<p> +The Saxons were not united under one general +government when they came finally to get +settled in their civil polity. The English territory +was divided, on the contrary, into seven +or eight separate kingdoms. These kingdoms +were ruled by as many separate dynasties, or +lines of kings. They were connected with each +other by friendly relations and alliances, more +<a name="page58" id="page58"></a><span class="left">[page 58]</span> +or less intimate, the whole system being known +in history by the name of the Saxon Heptarchy.</p> +<p> +The princes of these various dynasties showed +in their dealings with one another, and in +their relations with foreign powers, the same +characteristics of boldness and energy as had +always marked the action of the race. Even +the queens and princesses evinced, by their +courage and decision, that Anglo-Saxon blood +lost nothing of its inherent qualities by flowing +in female veins.</p> +<p> +For example, a very extraordinary story is +told of one of these Saxon princesses. A certain +king upon the Continent, whose dominions +lay between the Rhine and the German Ocean, +had proposed for her hand in behalf of his son, +whose name was Radiger. The consent of the +princess was given, and the contract closed. +The king himself soon afterward died, but before +he died he changed his mind in respect to +the marriage of his son. It seems that he had +himself married a second wife, the daughter of +a king of the Franks, a powerful continental +people; and as, in consequence of his own approaching +death, his son would come unexpectedly +into possession of the throne, and would +need immediately all the support which a powerful +<a name="page59" id="page59"></a><span class="left">[page 59]</span> +alliance could give him, he recommended +to him to give up the Saxon princess, and connect +himself, instead, with the Franks, as he +himself had done. The prince entered into +these views; his father died, and he immediately +afterward married his father's youthful +widow—his own step-mother—a union which, +however monstrous it would be regarded in our +day, seems not to have been considered any +thing very extraordinary then.</p> +<p> +The Anglo-Saxon princess was very indignant +at this violation of his plighted faith on +the part of her suitor. She raised an army and +equipped a fleet, and set sail with the force +which she had thus assembled across the German +Ocean, to call the faithless Radiger to account. +Her fleet entered the mouth of the +Rhine, and her troops landed, herself at the +head of them. She then divided her army into +two portions, keeping one division as a guard +for herself at her own encampment, which she +established near the place of her landing, while +she sent the other portion to seek and attack +Radiger, who was, in the mean time, assembling +his forces, in a state of great alarm at this +sudden and unexpected danger.</p> +<p> +In due time this division returned, reporting +<a name="page60" id="page60"></a><span class="left">[page 60]</span> +that they had met and encountered Radiger, +and had entirely defeated him. They came +back triumphing in their victory, considering +evidently, that the faithless lover had been well +punished for his offense. The princess, however, +instead of sharing in their satisfaction, +ordered them to make a new incursion into the +interior, and not to return without bringing +Radiger with them as their prisoner. They +did so; and after hunting the defeated and distressed +king from place to place, they succeeded, +at last, in seizing him in a wood, and +brought him in to the princess's encampment. +He began to plead for his life, and to make excuses +for the violation of his contract by urging +the necessities of his situation and his father's +dying commands. The princess said she was +ready to forgive him if he would now dismiss +her rival and fulfill his obligations to her. Radiger +yielded to this demand; he repudiated his +Frank wife, and married the Anglo-Saxon lady +in her stead.</p> +<p> +Though the Anglo-Saxon race continued thus +to evince in all their transactions the same extraordinary +spirit and energy, and met generally +with the same success that had characterized +them at the beginning, they seemed at +<a name="page61" id="page61"></a><span class="left">[page 61]</span> +length to find their equals in the Danes. These +Danes, however, though generally designated +by that appellation in history, were not exclusively +the natives of Denmark. They came +from all the shores of the Northern and Baltic +Seas. In fact, they inhabited the sea rather +than the land. They were a race of bold and +fierce naval adventurers, as the Anglo-Saxons +themselves had been two centuries before. +Most extraordinary accounts are given of their +hardihood, and of their fierce and predatory +habits. They haunted the bays along the coasts +of Sweden and Norway, and the islands which +encumber the entrance to the Baltic Sea. They +were banded together in great hordes, each ruled +by a chieftain, who was called a <i>sea king</i>, +because his dominions scarcely extended at all +to the land. His possessions, his power, his +subjects pertained all to the sea. It is true +they built or bought their vessels on the shore, +and they sought shelter among the islands and +in the bays in tempests and storms; but they +prided themselves in never dwelling in houses, +or sharing, in any way, the comforts or enjoyments +of the land. They made excursions every +where for conquest and plunder, and were +proud of their successful deeds of violence and +<a name="page62" id="page62"></a><span class="left">[page 62]</span> +wrong. It was honorable to enter into their +service. Chieftains and nobles who dwelt upon +the land sent their sons to acquire greatness, +and wealth, and fame by joining these piratical +gangs, just as high-minded military or naval +officers, in modern times, would enter into the +service of an honorable government abroad.</p> +<p> +Besides the great leaders of the most powerful +of these bands, there was an infinite number +of petty chieftains, who commanded single +ships or small detached squadrons. These were +generally the younger sons of sovereigns or +chieftains who lived upon the land, the elder +brothers remaining at home to inherit the +throne or the paternal inheritance. It was discreditable +then, as it is now in Europe, for any +branches of families of the higher class to engage +in any pursuit of honorable industry. +They could plunder and kill without dishonor, +but they could not toil. To rob and murder +was glory; to do good or to be useful in any +way was disgrace.</p> +<p> +These younger sons went to sea at a very +early age too. They were sent often at twelve, +that they might become early habituated to the +exposures and dangers of their dreadful combats, +and of the wintery storms, and inured to +<a name="page63" id="page63"></a><span class="left">[page 63]</span> +the athletic exertions which the sea rigorously +exacts of all who venture within her dominion. +When they returned they were received with +consideration and honor, or with neglect and +disgrace, according as they were more or less +laden with booty and spoil. In the summer +months the land kings themselves would organize +and equip naval armaments for similar expeditions. +They would cruise along the coasts +of the sea, to land where they found an unguarded +point, and sack a town or burn a castle, +seize treasures, capture men and make them +slaves, kidnap women, and sometimes destroy +helpless children with their spears in a manner +too barbarous and horrid to be described. On +returning to their homes, they would perhaps +find their own castles burned and their own +dwellings roofless, from the visit of some similar +horde.</p> +<p> +Thus the seas of western Europe were covered +in those days, as they are now, with fleets +of shipping; though, instead of being engaged +as now, in the quiet and peaceful pursuits of +commerce, freighted with merchandise, manned +with harmless seamen, and welcome wherever +they come, they were then loaded only with +ammunition and arms, and crowded with fierce +<a name="page64" id="page64"></a><span class="left">[page 64]</span> +and reckless robbers, the objects of universal +detestation and terror.</p> +<p> +One of the first of these sea kings who acquired +sufficient individual distinction to be +personally remembered in history has given a +sort of immortality, by his exploits, to the very +rude name of Ragnar Lodbrog, and his character +was as rude as his name.</p> + +<a name="page65" id="page65"></a><span class="left">[page 65]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/063-1200.jpg"><img src="images/063-500.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="The Sea Kings" border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">The Sea Kings</span></p><br /> + +<p> +Ragnar's father was a prince of Norway. +He married, however, a Danish princess, and +thus Ragnar acquired a sort of hereditary right +to a Danish kingdom—the territory including +various islands and promontories at the entrance +of the Baltic Sea. There was, however, +a competitor for this power, named Harald. +The Franks made common cause with Harald. +Ragnar was defeated and driven away from the +land. Though defeated, however, he was not +subdued. He organized a naval force, and +made himself a sea king. His operations on +the stormy element of the seas were conducted +with so much decision and energy, and at the +same time with so much system and plan, that +his power rapidly extended. He brought the +other sea kings under his control, and established +quite a maritime empire. He made more +and more distant excursions, and at last, in order +<a name="page67" id="page67"></a><span class="left">[page 67]</span> +to avenge himself upon the Franks for their +interposition in behalf of his enemy at home, +he passed through the Straits of Dover, and +thence down the English Channel to the mouth +of the Seine. He ascended this river to Rouen, +and there landed, spreading throughout the +country the utmost terror and dismay. From +Rouen he marched to Paris, finding no force +able to resist him on his way, or to defend the +capital. His troops destroyed the monastery +of St. Germain's, near the city, and then the +King of the Franks, finding himself at their +mercy, bought them off by paying a large sum +of money. With this money and the other +booty which they had acquired, Ragnar and his +horde now returned to their ships at Rouen, and +sailed away again toward their usual haunts +among the bays and islands of the Baltic Sea.</p> +<p> +This exploit, of course, gave Ragnar Lodbrog's +barbarous name a very wide celebrity. +It tended, too, greatly to increase and establish +his power. He afterward made similar incursions +into Spain, and finally grew bold enough +to brave the Anglo-Saxons themselves on the +green island of Britain, as the Anglo-Saxons +had themselves braved the aboriginal inhabitants +two or three centuries before. But Ragnar +<a name="page68" id="page68"></a><span class="left">[page 68]</span> +seems to have found the Anglo-Saxon +swords and spears which he advanced to encounter +on landing in England much more formidable +than those which were raised against +him on the southern side of the Channel. He +was destroyed in the contest. The circumstances +were as follows:</p> +<p> +In making his preparations for a descent +upon the English coast, he prepared for a very +determined contest, knowing well the character +of the foes with whom he would have now to +deal. He built two enormous ships, much +larger than those of the ordinary size, and armed +and equipped them in the most perfect manner. +He filled them with selected men, and +sailing down along the coast of Scotland, he +watched for a place and an opportunity to land. +Winds and storms are almost always raging +among the dark and gloomy mountains and islands +of Scotland. Ragnar's ships were caught +on one of these gales and driven on shore. The +ships were lost, but the men escaped to the +land. Ragnar, nothing daunted, organized and +marshaled them as an army, and marched into +the interior to attack any force which might +appear against them. His course led him to +Northumbria, the most northerly Saxon kingdom. +<a name="page69" id="page69"></a><span class="left">[page 69]</span> +Here he soon encountered a very large +and superior force, under the command of Ella, +the king; but, with the reckless desperation +which so strongly marked his character, he advanced +to attack them. Three times, it is said, +he pierced the enemy's lines, cutting his way +entirely through them with his little column. +He was, however, at length overpowered. His +men were cut to pieces, and he was himself +taken prisoner. We regret to have to add that +our cruel ancestors put their captive to death in +a very barbarous manner. They filled a den +with poisonous snakes, and then drove the +wretched Ragnar into it. The horrid reptiles +killed him with their stings. It was Ella, the +king of Northumbria, who ordered and directed +this punishment.</p> +<p> +The expedition of Ragnar thus ended without +leading to any permanent results in Anglo-Saxon +history. It is, however, memorable as +the first of a series of invasions from the Danes—or +Northmen, as they are sometimes called, +since they came from all the coasts of the Baltic +and German Seas—which, in the end, gave +the Anglo-Saxons infinite trouble. At one time, +in fact, the conquests of the Danes threatened +to root out and destroy the Anglo-Saxon power +<a name="page70" id="page70"></a><span class="left">[page 70]</span> +from the island altogether. They would probably +have actually effected this, had the nation +not been saved by the prudence, the courage, +the sagacity, and the consummate skill of the +subject of this history, as will fully appear to +the reader in the course of future chapters.</p> +<p> +Ragnar was not the only one of these Northmen +who made attempts to land in England +and to plunder the Anglo-Saxons, even in his +own day. Although there were no very regular +historical records kept in those early times, +still a great number of legends, and ballads, +and ancient chronicles have come down to us, +narrating the various transactions which occurred, +and it appears by these that the sea kings +generally were beginning, at this time, to harass +the English coasts, as well as all the other +shores to which they could gain access. Some +of these invasions would seem to have been of +a very formidable character.</p> +<p> +At first these excursions were made in the +summer season only, and, after collecting their +plunder, the marauders would return in the autumn +to their own shores, and winter in the +bays and among the islands there. At length, +however, they grew more bold. A large band +of them landed, in the autumn of 851, on the +<a name="page71" id="page71"></a><span class="left">[page 71]</span> +island of Thanet where the Saxons themselves +had landed four centuries before, and began +very coolly to establish their winter quarters on +English ground. They succeeded in maintaining +their stay during the winter, and in the +spring were prepared for bolder undertakings +still.</p> +<p> +They formed a grand confederation, and collected +a fleet of three hundred and fifty ships, +galleys, and boats, and advanced boldly up the +Thames. They plundered London, and then +marched south to Canterbury, which they plundered +too. They went thence into one of the +Anglo-Saxon kingdoms called Mercia, the inhabitants +of the country not being able to oppose +any effectual obstacle to their marauding +march. Finally, a great Anglo-Saxon force +was organized and brought out to meet them. +The battle was fought in a forest of oaks, and +the Danes were defeated. The victory, however, +afforded the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms only +a temporary relief. New hordes were continually +arriving and landing, growing more and +more bold if they met with success, and but little +daunted or discouraged by temporary failures.</p> +<p> +The most formidable of all these expeditions +<a name="page72" id="page72"></a><span class="left">[page 72]</span> +was one organized and commanded by the sons +and relatives of Ragnar, whom, it will be recollected, +the Saxons had cruelly killed by poisonous +serpents in a dungeon or den. The relatives +of the unhappy chieftain thus barbarously +executed were animated in their enterprise +by the double stimulus of love of plunder +and a ferocious thirst for revenge. A considerable +time was spent in collecting a large fleet, +and in combining, for this purpose, as many +chieftains as could be induced to share in the +enterprise. The story of their fellow-countryman +expiring under the stings of adders and +scorpions, while his tormentors were exulting +around him over the cruel agonies which their +ingenuity had devised, aroused them to a phrensy +of hatred and revenge. They proceeded, +however, very deliberately in their plans. They +did nothing hastily. They allowed ample time +for the assembling and organizing of the confederation. +When all was ready, they found +that there were eight kings and twenty earls +in the alliance, generally the relatives and comrades +of Ragnar. The two most prominent of +these commanders were Guthrum and Hubba. +Hubba was one of Ragnar's sons. At length, +toward the close of the summer, the formidable +<a name="page73" id="page73"></a><span class="left">[page 73]</span> +expedition set sail. They approached the English +coast, and landed without meeting with +any resistance. The Saxons seemed appalled +and paralyzed at the greatness of the danger. +The several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, though +they had been imperfectly united, some years +before, under Egbert, were still more or less +distinct, and each hoped that the one first invaded +would be the only one which would suffer; +and as these kingdoms were rivals, and +often hostile to each other, no general league +was formed against what soon proved to be the +common enemy. The Danes, accordingly, quietly +encamped, and made calm and deliberate +arrangements for spending the winter in their +new quarters, as if they were at home.</p> +<p> +During all this time, notwithstanding the +coolness and deliberation with which these +avengers of their murdered countryman acted, +the fires of their resentment and revenge were +slowly but steadily burning, and as soon as the +spring opened, they put themselves in battle +array, and marched into the dominions of Ella. +Ella did all that it was possible to do to meet +and oppose them, but the spirit of retaliation +and rage which his cruelties had evoked was +too strong to be resisted. His country was ravaged, +<a name="page74" id="page74"></a><span class="left">[page 74]</span> +his army was defeated, he was taken +prisoner, and the dying terrors and agonies of +Ragnar among the serpents were expiated by +tenfold worse tortures which they inflicted upon +Ella's mutilated body, by a process too horrible +to be described.</p> +<p> +After thus successfully accomplishing the +great object of their expedition, it was to have +been hoped that they would leave the island +and return to their Danish homes. But they +evinced no disposition to do this. On the contrary, +they commenced a course of ravage and +conquest in all parts of England, which continued +for several years. The parts of the country +which attempted to oppose them they destroyed +by fire and sword. They seized cities, +garrisoned and occupied them, and settled in +them as if to make them their permanent +homes. One kingdom after another was subdued. +The kingdom of Wessex seemed alone +to remain, and that was the subject of contest. +Ethelred was the king. The Danes advanced +into his dominions to attack him. In the battle +that ensued, Ethelred was killed. The successor +to his throne was his brother Alfred, the +subject of this history, who thus found himself +suddenly and unexpectedly called upon to assume +<a name="page75" id="page75"></a><span class="left">[page 75]</span> +the responsibilities and powers of supreme +command, in as dark and trying a crisis of national +calamity and danger as can well be conceived. +The manner in which Alfred acted in +the emergency, rescuing his country from her +perils, and laying the foundations, as he did, of +all the greatness and glory which has since accrued +to her, has caused his memory to be held +in the highest estimation among all nations, +and has immortalized his name.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page76" id="page76"></a><span class="left">[page 76]</span> + +<h3><a name="IV" id="IV"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> IV.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">Alfred's Early Years.</span></h2> + +<p> +Before commencing the narrative of Alfred's +administration of the public affairs +of his realm, it is necessary to go back a little, +in order to give some account of the more private +occurrences of his early life. Alfred, like +Washington, was distinguished for a very extraordinary +combination of qualities which exhibited +itself in his character, viz., the combination +of great military energy and skill on the +one hand, with a very high degree, on the other, +of moral and religious principle, and conscientious +devotion to the obligations of duty. This +combination, so rarely found in the distinguished +personages which have figured among mankind, +is, in a great measure, explained and accounted +for, in Alfred's case, by the peculiar +circumstances of his early history.</p> +<p> +It was his brother Ethelred, as has already +been stated, whom Alfred immediately succeeded. +His father's name was Ethelwolf; and +it seems highly probable that the peculiar turn +which Alfred's mind seemed to take in after +<a name="page77" id="page77"></a><span class="left">[page 77]</span> +years, was the consequence, in some considerable +degree, of this parent's situation and character. +Ethelwolf was a younger son, and was +brought up in a monastery at Winchester. The +monasteries of those days were the seats both +of learning and piety, that is, of such learning +and piety as then prevailed. The ideas of religious +faith and duty which were entertained a +thousand years ago were certainly very different +from those which are received now; still, +there was then, mingled with much superstition, +a great deal of honest and conscientious +devotion to the principles of Christian duty, and +of sincere and earnest desire to live for the honor +of God and religion, and for the highest and +best welfare of mankind. Monastic establishments +existed every where, defended by the sacredness +which invested them from the storms +of violence and war which swept over every +thing which the cross did not protect. To these +the thoughtful, the serious, and the intellectual +retired, leaving the restless, the rude, and the +turbulent to distract and terrify the earth with +their endless quarrels. Here they studied, they +wrote, they read; they transcribed books, they +kept records, they arranged exercises of devotion, +they educated youth, and, in a word, performed, +<a name="page78" id="page78"></a><span class="left">[page 78]</span> +in the inclosed and secluded retreats +in which they sought shelter, those intellectual +functions of civil life which now can all be performed +in open exposure, but which in those +days, if there had been no monastic retreats to +shelter them, could not have been performed at +all. For the learning and piety of the present +age, whether Catholic or Protestant, to malign +the monasteries of Anglo-Saxon times is for the +oak to traduce the acorn from which it sprung.</p> +<p> +Ethelwolf was a younger son, and, consequently, +did not expect to reign. He went to +the monastery at Winchester, and took the +vows. His father had no objection to this plan, +satisfied with having his oldest son expect and +prepare for the throne. As, however, he advanced +toward manhood, the thought of the +probability that he might be called to the throne +in the event of his brother's death led all parties +to desire that he might be released from his +monastic vows. They applied, accordingly, to +the pope for a dispensation. The dispensation +was granted, and Ethelwolf became a general +in the army. In the end his brother died, and +he became king.</p> +<p> +He continued, however, during his reign, to +manifest the peaceful, quiet, and serious character +<a name="page79" id="page79"></a><span class="left">[page 79]</span> +which had led him to enter the monastery, +and which had probably been strengthened +and confirmed by the influences and habits +to which he had been accustomed there. He +had, however, a very able, energetic, and warlike +minister, who managed his affairs with +great ability and success for a long course of +years. Ethelwolf, in the mean time, leaving +public affairs to his minister, continued to devote +himself to the pursuits to which his predilections +inclined him. He visited monasteries; +he cultivated learning; he endowed the Church; +he made journeys to Rome. All this time, his +kingdom, which had before almost swallowed +up the other kingdoms of the Heptarchy, became +more and more firmly established, until, +at length, the Danes came in, as is described in +the last chapter, and brought the whole land +into the most extreme and imminent danger. +The case did not, however, become absolutely +desperate until after Ethelwolf's death, as will +be hereafter explained.</p> +<p> +Ethelwolf married a lady whose gentle, quiet, +and serious character corresponded with his +own. Alfred was the youngest, and, as is often +the case with the youngest, the favorite child. +He was kept near to his father and mother, and +<a name="page80" id="page80"></a><span class="left">[page 80]</span> +closely under their influence, until his mother +died, which event, however, took place when he +was quite young. After this, Ethelwolf sent +Alfred to Rome. Rome was still more the +great center then than it is now of religion and +learning. There were schools there, maintained +by the various nations of Europe respectively, +for the education of the sons of the nobility. +Alfred, however, did not go for this purpose. +It was only to make the journey, to see +the city, to be introduced to the pope, and to +be presented, by means of the fame of the expedition, +to the notice of Europe, as the future +sovereign of England; for it was Ethelwolf's +intention, at this time, to pass over his older +sons, and make this Benjamin his successor on +the throne.</p> +<p> +The journey was made with great pomp and +parade. A large train of nobles and ecclesiastics +accompanied the young prince, and a splendid +reception was given to him in the various +towns in France which he passed through on +his way. He was but five years old; but his +position and his prospects made him, though so +young, a personage of great distinction. After +spending a short time at Rome, he returned +again to England.</p> +<a name="page81" id="page81"></a><span class="left">[page 81]</span> +<p> +Two years after this, Ethelwolf, Alfred's father, +determined to go to Rome himself. His +wife had died, his older sons had grown up, +and his own natural aversion to the cares and +toils of government seems to have been increased +by the alarms and dangers produced by the +incursions of the Danes, and by his own advancing +years. Having accordingly arranged +the affairs of the kingdom by placing his oldest +sons in command, he took the youngest, Alfred, +who was now seven years old, with him, and, +crossing the Channel, landed on the Continent, +on his way to Rome.</p> +<p> +All the arrangements for this journey were +conducted on a scale of great magnificence and +splendor. It is true that it was a rude and +semi-barbarous age, and very little progress had +been made in respect to the peaceful and industrial +arts of life; but, in respect to the arts connected +with war, to every thing that related to +the march of armies, the pomp and parade of +royal progresses, the caparison of horses, the +armor and military dresses of men, and the parade +and pageantry of military spectacles, a +very considerable degree of advancement had +been attained.</p> +<p> +King Ethelwolf availed himself of all the resources +<a name="page82" id="page82"></a><span class="left">[page 82]</span> +that he could command to give eclat to +his journey. He had a numerous train of attendants +and followers, and he carried with +him a number of rich and valuable presents for +the pope. He was received with great distinction +by King Charles of France, through whose +dominions he had to pass on his way to Italy. +Charles had a daughter, Judith, a young girl +with whom Ethelwolf, though now himself +quite advanced in life, fell deeply in love.</p> +<p> +Ethelwolf, after a short stay in France, went +on to Rome. His arrival and his visit here attracted +great attention. As King of England +he was a personage of very considerable consequence, +and then he came with a large retinue +and in magnificent state. His religious predilections, +too, inspired him with a very strong +interest in the ecclesiastical authorities and institutions +of Rome, and awakened, reciprocally, +in these authorities, a strong interest in him. +He made costly presents to the pope, some of +which were peculiarly splendid. One was a +crown of pure gold, which weighed, it is said, +four pounds. Another was a sword, richly +mounted in gold. There were also several utensils +and vessels of Saxon form and construction, +some of gold and others of silver gilt, and also a +<a name="page83" id="page83"></a><span class="left">[page 83]</span> +considerable number of dresses, all very richly +adorned. King Ethelwolf also made a distribution +in money to all the inhabitants of Rome: +gold to the nobles and to the clergy, and silver +to the people. How far his munificence on this +occasion may have been exaggerated by the +Saxon chroniclers, who, of course, like other +early historians, were fond of magnifying all +the exploits, and swelling, in every way, the +fame of the heroes of their stories, we can not +now know. There is no doubt, however, that +all the circumstances of Ethelwolf's visit to the +great capital were such as to attract universal +attention to the event, and to make the little +Alfred, on whose account the journey was in a +great measure performed, an object of very general +interest and attention.</p> +<p> +In fact, there is every reason to believe that +the Saxon nations had, at that time, made such +progress in wealth, population, and power as to +afford to such a prince as Ethelwolf the means +of making a great display, if he chose to do so, +on such an occasion as that of a royal progress +through France and a visit to the great city of +Rome. The Saxons had been in possession of +England, at this time, many hundred years; +and though, during all this period, they had been +<a name="page84" id="page84"></a><span class="left">[page 84]</span> +involved in various wars, both with one another +and with the neighboring nations, they had +been all the time steadily increasing in wealth, +and making constant improvements in all the +arts and refinements of life. Ethelwolf reigned, +therefore, over a people of considerable wealth +and power, and he moved across the Continent +on his way to Rome, and figured while there, +as a personage of no ordinary distinction.</p> +<p> +Rome was at this time, as we have said, the +great center of education, as well as of religious +and ecclesiastical influence. In fact, education +and religion went hand in hand in those days, +there being scarcely any instruction in books +excepting for the purposes of the Church. Separate +schools had been established at Rome by +the leading nations of Europe, where their +youth could be taught, each at an institution +in which his own language was spoken. Ethelwolf +remained a year at Rome, to give Alfred +the benefit of the advantages which the city +afforded. The boy was of a reflective and +thoughtful turn of mind, and applied himself +diligently to the performance of his duties. His +mind was rapidly expanded, his powers were +developed, and stores of such knowledge as was +adapted to the circumstances and wants of the +<a name="page85" id="page85"></a><span class="left">[page 85]</span> +times were laid up. The religious and intellectual +influences thus brought to bear upon +the young Alfred's mind produced strong and +decided effects in the formation of his character—effects +which were very strikingly visible in +his subsequent career.</p> +<p> +Ethelwolf found, when he arrived at Rome, +that the Saxon seminary had been burned the +preceding year. It had been founded by a former +Saxon king. Ethelwolf rebuilt it, and +placed the institution on a new and firmer +foundation than before. He also obtained some +edicts from the papal government to secure and +confirm certain rights of his Saxon subjects residing +in the city, which rights had, it seems, +been in some degree infringed upon, and he thus +saved his subjects from oppressions to which +they had been exposed. In a word, Ethelwolf's +visit not only afforded an imposing spectacle to +those who witnessed the pageantry and the ceremonies +which marked it, but it was attended +with permanent and substantial benefits to +many classes, who became, in consequence of +it, the objects of the pious monarch's benevolent +regard.</p> +<p> +At length, when the year had expired, Ethelwolf +set out on his return. He went back +<a name="page86" id="page86"></a><span class="left">[page 86]</span> +through France, as he came, and during his +stay in that country on the way home, an event +occurred which was of no inconsiderable consequence +to Alfred himself, and which changed +or modified Ethelwolf's whole destiny. The +event was that, having, as before stated, become +enamored with the young Princess Judith, +the daughter of the King of France, Ethelwolf +demanded her in marriage. We have +no means of knowing how the proposal affected +the princess herself; marriages in that rank +and station in life were then, as they are now +in fact, wholly determined and controlled by +great political considerations, or by the personal +predilections of powerful <i>men</i>, with very little +regard for the opinions or desires of the party +whose happiness was most to be affected by the +result. At all events, whatever may have been +Judith's opinion, the marriage was decided upon +and consummated, and the venerable king returned +to England with his youthful bride. +The historians of the day say, what would seem +almost incredible, that she was but about twelve +years old.</p> +<p> +Judith's Saxon name was Leotheta. She +made an excellent mother to the young Alfred, +though she innocently and indirectly caused her +<a name="page87" id="page87"></a><span class="left">[page 87]</span> +husband much trouble in his realm. Alfred's +older brothers were wild and turbulent men, +and one of them, Ethelbald, was disposed to +retain a portion of the power with which he had +been invested during his father's absence, instead +of giving it up peaceably on his return. +He organized a rebellion against his father, +making the king's course of conduct in respect +to his youthful bride the pretext. Ethelwolf +was very fond of his young wife, and seemed +disposed to elevate her to a position of great +political consideration and honor. Ethelbald +complained of this. The father, loving peace +rather than war, compromised the question with +him, and relinquished to him a part of his kingdom. +Two years after this he died, leaving +Ethelbald the entire possession of the throne. +Ethelbald, as if to complete and consummate +his unnatural conduct toward his father, persuaded +the beautiful Judith, his father's widow, +to become his wife, in violation not only of all +laws human and divine, but also of those universal +instincts of propriety which no lapse of +time and no changes of condition can eradicate +from the human soul. This second union +throws some light on the question of Judith's +action. Since she was willing to marry her +<a name="page88" id="page88"></a><span class="left">[page 88]</span> +husband's son to <i>preserve</i> the position of a +queen, we may well suppose that she did not +object to uniting herself to the father in order +to attain it. Perhaps, however, we ought to +consider that no responsibility whatever, in +transactions of this character, should attach to +such a mere child.</p> +<p> +During all this time Alfred was passing from +his eighth to his twelfth year. He was a very +intelligent and observing boy, and had acquired +much knowledge of the world and a great deal +of general information in the journeys which he +had taken with his father, both about England +and also on the Continent, in France and Italy. +Judith had taken a great interest in his progress. +She talked with him, she encouraged his +inquiries, she explained to him what he did not +understand, and endeavored in every way to +develop and strengthen his mental powers. Alfred +was a favorite, and, as such, was always +very much indulged; but there was a certain +conscientiousness and gentleness of spirit which +marked his character even in these early years, +and seemed to defend him from the injurious +influences which indulgence and extreme attention +and care often produce. Alfred was considerate, +quiet, and reflective; he improved the +<a name="page89" id="page89"></a><span class="left">[page 89]</span> +privileges which he enjoyed, and did not abuse +the kindness and the favors which every one by +whom he was known lavished upon him.</p> +<p> +Alfred was very fond of the Anglo-Saxon poetry +which abounded in those days. The poems +were legends, ballads, and tales, which described +the exploits of heroes, and the adventures of +pilgrims and wanderers of all kinds. These +poems were to Alfred what Homer's poems +were to Alexander. He loved to listen to them, +to hear them recited, and to commit them to +memory. In committing them to memory, he +was obliged to depend upon hearing the poems +repeated by others, for he himself could not +read.</p> +<p> +And yet he was now twelve years old. It +may surprise the reader, perhaps, to be thus +told, after all that has been said of the attention +paid to Alfred's education, and of the progress +which he had made, that he could not even read. +But reading, far from being then considered, as +it is now, an essential attainment for all, and +one which we are sure of finding possessed by +all who have received any instruction whatever, +was regarded in those days a sort of technical +art, learned only by those who were to make +some professional use of the acquisition. Monks +<a name="page90" id="page90"></a><span class="left">[page 90]</span> +and clerks could always read, but generals, gentlemen, +and kings very seldom. And as they +could not read, neither could they write. They +made a rude cross at the end of the writings +which they wished to authenticate instead of +signing their names—a mode which remains to +the present day, though it has descended to the +very lowest and humblest classes of society.</p> +<p> +In fact, even the upper classes of society +could not generally learn to read in those days, +for there were no books. Every thing recorded +was in manuscripts, the characters being written +with great labor and care, usually on parchment, +the captions and leading letters being +often splendidly illuminated and adorned by +gilded miniatures of heads, or figures, or landscapes, +which enveloped or surrounded them. +Judith had such a manuscript of some Saxon +poems. She had learned the language while in +France. One day Alfred was looking at the +book, and admiring the character in which it +was written, particularly the ornamented letters +at the headings. Some of his brothers were +in the room, they, of course, being much older +than he. Judith said that either of them might +have the book who would first learn to read it. +The older brothers paid little attention to this +<a name="page91" id="page91"></a><span class="left">[page 91]</span> +proposal, but Alfred's interest was strongly +awakened. He immediately sought and found +some one to teach him, and before long he read +the volume to Judith, and claimed it as his +own. She rejoiced at his success, and fulfilled +her promise with the greatest pleasure.</p> +<p> +Alfred soon acquired, by his Anglo-Saxon +studies, a great taste for books, and had next a +strong desire to study the Latin language. The +scholars of the various nations of Europe formed +at that time, as, in fact, they do now, one +community, linked together by many ties. They +wrote and spoke the Latin language, that being +the only language which could be understood +by them all. In fact, the works which were +most highly valued then by the educated men +of all nations, were the poems and the histories, +and other writings produced by the classic authors +of the Roman commonwealth. There +were also many works on theology, on ecclesiastical +polity, and on law, of great authority +and in high repute, all written in the Latin +tongue. Copies of these works were made by +the monks, in their retreats in abbeys and monasteries, +and learned men spent their lives in +perusing them. To explore this field was not +properly a duty incumbent upon a young prince +<a name="page92" id="page92"></a><span class="left">[page 92]</span> +destined to take a seat upon a throne, but Alfred +felt a great desire to undertake the work. +He did not do it, however, for the reason, as he +afterward stated, that there was no one at court +at the time who was qualified to teach him.</p> +<p> +Alfred, though he had thus the thoughtful +and reflective habits of a student, was also active, +and graceful, and strong in his bodily development. +He excelled in all the athletic recreations +of the time, and was especially famous +for his skill, and courage, and power as a hunter. +He gave every indication, in a word, at +this early age, of possessing that uncommon +combination of mental and personal qualities +which fits those who possess it to secure and +maintain a great ascendency among mankind.</p> +<p> +The unnatural union which had been formed +on the death of Ethelwolf between his youthful +widow and her aged husband's son did not long +continue. The people of England were very +much shocked at such a marriage, and a great +prelate, the Bishop of Winchester, remonstrated +against it with such sternness and authority, +that Ethelbald not only soon put his wife away, +but submitted to a severe penance which the +bishop imposed upon him in retribution for his +sin. Judith, thus forsaken, soon afterward sold +<a name="page93" id="page93"></a><span class="left">[page 93]</span> +the lands and estates which her two husbands +had severally granted her, and, taking a final +leave of Alfred, whom she tenderly loved, she +returned to her native land. Not long after +this, she was married a third time, to a continental +prince, whose dominions lay between +the Baltic and the Rhine, and from this period +she disappears entirely from the stage of Alfred's +history.</p> + + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page94" id="page94"></a><span class="left">[page 94]</span> +<h3><a name="V" id="V"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> V.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">State of England.</span></h2> + +<p> +Having thus brought down the narrative +of Alfred's early life as far and as fully as +the records that remain enable us to do so, we +resume the general history of the national affairs +by returning to the subject of the depredations +and conquests of the Danes, and the circumstances +connected with Alfred's accession to +the throne.</p> +<p> +To give the reader some definite and clear +ideas of the nature of this warfare, it will be +well to describe in detail some few of the incidents +and scenes which ancient historians have +recorded. The following was one case which +occurred:</p> +<p> +The Danes, it must be premised, were particularly +hostile to the monasteries and religious +establishments of the Anglo-Saxons. In the +first place, they were themselves pagans, and +they hated Christianity. In the second place, +they knew that these places of sacred seclusion +were often the depositories selected for the custody +or concealment of treasure; and, besides +<a name="page95" id="page95"></a><span class="left">[page 95]</span> +the treasures which kings and potentates often +placed in them for safety, these establishments +possessed utensils of gold and silver for the service +of the chapels, and a great variety of valuable +gifts, such as pious saints or penitent sinners +were continually bequeathing to them. +The Danes were, consequently, never better +pleased than when sacking an abbey or a monastery. +In such exploits they gratified their +terrible animal propensities, both of hatred and +love, by the cruelties which they perpetrated +personally upon the monks and the nuns, and +at the same time enriched their coffers with the +most valuable spoils. A dreadful tale is told +of one company of nuns, who, in the consternation +and terror which they endured at the approach +of a band of Danes, mutilated their faces +in a manner too horrid to be described, as the +only means left to them for protection against +the brutality of their foes. They followed, in +adopting this measure, the advice and the example +of the lady superior. It was effectual.</p> +<p> +There was a certain abbey, called Crowland, +which was in those days one of the most celebrated +in the island. It was situated near the +southern border of Lincolnshire, which lies on +the eastern side of England. There is a great +<a name="page96" id="page96"></a><span class="left">[page 96]</span> +shallow bay, called The Wash, on this eastern +shore, and it is surrounded by a broad tract of +low and marshy land, which is drained by long +canals, and traversed by roads built upon embankments. +Dikes skirt the margins of the +streams, and wind-mills are engaged in perpetual +toil to raise the water from the fields into +the channels by which it is conveyed away.</p> +<p> +Crowland is at the confluence of two rivers, +which flow sluggishly through this flat but +beautiful and verdant region. The remains of +the old abbey still stand, built on piles driven +into the marshy ground, and they form at the +present time a very interesting mass of ruins. +The year before Alfred acceded to the throne, +the abbey was in all its glory; and on one occasion +it furnished <i>two hundred</i> men, who went +out under the command of one of the monks, +named Friar Joly, to join the English armies +and fight the Danes.</p> +<p> +The English army was too small notwithstanding +this desperate effort to strengthen it. +They stood, however, all day in a compact band, +protecting themselves with their shields from the +arrows of the foot soldiers of the enemy, and +with their pikes from the onset of the cavalry. +At night the Danes retired, as if giving up the +<a name="page97" id="page97"></a><span class="left">[page 97]</span> +contest; but as soon as the Saxons, now released +from their positions of confinement and restraint, +had separated a little, and began to feel +somewhat more secure, their implacable foes returned +again and attacked them in separate +masses, and with more fury than before. The +Saxons endeavored in vain either to defend +themselves or escape. As fast as their comrades +were killed, the survivors stood upon the heaps +of the slain, to gain what little advantage they +could from so slight an elevation. Nearly all at +length were killed. A few escaped into a neighboring +wood, where they lay concealed during +the day following, and then, when the darkness +of the succeeding night came to enable them to +conceal their journey, they made their way to +the abbey, to make known to the anxious inmates +of it the destruction of the army, and to +warn them of the imminence of the impending +danger to which they were now exposed.</p> +<p> +A dreadful scene of consternation and terror +ensued. The affrighted messengers told their +tale, breathless and wayworn, at the door of +the chapel, where the monks were engaged at +their devotions. The aisles were filled with exclamations +of alarm and despairing lamentations. +The abbot, whose name was Theodore, +<a name="page98" id="page98"></a><span class="left">[page 98]</span> +immediately began to take measures suited to +the emergency. He resolved to retain at the +monastery only some aged monks and a few +children, whose utter defenselessness, he thought, +would disarm the ferocity and vengeance of the +Danes. The rest, only about thirty, however, +in number—nearly all the brethren having gone +out under the Friar Joly into the great battle—were +put on board a boat to be sent down the +river. It seems at first view a strange idea to +send away the vigorous and strong, and keep +the infirm and helpless at the scene of danger; +but the monks knew very well that all resistance +was vain, and that, consequently, their +greatest safety would lie in the absence of all +appearance of the possibility of resistance.</p> +<p> +The treasures were sent away, too, with all +the men. They hastily collected all the valuables +together, the relics, the jewels, and all of +the gold and silver plate which could be easily +removed, and placed them in a boat—packing +them as securely as their haste and trepidation +allowed. The boats glided down the river till +they came to a lonely spot, where an anchorite +or sort of hermit lived in solitude. The men +and the treasures were to be intrusted to his +charge. He concealed the men in the thickets +<a name="page99" id="page99"></a><span class="left">[page 99]</span> +and other hiding-places in the woods, and buried +the treasures.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, as soon as the boats and +the party of monks which accompanied them +had left the abbey, the Abbot Theodore and the +old monks that remained with him urged on +the work of concealing that part of the treasures +which had not been taken away. All of +the plate which could not be easily transported, +and a certain very rich and costly table employed +for the service of the altar, and many sacred +and expensive garments used by the higher +priests in their ceremonies, had been left behind, +as they could not be easily removed. These +the abbot and the monks concealed in the most +secure places that they could find, and then, +clothing themselves in their priestly robes, they +assembled in the chapel, and resumed their exercises +of devotion. To be found in so sacred a +place and engaged in so holy an avocation would +have been a great protection from any Christian +soldiery; but the monks entirely misconceived +the nature of the impulses by which human +nature is governed, in supposing that it +would have any restraining influence upon the +pagan Danes. The first thing the ferocious +marauders did, on breaking into the sacred precincts +<a name="page100" id="page100"></a><span class="left">[page 100]</span> +of the chapel, was to cut down the venerable +abbot at the altar, in his sacerdotal robes, +and then to push forward the work of slaying +every other inmate of the abbey, feeble and +helpless as they were. Only one was saved.</p> +<p> +This one was a boy, about ten years old. +His name was Turgar. He was a handsome +boy, and one of the Danish chieftains was +struck with his countenance and air, in the +midst of the slaughter, and took pity on him. +The chieftain's name was Count Sidroc. Sidroc +drew Turgar out of the immediate scene +of danger, and gave him a Danish garment, directing +him, at the same time, to throw aside +his own, and then to follow him wherever he +went, and keep close to his side, as if he were +a Dane. The boy, relieved from his terrors by +this hope of protection, obeyed implicitly. He +followed Sidroc every where, and his life was +saved. The Danes, after killing all the others, +ransacked and plundered the monastery, broke +open the tombs in their search for concealed +treasures, and, after taking all that they could +discover, they set the edifices on fire wherever +they could find wood-work that would burn, and +went away, leaving the bodies slowly burning +in the grand and terrible funeral pile.</p> +<a name="page101" id="page101"></a><span class="left">[page 101]</span> +<p> +From Crowland the marauders proceeded, +taking Turgar with them, to another large and +wealthy abbey in the neighborhood, which they +plundered and destroyed, as they had the abbey +at Crowland. Sidroc made Turgar his own attendant, +keeping him always near him. When +the expedition had completed their second conquest, +they packed the valuables which they +had obtained from both abbeys in wagons, and +moved toward the south. It happened that +some of these wagons were under Count Sidroc's +charge, and were in the rear of the line of +march. In passing a ford, the wheels of one of +these rear wagons sank in the muddy bottom, +and the horses, in attempting to draw the wagon +out, became entangled and restive. While +Sidroc's whole attention was engrossed by this +difficulty, Turgar contrived to steal away unobserved. +He hid himself in a neighboring +wood, and, with a degree of sagacity and discretion +remarkable in a boy of his years, he contrived +to find his way back to the smoking ruins +of his home at the Abbey of Crowland.</p> +<p> +The monks who had gone away to seek concealment +at the cell of the anchorite had returned, +and were at work among the smoking +ruins, saving what they could from the fire, and +<a name="page102" id="page102"></a><span class="left">[page 102]</span> +gathering together the blackened remains of +their brethren for interment. They chose one +of the monks that had escaped to succeed the +abbot who had been murdered, repaired, so far +as they could, their ruined edifices, and mournfully +resumed their functions as a religious community.</p> +<p> +Many of the tales which the ancient chroniclers +tell of those times are romantic and incredible; +they may have arisen, perhaps, in the first +instance, in exaggerations of incidents and +events which really occurred, and were then +handed down from generation to generation by +oral tradition, till they found historians to record +them. The story of the martyrdom of King +Edmund is of this character. Edmund was a +sort of king over one of the nations of Anglo-Saxons +called East Angles, who, as their name +imports, occupied a part of the eastern portion +of the island. Their particular hostility to Edmund +was awakened, according to the story, in +the following manner:</p> +<p> +There was a certain bold and adventurous +Dane named Lothbroc, who one day took his +falcon on his arm and went out alone in a boat +on the Baltic Sea, or in the straits connecting +it with the German Ocean, intending to go to +<a name="page105" id="page105"></a><span class="left">[page 105]</span> +a certain island and hunt. The falcon is a +species of hawk which they were accustomed +to train in those days, to attack and bring down +birds from the air, and falconry was, as might +have been expected, a very picturesque and exciting +species of hunting. The game which +Lothbroc was going to seek consisted of the wild +fowl which frequents sometimes, in vast numbers, +the cliffs and shores of the islands in those +seas. Before he reached his hunting ground, +however, he was overtaken by a storm, and his +boat was driven by it out to sea. Accustomed +to all sorts of adventures and dangers by sea +and by land, and skilled in every operation required +in all possible emergencies, Lothbroc +contrived to keep his boat before the wind, and +to bail out the water as fast as it came in, until +at length, after being driven entirely across the +German Ocean, he was thrown upon the English +shore, where, with his hawk still upon his +arm, he safely landed.</p> + +<a name="page103" id="page103"></a><span class="left">[page 103]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/101-1200.jpg"><img src="images/101-500.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="Lothbroc and his Falcon." border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Lothbroc and his Falcon.</span></p><br /> + +<p> +He knew that he was in the country of the +most deadly foes of his nation and race, and accordingly +sought to conceal rather than to make +known his arrival. He was, however, found, +after a few days, wandering up and down in a +solitary wood, and was conducted, together with +his hawk, to King Edmund.</p> +<a name="page106" id="page106"></a><span class="left">[page 106]</span> +<p> +Edmund was so much pleased with his air +and bearing, and so astonished at the remarkable +manner in which he had been brought to the +English shore, that he gave him his life; and +soon discovering his great knowledge and skill +as a huntsman, he received him into his own +service, and treated him with great distinction +and honor. In addition to his hawk, Lothbroc +had a greyhound, so that he could hunt with the +king in the fields as well as through the air. +The greyhound was very strongly attached to +his master.</p> +<p> +The king's chief huntsman at this time was +Beorn, and Beorn soon became very envious and +jealous of Lothbroc, on account of his superior +power and skill, and of the honorable distinction +which they procured for him. One day, when +they two were hunting alone in the woods with +their dogs, Beorn killed his rival, and hid his +body in a thicket. Beorn went home, his own +dogs following him, while the greyhound remained +to watch mournfully over the body of +his master. They asked Beorn what was become +of Lothbroc, and he replied that he had +gone off into the wood the day before, and he did +not know what had become of him.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, the greyhound remained +<a name="page107" id="page107"></a><span class="left">[page 107]</span> +faithfully watching at the side of the body of +his master until hunger compelled him to leave +his post in search of food. He went home, and, +as soon as his wants were supplied, he returned +immediately to the wood again. This he did +several days; and at length his singular conduct +attracting attention, he was followed by +some of the king's household, and the body of +his murdered master was found.</p> +<p> +The guilt of the murder was with little difficulty +brought home to Beorn; and, as an appropriate +punishment for his cruelty to an unfortunate +and homeless stranger, the king condemned +him to be put on board the same boat +in which the ill-fated Lothbroc had made his +perilous voyage, and pushed out to sea.</p> +<p> +The winds and storms—entering, it seems, +into the plan, and influenced by the same principles +of poetical justice as had governed the +king—drove the boat, with its terrified mariner, +back again across to the mouth of the Baltic, as +they had brought Lothbroc to England. The +boat was thrown upon the beach, on Lothbroc's +family domain.</p> +<p> +Now Lothbroc had been, in his own country, +a man of high rank and influence. He was of +royal descent, and had many friends. He had +<a name="page108" id="page108"></a><span class="left">[page 108]</span> +two sons, men of enterprise and energy; and it +so happened that the landing of Beorn took +place so near to them, that the tidings soon +came to their ears that their father's boat, in +the hands of a Saxon stranger, had arrived on +the coast. They immediately sought out the +stranger, and demanded what had become of +their father. Beorn, in order to hide his own +guilt, fabricated a tale of Lothbroc's having +been killed by Edmund, the king of the East +Angles. The sons of the murdered Lothbroc +were incensed at this news. They aroused their +countrymen by calling upon them every where +to aid them in revenging their father's death. +A large naval force was accordingly collected, +and a formidable descent made upon the English +coast.</p> +<p> +Now Edmund, according to the story, was a +humane and gentle-minded man, much more +interested in deeds of benevolence and of piety +than in warlike undertakings and exploits, and +he was very far from being well prepared to +meet this formidable foe. In fact, he sought +refuge in a retired residence called Heglesdune. +The Danes, having taken some Saxons captive +in a city which they had sacked and destroyed, +compelled them to make known the place of +<a name="page109" id="page109"></a><span class="left">[page 109]</span> +the king's retreat. Hinquar, the captain of the +Danes, sent him a summons to come and surrender +both himself and all the treasures of his +kingdom. Edmund refused. Hinquar then +laid siege to the palace, and surrounded it; and, +finally, his soldiers, breaking in, put Edmund's +attendants to death, and brought Edmund himself, +bound, into Hinquar's presence.</p> +<p> +Hinquar decided that the unfortunate captive +should die. He was, accordingly, first taken to +a tree and scourged. Then he was shot at with +arrows, until, as the account states, his body +was so full of the arrows that remained in the +flesh that there seemed to be no room for more. +During all this time Edmund continued to call +upon the name of Christ, as if finding spiritual +refuge and strength in the Redeemer in this his +hour of extremity; and although these ejaculations +afforded, doubtless, great support and comfort +to him, they only served to irritate to a perfect +phrensy of exasperation his implacable pagan +foes. They continued to shoot arrows into +him until he was dead, and then they cut off +his head and went away, carrying the dissevered +head with them. Their object was to prevent +his friends from having the satisfaction of +interring it with the body. They carried it to +<a name="page110" id="page110"></a><span class="left">[page 110]</span> +what they supposed a sufficient distance, and +then threw it off into a wood by the way-side, +where they supposed it could not easily be +found.</p> +<p> +As soon, however, as the Danes had left the +place, the affrighted friends and followers of Edmund +came out, by degrees, from their retreats +and hiding places. They readily found the +dead body of their sovereign, as it lay, of course, +where the cruel deed of his murder had been +performed. They sought with mournful and +anxious steps, here and there, all around, for the +head, until at length, when they came into the +wood where it was lying, they heard, as the +historian who records these events gravely testifies, +a voice issuing from it, calling them, and +directing their steps by the sound. They followed +the voice, and, having recovered the head +by means of this miraculous guidance, they +buried it with the body<a name="V1r" id="V1r">.</a><a href="#V1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<a name="page111" id="page111"></a><span class="left">[page 111]</span> +<p> +It seems surprising to us that reasonable men +should so readily believe such tales as these; +but there are, in all ages of the world, certain +habits of belief, in conformity to which the +whole community go together. We all believe +whatever is in harmony with, or analogous to, +the general type of faith prevailing in our own +generation. Nobody could be persuaded now +that a dead head could speak, or a wolf change +his nature to protect it; but thousands will +credit a fortune-teller, or believe that a mesmerized +patient can have a mental perception of +scenes and occurrences a thousand miles away.</p> +<p> +There was a great deal of superstition in the +days when Alfred was called to the throne, and +there was also, with it, a great deal of genuine +honest piety. The piety and the superstition, +too, were inextricably intermingled and combined +together. They were all Catholics then, +yielding an implicit obedience to the Church of +Rome, making regular contributions in money +to sustain the papal authority, and looking to +Rome as the great and central point of Christian +influence and power, and the object of supreme +<a name="page112" id="page112"></a><span class="left">[page 112]</span> +veneration. We have already seen that the +Saxons had established a seminary at Rome, +which King Ethelwolf, Alfred's father, rebuilt +and re-endowed. One of the former Anglo-Saxon +kings, too, had given a grant of one +penny from every house in the kingdom to the +successors of St. Peter at Rome, which tax, +though nominally small, produced a very considerable +sum in the aggregate, exceeding for +many years the royal revenues of the kings of +England. It continued to be paid down to the +time of Henry VIII., when the reformation +swept away that, and all the other national obligations +of England to the Catholic Church +together.</p> +<p> +In the age of Alfred, however, there were not +only these public acts of acknowledgment recognizing +the papal supremacy, but there was +a strong tide of personal and private feeling +of veneration and attachment to the mother +Church, of which it is hard for us, in the present +divided state of Christendom, to conceive. +The religious thoughts and affections of every +pious heart throughout the realm centered in +Rome. Rome, too, was the scene of many +miracles, by which the imaginations of the +superstitious and of the truly devout were excited, +<a name="page113" id="page113"></a><span class="left">[page 113]</span> +which impressed them with an idea of +power in which they felt a sort of confiding +sense of protection. This power was continually +interposing, now in one way and now in +another, to protect virtue, to punish crime, and +to testify to the impious and to the devout, to +each in an appropriate way, that their respective +deeds were the objects, according to their character, +of the displeasure or of the approbation +of Heaven.</p> +<p> +On one occasion, the following incident is +said to have occurred. The narration of it will +illustrate the ideas of the time. A child of +about seven years old, named Kenelm, succeeded +to the throne in the Anglo-Saxon line. +Being too young to act for himself, he was put +under the charge of a sister, who was to act as +regent until the boy became of age. The sister, +ambitious of making the power thus delegated +to her entirely her own, decided on destroying +her brother. She commissioned a hired murderer +to perpetrate the deed. The murderer +took the child into a wood, killed him, and hid +his body in a thicket, in a certain cow-pasture +at a place called Clent. The sister then assumed +the scepter in her own name, and suppressed +all inquiries in respect to the fate of her +<a name="page114" id="page114"></a><span class="left">[page 114]</span> +brother; and his murder might have remained +forever undiscovered, had it not been miraculously +revealed at Rome.</p> +<p> +A white dove flew into a church there one +day, and let fall upon the altar of St. Peter a +paper, on which was written, in Anglo-Saxon +characters,</p> + +<p class="indent"><span style="font-family: 'old english text'; font-size: 1.1em;"> +<a class="contents" href="#Vx" title="In Clent Cow-batch, Kenelme king bearne, lieth under Thorne, head bereaved">In Clent Cow-batch, Kenelme king bearne, lieth under +Thorne, head bereaved</a></span><a name="Vxr" id="Vxr">.</a><a href="#Vx"><sup>*</sup></a></p> + +<p> +For a time nobody could read the writing. +At length an Anglo-Saxon saw it, and translated +it into Latin, so that the pope and all +others could understand it. The pope then +sent a letter to the authorities in England, who +made search and found the body.</p> +<p> +But we must end these digressions, which we +have indulged thus far in order to give the +reader some distinct conception of the ideas and +habits of the times, and proceed, in the next +chapter, to relate the events immediately connected +with Alfred's accession to the throne.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page115" id="page115"></a><span class="left">[page 115]</span> +<h3><a name="VI" id="VI"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> VI.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">Alfred's Accession to the Throne.</span></h2> + +<p> +At the battle in which Alfred's brother, +Ethelred, whom Alfred succeeded on the +throne, was killed, as is briefly mentioned at the +close of chapter fourth, Alfred himself, then a +brave and energetic young man, fought by his +side. The party of Danes whom they were contending +against in this fatal fight was the same +one that came out in the expedition organized +by the sons of Lothbroc, and whose exploits in +destroying monasteries and convents were described +in the last chapter. Soon after the +events there narrated, this formidable body of +marauders moved westward, toward that part +of the kingdom where the dominions more particularly +pertaining to the family of Alfred lay.</p> +<p> +There was in those days a certain stronghold +or castle on the River Thames, about forty miles +west from London, which was not far from the +confines of Ethelred's dominions. The large +and populous town of Reading now stands upon +the spot. It is at the confluence of the River +<a name="page116" id="page116"></a><span class="left">[page 116]</span> +Thames with the Kennet, a small branch of the +Thames, which here flows into it from the south. +The spot, having the waters of the rivers for a +defense upon two sides of it, was easily fortified. +A castle had been built there, and, as usual in +such cases, a town had sprung up about the +walls.</p> +<p> +The Danes advanced to this stronghold and +took possession of it, and they made it for some +time their head-quarters. It was at once the +center from which they carried on their enterprises +in all directions about the island, and the +refuge to which they could always retreat when +defeated and pursued. In the possession of such +a fastness, they, of course, became more formidable +than ever. King Ethelred determined to +dislodge them. He raised, accordingly, as large +a force as his kingdom would furnish, and, taking +his brother Alfred as his second in command, he +advanced toward Reading in a very resolute and +determined manner.</p> +<p> +He first encountered a large body of the Danes +who were out on a marauding excursion. This +party consisted only of a small detachment, the +main body of the army of the Danes having been +left at Reading to strengthen and complete the +fortifications. They were digging a trench from +<a name="page117" id="page117"></a><span class="left">[page 117]</span> +river to river, so as completely to insulate the +castle, and make it entirely inaccessible on either +side except by boats or a bridge. With the +earth thrown out of the trench they were making +an embankment on the inner side, so that +an enemy, after crossing the ditch, would have +a steep ascent to climb, defended too, as of +course it would be in such an emergency, by +long lines of desperate men upon the top, hurling +at the assailants showers of javelins and arrows.</p> +<p> +While, therefore, a considerable portion of the +Danes were at work within and around their +castle, to make it as nearly as possible impregnable +as a place of defense, the detachment +above referred to had gone forth for plunder, +under the command of some of the bolder and +more adventurous spirits in the horde. This +party Ethelred overtook. A furious battle was +fought. The Danes were defeated, and driven +off the ground. They fled toward Reading. +Ethelred and Alfred pursued them. The various +parties of Danes that were outside of the +fortifications, employed in completing the outworks, +or encamped in the neighborhood, were +surprised and slaughtered; or, at least, vast +numbers of them were killed, and the rest retreated +<a name="page118" id="page118"></a><span class="left">[page 118]</span> +within the works—all maddened at their +defeat, and burning with desire for revenge.</p> +<p> +The Saxons were not strong enough to dispossess +them of their fastness. On the contrary, +in a few days, the Danes, having matured +their plans, made a desperate sally against the +Saxons, and, after a very determined and obstinate +conflict, they gained the victory, and +drove the Saxons off the ground. Some of the +leading Saxon chieftains were killed, and the +whole country was thrown into great alarm at +the danger which was impending, that the +Danes would soon gain the complete and undisputed +possession of the whole land.</p> +<p> +The Saxons, however, were not yet prepared +to give up the struggle. They rallied their +forces, gathered new recruits, reorganized their +ranks, and made preparations for another struggle. +The Danes, too, feeling fresh strength +and energy in consequence of their successes, +formed themselves in battle array, and, leaving +their strong-hold, they marched out into the +open country in pursuit of their foe. The two +armies gradually approached each other and +prepared for battle. Every thing portended a +terrible conflict, which was to be, in fact, the +great final struggle.</p> +<a name="page119" id="page119"></a><span class="left">[page 119]</span> +<p> +The place where the armies met was called +in those times Æscesdune, which means Ashdown. +It was, in fact, a hill-side covered with +ash trees. The name has become shortened +and softened in the course of the ten centuries +which have intervened since this celebrated battle, +into Aston; if, indeed, as is generally supposed, +the Aston of the present day is the locality +of the ancient battle.</p> +<p> +The armies came into the vicinity of each +other toward the close of the day. They were +both eager for the contest, or, at least, they pretended +to be so, but they waited until the morning. +The Danes divided their forces into two +bodies. Two kings commanded one division, +and certain chieftains, called <i>earls</i>, directed the +other. King Ethelred undertook to meet this +order of battle by a corresponding distribution +of his own troops, and he gave, accordingly, to +Alfred the command of one division, while he +himself was to lead the other. All things being +thus arranged, the hum and bustle of the two +great encampments subsided at last, at a late +hour, as the men sought repose under their rude +tents, in preparation for the fatigues and exposures +of the coming day. Some slept; others +watched restlessly, and talked together, sleepless +<a name="page120" id="page120"></a><span class="left">[page 120]</span> +under the influence of that strange excitement, +half exhilaration and half fear, which prevails +in a camp on the eve of a battle. The +camp fires burned brightly all the night, and +the sentinels kept vigilant watch, expecting every +moment some sudden alarm.</p> +<p> +The night passed quietly away. Ethelred +and Alfred both arose early. Alfred went out +to arouse and muster the men in his division +of the encampment, and to prepare for battle. +Ethelred, on the other hand, sent for his priest, +and, assembling the officers in immediate attendance +upon him, commenced divine service +in his tent—the service of the mass, according +to the forms and usages which, even in that +early day, were prescribed by the Catholic +Church. Alfred was thus bent on immediate +and energetic action, while Ethelred thought +that the hour for putting forth the exertion of +human strength did not come until time had +been allowed for completing, in the most deliberate +and solemn manner, the work of imploring +the protection of Heaven.</p> +<p> +Ethelred seems by his conduct on this occasion +to have inherited from his father, even +more than Alfred, the spirit of religious devotion +at least so far as the strict and faithful +<a name="page121" id="page121"></a><span class="left">[page 121]</span> +observance of religious forms was concerned. +There was, it is true, a particular reason in this +case why the forms of divine service should be +faithfully observed, and that is, that the war +was considered in a great measure a religious +war. The Danes were pagans. The Saxons +were Christians. In making their attacks upon +the dominions of Ethelred, the ruthless invaders +were animated by a special hatred of the name +of Christ, and they evinced a special hostility +toward every edifice, or institution, or observance +which bore the Christian name. The +Saxons, therefore, in resisting them, felt that +they were not only fighting for their own possessions +and for their own lives, but that they +were defending the kingdom of God, and that +he, looking down from his throne in the heavens, +regarded them as the champions of his cause; +and, consequently, that he would either protect +them in the struggle, or, if they fell, that he +would receive them to mansions of special glory +and happiness in heaven, as martyrs who had +shed their blood in his service and for his glory.</p> +<p> +Taking this view of the subject, Ethelred, +instead of going out to battle at the early dawn, +collected his officers into his tent, and formed +them into a religious congregation. Alfred, on +<a name="page122" id="page122"></a><span class="left">[page 122]</span> +the other hand, full of impetuosity and ardor, +was arousing his men, animating them by his +words of encouragement and by the influence +of his example, and making, as energetically as +possible, all the preparations necessary for the +approaching conflict.</p> +<p> +In fact, Alfred, though his brother was king, +and he himself only a lieutenant general under +him, had been accustomed to take the lead in +all the military operations of the army, on account +of the superior energy, resolution, and +tact which he evinced, even in this early period +of his life. His brothers, though they retained +the scepter, as it fell successively into their +hands, relied mainly on his wisdom and courage +in all their efforts to defend it, and Ethelred +may have been somewhat more at his ease, in +listening to the priest's prayers in his tent, from +knowing that the arrangements for marshaling +and directing a large part of the force were in +such good hands.</p> +<p> +The two encampments of Alfred and Ethelred +seem to have been at some little distance +from each other. Alfred was impatient at Ethelred's +delay. He asked the reason for it. +They told him that Ethelred was attending +mass, and that he had said he should on no account +<a name="page123" id="page123"></a><span class="left">[page 123]</span> +leave his tent until the service was concluded. +Alfred, in the mean time, took possession +of a gentle elevation of land, which now +would give him an advantage in the conflict. +A single thorn-tree, growing there alone, marked +the spot. The Danes advanced to attack him, +expecting that, as he was not sustained by Ethelred's +division of the army, he would be easily +overpowered and driven from his post.</p> +<p> +Alfred himself felt an extreme and feverish +anxiety at Ethelred's delay. He fought, however, +with the greatest determination and bravery. +The thorn-tree continued to be the center +of the conflict for a long time, and, as the morning +advanced, it became more and more doubtful +how it would end. At last, Ethelred, having +finished his devotional services, came forth from +his camp at the head of his division, and advanced +vigorously to his faltering brother's aid. +This soon decided the contest. The Danes were +overpowered and put to flight. They fled at +first in all directions, wherever each separate +band saw the readiest prospect of escape from +the immediate vengeance of their pursuers. +They soon, however, all began with one accord +to seek the roads which would conduct them to +their stronghold at Reading. They were madly +<a name="page124" id="page124"></a><span class="left">[page 124]</span> +pursued, and massacred as they fled, by Alfred's +and Ethelred's army. Vast numbers fell. The +remnant secured their retreat, shut themselves +up within their walls, and began to devote their +eager and earnest attention to the work of repairing +and making good their defenses.</p> +<p> +This victory changed for the time being the +whole face of affairs, and led, in various ways, +to very important consequences, the most important +of which was, as we shall presently see, +that it was the means indirectly of bringing +Alfred soon to the throne. As to the cause of +the victory, or, rather, the manner in which it +was accomplished, the writers of the times give +very different accounts, according as their respective +characters incline them to commend, in +man, a feeling of quiet trust and confidence in +God when placed in circumstances of difficulty +or danger, or a vigorous and resolute exertion +of his own powers. Alfred looked for deliverance +to the determined assaults and heavy blows +which he could bring to bear upon his pagan +enemies with weapons of steel around the thorn-tree +in the field. Ethelred trusted to his hope +of obtaining, by his prayers in his tent, the effectual +protection of Heaven; and they who have +written the story differ, as they who read it will +<a name="page125" id="page125"></a><span class="left">[page 125]</span> +on the question to whose instrumentality the +victory is to be ascribed. One says that Alfred +gained it by his sword. Another, that Alfred +exerted his strength and his valor in vain, and +was saved from defeat and destruction only by +the intervention of Ethelred, bringing with him +the blessing of Heaven.</p> +<p> +In fact, the various narratives of these ancient +events, which are found at the present day in the +old chronicles that record them, differ always +very essentially, not only in respect to matters +of opinion, and to the point of view in which +they are to be regarded, but also in respect to +questions of fact. Even the place where this +battle was fought, notwithstanding what we +have said about the derivation of Aston from +Æscesdune, is not absolutely certain. There +is in the same vicinity another town, called Ashbury, +which claims the honor. One reason for +supposing that this last is the true locality is +that there are the ruins of an ancient monument +here, which, tradition says, was a monument +built to commemorate the death of a Danish +chieftain slain here by Alfred. There is +also in the neighborhood another very singular +monument, called The White Horse, which also +has the reputation of having been fashioned to +<a name="page126" id="page126"></a><span class="left">[page 126]</span> +commemorate Alfred's victories. The White +Horse is a rude representation of a horse, formed +by cutting away the turf from the steep slope +of a hill, so as to expose a portion of the white +surface of the chalky rock below of such a form +that the figure is called a horse, though they +who see it seem to think it might as well have +been called a dog. The name, however, of <i>The +White Horse</i> has come down with it from ancient +times, and the hill on which it is cut is +known as The White Horse Hill. Some ingenious +antiquarians think they find evidence that +this gigantic profile was made to commemorate +the victory obtained by Alfred and Ethelred over +the Danes at the ancient Æscesdune.</p> +<p> +However this may be, and whatever view we +may take of the comparative influence of Alfred's +energetic action and Ethelred's religious +faith in the defeat of the Danes at this great +battle, it is certain that the results of it were +very momentous to all concerned. Ethelred +received a wound, either in this battle or in +some of the smaller contests and collisions +which followed it, under the effects of which he +pined and lingered for some months, and then +died. Alfred, by his decision and courage on +the day of the battle, and by the ardor and resolution +<a name="page127" id="page127"></a><span class="left">[page 127]</span> +with which he pressed all the subsequent +operations during the period of Ethelred's +decline, made himself still more conspicuous +in the eyes of his countrymen than he had +ever been before. In looking forward to Ethelred's +approaching death, the people, accordingly, +began to turn their eyes to Alfred as his +successor. There were children of some of his +older brothers living at that time, and they, according +to all received principles of hereditary +right, would naturally succeed to the throne; +but the nation seems to have thought that the +crisis was too serious, and the dangers which +threatened their country were too imminent, to +justify putting any child upon the throne. The +accession of one of those children would have +been the signal for a terrible and protracted +struggle among powerful relatives and friends +for the regency during the minority of the +youthful sovereign, and this, while the Danes +remained in their strong-hold at Reading, in +daily expectation of new re-enforcements from +beyond the sea, would have plunged the country +in hopeless ruin. They turned their eyes +toward Alfred, therefore, as the sovereign to +whom they were to bow so soon as Ethelred +should cease to breathe.</p> +<a name="page128" id="page128"></a><span class="left">[page 128]</span> +<p> +In the mean time, the Danes, far from being +subdued by the adverse turn of fortune which +had befallen them, strengthened themselves in +their fortress, made desperate sallies from their +intrenchments, attacked their foes on every possible +occasion, and kept the country in continual +alarm. They at length so far recruited +their strength, and intimidated and discouraged +their foes, whose king and nominal leader, Ethelred, +was now less able than ever to resist +them, as to take the field again. They fought +more pitched battles; and, though the Saxon +chroniclers who narrate these events are very +reluctant to admit that the Saxons were really +vanquished in these struggles, they allow that +the Danes kept the ground which they successively +took post upon, and the discouraged and +disheartened inhabitants of the country were +forced to retire.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, too, new parties of Danes +were continually arriving on the coast, and +spreading themselves in marauding and plundering +excursions over the country. The Danes +at Reading were re-enforced by these bands, +which made the conflict between them and Ethelred's +forces more unequal still. Alfred did +his utmost to resist the tide of ill fortune, with +the limited and doubtful authority which he +<a name="page129" id="page129"></a><span class="left">[page 129]</span> +held; but all was in vain. Ethelred, worn +down, probably, with the anxiety and depression +which the situation of his kingdom brought +upon him, lingered for a time, and then died, +and Alfred was by general consent called to +the throne. This was in the year 871.</p> +<p> +It was a matter of moment to find a safe and +secure place of deposit for the body of Ethelred, +who, as a Christian slain in contending with +pagans, was to be considered a martyr. His +memory was honored as that of one who had +sacrificed his life in defense of the Christian +faith. They knew very well that even his lifeless +remains would not be safe from the vengeance +of his foes unless they were placed effectually +beyond the reach of these desperate marauders. +There was, far to the south, in Dorsetshire, +on the southern coast of England, a +monastery, at Wimborne, a very sacred spot, +worthy to be selected as a place of royal sepulture. +The spot has continued sacred to the +present day; and it has now upon the site, as +is supposed, of the ancient monastery, a grand +cathedral church or minster, full of monuments +of former days, and impressing all beholders +with its solemn architectural grandeur. Here +they conveyed the body of Ethelred and interred +<a name="page130" id="page130"></a><span class="left">[page 130]</span> +it. It was a place of sacred seclusion, where +there reigned a solemn stillness and awe, which +no <i>Christian</i> hostility would ever have dared +to disturb. The sacrilegious paganism of the +Danes, however, would have respected it but +little, if they had ever found access to it; but +they did not. The body of Ethelred remained +undisturbed; and, many centuries afterward, +some travelers who visited the spot recorded the +fact that there was a monument there with this +inscription:</p> +<p class="indentq2"> +"IN HOC LOCO QUIESC'T CORPUS ETHELREDI +REGIS WEST SAXONUM, MARTYRIS, QUI ANNO DOMINI +DCCCLXXI., XXIII. APRILIS, PER MANUS DANORUM +PAGANORUM, OCCUBUIT."<a name="VI1r" id="VI1r"></a><a href="#VI1"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p> +Such is the commonly received opinion of the +death of Ethelred. And yet some of the critical +historians of modern times, who find cause +to doubt or disbelieve a very large portion of +what is stated in ancient records, attempt to +prove that Ethelred was not killed by the Danes +at all, but that he died of the plague, which +terrible disease was at that time prevailing in +that part of England. At all events, he died, +and Alfred, his brother, was called to reign in +his stead.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page131" id="page131"></a><span class="left">[page 131]</span> +<h3><a name="VII" id="VII"></a><span class="smcaps">CHAPTER</span> VII.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">REVERSES.</span></h2> + +<p> +The historians say that Alfred was very unwilling +to assume the crown when the +death of Ethelred presented it to him. If it +had been an object of ambition or desire, there +would probably have been a rival claimant, +whose right would perhaps have proved superior +to his own, since it appears that one or +more of the brothers who reigned before him +left a son, whose claim to the inheritance, if +the inheritance had been worth claiming, would +have been stronger than that of their uncle. +The <i>son</i> of the oldest son takes precedence always +of the <i>brother</i>, for hereditary rights, like +water, never move laterally so long as they can +continue to descend.</p> +<p> +The nobles, however, and chieftains, and all +the leading powers of the kingdom of Wessex, +which was the particular kingdom which descended +from Alfred's ancestors, united to urge +Alfred to take the throne. His father had, indeed, +designated him as the successor of his +<a name="page132" id="page132"></a><span class="left">[page 132]</span> +brothers by his will, though how far a monarch +may properly control by his will the disposal +of his realm, is a matter of great uncertainty. +Alfred yielded at length to these solicitations, +and determined on assuming the sovereign +power. He first went to Wimborne to attend +to the funeral solemnities which were to be observed +at his royal brother's burial. He then +went to Winchester, which, as well as Wimborne, +is in the south of England, to be crowned +and anointed king. Winchester was, even in +those early days, a great ecclesiastical center. +It was for some time the capital of the West +Saxon realm. It was a very sacred place, and +the crown was there placed upon Alfred's head, +with the most imposing and solemn ceremonies. +It is a curious and remarkable fact, that the +spots which were consecrated in those early +days by the religious establishments of the times, +have preserved in almost every case their sacredness +to the present day. Winchester is now +famed all over England for its great Cathedral +church, and the vast religious establishment +which has its seat there—the annual revenues +and expenditures of which far exceed those of +many of the states of this Union. The income +of the bishop alone was for many years double +<a name="page135" id="page135"></a><span class="left">[page 135]</span> +that of the salary of the President of the United +States. The Bishop of Winchester is widely +celebrated, therefore, all over England, for his +wealth, his ecclesiastical power, the architectural +grandeur of the Cathedral church, and the +wealth and importance of the college of ecclesiastics +over which he presides.</p> + +<a name="page133" id="page133"></a><span class="left">[page 133]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<img src="images/131.jpg" width="280" height="470" alt="Coronation Chair." border="0" /><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Coronation Chair.</span></p><br /> + +<p> +It was in Winchester that Alfred was crowned. +As soon as the ceremony was performed, +he took the field, collected his forces, and went +to meet the Danes again. He found the country +in a most deplorable condition. The Danes +had extended and strengthened their positions. +They had got possession of many of the towns, +and, not content with plundering castles and +abbeys, they had seized lands, and were beginning +to settle upon them, as if they intended +to make Alfred's new kingdom their permanent +abode. The forces of the Saxons, on the other +hand, were scattered and discouraged. There +seemed no hope left to them of making head +against their pestiferous invaders. If they were +defeated, their cruel conquerors showed no moderation +and no mercy in their victory; and if +they conquered, it was only to suppress for a +moment one horde, with a certainty of being +attacked immediately by another, more recently +<a name="page136" id="page136"></a><span class="left">[page 136]</span> +arrived, and more determined and relentless +than those before them.</p> +<p> +Alfred succeeded, however, by means of the +influence of his personal character, and by the +very active and efficient exertions that he made, +in concentrating what forces remained, and in +preparing for a renewal of the contest. The +first great battle that was fought was at Wilton. +This was within a month of his accession +to the throne. The battle was very obstinately +fought; at the first onset Alfred's troops carried +all before them, and there was every prospect +that he would win the day. In the end, however, +the tide of victory turned in favor of the +Danes, and Alfred and his troops were driven +from the field. There was an immense loss on +both sides. In fact, both armies were, for the +time, pretty effectually disabled, and each seems +to have shrunk from a renewal of the contest. +Instead, therefore, of fighting again, the two +commanders entered into negotiations. Hubba +was the name of the Danish chieftain. In the +end, he made a treaty with Alfred, by which he +agreed to retire from Alfred's dominions, and +leave him in peace, provided that Alfred would +not interfere with him in his wars in any other +part of England. Alfred's kingdom was Wessex. +<a name="page137" id="page137"></a><span class="left">[page 137]</span> +Besides Wessex, there was Essex, Mercia, +and Northumberland. Hubba and his Danes, +finding that Alfred was likely to prove too formidable +an antagonist for them easily to subdue, +thought it would be most prudent to give up +one kingdom out of the four, on condition of not +having Alfred to contend against in their depredations +upon the other three. They accordingly +made the treaty, and the Danes withdrew. +They evacuated their posts and strong-holds in +Wessex, and went down the Thames to London, +which was in Mercia, and there commenced +a new course of conquest and plunder, where +they had no such powerful foe to oppose them.</p> +<p> +Buthred was the king of Mercia. He could +not resist Hubba and his Danes alone, and he +could not now have Alfred's assistance. Alfred +was censured very much at the time, and has +been condemned often since, for having thus +made a separate peace for himself and his own +immediate dominions, and abandoned his natural +allies and friends, the people of the other +Saxon kingdoms. To make a peace with savage +and relentless pagans, on the express condition +of leaving his fellow-Christian neighbors +at their mercy, has been considered ungenerous, +at least, if it was not unjust. On the other +<a name="page138" id="page138"></a><span class="left">[page 138]</span> +hand, those who vindicate his conduct maintain +that it was his duty to secure the peace and +welfare of his own realm, leaving other sovereigns +to take care of theirs; and that he would +have done very wrong to sacrifice the property +and lives of his own immediate subjects to a +mere point of honor, when it was utterly out of +his power to protect them and his neighbors too.</p> +<p> +However this may be, Buthred, finding that +he could not have Alfred's aid, and that he +could not protect his kingdom by any force +which he could himself bring into the field, tried +negotiations too, and he succeeded in buying +off the Danes with money. He paid them a +large sum, on condition of their leaving his dominions +finally and forever, and not coming to +molest him any more. Such a measure as this +is always a very desperate and hopeless one. +Buying off robbers, or beggars, or false accusers, +or oppressors of any kind, is only to encourage +them to come again, after a brief interval, +under some frivolous pretext, with fresh demands +or new oppressions, that they may be +bought off again with higher pay. At least +Buthred found it so in this case. Hubba went +northward for a time, into the kingdom of Northumberland, +and, after various conquests and +<a name="page139" id="page139"></a><span class="left">[page 139]</span> +plunderings there, he came back again into +Mercia, on the plea that there was a scarcity +of provisions in the northern kingdom, and he +was <i>obliged</i> to come back. Buthred bought +him off again with a larger sum of money. +Hubba scarcely left the kingdom this time, but +spent the money with his army, in carousings +and excesses, and then went to robbing and +plundering as before. Buthred, at last, reduced +to despair, and seeing no hope of escape from +the terrible pest with which his kingdom was +infested, abandoned the country and escaped to +Rome. They received him as an exiled monarch, +in the Saxon school, where he soon after +died a prey to grief and despair.</p> +<p> +The Danes overturned what remained of +Buthred's government. They destroyed a famous +mausoleum, the ancient burial place of +the Mercian kings. This devastation of the +abodes of the dead was a sort of recreation—a +savage amusement, to vary the more serious and +dangerous excitements attending their contests +with the living. They found an officer of +Buthred's government named Ceolwulf, who, +though a Saxon, was willing, through his love +of place and power, to accept of the office of +king in subordination to the Danes, and hold +<a name="page140" id="page140"></a><span class="left">[page 140]</span> +it at their disposal, paying an annual tribute +to them. Ceolwulf was execrated by his countrymen, +who considered him a traitor. He, in +his turn, oppressed and tyrannized over them.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, a new leader, with a fresh +horde of Danes, had landed in England. His +name was Halfden. Halfden came with a considerable +fleet of ships, and, after landing his +men, and performing various exploits and encountering +various adventures in other parts of +England, he began to turn his thoughts toward +Alfred's dominions. Alfred did not pay particular +attention to Halfden's movements at +first, as he supposed that his treaty with Hubba +had bound the whole nation of the Danes not +to encroach upon <i>his</i> realm, whatever they +might do in respect to the other Saxon kingdoms. +Alfred had a famous castle at Wareham, +on the southern coast of the island. It +was situated on a bay which lies in what is now +Dorsetshire. This castle was the strongest +place in his dominions. It was garrisoned and +guarded, but not with any special vigilance, as +no one expected an attack upon it. Halfden +brought his fleet to the southern shore of the +island, and, organizing an expedition there, he +put to sea, and before any one suspected his design, +<a name="page141" id="page141"></a><span class="left">[page 141]</span> +he entered the bay, surprised and attacked +Wareham Castle, and took it. Alfred and the +people of his realm were not only astonished and +alarmed at the loss of the castle, but they were +filled with indignation at the treachery of the +Danes in violating their treaty by attacking it. +Halfden said, however, that he was an independent +chieftain, acting in his own name, and +was not bound at all by any obligations entered +into by Hubba!</p> +<p> +There followed after this a series of contests +and truces, during which treacherous wars alternated +with still more treacherous and illusive +periods of peace, neither party, on the +whole, gaining any decided victory. The +Danes, at one time, after agreeing upon a cessation +of hostilities, suddenly fell upon a large +squadron of Alfred's horse, who, relying on the +truce, were moving across the country too much +off their guard. The Danes dismounted and +drove off the men, and seized the horses, and +thus provided themselves with cavalry, a species +of force which it is obvious they could not +easily bring, in any ships which they could then +construct, across the German Ocean. Without +waiting for Alfred to recover from the surprise +and consternation which this unexpected treachery +<a name="page142" id="page142"></a><span class="left">[page 142]</span> +occasioned, the newly-mounted troop of +Danes rode rapidly along the southern coast of +England till they came to the town of Exeter. +Its name was in those days Exancester. It +was then, as it is now, a very important town. +It has since acquired a mournful celebrity as +the place of refuge, and the scene of suffering +of Queen Henrietta Maria, the mother of +Charles the Second.<a name="VII1r" id="VII1r"></a><a href="#VII1"><sup>1</sup></a> The loss of this place was +a new and heavy cloud over Alfred's prospects. +It placed the whole southern coast of his realm +in the hands of his enemies, and seemed to portend +for the whole interior of the country a period +of hopeless and irremediable calamity.</p> +<p> +It seems, too, from various unequivocal statements +and allusions contained in the narratives +of the times, that Alfred did not possess, during +this period of his reign, the respect and affection +of his subjects. He is accused, or, rather, not +directly accused, but spoken of as generally +known to be guilty of many faults which alienated +the hearts of his countrymen from him, and +prepared them to consider his calamities as the +judgments of Heaven. He was young and ardent, +full of youthful impetuosity and fire, and +<a name="page143" id="page143"></a><span class="left">[page 143]</span> +was elated at his elevation to the throne; and, +during the period while the Danes left him in +peace, under the treaties he had made with +Hubba, he gave himself up to pleasure, and not +always to innocent pleasure. They charged +him, too, with being tyrannical and oppressive +in his government, being so devoted to gratifying +his own ambition and love of personal indulgence +that he neglected his government, sacrificed +the interests and the welfare of his subjects, +and exercised his regal powers in a very +despotic and arbitrary manner.</p> +<p> +It is very difficult to decide, at this late day +how far this disposition to find fault with Alfred's +early administration of his government +arose from, or was aggravated by, the misfortunes +and calamities which befell him. On the +one hand, it would not be surprising if, young, +and arduous, and impetuous as he was at this +period of his life, he should have fallen into the +errors and faults which youthful monarchs are +very prone to commit on being suddenly raised +to power. But then, on the other hand, men +are prone, in all ages of the world, and most +especially in such rude and uncultivated times +as these were, to judge military and governmental +action by the sole criterion of success. +<a name="page144" id="page144"></a><span class="left">[page 144]</span> +Thus, when they found that Alfred's measures, +one after another, failed in protecting his country, +that the impending calamities burst successively +upon them, notwithstanding all Alfred's +efforts to avert them, it was natural that +they should look at and exaggerate his faults, +and charge all their national misfortunes to the +influence of them.</p> +<p> +There was a certain Saint Neot, a kinsman +and religious counselor of Alfred, the history +of whose life was afterward written by the +Abbot of Crowland, the monastery whose destruction +by the Danes was described in a former +chapter. In this narrative it is said that Neot +often rebuked Alfred in the severest terms for +his sinful course of life, predicting the most fatal +consequences if he did not reform, and using +language which only a very culpable degree of +remissness and irregularity could justify. "You +glory," said he, one day, when addressing the +king, "in your pride and power, and are determined +and obdurate in your iniquity. But +there is a terrible retribution in store for you. +I entreat you to listen to my counsels, amend +your life, and govern your people with moderation +and justice, instead of tyranny and oppression, +and thus avert if you can, before it is too +late, the impending judgments of Heaven."</p> +<a name="page145" id="page145"></a><span class="left">[page 145]</span> +<p> +Such language as this it is obvious that only +a very serious dereliction of duty on Alfred's +part could call for or justify; but, whatever he +may have done to deserve it, his offenses were +so fully expiated by his subsequent sufferings, +and he atoned for them so nobly, too, by the +wisdom, the prudence, the faithful and devoted +patriotism of his later career, that mankind +have been disposed to pass by the faults of his +early years without attempting to scrutinize +them too closely. The noblest human spirits +are always, in some periods of their existence, +or in some aspects of their characters, strangely +weakened by infirmities and frailties, and +deformed by sin. This is human nature. We +like to imagine that we find exceptions, and to +see specimens of moral perfection in our friends +or in the historical characters whose general +course of action we admire; but there are no +exceptions. To err and to sin, at some times +and in some ways, is the common, universal, +and inevitable lot of humanity.</p> +<p> +At the time when Halfden and his followers +seized Wareham Castle and Exeter, Alfred +had been several years upon the throne, during +which time these derelictions from duty took +place, so far as they existed at all. But now, +<a name="page146" id="page146"></a><span class="left">[page 146]</span> +alarmed at the imminence of the impending +danger, which threatened not only the welfare +of his people, but his own kingdom and even his +life—for one Saxon monarch had been driven +from his dominions, as we have seen, and had +died a miserable exile at Rome—Alfred aroused +himself in earnest to the work of regaining his +lost influence among his people, and recovering +their alienated affections.</p> +<p> +He accordingly, as his first step, convened a +great assembly of the leading chieftains and +noblemen of the realm, and made addresses to +them, in which he urged upon them the imminence +of the danger which threatened their common +country, and pressed them to unite vigorously +and energetically with him to contend +against their common foe. They must make +great sacrifices, he said, both of their comfort +and ease, as well as of their wealth, to resist +successfully so imminent a danger. He summoned +them to arms, and urged them to contribute +the means necessary to pay the expense +of a vigorous prosecution of the war. These +harangues, and the ardor and determination +which Alfred manifested himself at the time of +making them, were successful. The nation +aroused itself to new exertions, and for a time +there was a prospect that the country would be +saved.</p> +<a name="page148" id="page148"></a><span class="left">[page 148]</span> + +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/146-1200.jpg"><img src="images/146-500.jpg" width="500" height="295" alt="The first British Fleet." border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">The first British Fleet.</span></p><br /> + +<a name="page149" id="page149"></a><span class="left">[page 149]</span> + +<p> +Among the other measures to which Alfred +resorted in this emergency was the attempt to +encounter the Danes upon their own element +by building and equipping a fleet of ships, with +which to proceed to sea, in order to meet and +attack upon the water certain new bodies of invaders, +who were on the way to join the Danes +already on the island—coming, as rumor said, +along the southern shore. In attempting to +build up a naval power, the greatest difficulty, +always, is to provide seamen. It is much easier +to build ships than to train sailors. To +man his little fleet, Alfred had to enlist such +half-savage foreigners as could be found in the +ports, and even pirates, as was said, whom he +induced to enter his service, promising them +pay, and such plunder as they could take from +the enemy. These attempts of Alfred to build +and man a fleet are considered the first rude beginnings +from which the present vast edifice of +British naval power took its origin. When the +fleet was ready to put to sea, the people thronged +the shores, watching its movements with the +utmost curiosity and interest, earnestly hoping +that it might be successful in its contests with +<a name="page150" id="page150"></a><span class="left">[page 150]</span> +the more tried and experienced armaments with +which it would have to contend.</p> +<p> +Alfred was, in fact, successful in the first enterprises +which he undertook with his ships. +He encountered a fleet of the Danish ships in +the Channel, and defeated them. His fleet captured, +moreover, one of the largest of the vessels +of the enemy; and, with what would be +thought in our day unpardonable cruelty, they +threw the sailors and soldiers whom they found +on board into the sea, and kept the vessel.</p> +<p> +After all, however, Alfred gained no conclusive +and decisive victory over his foes. They +were too numerous, too scattered, and too firmly +seated in the various districts of the island, of +some of which they had been in possession for +many years. Time passed on, battles were +fought, treaties of peace were made, oaths were +taken, hostages were exchanged, and then, after +a very brief interval of repose, hostilities would +break out again, each party bitterly accusing +the other of treachery. Then the poor hostages +would be slain, first by one party, and afterward, +in retaliation, by the other.</p> +<p> +In one of these temporary and illusive pacifications, +Alfred attempted to bind the Danes +by Christian oaths. Their customary mode of +<a name="page151" id="page151"></a><span class="left">[page 151]</span> +binding themselves, in cases where they wished +to impose a solemn religious obligation, was to +swear by a certain ornament which they wore +upon their arms, which is called in the chronicles +of those times a <i>bracelet</i>. What its form +and fashion was we can not now precisely know; +but it is plain that they attached some superstitious, +and perhaps idolatrous associations of +sacredness to it. To swear by this bracelet was +to place themselves under the most solemn obligation +that they could assume. Alfred, however, +not satisfied with this pagan sanction, +made them, in confirming one treaty, swear by +the Christian relics, which were certain supposed +memorials of our Saviour's crucifixion, or +portions of the bodies of dead saints miraculously +preserved, and to which the credulous +Christians of that day attached an idea of sacredness +and awe, scarcely less superstitious +than that which their pagan enemies felt for +the bracelets on their arms. Alfred could not +have supposed that these treacherous covenanters, +since they would readily violate the faith +plighted in the name of what they revered, +could be held by what they hated and despised. +Perhaps he thought that, though they would be +no more likely to keep the new oath than the +<a name="page152" id="page152"></a><span class="left">[page 152]</span> +old, still, that their violation of it, when it occurred, +would be in itself a great crime—that +his cause would be subsequently strengthened +by their thus incurring the special and unmitigated +displeasure of Heaven.</p> +<p> +Among the Danish chieftains with whom Alfred +had thus continually to contend in this +early part of his reign, there was one very famous +hero, whose name was Rollo. He invaded +England with a wild horde which attended +him for a short time, but he soon retired +and went to France, where he afterward greatly +distinguished himself by his prowess and his +exploits. The Saxon historians say that he retreated +from England because Alfred gave him +such a reception that he saw that it would be +impossible for him to maintain his footing there. +His account of it was, that, one day, when he +was perplexed with doubt and uncertainty about +his plans, he fell asleep and dreamed that he +saw a swarm of bees flying southward. This +was an omen, as he regarded it, indicating the +course which he ought to pursue. He accordingly +embarked his men on board his ships +again, and crossed the Channel, and sought +successfully in Normandy, a province of France +the kingdom and the home which, either on account +<a name="page153" id="page153"></a><span class="left">[page 153]</span> +of Alfred or of the bees, he was not to enjoy +in England.</p> +<p> +The cases, however, in which the Danish +chieftains were either entirely conquered or +finally expelled from the kingdom were very +few. As years passed on, Alfred found his army +diminishing, and the strength of his kingdom +wasting away. His resources were exhausted, +his friends had disappeared, his towns and castles +were taken, and, at last, about eight years +after his coronation at Winchester as monarch +of the most powerful of the Saxon kingdoms, +he found himself reduced to the very last extreme +of destitution and distress.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page154" id="page154"></a><span class="left">[page 154]</span> +<h3><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> VIII.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Seclusion.</span></h2> + +<p> +Notwithstanding the tide of disaster +and calamity which seemed to be gradually +overwhelming Alfred's kingdom, he was +not reduced to absolute despair, but continued +for a long time the almost hopeless struggle. +There is a certain desperation to which men +are often aroused in the last extremity, which +surpasses courage, and is even sometimes a very +effectual substitute for strength; and Alfred +might, perhaps, have succeeded, after all, in saving +his affairs from utter ruin, had not a new +circumstance intervened, which seemed at once +to extinguish all remaining hope and to seal +his doom.</p> +<p> +This circumstance was the arrival of a new +band of Danes, who were, it seems, more numerous, +more ferocious, and more insatiable +than any who had come before them. The +other kingdoms of the Saxons had been already +pretty effectually plundered. Alfred's kingdom +of Wessex was now, therefore, the most inviting +field, and, after various excursions of conquest +<a name="page155" id="page155"></a><span class="left">[page 155]</span> +and plunder in other parts of the island, +they came like an inundation over Alfred's +frontiers, and all hope of resisting them seems +to have been immediately abandoned. The +Saxon armies were broken up. Alfred had lost, +it appears, all influence and control over both +leaders and men. The chieftains and nobles +fled. Some left the country altogether; others +hid themselves in the best retreats and fastnesses +that they could find. Alfred himself was +obliged to follow the general example. A few +attendants, either more faithful than the rest, +or else more distrustful of their own resources, +and inclined, accordingly, to seek their own personal +safety by adhering closely to their sovereign, +followed him. These, however, one after +another, gradually forsook him, and, finally, the +fallen and deserted monarch was left alone.</p> +<p> +In fact, it was a relief to him at last to be +left alone; for they who remained around him +became in the end a burden instead of affording +him protection. They were too few to fight, +and too many to be easily concealed. Alfred +withdrew himself from them, thinking that, under +the circumstances in which he was now +placed, he was justified in seeking his own personal +safety alone. He had a wife, whom he +<a name="page156" id="page156"></a><span class="left">[page 156]</span> +married when he was about twenty years old; +but she was not with him now, though she afterward +joined him. She was in some other +place of retreat. She could, in fact, be much +more easily concealed than her husband; for +the Danes, though they would undoubtedly +have valued her very highly as a captive, would +not search for her with the eager and persevering +vigilance with which it was to be expected +they would hunt for their most formidable, but +now discomfited and fugitive foe.</p> +<p> +Alfred, therefore, after disentangling himself +from all but one or two trustworthy and faithful +friends, wandered on toward the west, +through forests, and solitudes, and wilds, to get +as far away as possible from the enemies who +were upon his track. He arrived at last on +the remote western frontiers of his kingdom, at +a place whose name has been immortalized by +its having been for some time the place of his +retreat. It was called Athelney.<a name="VIII1r" id="VIII1r"></a><a href="#VIII1"><sup>1</sup></a> Athelney +was, however, scarcely deserving of a name, for +it was nothing but a small spot of dry land in +the midst of a morass, which, as grass would +<a name="page157" id="page157"></a><span class="left">[page 157]</span> +grow upon it in the openings among the trees, +a simple cow-herd had taken possession of, and +built his hut there.</p> +<p> +The solid land which the cow-herd called his +farm was only about two acres in extent. All +around it was a black morass, of great extent, +wooded with alders, among which green sedges +grew, and sluggish streams meandered, and +mossy tracts of verdure spread treacherously +over deep bogs and sloughs. In the driest season +of the summer the goats and the sheep penetrated +into these recesses, but, excepting in +the devious and tortuous path by which the +cow-herd found his way to his island, it was +almost impassable for man.</p> +<p> +Alfred, however, attracted now by the impediments +and obstacles which would have repelled +a wanderer under any other circumstances, +went on with the greater alacrity the more intricate +and entangled the thickets of the morass +were found, since these difficulties promised to +impede or deter pursuit. He found his way in +to the cow-herd's hut. He asked for shelter. +People who live in solitudes are always hospitable. +The cow-herd took the wayworn fugitive +in, and gave him food and shelter. Alfred +remained his guest for a considerable time.</p> +<a name="page158" id="page158"></a><span class="left">[page 158]</span> +<p> +The story is, that after a few days the cow-herd +asked him who he was, and how he came +to be wandering about in that distressed and +destitute condition. Alfred told him that he +was one of the king's <i>thanes</i>. A thane was a +sort of chieftain in the Saxon state. He accounted +for his condition by saying that Alfred's +army had been beaten by the Danes, and that +he, with the other generals, had been forced to +fly. He begged the cow-herd to conceal him, +and to keep the secret of his character until +times should change, so that he could take the +field again.</p> +<p> +The story of Alfred's seclusion on the <i>island</i>, +as it might almost be called, of Ethelney, is told +very differently by the different narrators of +it. Some of these narrations are inconsistent +and contradictory. They all combine, however, +though they differ in respect to many other incidents +and details, in relating the far-famed story +of Alfred's leaving the cakes to burn. It seems +that, though the cow-herd himself was allowed +to regard Alfred as a man of rank in disguise—though +even <i>he</i> did not know that it was the +king—his wife was not admitted, even in this +partial way, into the secret. She was made to +consider the stranger as some common strolling +<a name="page159" id="page159"></a><span class="left">[page 159]</span> +countryman, and the better to sustain this idea, +he was taken into the cow-herd's service, and +employed in various ways, from time to time, +in labors about the house and farm. Alfred's +thoughts, however, were little interested in +these occupations. His mind dwelt incessantly +upon his misfortunes and the calamities +which had befallen his kingdom. He was harassed +by continual suspense and anxiety, not +being able to gain any clear or certain intelligence +about the condition and movements of +either his friends or foes. He was revolving +continually vague and half-formed plans for resuming +the command of his army and attempting +to regain his kingdom, and wearying himself +with fruitless attempts to devise means to +accomplish these ends. Whenever he engaged +voluntarily in any occupation, it would always +be something in harmony with these trains of +thought and these plans. He would repair and +put in order implements of hunting, or any +thing else which might be deemed to have some +relation to war. He would make bows and arrows +in the chimney corner—lost, all the time, +in melancholy reveries, or in wild and visionary +schemes of future exploits.</p> +<p> +One evening, while he was thus at work, the +<a name="page160" id="page160"></a><span class="left">[page 160]</span> +cow-herd's wife left, for a few moments, some +cakes under his charge, which she was baking +upon the great stone hearth, in preparation for +their common supper. Alfred, as might have +been expected, let the cakes burn. The woman, +when she came back and found them smoking, +was very angry. She told him that he +could eat the cakes fast enough when they were +baked, though it seemed he was too lazy and +good for nothing to do the least thing in helping +to bake them. What wide-spread and lasting +effects result sometimes from the most trifling +and inadequate causes! The singularity of +such an adventure befalling a monarch in disguise, +and the terse antithesis of the reproaches +with which the woman rebuked him, invest +this incident with an interest which carries it +every where spontaneously among mankind. +Millions, within the last thousand years, have +heard the name of Alfred, who have known no +more of him than this story; and millions more, +who never would have heard of him but for this +story, have been led by it to study the whole +history of his life; so that the unconscious cow-herd's +wife, in scolding the disguised monarch +for forgetting her cakes, was perhaps doing +more than he ever did himself for the wide extension +of his future fame.<a name="VIII2r" id="VIII2r"></a><a href="#VIII2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<a name="page161" id="page161"></a><span class="left">[page 161]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/159-1200.jpg"><img src="images/159-500.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="Alfred watching the Cakes." border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Alfred watching the Cakes.</span></p><br /> + +<a name="page164" id="page164"></a><span class="left">[page 164]</span> +<p> +Alfred was, for a time, extremely depressed +and disheartened by the sense of his misfortunes +<a name="page165" id="page165"></a><span class="left">[page 165]</span> +and calamities; but the monkish writers who +described his character and his life say that the +influence of his sufferings was extremely salutary +in softening his disposition and improving +his character. He had been proud, and haughty, +and domineering before. He became humble, +docile, and considerate now. Faults of character +that are superficial, resulting from the force +of circumstances and peculiarities of temptation, +rather than from innate depravity of heart, +are easily and readily burned off in the fire of +affliction, while the same severe ordeal seems +only to indurate the more hopelessly those propensities +which lie deeply seated in an inherent +and radical perversity.</p> + +<a name="page166" id="page166"></a><span class="left">[page 166]</span> +<p> +Alfred, though restless and wretched in his +apparently hopeless seclusion, bore his privations +with a great degree of patience and fortitude, +planning, all the time, the best means of +reorganizing his scattered forces, and of rescuing +his country from the ruin into which it had +fallen. Some of his former friends, roaming as +he himself had done, as fugitives about the +country, happened at length to come into the +neighborhood of his retreat. He heard of them, +and cautiously made himself known. They +were rejoiced to find their old commander once +more, and, as there was no force of the Danes +in that neighborhood at the time, they lingered, +timidly and fearlessly at first, in the vicinity, +until, at length, growing more bold as they +found themselves unmolested in their retreat, +they began to make it their gathering place +and head-quarters. Alfred threw off his disguise, +and assumed his true character. Tidings +of his having been thus discovered spread confidentially +among the most tried and faithful of +his Saxon followers, who had themselves been +seeking safety in other places of refuge. They +began, at first cautiously and by stealth, but +afterward more openly, to repair to the spot. +Alfred's family, too, from which he had now +<a name="page167" id="page167"></a><span class="left">[page 167]</span> +been for many months entirely separated, contrived +to rejoin him. The herdsman, who proved +to be a man of intelligence and character superior +to his station, entered heartily into all +these movements. He kept the secret faithfully. +He did all in his power to provide for +the wants and to promote the comfort of his +warlike guests, and, by his fidelity and devotion, +laid Alfred under obligations of gratitude +to him, which the king, when he was afterward +restored to the throne, did not forget to repay.</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding, however, all the efforts +which the herdsman made to obtain supplies, +the company now assembled at Ethelney were +sometimes reduced to great straits. There were +not only the wants of Alfred and his immediate +family and attendants to be provided for, but +many persons were continually coming and +going, arriving often at unexpected times, and +acting, as roving and disorganized bodies of soldiers +are very apt to do at such times, in a very +inconsiderate manner. The herdsman's farm +produced very little food, and the inaccessibleness +of its situation made it difficult to bring in +supplies from without. In fact, it was necessary, +in one part of the approach to it, to use a +boat, so that the place is generally called, in history, +<a name="page168" id="page168"></a><span class="left">[page 168]</span> +an island, though it was insulated mainly +by swamps and morasses rather than by navigable +waters. There were, however, sluggish +streams all around it, where Alfred's men, when +their stores were exhausted, went to fish, under +the herdsman's guidance, returning sometimes +with a moderate fare, and sometimes with none.</p> +<p> +The monks who describe this portion of Alfred's +life have recorded an incident as having +occurred on the occasion of one of these fishing +excursions, which, however, is certainly, in part, +a fabrication, and may be wholly so. It was in +the winter. The waters about the grounds were +frozen up. The provisions in the house were +nearly exhausted, there being scarcely anything +remaining. The men went away with their +fishing apparatus, and with their bows and arrows, +in hopes of procuring some fish or fowl to +replenish their stores. Alfred was left alone, +with only a single lady of his family, who is +called in the account "Mother," though it could +not have been Alfred's own mother, as she had +been dead many years. Alfred was sitting in +the hut reading. A beggar, who had by some +means or other found his way in over the frozen +morasses, came to the door, and asked for food. +Alfred, looking up from his book, asked the +<a name="page169" id="page169"></a><span class="left">[page 169]</span> +mother, whoever she was, to go and see what +there was to give him. She went to make examination, +and presently returned, saying that +there was nothing to give him. There was +only a single loaf of bread remaining, and that +would not be half enough for their own wants +that very night when the hunting party should +return, if they should come back unsuccessful +from their expedition. Alfred hesitated a moment, +and then ordered half the loaf to be given +to the beggar. He said, in justification of the +act, that his trust was now in God, and that +the power which once, with five loaves and two +small fishes, fed abundantly three thousand +men, could easily make half a loaf suffice for +them.</p> +<p> +The loaf was accordingly divided, the beggar +was supplied, and, delighted with this unexpected +relief, he went away. Alfred turned his +attention again to his reading. After a time +the book dropped from his hand. He had fallen +asleep. He dreamed that a certain saint +appeared to him, and made a revelation to him +from heaven. God, he said, had heard his +prayers, was satisfied with his penitence, and +pitied his sorrows; and that his act of charity +in relieving the poor beggar, even at the risk of +<a name="page170" id="page170"></a><span class="left">[page 170]</span> +leaving himself and his friends in utter destitution, +was extremely acceptable in the sight of +Heaven. The faith and trust which he thus +manifested were about to be rewarded. The +time for a change had come. He was to be +restored to his kingdom, and raised to a new +and higher state of prosperity and power than +before. As a token that this prediction was +true, and would be all fulfilled, the hunting +party would return that night with an ample +and abundant supply.</p> +<p> +Alfred awoke from his sleep with his mind +filled with new hopes and anticipations. The +hunting party returned loaded with supplies, +and in a state of the greatest exhilaration at +their success. They had fish and game enough +to have supplied a little army. The incident +of relieving the beggar, the dream, and their +unwonted success confirming it, inspired them +all with confidence and hope. They began to +form plans for commencing offensive operations. +They would build fortifications to strengthen +their position on the island. They would collect +a force. They would make sallies to attack +the smaller parties of the Danes. They +would send agents and emissaries about the +kingdom to arouse, and encourage, and assemble +<a name="page171" id="page171"></a><span class="left">[page 171]</span> +such Saxon forces as were yet to be found. +In a word, they would commence a series of +measures for recovering the country from the +possession of its pestilent enemy, and for restoring +the rightful sovereign to the throne. The +development of these projects and plans, and +the measures for carrying them into effect, were +very much hastened by an event which suddenly +occurred in the neighborhood of Ethelney, +the account of which, however, must be postponed +to the next chapter.</p> + + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page172" id="page172"></a><span class="left">[page 172]</span> +<h3><a name="IX" id="IX"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> IX.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">Reassembling of the Army.</span></h2> + +<p> +Ethelney, though its precise locality +can not now be certainly ascertained, was +in the southwestern part of England, in Somersetshire, +which county lies on the southern +shore of the Bristol Channel. There is a region +of marshes in that vicinity, which tradition assigns +as the place of Alfred's retreat; and there +was, about the middle of this century, a farmhouse +there, which bore the name of Ethelney, +though this name may have been given to it in +modern times by those who imagined it to be +the ancient locality. A jewel of gold, engraved +as an amulet to be worn about the neck, and +inscribed with the Saxon words which mean +"Alfred had me made," was found in the vicinity, +and is still carefully preserved in a museum +in England. Some curious antiquarians profess +to find the very hillock, rising out of the +low grounds around, where the herdsman that +entertained Alfred so long lived; but this, of +course is all uncertain. The peculiarities of +<a name="page173" id="page173"></a><span class="left">[page 173]</span> +the spot derived their character from the morasses +and the woods, and the courses of the +sluggish streams in the neighborhood, and these +are elements of landscape scenery which ten +centuries of time and of cultivation would entirely +change.</p> +<p> +Whatever may have been the precise situation +of the spot, instead of being, as at first, a +mere hiding-place and retreat, it became, before +many months, as was intimated in the last +chapter, a military camp, secluded and concealed, +it is true, but still possessing, in a considerable +degree, the characteristics of a fastness +and place of defense. Alfred's company erected +something which might be called a wall. +They built a bridge across the water where the +herdsman's boat had been accustomed to ply. +They raised two towers to watch and guard +the bridge. All these defenses were indeed of +a very rude and simple construction; still, they +answered the purpose intended. They afforded +a real protection; and, more than all, they produced +a certain moral effect upon the minds of +those whom they shielded, by enabling them to +consider themselves as no longer lurking fugitives, +dependent for safety on simple concealment, +but as a garrison, weak, it is true, but +<a name="page174" id="page174"></a><span class="left">[page 174]</span> +still gathering strength, and advancing gradually +toward a condition which would enable +them to make positive aggressions upon the +enemy.</p> +<p> +The circumstance which occurred to hasten +the development of Alfred's plans, and which +was briefly alluded to at the close of the last +chapter, was the following: It seems that quite +a large party of Danes, under the command of +a leader named Hubba, had been making a tour +of conquest and plunder in Wales, which country +was on the other side of the Bristol Channel, +directly north of Ethelney, where Alfred +was beginning to concentrate a force. He +would be immediately exposed to an attack +from this quarter as soon as it should be known +that he was at Ethelney, as the distance across +the Channel was not great, and the Danes were +provided with shipping.</p> +<p> +Ethelney was in the county called Somersetshire. +To the southwest of Somersetshire, a +little below it, on the shores of the Bristol Channel, +was a castle, called Castle Kenwith, in +Devonshire. The Duke of Devonshire, who +held this castle, encouraged by Alfred's preparations +for action, had assembled a considerable +force here, to be ready to co-operate with Alfred +<a name="page175" id="page175"></a><span class="left">[page 175]</span> +in the active measures which he was about +to adopt. Things being in this state, Hubba +brought down his forces to the northern shores +of the Channel, collected together all the boats +and shipping that he could command, crossed +the Channel, and landed on the Devonshire +shore. Odun, the duke, not being strong enough +to resist, fled, and shut himself up, with all his +men, in the castle. Hubba advanced to the castle +walls, and, sitting down before them, began +to consider what to do.</p> +<p> +Hubba was the last surviving son of Ragner +Lodbrog, whose deeds and adventures were related +in a former chapter. He was, like all +other chieftains among the Danes, a man of +great determination and energy, and he had +made himself very celebrated all over the land +by his exploits and conquests. His particular +horde of marauders, too, was specially celebrated +among all the others, on account of a mysterious +and magical banner which they bore. The +name of this banner was the <i>Reafan</i>, that is, +the Raven. There was the figure of a raven +woven or embroidered on the banner. Hubba's +three sisters had woven it for their brothers, +when they went forth across the German Ocean +to avenge their father's death. It possessed, as +<a name="page176" id="page176"></a><span class="left">[page 176]</span> +both the Danes and Saxons believed, supernatural +and magical powers. The raven on the +banner could foresee the result of any battle into +which it was borne. It remained lifeless and +at rest whenever the result was to be adverse; +and, on the other hand, it fluttered its wings +with a mysterious and magical vitality when +they who bore it were destined to victory. The +Danes consequently looked up to this banner +with a feeling of profound veneration and awe, +and the Saxons feared and dreaded its mysterious +power. The explanation of this pretended +miracle is easy. The imagination of superstitious +men, in such a state of society as that of +these half-savage Danes, is capable of much +greater triumphs over the reason and the senses +than is implied in making them believe that the +wings of a bird are either in motion or at rest, +whichever it fancies, when the banner on which +the image is embroidered is advancing to the +field and fluttering in the breeze.</p> +<p> +The Castle of Kenwith was situated on a +rocky promontory, and was defended by a Saxon +wall. Hubba saw that it would be difficult to +carry it by a direct assault. On the other hand, +it was not well supplied with water or provisions, +and the numerous multitude which had +<a name="page177" id="page177"></a><span class="left">[page 177]</span> +crowded into it, would, as Hubba thought, be +speedily compelled to surrender by thirst and +famine, if he were simply to wait a short time, +till their scanty stock of food was consumed. +Perhaps the raven did not flutter her wings +when Hubba approached the castle, but by her +apparent lifelessness portended calamity if an +attack were to be made. At all events, Hubba +decided not to attack the castle, but to invest +it closely on all sides, with his army on the land +and with his vessels on the side of the sea, and +thus reduce it by famine. He accordingly +stationed his troops and his galleys at their posts +and established himself in his tent, quietly to +await the result.</p> +<p> +He did not have to wait so long as he anticipated. +Odun, finding that his danger was so +imminent, nay, that his destruction was inevitable +if he remained in his castle, thus shut in, +determined, in the desperation to which the +emergency reduced him, to make a sally. Accordingly, +one night, as soon as it was dark, so +that the indications of any movement within the +castle might not be perceived by the sentinels +and watchmen in Hubba's lines, he began to +marshal and organize his army for a sudden and +furious onset upon the camp of the Danes.</p> +<a name="page178" id="page178"></a><span class="left">[page 178]</span> +<p> +They waited, when all was ready, till the first +break of day. To make the surprise most effectual, +it was necessary that it should take +place in the night; but then, on the other hand, +the success, if they should be successful, would +require, in order to be followed up with advantage, +the light of day. Odun chose, therefore, +the earliest dawn as the time for his attempt, +as this was the only period which would +give him at first darkness for his surprise, and +afterward light for his victory. The time was +well chosen, the arrangements were all well +made, and the result corresponded with the +character of the preparations. The sally was +triumphantly successful.</p> +<p> +The Danes, who were all, except their sentinels, +sleeping quietly and secure, were suddenly +aroused by the unearthly and terrific yells +with which the Saxons burst into the lines of +their encampment. They flew to arms, but +the shock of the onset produced a panic and +confusion which soon made their cause hopeless. +Odun and his immediate followers pressed directly +forward into Hubba's tent, where they +surprised the commander, and massacred him +on the spot. They seized, too, to their inexpressible +joy, the sacred banner, which was in +<a name="page179" id="page179"></a><span class="left">[page 179]</span> +Hubba's tent, and bore it forth, rejoicing in it, +not merely as a splendid trophy of their victory, +but as a loss to their enemies which fixed and +sealed their doom.</p> +<p> +The Danes fled before their enemies in terror, +and the consternation which they felt, when +they learned that their banner had been captured +and their leader slain, was soon changed +into absolute despair. The Saxons slew them +without mercy, cutting down some as they were +running before them in their headlong flight, +and transfixing others with their spears and arrows +as they lay upon the ground, trampled +down by the crowds and the confusion. There +was no place of refuge to which they could fly +except to their ships. Those, therefore, that +escaped the weapons of their pursuers, fled in +the direction of the water, where the strong and +the fortunate gained the boats and the galleys, +while the exhausted and the wounded were +drowned. The fleet sailed away from the coast, +and the Saxons, on surveying the scene of the +terrible contest, estimated that there were +twelve hundred dead bodies lying in the field.</p> +<p> +This victory, and especially the capture of +the Raven, produced vast effects on the minds +both of the Saxons and of the Danes, animating +<a name="page180" id="page180"></a><span class="left">[page 180]</span> +and encouraging the one, and depressing +the other with superstitious as well as natural +and proper fears. The influence of the battle +was sufficient, in fact, wholly to change Alfred's +position and prospects. The news of the +discovery of the place of his retreat, and of the +measures which he was maturing for taking +the field again to meet his enemies, spread +throughout the country. The people were every +where ready to take up arms and join him. +There were large bodies of Danes in several +parts of his dominions still, and they, alarmed +somewhat at these indications of new efforts of +resistance on the part of their enemies, began +to concentrate their strength and prepare for +another struggle.</p> +<p> +The main body of the Danes were encamped +at a place called Edendune, in Wiltshire. There +is a hill near, which the army made their main +position, and the marks of their fortifications +have been traced there, either in imagination or +reality, in modern times. Alfred wished to +gain more precise and accurate information +than he yet possessed of the numbers and situation +of his foes; and, in order to do this, instead +of employing a spy, he conceived the design +of going himself in disguise to explore the +<a name="page181" id="page181"></a><span class="left">[page 181]</span> +camp of the Danes. The undertaking was full +of danger, but yet not quite so desperate as at +first it might seem. Alfred had had abundant +opportunities during the months of his seclusion +to become familiar with the modes of speech +and the manners of peasant life. He had also, +in his early years, stored his memory with Saxon +poetry, as has already been stated. He was +fond of music, too, and well skilled in it; so +that he had every qualification for assuming the +character of one of those roving harpers, who, +in those days, followed armies, to sing songs +and make amusement for the soldiers. He determined, +consequently, to assume the disguise +of a harper, and to wander into the camp of the +Danes, that he might make his own observations +on the nature and magnitude of the force +with which he was about to contend.</p> +<p> +He accordingly clothed himself in the garb +of the character which he was to assume, and, +taking his harp upon his shoulder, wandered +away in the direction of the Northmen's camp. +Such a strolling countryman, half musician, +half beggar would enter without suspicion or +hinderance into the camp, even though he belonged +to the nation of the enemy. Alfred was +readily admitted, and he wandered at will about +<a name="page182" id="page182"></a><span class="left">[page 182]</span> +the lines, to play and sing to the soldiers wherever +he found groups to listen—intent, apparently, +on nothing but his scanty pittance of pay, +while he was really studying, with the utmost +attention and care, the number, and disposition, +and discipline of the troops, and all the arrangements +of the army. He came very near discovering +himself, however, by overacting his +part. His music was so well executed and his +ballads were so fine, that reports of the excellence +of his performance reached the commander's +ears. He ordered the pretended harper to +be sent into his tent, that he might hear him +play and sing. Alfred went, and thus he had +the opportunity of completing his observations +in the tent, and in the presence of the Danish +king.</p> +<p> +Alfred found that the Danish camp was in a +very unguarded and careless condition. The +name of the commander, or king, was Guthrum.<a name="IX1r" id="IX1r"></a><a href="#IX1"><sup>1</sup></a> +Alfred, while playing in his presence, +studied his character, and it is (not) improbable that +the very extraordinary course which he afterward +pursued in respect to Guthrum may have +been caused, in a great degree, by the opportunity +<a name="page183" id="page183"></a><span class="left">[page 183]</span> +he now enjoyed of domestic access to him +and of obtaining a near and intimate view of +his social and personal character. Guthrum +treated the supposed harper with great kindness. +He was much pleased both with his singing +and his songs, being attracted, too, probably, +in some degree, by a certain mysterious +interest which the humble stranger must have +inspired; for Alfred possessed personal and intellectual +traits of character which could not +but have given to his conversation and his manners +a certain charm, notwithstanding all his +efforts to disguise or conceal them.</p> +<p> +However this may be, Guthrum gave Alfred +a very friendly reception, and the hour of social +intercourse and enjoyment which the general +and the ballad-singer spent together was only +a precursor of the more solid and honest friendship +which afterward subsisted between them +as allied sovereigns.</p> +<p> +Alfred had one person with him, whom he +had brought from Ethelney—a sort of attendant—to +help him carry his harp, and to be a +companion for him on the way. He would have +needed such a companion even if he had been +only what he seemed; but for a spy, going in +disguise into the camp of such ferocious enemies +<a name="page184" id="page184"></a><span class="left">[page 184]</span> +as the Danes, it would seem absolutely +indispensable that he should have the support +and sympathy of a friend.</p> +<p> +Alfred, after finishing his examination of the +camp of Guthrum, and forming secretly, in his +own mind, his plans for attacking it, moved +leisurely away, taking his harp and his attendant +with him, as if going on in search of some +new place to practice his profession. As soon +as he was out of the reach of observation, he +made a circuit and returned in safety to Ethelney. +The season was now spring, and every +thing favored the commencement of his enterprise.</p> +<p> +His first measure was to send out some trusty +messengers into all the neighboring counties, +to visit and confer with his friends at their various +castles and strong-holds. These messengers +were to announce to such Saxon leaders as +they should find that Alfred was still alive, and +that he was preparing to take the field against +the Danes again; and were to invite them to +assemble at a certain place appointed, in a forest, +with as many followers as they could bring, +that the king might there complete the organization +of an army, and hold consultation with +them to mature their plans.</p> +<a name="page185" id="page185"></a><span class="left">[page 185]</span> +<p> +The wood on the borders of which they were +to meet was an extensive forest of willows, fifteen +miles long and six broad. It was known +by the name of Selwood Forest. There was a +celebrated place called the Stone of Egbert, +where the meeting was to be held. Each chieftain +whom the messengers should visit was to +be invited to come to the Stone of Egbert at +the appointed day, with as many armed men, +and yet in as secret and noiseless a manner as +possible, so as thus, while concentrating all +their forces in preparation for their intended attack, +to avoid every thing which would tend to +put Guthrum on his guard.</p> +<p> +The messengers found the Saxon chieftains +very ready to enter into Alfred's plans. They +were rejoiced to hear, as some of them did now +for the first time hear, that he was alive, and +that the spirit and energy of his former character +were about to be exhibited again. Every +thing, in fact, conspired to favor the enterprise. +The long and gloomy months of winter were +past, and the opening spring brought with it, +as usual, excitement and readiness for action. +The tidings of Odun's victory over Hubba, and +the capture of the sacred raven, which had +spread every where, had awakened a general +<a name="page186" id="page186"></a><span class="left">[page 186]</span> +enthusiasm, and a desire on the part of all +the Saxon chieftains and soldiers to try their +strength once more with their ancient enemies.</p> +<p> +Accordingly, those to whom the secret was +intrusted eagerly accepted the invitation, or, +perhaps, as it should rather be expressed, obeyed +the summons which Alfred sent them. They +marshaled their forces without any delay, and +repaired to the appointed place in Selwood Forest. +Alfred was ready to meet them there. +Two days were occupied with the arrivals of +the different parties, and in the mutual congratulations +and rejoicings. Growing more +bold as their sense of strength increased with +their increasing numbers, and with the ardor +and enthusiasm which their mutual influence +on each other inspired, they spent the intervals +of their consultations in festivities and rejoicings, +celebrating the occasion with games and +martial music. The forest resounded with the +blasts of horns, the sound of the trumpets, the +clash of arms, and the shouts of joy and congratulation, +which all the efforts of the more +prudent and cautious could not repress.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, Guthrum remained in his +encampment at Edendune. This seems to have +been the principal concentration of the forces +<a name="page187" id="page187"></a><span class="left">[page 187]</span> +of the Danes which were marshaled for military +service; and yet there were large numbers of +the people, disbanded soldiers, or non-combatants, +who had come over in the train of the armies, +that had taken possession of the lands +which they had conquered, and had settled upon +them for cultivation, as if to make them their +permanent home. These intruders were scattered +in larger or smaller bodies in various parts +of the kingdom, the Saxon inhabitants being +prevented from driving them away by the influence +and power of the armies, which still +kept possession of the field, and preserved their +military organization complete, ready for action +at any time whenever any organized Saxon +force should appear.</p> +<p> +Guthrum, as we have said, headed the largest +of these armies. He was aware of the increasing +excitement that was spreading among +the Saxon population, and he even heard rumors +of the movements which the bodies of +Saxons made, in going under their several chieftains +to Selwood Forest. He expected that +some important movement was about to occur, +but he had no idea that preparations so extended, +and for so decisive a demonstration, were +so far advanced. He remained, therefore, at +<a name="page188" id="page188"></a><span class="left">[page 188]</span> +his camp at Edendune, gradually completing +his arrangements for his summer campaign, but +making no preparations for resisting any sudden +or violent attack.</p> +<p> +When all was ready, Alfred put himself at +the head of the forces which had collected at +the Egbert Stone, or, as it is quaintly spelled +in some of the old accounts, Ecgbyrth-stan. +There is a place called Brixstan in that vicinity +now, which may possibly be the same name +modified and abridged by the lapse of time. +Alfred moved forward toward Guthrum's camp. +He went only a part of the way the first day, +intending to finish the march by getting into +the immediate vicinity of the enemy on the +morrow. He succeeded in accomplishing this +object, and encamped the next night at a place +called Æcglea,<a name="IX2r" id="IX2r"></a><a href="#IX2"><sup>2</sup></a> on an eminence from which he +could reconnoiter, from a great distance, the +position of the army.</p> +<p> +That night, as he was sleeping in his tent, +he had a remarkable dream. He dreamed that +his relative, St. Neot, who has been already +mentioned as the chaplain or priest who reproved +<a name="page189" id="page189"></a><span class="left">[page 189]</span> +him so severely for his sins in the early part +of his reign, appeared to him. The apparition +bid him not fear the immense army of pagans +whom he was going to encounter on the morrow. +God, he said, had accepted his penitence, +and was now about to take him under his special +protection. The calamities which had befallen +him were sent in judgment to punish the +pride and arrogance which he had manifested +in the early part of his reign; but his faults +had been expiated by the sufferings he had endured, +and by the penitence and the piety +which they had been the means of awakening +in his heart; and now he might go forward into +the battle without fear, as God was about to +give him the victory over all his enemies.</p> +<p> +The king related his dream the next morning +to his army. The enthusiasm and ardor +which the chieftains and the men had felt before +were very much increased by this assurance +of success. They broke up their encampment, +therefore, and commenced the march, +which was to bring them, before many hours, +into the presence of the enemy, with great alacrity +and eager expectations of success.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page190" id="page190"></a><span class="left">[page 190]</span> +<h3><a name="X" id="X"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> X.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Victory over the Danes.</span></h2> + +<p> +Encouraged by his dream, and animated +by the number and the elation of his +followers, Alfred led his army onward toward +the part of the country where the camp of the +enemy lay. He intended to surprise them; +and, although Guthrum had heard vague rumors +that some great Saxon movement was in +train, he viewed the sudden appearance of this +large and well-organized army with amazement.</p> +<p> +He had possession of the hill near Edendune, +which has been already described. He had established +his head-quarters here, and made his +strongest fortifications on the summit of the +eminence. The main body of his forces were, +however, encamped upon the plain, over which +they extended, in vast numbers, far and wide. +Alfred halted his men to change the order of +march into the order of battle. Here he made +an address to his men. As no time was to be +lost, he spoke but a few words. He reminded +<a name="page191" id="page191"></a><span class="left">[page 191]</span> +them that they were to contend, that day, to +rescue themselves and their country from the +intolerable oppression of a horde of pagan idolaters; +that God was on their side, and had +promised them the victory; and he urged them +to act like men, so as to deserve the success +and happiness which was in store for them.</p> +<p> +The army then advanced to the attack, the +Danes having been drawn out hastily, but with +as much order as the suddenness of the call +would allow, to meet them. When near enough +for their arrows to take effect, the long line of +Alfred's troops discharged their arrows. They +then advanced to the attack with lances; but +soon these and all other weapons which kept +the combatants at a distance were thrown aside, +and it became a terrible conflict with swords, +man to man.</p> +<p> +It was not long before the Danes began to +yield. They were not sustained by the strong +assurance of victory, nor by the desperate determination +which animated the Saxons. The +flight soon became general. They could not +gain the fortification on the hill, for Alfred had +forced his way in between the encampment on +the plains and the approaches to the hill. The +Danes, consequently, not being able to find refuge +<a name="page192" id="page192"></a><span class="left">[page 192]</span> +in either part of the position they had taken, +fled altogether from the field, pursued by +Alfred's victorious columns as fast as they could +follow.</p> +<p> +Guthrum succeeded, by great and vigorous +exertions, in rallying his men, or, at least, in +so far collecting and concentrating the separate +bodies of the fugitives as to change the flight +into a retreat, having some semblance of military +order. Vast numbers had been left dead +upon the field. Others had been taken prisoners. +Others still had become hopelessly dispersed, +having fled from the field of battle in diverse +directions, and wandered so far, in their +terror, that they had not been able to rejoin +their leader in his retreat. Then, great numbers +of those who pressed on under Guthrum's +command, exhausted by fatigue, or spent and +fainting from their wounds, sank down by the +way-side to die, while their comrades, intent +only upon their own safety, pressed incessantly +on. The retreating army was thus, in a short +time, reduced to a small fraction of its original +force. This remaining body, with Guthrum at +their head, continued their retreat until they +reached a castle which promised them protection. +They poured in over the drawbridges +<a name="page193" id="page193"></a><span class="left">[page 193]</span> +and through the gates of this fortress in extreme +confusion; and feeling suddenly, and for the +moment, entirely relieved at their escape from +the imminence of the immediate danger, they +shut themselves in.</p> +<p> +The finding of such a retreat would have +been great good fortune for these wretched fugitives +if there had been any large force in the +country to come soon to their deliverance; but, +as they were without provisions and without +water, they soon began to perceive that, unless +they obtained some speedy help from without, +they had only escaped the Saxon lances and +swords to die a ten times more bitter death of +thirst and famine; and there was no force to +relieve them. The army which had been thus +defeated was the great central force of the +Danes upon the island. The other detachments +and independent bands which were scattered +about the land were thunderstruck at the news +of this terrible defeat. The Saxons, too, were +every where aroused to the highest pitch of enthusiasm +at the reappearance of their king and +the tidings of his victory. The whole country +was in arms. Guthrum, however, shut up in +his castle, and closely invested with Alfred's +forces, had no means of knowing what was +<a name="page194" id="page194"></a><span class="left">[page 194]</span> +passing without. His numbers were so small +in comparison with those besieging him that it +would have been madness for him to have attempted +a sally; and he would not surrender. +He waited day after day, hoping against hope +that some succor would come. His half-famished +sentinels gazed from the watch-towers of +the castle all around, looking for some cloud of +distant dust, or weapon glancing in the sun, +which might denote the approach of friends +coming to their rescue. This lasted fourteen +days. At the end of that time, the number +within this wretched prison who were raving in +the delirium of famine and thirst, or dying in +agony, became too great for Guthrum to persist +any longer. He surrendered. Alfred was +once more in possession of his kingdom.</p> +<p> +During the fourteen days that elapsed between +the victory on the field of battle and the +final surrender of Guthrum, Alfred, feeling that +the power was now in his hands, had had ample +time to reflect on the course which he should +pursue with his subjugated enemies; and the +result to which he came, and the measure which +he adopted, evince, as much as any act of his +life, the greatness, and originality, and nobleness +of his character. Here were two distinct +<a name="page195" id="page195"></a><span class="left">[page 195]</span> +and independent races on the same island, that +had been engaged for many years in a most +fierce and sanguinary struggle, each gaining at +times a temporary and partial victory, but neither +able entirely to subdue or exterminate the +other. The Danes, it is true, might be considered +as the aggressors in this contest, and, as +such, wholly in the wrong; but then, on the +other hand, it was to be remembered that the +ancestors of the Saxons had been guilty of precisely +the same aggressions upon the Britons, +who held the island before them; so that the +Danes were, after all, only intruding upon intruders. +It was, besides, the general maxim of +the age, that the territories of the world were +prizes open for competition, and that the right +to possess and to govern vested naturally and +justly in those who could show themselves the +strongest. Then, moreover, the Danes had been +now for many years in Britain. Vast numbers +had quietly settled on agricultural lands. They +had become peaceful inhabitants. They had +established, in many cases, friendly relations +with the Saxons. They had intermarried with +them; and the two races, instead of appearing, +as at first, simply as two hostile armies of combatants +contending on the field, had been, for +<a name="page196" id="page196"></a><span class="left">[page 196]</span> +some years, acquiring the character of a mixed +population, established and settled, though heterogeneous, +and, in some sense, antagonistic +still. To root out all these people, intruders +though they were, and send them back again +across the German Ocean, to regions where +they no longer had friends or home, would have +been a desperate—in fact, an impossible undertaking.</p> +<p> +Alfred saw all these things. He took, in fact, +a general, and comprehensive, and impartial +view of the whole subject, instead of regarding +it, as most conquerors in his situation would +have done, in a <i>partisan</i>, that is, an exclusively +<i>Saxon</i> point of view. He saw how impossible +it was to undo what had been done, and wisely +determined to take things as they were, and +make the best of the present situation of affairs, +leaving the past, and aiming only at accomplishing +the best that was now attainable for +the future. It would be well if all men who +are engaged in quarrels which they vainly endeavor +to settle by discussing and disputing +about what is past and gone, and can now never +be recalled, would follow his example. In +all such cases we should say, let the past be forgotten, +and, taking things as they now are, let +<a name="page197" id="page197"></a><span class="left">[page 197]</span> +us see what we can do to secure peace and happiness +in future.</p> +<p> +The policy which Alfred determined to adopt +was, not to attempt the utter extirpation of the +Danes from England, but only to expel the <i>armed +forces</i> from his own dominions, allowing +those peaceably disposed to remain in quiet possession +of such lands in other parts of the island +as they already occupied. Instead, therefore, +of treating Guthrum with harshness and +severity as a captive enemy, he told him that +he was willing not only to give him his liberty, +but to regard him, on certain conditions, as a +friend and an ally, and allow him to reign as a +king over that part of England which his countrymen +possessed, and which was beyond Alfred's +own frontiers. These conditions were, +that Guthrum was to go away with all his +forces and followers out of Alfred's kingdom, +under solemn oaths never to return; that he +was to confine himself thenceforth to the southeastern +part of England, a territory from which +the Saxon government had long disappeared; +that he was to give hostages for the faithful fulfillment +of these stipulations, without, however, +receiving on his part any hostages from Alfred. +There was one other stipulation, more extraordinary +<a name="page198" id="page198"></a><span class="left">[page 198]</span> +than all the rest, viz., that Guthrum +should become a convert to Christianity, and +publicly avow his adhesion to the Saxon faith +by being baptized in the presence of the leaders +of both armies, in the most open and solemn +manner. In this proposed baptism, Alfred himself +would stand his godfather.</p> +<p> +This idea of winning over a pagan soldier to +the Christian Church as the price of his ransom +from famine and death in the castle to which +his direst enemy had driven him—this enemy +himself, the instrument thus of so rude a mode +of conversion, to be the sponsor of the new communicant's +religious profession—was one in +keeping, it is true, with the spirit of the times, +but still it is one which, under the circumstances +of this case, only a mind of great originality +and power would have conceived of or attempted +to carry into effect. Guthrum might +well be astonished at this unexpected turn in +his affairs. A few days before, he saw himself +on the brink of utter and absolute destruction. +Shut up with his famished soldiers in a gloomy +castle, with the enemy, bitter and implacable, +as he supposed, thundering at the gates, the +only alternatives before him seemed to be to +die of starvation and phrensy within the walls +<a name="page199" id="page199"></a><span class="left">[page 199]</span> +which covered him, or by a cruel military execution +in the event of surrender. He surrendered +at last, as it would seem, only because +the utmost that human cruelty can inflict is +more tolerable than the horrid agonies of thirst +and hunger.</p> +<p> +We can not but hope that Alfred was led, in +some degree, by a generous principle of Christian +forgiveness in proposing the terms which he +did to his fallen enemy, and also that Guthrum, +in accepting them, was influenced, in part at +least, by emotions of gratitude and by admiration +of the high example of Christian virtue which +Alfred thus exhibited. At any rate, he did accept +them. The army of the Danes were liberated +from their confinement, and commenced +their march to the eastward; Guthrum himself, +attended by thirty of his chiefs and many +other followers, became Alfred's guest for some +weeks, until the most pressing measures for the +organization of Alfred's government could be attended +to, and the necessary preparations for +the baptism could be made. At length, some +weeks after the surrender, the parties all repaired +together, now firm friends and allies, to +a place near Ethelney, where the ceremony of +baptism was to be performed.</p> +<a name="page200" id="page200"></a><span class="left">[page 200]</span> +<p> +The admission of this pagan chieftain into +the Christian Church did not probably mark +any real change in his opinions on the question +of paganism and Christianity, but it was not the +less important in its consequences on that account. +The moral effect of it upon the minds of +his followers was of great value. It opened the +way for their reception of the Christian faith, +if any of them should be disposed to receive +it. Then it changed wholly the feeling which +prevailed among the Saxon soldiery, and also +the Saxon chieftains, in respect to these enemies. +A great deal of the bitterness of exasperation +with which they had regarded them +arose from the fact that they were pagans, the +haters and despisers of the rites and institutions +of religion. Guthrum's approaching baptism +was to change all this; and Alfred, in leading +him to the baptismal font, was achieving, in +the estimation not only of all England, but of +France and of Rome, a far greater and nobler +victory than when he conquered his armies on +the field of Edendune.</p> +<p> +The various ceremonies connected with the +baptism were protracted through several days. +They were commenced at a place called Aulre, +near Ethelney, where there was a religious establishment +<a name="page201" id="page201"></a><span class="left">[page 201]</span> +and priests to perform the necessary +rites. The new convert was clothed in white +garments—the symbol of purity, then customarily +worn by candidates for baptism—and was +covered with a mystic veil. They gave Guthrum +a new name—a Christian, that is, a Saxon +name. Converted pagans received always a +new name, in those days, when baptized; and +our common phrase, <i>the Christian name</i>, has +arisen from the circumstance. Guthrum's +Christian name was Ethelstan. Alfred was +his godfather. After the baptism the whole +party proceeded to a town a few miles distant, +which Alfred had decided to make a royal residence, +and there other ceremonies connected +with the new convert's admission to the Church +were performed, the whole ending with a series +of great public festivities and rejoicings.</p> +<p> +A very full and formal treaty of peace and +amity was now concluded between the two sovereigns; +for Guthrum was styled in the treaty +a <i>king</i>, and was to hold, in the dominions assigned +him to the eastward of Alfred's realm, +an independent jurisdiction. He agreed, however, +by this treaty, to confine himself, from that +time forward, to the limits thus assigned. If +the reader wishes to see what part of England +<a name="page202" id="page202"></a><span class="left">[page 202]</span> +it was which Guthrum was thus to hold, he can +easily identify it by finding upon the map the +following counties, which now occupy the same +territory, viz., Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, +Essex, and part of Herefordshire. The +population of all this region consisted already, +in a great measure, of Danes. It was the part +most easily accessible from the German Ocean, +by means of the Thames and the Medway, and +it had, accordingly, become the chief seat of the +Northmen's power.</p> +<p> +Guthrum not only agreed to confine himself +to the limits thus marked out, but also to consider +himself henceforth as Alfred's friend and +ally in the event of any new bands of adventurers +arriving on the coast, and to join Alfred +in his endeavors to resist them. In hoping that +he would fulfill this obligation, Alfred did not +rely altogether on Guthrum's oaths or promises, +or even on the hostages that he held. He +had made it for his <i>interest</i> to fulfill them. By +giving him peaceable possession of this territory, +after having, by his victories, impressed +him with a very high idea of his own great military +resources and power, he had placed his +conquered enemy under very strong inducements +to be satisfied with what he now possessed, +<a name="page203" id="page203"></a><span class="left">[page 203]</span> +and to make common cause with Alfred +in resisting the encroachments of any new marauders.</p> +<p> +Guthrum was therefore honestly resolved on +keeping his faith with his new ally; and when +all these stipulations were made, and the treaties +were signed, and the ceremonies of the baptism +all performed, Alfred dismissed his guest, +with many presents and high honors.</p> +<p> +There is some uncertainty whether Alfred +did not, in addition to the other stipulations under +which he bound Guthrum, reserve to himself +the superior sovereignty over Guthrum's +dominions, in such a manner that Guthrum, +though complimented in the treaty with the +title of king, was, after all, only a sort of viceroy, +holding his throne under Alfred as his liege +lord. One thing is certain, that Alfred took +care, in his treaty with Guthrum, to settle all +the fundamental laws of both kingdoms, making +them the same for both, as if he foresaw +the complete and entire union which was ultimately +to take place, and wished to facilitate +the accomplishment of this end by having the +political and social constitution of the two states +brought at once into harmony with each other.</p> +<p> +It proved, in the end, that Guthrum was +<a name="page204" id="page204"></a><span class="left">[page 204]</span> +faithful to his obligations and promises. He +settled himself quietly in the dominions which +the treaty assigned to him, and made no more +attempts to encroach upon Alfred's realm. +Whenever other parties of Danes came upon +the coast, as they sometimes did, they found no +favor or countenance from him. They came, +in some cases, expecting his co-operation and +aid; but he always refused it, and by this discouragement, +as well as by open resistance, he +drove many bands away, turning the tide of +invasion southward into France, and other regions +on the Continent. Alfred, in the mean +time, gave his whole time and attention to organizing +the various departments of his government, +to planning and building towns, repairing +and fortifying castles, opening roads, establishing +courts of justice, and arranging and setting +in operation the complicated machinery +necessary in the working of a well-conducted +social state. The nature and operation of some +of his plans will be described more fully in the +next chapter.</p> +<p> +In concluding this chapter, we will add, that +notwithstanding his victory over Guthrum, and +Guthrum's subsequent good faith, Alfred never +enjoyed an absolute peace, but during the whole +<a name="page205" id="page205"></a><span class="left">[page 205]</span> +remainder of his reign was more or less molested +with parties of Northmen, who came, from +time to time, to land on English shores, and +who met sometimes with partial and temporary +success in their depredations. The most serious +of these attempts occurred near the close +of Alfred's life, and will be hereafter described.</p> + + <br /><hr class="short" /><br /> +<p> +The generosity and the nobleness of mind +which Alfred manifested in his treatment of +Guthrum made a great impression upon mankind +at the time, and have done a great deal to +elevate the character of our hero in every subsequent +age. All admire such generosity in +others, however slow they may be to practice it +themselves. It seems a very easy virtue when +we look upon an exhibition of it like this, where +we feel no special resentments ourselves against +the person thus nobly forgiven. We find it, +however, a very hard virtue to practice, when +a case occurs requiring the exercise of it toward +a person who has done <i>us</i> an injury. Let +those who think that in Alfred's situation they +should have acted as he did, look around upon +the circle of their acquaintance, and see whether +it is easy for them to pursue a similar course +toward their personal enemies—those who have +<a name="page206" id="page206"></a><span class="left">[page 206]</span> +thwarted and circumvented them in their plans, +or slandered them, or treated them with insult +and injury. By observing how hard it is to +change our own resentments to feelings of forgiveness +and good will, we can the better appreciate +Alfred's treatment of Guthrum.</p> +<p> +Alfred was famed during all his life for the +kindness of his heart, and a thousand stories +were told in his day of his interpositions to right +the wronged, to relieve the distressed, to comfort +the afflicted, and to befriend the unhappy. +On one occasion, as it is said, when he was +hunting in a wood, he heard the piteous cries +of a child, which seemed to come from the air +above his head. It was found, after much looking +and listening, that the sounds proceeded +from an eagle's nest upon the top of a lofty tree. +On climbing to the nest, they found the child +within, screaming with pain and terror. The +eagle had carried it there in its talons for a prey. +Alfred brought down the boy, and, after making +fruitless inquiries to find its father and mother, +adopted him for his own son, gave him a good +education, and provided for him well in his future +life. The story was all, very probably, a +fabrication; but the characters of men are sometimes +very strikingly indicated by the kind of +stories that are <i>invented</i> concerning them.</p> +<a name="page208" id="page208"></a><span class="left">[page 208]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<img src="images/206-gs.jpg" width="392" height="470" alt="Portrait of Alfred" border="0" /><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Portrait of Alfred</span></p><br /> + + + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page209" id="page209"></a><span class="left">[page 209]</span> +<h3><a name="XI" id="XI"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> XI.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">Character of Alfred's Reign.</span></h2> + +<p> +Perhaps the chief aspect in which King +Alfred's character has attracted the attention +of mankind, is in the spirit of humanity +and benevolence which he manifested, and in +the efforts which he made to cultivate the arts +of peace, and to promote the intellectual and +social welfare of his people, notwithstanding +the warlike habits to which he was accustomed +in his early years, and the warlike influences +which surrounded him during all his life. Every +thing in the outward circumstances in +which he was placed tended to make him a +mere military hero. He saw, however, the superior +greatness and glory of the work of laying +the foundations of an extended and permanent +power, by arranging in the best possible manner +the internal organization of the social state. +He saw that intelligence, order, justice, and +system, prevailing in and governing the institutions +of a country, constitute the true elements +of its greatness, and he acted accordingly.</p> +<a name="page210" id="page210"></a><span class="left">[page 210]</span> +<p> +It is true, he had good materials to work with. +He had the Anglo-Saxon race to act upon at +the time, a race capable of appreciating and +entering into his plans; and he has had the +same race to carry them on, for the ten centuries +which have elapsed since he laid his foundations. +As no other race of men but Anglo-Saxons +could have produced an Alfred, so, probably, +no other race could have carried out such +plans as Alfred formed. It is a race which has +always been distinguished, like Alfred their +great prototype and model, for a certain cool +and intrepid energy in war, combined with and +surpassed by the industry, the system, the efficiency, +and the perseverance with which they +pursue and perfect all the arts of peace. They +systematize every thing. They arrange—they +organize. Every thing in their hands takes +form, and advances to continual improvement. +Even while the rest of the world remain inert, +they are active. When the arts and improvements +of life are stationary among other nations, +they are always advancing with <i>them</i>. +It is a people that is always making new discoveries, +pressing forward to new enterprises, +framing new laws, constituting new combinations +and developing new powers; until now +<a name="page211" id="page211"></a><span class="left">[page 211]</span> +after the lapse of a thousand years, the little +island feeds and clothes, directly or indirectly, +a very large portion of the human race, and directs, +in a great measure, the politics of the +world.</p> +<p> +Whether Alfred reasoned upon the capacities +of the people whom he ruled, and foresaw +their future power, or whether he only followed +the simple impulses of his own nature in the +plans which he formed and the measures which +he adopted, we can not know; but we know +that, in fact, he devoted his chief attention, during +all the years of his reign, to perfecting in +the highest degree the internal organization of +his realm, considered as a great social community. +His people were in a very rude, and, in +fact, almost half-savage state when he commenced +his career. He had every thing to do, +and yet he seems to have had no favorable opportunities +for doing any thing.</p> +<p> +In the first place, his time and attention were +distracted, during his whole reign, by continued +difficulties and contentions with various hordes +of Danes, even after his peace with Guthrum. +These troubles, and the military preparations +and movements to which they would naturally +give rise, would seem to have been sufficient to +<a name="page212" id="page212"></a><span class="left">[page 212]</span> +have occupied fully all the powers of his mind, +and to have prevented him from doing any +thing effectual for the internal improvement of +his kingdom.</p> +<p> +Then, besides, there was another difficulty +with which Alfred had to contend, which one +might have supposed would have paralyzed all +his energies. He suffered all his life from some +mysterious and painful internal disease, the nature +of which, precisely, is not known, as the +allusions to it, though very frequent throughout +his life, are very general, and the physicians +of the day, who probably were not very +skillful, could not determine what it was, or do +any thing effectual to relieve it. The disease, +whatever it may have been, was a source of +continual uneasiness, and sometimes of extreme +and terrible suffering. Alfred bore all the pain +which it caused him with exemplary patience; +and, though he could not always resist the tendency +to discouragement and depression with +which the perpetual presence of such a torment +wears upon the soul, he did not allow it to diminish +his exertions, or suspend, at any time, +the ceaseless activity with which he labored for +the welfare of the people of his realm.</p> +<p> +Alfred attached great importance to the education +<a name="page213" id="page213"></a><span class="left">[page 213]</span> +of his people. It was not possible, in +those days, to educate the mass, for there were +no books, and no means of producing them in +sufficient numbers to supply any general demand. +Books, in those days, were extremely +costly, as they had all to be written laboriously +by hand. The great mass of the population, +therefore, who were engaged in the daily toil of +cultivating the land, were necessarily left in +ignorance; but Alfred made every effort in his +power to awaken a love for learning and the +arts among the higher classes. He set them, +in fact, an efficient example in his own case, by +pressing forward diligently in his own studies, +even in the busiest periods of his reign. The +spirit and manner in which he did this are well +illustrated by the plan he pursued in studying +Latin. It was this:</p> +<p> +He had a friend in his court, a man of great +literary attainments and great piety, whose +name was Asser. Asser was a bishop in Wales +when Alfred first heard of his fame as a man +of learning and abilities, and Alfred sent for +him to come to his court and make him a visit. +Alfred was very much pleased with what he +saw of Asser at this interview, and proposed to +him to leave his preferments in Wales, which +<a name="page214" id="page214"></a><span class="left">[page 214]</span> +were numerous and important, and come into +his kingdom, and he would give him greater +preferments there. Asser hesitated. Alfred +then proposed to him to spend six months every +year in England, and the remaining six in +Wales. Asser said that he could not give an +answer even to this proposal till he had returned +home and consulted with the monks and +other clergy under his charge there. He would, +however, he said, at least come back and see +Alfred again within the next six months, and +give him his final answer. Then, after having +spent four days in Alfred's court, he went away.</p> +<p> +The six months passed away and he did not +return. Alfred sent a messenger into Wales +to ascertain the reason. The messenger found +that Asser was sick. His friends, however, had +advised that he should accede to Alfred's proposal +to spend six months of the year in England, +as they thought that by that means, +through his influence with Alfred, he would be +the better able to protect and advance the interests +of their monasteries and establishments +in Wales. So Asser went to England, and became +during six months in the year Alfred's +constant friend and teacher. In the course of +time, Alfred placed him at the head of some of +<a name="page215" id="page215"></a><span class="left">[page 215]</span> +the most important establishments and ecclesiastical +charges in England.</p> +<p> +One day—it was eight or nine years after +Alfred's victory over Guthrum and settlement +of the kingdom—the king and Asser were engaged +in conversation in the royal apartments, +and Asser quoted some Latin phrase with which, +on its being explained, Alfred was very much +pleased, and he asked Asser to write it down +for him in his book. So saying, he took from +his pocket a little book of prayers and other +pieces of devotion, which he was accustomed to +carry with him for daily use. It was, of course, +in manuscript. Asser looked over it to find a +space where he could write the Latin quotation, +but there was no convenient vacancy. He then +proposed to Alfred that he should make for him +another small book, expressly for Latin quotations, +with explanations of their meaning, if +Alfred chose to make them, in the Anglo-Saxon +tongue. Alfred highly approved of this suggestion. +The bishop prepared the little parchment +volume, and it became gradually filled with +passages of Scripture, in Latin, and striking +sentiments, briefly and tersely expressed, extracted +from the writings of the Roman poets +or of the fathers of the Church. Alfred wrote +<a name="page216" id="page216"></a><span class="left">[page 216]</span> +opposite to each quotation its meaning, expressed +in his own language; and as he made the +book his constant companion, and studied it +continually, taking great interest in adding to +its stores, it was the means of communicating +to him soon a very considerable knowledge of +the language, and was the foundation of that +extensive acquaintance with it which he subsequently +acquired.</p> +<p> +Alfred made great efforts to promote in every +way the intellectual progress and improvement +of his people. He wrote and translated books, +which were published so far as it was possible +to publish books in those days, that is, by having +a moderate number of copies transcribed +and circulated among those who could read +them. Such copies were generally deposited at +monasteries, and abbeys, and other such places, +where learned men were accustomed to assemble. +These writings of Alfred exerted a wide +influence during his day. They remained in +manuscript until the art of printing was invented, +when many of them were printed; others +remain in manuscript in the various museums +of England, where visitors look at them as curiosities, +all worn and corroded as they are, and +almost illegible by time. These books, though +<a name="page217" id="page217"></a><span class="left">[page 217]</span> +they exerted great influence at the time when +they were written, are of little interest or value +now. They express ideas in morals and philosophy, +some of which have become so universally +diffused as to be commonplace at the present +day, while others would now be discarded, +as not in harmony with the ideas or the philosophy +of the times.</p> +<p> +One of the greatest and most important of +the measures which Alfred adopted for the +intellectual improvement of his people was the +founding of the great University of Oxford. +Oxford was Alfred's residence and capital during +a considerable part of his reign. It is situated +on the Thames, in the bosom of a delightful +valley, where it calmly reposes in the midst +of fields and meadows as verdant and beautiful +as the imagination can conceive. There was a +monastery at Oxford before Alfred's day, and +for many centuries after his time acts of endowment +were passed and charters granted, some +of which were perhaps of greater importance +than those which emanated from Alfred himself. +Thus some carry back the history of +this famous university beyond Alfred's time; +others consider that the true origin of the present +establishment should be assigned to a later +<a name="page218" id="page218"></a><span class="left">[page 218]</span> +date than his day. Alfred certainly adopted +very important measures at Oxford for organizing +and establishing schools of instruction and +assembling learned men there from various +parts of the world, so that he soon made it a +great center and seat of learning, and mankind +have been consequently inclined to award to +him the honor of having laid the foundations of +the vast superstructure which has since grown +up on that consecrated spot. Oxford is now a +city of ancient and venerable colleges. Its silent +streets; its grand quadrangles; its churches, +and chapels, and libraries; its secluded +walks; its magnificent, though old and crumbling +architecture, make it, even to the passing +traveler, one of the wonders of England; +and by the influence which it has exerted for +the past ten centuries on the intellectual advancement +of the human race, it is really one +of the wonders of the world.</p> +<p> +Alfred repaired the castles which had become +dilapidated in the wars; he rebuilt the ruined +cities, organized municipal governments for +them, restored the monasteries, and took great +pains to place men of learning and piety in +charge of them. He revised the laws of the +kingdom, and arranged and systematized them +<a name="page219" id="page219"></a><span class="left">[page 219]</span> +in the most perfect manner which was possible +in times so rude.</p> +<p> +Alfred's personal character gave him great +influence among his people, and disposed them +to acquiesce readily in the vast innovations and +improvements which he introduced—changes +which were so radical and affected so extensively +the whole structure of society, and all the +customs of social life, that any ordinary sovereign +would have met with great opposition in +his attempt to introduce them; but Alfred possessed +such a character, and proceeded in such +a way in introducing his improvements and reforms, +that he seems to have awakened no jealousy +and to have aroused no resistance.</p> +<p> +He was of a very calm, quiet, and placid +temper of mind. The crosses and vexations +which disturb and irritate ordinary men seemed +never to disturb his equanimity. He was patient +and forbearing, never expecting too much +of those whom he employed, or resenting angrily +the occasional neglects or failures in duty on +their part, which he well knew must frequently +occur. He was never elated by prosperity, nor +made moody and morose by the turning of the +tide against him. In a word, he was a philosopher, +of a calm, and quiet, and happy temperament. +<a name="page220" id="page220"></a><span class="left">[page 220]</span> +He knew well that every man in going +through life, whatever his rank and station, +must encounter the usual alternations of sunshine +and storm. He determined that these +alternations should not mar his happiness, nor +disturb the repose of his soul; that he would, +on the other hand, keeping all quiet within, +press calmly and steadily forward in the accomplishment +of the vast objects to which he +felt that his life was to be given. He was, accordingly, +never anxious or restless, never impatient +or fretful, never excited or wild; but +always calm, considerate, steady, and persevering, +he infused his own spirit into all around +him. They saw him governed by fixed and permanent +principles of justice and of duty in all +that he planned, and in every measure that he +resorted to in the execution of his plans. It +was plain that his great ruling motive was a +true and honest desire to promote the welfare +and prosperity of his people, and the internal +peace, and order, and happiness of his realm, +without any selfish or sinister aims of his own.</p> +<p> +In fact, it seemed as if there were no selfish +or sinister ends that possessed any charms for +Alfred's mind. He had no fondness or taste +for luxury or pleasure, or for aggrandizing himself +<a name="page221" id="page221"></a><span class="left">[page 221]</span> +in the eyes of others by pomp and parade. +It is true that, as was stated in a former chapter, +he was charged in early life with a tendency +to some kinds of wrong indulgence; but +these charges, obscure and doubtful as they +were, pertained only to the earliest periods of +his career, before the time of his seclusion. +Through all the middle and latter portions of +his life, the sole motive of his conduct seems to +have been a desire to lay broad, and deep, and +lasting foundations for the permanent welfare +and prosperity of his realm.</p> +<p> +It resulted from the nature of the measures +which Alfred undertook to effect, that they +brought upon him daily a vast amount of labor +as such measures always involve a great deal +of minute detail. Alfred could only accomplish +this great mass of duty by means of the most +unremitting industry, and the most systematic +and exact division of time. There were no +clocks or watches in those days, and yet it was +very necessary to have some plan for keeping +the time, in order that his business might go on +regularly, and also that the movements and operations +of his large household might proceed +without confusion. Alfred invented a plan. It +was as follows:</p> +<a name="page222" id="page222"></a><span class="left">[page 222]</span> +<p> +He observed that the wax candles which were +used in his palace and in the churches burned +very regularly, and with greater or less rapidity +according to their size. He ordered some experiments +to be made, and finally, by means of +them, he determined on the size of a candle +which should burn three inches in an hour. It +is said that the weight of wax which he used +for each candle was twelve pennyweights, that +is, but little more than half an ounce, which +would make, one would suppose, a <i>taper</i> rather +than a candle. There is, however, great doubt +about the value of the various denominations of +weight and measure, and also of money used in +those days. However this may be, the candles +were each a foot long, and of such size that each +would burn four hours. They were divided into +inches, and marked, so that each inch corresponded +with a third of an hour, or twenty minutes. +A large quantity of these candles were +prepared, and a person in one of the chapels was +appointed to keep a succession of them burning, +and to ring the bells, or give the other signals, +whatever they might be, by which the household +was regulated, at the successive periods +of time denoted by their burning.</p> +<p> +As each of these candles was one foot long, +<a name="page223" id="page223"></a><span class="left">[page 223]</span> +and burned three inches in an hour, it follows +that it would last four hours; when this time +was expired, the attendant who had the apparatus +in charge lighted another. There were, +of course, six required for the whole twenty-four +hours. The system worked very well, +though there was one difficulty that occasioned +some trouble in the outset, which, however, was +not much to be regretted after all, since the +remedying of it awakened the royal ingenuity +anew, and led, in the end, to adding to Alfred's +other glories the honor of being the inventor of +<i>lanterns</i>!</p> +<p> +The difficulty was, that the wind, which +came in very freely in those days, even in royal +residences, through the open windows, blew the +flames of these horological candles about, so as +to interfere quite seriously with the regularity +of their burning. There was no glass for windows +in those days, or, at least, very little. It +had been introduced, it is said, in one instance, +and that was in a monastery in the north of +England. The abbot, whose name was Benedict, +brought over some workmen from the Continent, +where the art of making glass windows +had been invented, and caused them to glaze +some windows in his monastery. It was many +<a name="page224" id="page224"></a><span class="left">[page 224]</span> +years after this before glass came into general +use even in churches, and palaces, and other +costly buildings of that kind. In the mean +time, windows were mere openings in stone +walls, which could be closed only by shutters; +and inasmuch as when closed they excluded +the light as well as the air, they could ordinarily +be shut only on one side of the apartment +at a time—the side most exposed to the winds +and storms.</p> +<p> +Alfred accordingly found that the flame of +his candles was blown by the wind, which made +the wax burn irregularly; and, to remedy the +evil, he contrived the plan of protecting them +by thin plates of horn. Horn, when softened by +hot water, can easily be cut and fashioned into +any shape, and, when very thin, is almost transparent. +Alfred had these thin plates of horn +prepared, and set into the sides of a box made +open to receive them, thus forming a rude sort +of lantern, within which the time-keeping candles +could burn in peace. Mankind have consequently +given to King Alfred the credit of +having invented lanterns.</p> +<p> +Having thus completed his apparatus for the +correct measurement of time, Alfred was enabled +to be more and more systematic in the +<a name="page225" id="page225"></a><span class="left">[page 225]</span> +division and employment of it. One of the historians +of the day relates that his plan was to +give one third of the twenty-four hours to sleep +and refreshment, one third to business, and the +remaining third to the duties of religion. Under +this last head was probably included all those +duties and pursuits which, by the customs of +the day, were considered as pertaining to the +Church, such as study, writing, and the consideration +and management of ecclesiastical +affairs. These duties were performed, in those +days, almost always by clerical men, and in the +retirement and seclusion of monasteries, and +were thus regarded as in some sense religious +duties. We must conclude that Alfred classed +them thus, as he was a great student and writer +all his days, and there is no other place than +this third head to which the duties of this nature +can be assigned. Thus understood, it was a +very wise and sensible division; though eight +hours daily for any long period of time, appropriated +to services strictly devotional, would +not seem to be a wise arrangement, especially +for a man in the prime of life, and in a position +demanding the constant exercise of his powers +in the discharge of active duties.</p> +<p> +Thus the years of Alfred's life passed away, +<a name="page226" id="page226"></a><span class="left">[page 226]</span> +his kingdom advancing steadily all the time in +good government, wealth, and prosperity. The +country was not, however, yet freed entirely +from the calamities and troubles arising from +the hostility of the Danes. Disorders continually +broke out among those who had settled +in the land, and, in some instances, new hordes +of invaders came in. These were, however, in +most instances, easily subdued, and Alfred went +on with comparatively little interruption for +many years, in prosecuting the arts and improvements +of peace. At last, however, toward +the close of his life, a famous Northman leader, +named Hastings, landed in England at the head +of a large force, and made, before he was expelled, +a great deal of trouble. An account of +this invasion will be given in the next chapter.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page227" id="page227"></a><span class="left">[page 227]</span> +<h3><a name="XII" id="XII"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> XII.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Close of Life.</span></h2> + +<p> +It was twelve or fifteen years after Alfred's +restoration to his kingdom, by means of the +victory at Edendune, that the great invasion +of Hastings occurred. That victory took place +in the year 878. It was in the years 893-897 +that Hastings and his horde of followers infested +the island, and in 900 Alfred died, so that his +reign ended, as it had commenced, with protracted +and desperate conflicts with the Danes.</p> +<p> +Hastings was an old and successful soldier +before he came to England. He had led a wild +life for many years as a sea king on the German +Ocean, performing deeds which in our day +entail upon the perpetrator of them the infamy +of piracy and murder, but which then entitled +the hero of them to a very wide-spread and honorable +fame. Afterward Hastings landed upon +the Continent, and pursued, for a long time, a +glorious career of victory and plunder in France. +In these enterprises, the tide, indeed, sometimes +turned against him. On one occasion, for instance, +<a name="page228" id="page228"></a><span class="left">[page 228]</span> +he found himself obliged to give way +before his enemies, and he retreated to a church, +which he seized and fortified, making it his castle +until a more favorable aspect of his affairs +enabled him to issue forth from this retreat and +take the field again. Still he was generally +very successful in his enterprises; his terrible +ferocity, and that of his savage followers, were +dreaded in every part of the civilized world.</p> +<p> +Hastings had made one previous invasion of +England; but Guthrum, faithful to his covenants +with Alfred, repulsed him. But Guthrum +was now dead, and Alfred had to contend +against his formidable enemy alone.</p> +<p> +Hastings selected a point on the southern +coast of England for his landing. Guthrum's +Danes still continued to occupy the eastern part +of England, and Hastings went round on the +southern coast until he got beyond their boundaries, +as if he wished to avoid doing any thing +directly to awaken their hostility. Guthrum +himself, while he lived, had evinced a determination +to oppose Hastings's plans of invasion. +Hastings did not know, now that Guthrum +was dead, whether his successors would oppose +him or not. He determined, at all events, to +respect their territory, and so he passed along +on the southern shore of England till he was +beyond their limits, and then prepared to land.</p> + +<a name="page229" id="page229"></a><span class="left">[page 229]</span> +<br /> +<p class="center1a"> +<a href="images/227-1200.jpg"><img src="images/227-500.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="Hastings besieged in the Church." border="0" /></a><br /><br /> +<span class="smcaps">Hastings besieged in the Church.</span></p><br /> + +<a name="page231" id="page231"></a><span class="left">[page 231]</span> +<p> +He had assembled a large force of his own, +and he was joined, in addition to them, by many +adventurers who came out to attach themselves +to his expedition from the bays, and islands, and +harbors which he passed on his way. His fleet +amounted at least to two hundred and fifty +vessels. They arrived, at length, at a part of +the coast where there extends a vast tract of +low and swampy land, which was then a wild +and dismal morass. This tract, which is known +in modern times by the name of the Romney +Marshes, is of enormous extent, containing, as +it does, fifty thousand acres. It is now reclaimed, +and is defended by a broad and well-constructed +dike from the inroads of the sea. +In Hastings's time it was a vast waste of bogs +and mire, utterly impassable except by means +of a river, which, meandering sluggishly through +the tangled wilderness of weeds and bushes in +a deep, black stream, found an outlet at last into +the sea.</p> +<p> +Hastings took his vessels into this river, and, +following its turnings for some miles, he conducted +them at last to a place where he found +more solid ground to land upon. But this +<a name="page232" id="page232"></a><span class="left">[page 232]</span> +ground, though solid, was almost as wild and +solitary as the morass. It was a forest of vast +extent, which showed no signs of human occupancy, +except that the peasants who lived in +the surrounding regions had come down to the +lowest point accessible, and were building a rude +fortification there. Hastings attacked them +and drove them away. Then, advancing a little +further, until he found an advantageous position, +he built a strong fortress himself and established +his army within its lines.</p> +<p> +His next measure was to land another force +near the mouth of the Thames, and bring them +into the country, until he found a strong position +where he could intrench and fortify the +second division as he had done the first. These +two positions were but a short distance from +each other. He made them the combined center +of his operations, going from them in all directions +in plundering excursions. Alfred soon +raised an army and advanced to attack him; +and these operations were the commencement +of a long and tedious war.</p> +<p> +A detailed description of the events of this +war, the marches and countermarches, the battles +and sieges, the various success, first of one +party and then of the other, given historically +<a name="page233" id="page233"></a><span class="left">[page 233]</span> +in the order of time, would be as tedious to +read as the war itself was to endure. Alfred +was very cautious in all his operations, preferring +rather to trust to the plan of wearing out +the enemy by cutting off their resources and +hemming them constantly in, than to incur the +risk of great decisive battles. In fact, watchfulness, +caution, and delay are generally the +policy of the invaded when a powerful force has +succeeded in establishing itself among them; +while, on the other hand, the hope of <i>invaders</i> +lies ordinarily in prompt and decided action. +Alfred was well aware of this, and made all his +arrangements with a view to cutting off Hastings's +supplies, shutting him up into as narrow +a compass as possible, heading him off in all +his predatory excursions, intercepting all detachments, +and thus reducing him at length to +the necessity of surrender.</p> +<p> +At one time, soon after the war began, Hastings, +true to the character of his nation for +treachery and stratagem, pretended that he was +ready to surrender, and opened a negotiation +for this purpose. He agreed to leave the kingdom +if Alfred would allow him to depart peaceably, +and also, which was a point of great importance +in Alfred's estimation, to have his two +<a name="page234" id="page234"></a><span class="left">[page 234]</span> +sons baptized. While, however, these negotiations +were going on between the two camps, +Alfred suddenly found that the main body of +Hastings's army had stolen away in the rear, +and were marching off by stealth to another +part of the country. The negotiations were, of +course, immediately abandoned, and Alfred set +off with all his forces in full pursuit. All hopes +of peace were given up, and the usual series of +sieges, maneuverings, battles, and retreats was +resumed again.</p> +<p> +On one occasion Alfred succeeded in taking +possession of Hastings's camp, when he had left +it in security, as he supposed, to go off for a +time by sea on an expedition. Alfred's soldiers +found Hastings's wife and children in the camp, +and took them prisoners. They sent the terrified +captives to Alfred, to suffer, as they supposed, +the long and cruel confinement or the +violent death to which the usages of those days +consigned such unhappy prisoners. Alfred baptized +the children, and then sent them, with +their mother, loaded with presents and proofs +of kindness, back to Hastings again.</p> +<p> +This generosity made no impression upon +the heart of Hastings, or, at least, it produced +no effect upon his conduct. He continued the +<a name="page235" id="page235"></a><span class="left">[page 235]</span> +war as energetically as ever. Months passed +away and new re-enforcements arrived, until at +length he felt strong enough to undertake an +excursion into the very heart of the country. +He moved on for a time with triumphant success; +but this very success was soon the means +of turning the current against him again. It +aroused the whole country through which he +was passing. The inhabitants flocked to arms. +They assembled at every rallying point, and, +drawing up on all sides nearer and nearer to +Hastings's army, they finally stopped his march, +and forced him to call all his forces in, and intrench +himself in the first place of retreat that +he could find. Thus his very success was the +means of turning his good fortune into disaster.</p> +<p> +And then, in the same way, the success of +Alfred and the Saxons soon brought disaster +upon them too, in their turn; for, after succeeding +in shutting Hastings closely in, and +cutting off his supplies of food, they maintained +their watch and ward over their imprisoned enemies +so closely as to reduce them to extreme +distress—a distress and suffering which they +thought would end in their complete and absolute +submission. Instead of ending thus, however, +it aroused them to desperation. Under +<a name="page236" id="page236"></a><span class="left">[page 236]</span> +the influence of the phrensy which such hopeless +sufferings produce in characters like theirs, +they burst out one day from the place of their +confinement, and, after a terrible conflict, which +choked up a river which they had to pass with +dead bodies and dyed its waters with blood, the +great body of the starving desperadoes made +their escape, and, in a wild and furious excitement, +half a triumph and half a retreat, they +went back to the eastern coast of the island, +where they found secure places of refuge to receive +them.</p> +<p> +In the course of the subsequent campaigns, +a party of the Danes came up the River Thames +with a fleet of their vessels, and an account is +given by some of the ancient historians of a +measure which Alfred resorted to to entrap +them, which would seem to be scarcely credible. +The account is, that he <i>altered the course of +the river</i> by digging new channels for it, so as +to leave the vessels all aground, when, of course, +they became helpless, and fell an easy prey to +the attacks of their enemies. This is, at least, +a very improbable statement, for a river like the +Thames occupies always the lowest channel of +the land through which it passes to the sea. +Besides, such a river, in order that it should be +<a name="page237" id="page237"></a><span class="left">[page 237]</span> +possible for vessels to ascend it from the ocean, +must have the surface of its water very near +the level of the surface of the ocean. There +can, therefore, be no place to which such waters +could be drawn off, unless into a valley below +the level of the sea. All such valleys, whenever +they exist in the interior of a country, +necessarily get filled with water from brooks +and rains, and so become lakes or inland seas. +It is probable, therefore, that it was some other +operation which Alfred performed to imprison +the hostile vessels in the river, more possible in +its own nature than the drawing off of the waters +of the Thames from their ancient bed.</p> +<p> +Year after year passed on, and, though neither +the Saxons nor the Danes gained any very permanent +and decisive victories, the invaders were +gradually losing ground, being driven from one +intrenchment and one stronghold to another, +until, at last, their only places of refuge were +their ships, and the harbors along the margin +of the sea. Alfred followed on and occupied the +country as fast as the enemy was driven away; +and when, at last, they began to seek refuge in +their ships, he advanced to the shore, and began +to form plans for building ships, and manning +and equipping a fleet, to pursue his retiring enemies +<a name="page238" id="page238"></a><span class="left">[page 238]</span> +upon their own element. In this undertaking, +he proceeded in the same calm, deliberate, +and effectual manner, as in all his preceding +measures. He built his vessels with great care. +He made them twice as long as those of the +Danes, and planned them so as to make them +more steady, more safe, and capable of carrying +a crew of rowers so numerous as to be more +active and swift than the vessels of the enemy.</p> +<p> +When these naval preparations were made, +Alfred began to look out for an object of attack +on which he could put their efficiency to the +test. He soon heard of a fleet of the Northmen's +vessels on the coast of the Isle of Wight, +and he sent a fleet of his own ships to attack +them. He charged the commander of this fleet +to be sparing of life, but to capture the ships and +take the men, bringing as many as possible to +him unharmed.</p> +<p> +There were nine of the English vessels, and +when they reached the Isle of Wight they +found six vessels of the Danes in a harbor there. +Three of these Danish vessels were afloat, and +came out boldly to attack Alfred's armament. +The other three were upon the shore, where +they had been left by the tide, and were, of +course, disabled and defenseless until the water +<a name="page239" id="page239"></a><span class="left">[page 239]</span> +should rise and float them again. Under these +circumstances, it would seem that the victory +for Alfred's fleet would have been easy and sure; +and at first the result was, in fact, in Alfred's +favor. Of the three ships that came out to +meet him, two were captured, and one escaped, +with only five men left on board of it alive. +The Saxon ships, after thus disposing of the +three living and moving enemies, pushed boldly +into the harbor to attack those which were lying +lifeless on the sands. They found, however, +that, though successful in the encounter with +the active and the powerful, they were destined +to disaster and defeat in approaching the defenseless +and weak. They got aground themselves +in approaching the shoals on which the +vessels of their enemies were lying. The tide +receded and left three of the vessels on the sands, +and kept the rest so separated and so embarrassed +by the difficulties and dangers of their +situation as to expose the whole force to the +most imminent danger. There was a fierce +contest in boats and on the shore. Both parties +suffered very severely; and, finally, the Danes, +getting first released, made their escape and +put to sea.</p> +<p> +Notwithstanding this partial discomfiture, +<a name="page240" id="page240"></a><span class="left">[page 240]</span> +Alfred soon succeeded in driving the ships of +the Danes off his coast, and in thus completing +the deliverance of his country. Hastings himself +went to France, where he spent the remainder +of his days in some territories which +he had previously conquered, enjoying, while he +continued to live, and for many ages afterward, +a very extended and very honorable fame. Such +exploits as those which he had performed conferred, +in those days, upon the hero who performed +them, a very high distinction, the luster +of which seems not to have been at all tarnished +in the opinions of mankind by any ideas of the +violence and wrong which the commission of +such deeds involved.</p> +<p> +Alfred's dominions were now left once more +in peace, and he himself resumed again his +former avocations. But a very short period of +his life, however, now remained. Hastings was +finally expelled from England about 897. In +900 or 901 Alfred died. The interval was +spent in the same earnest and devoted efforts +to promote the welfare and prosperity of his +kingdom that his life had exhibited before the +war. He was engaged diligently and industriously +in repairing injuries, redressing grievances, +and rectifying every thing that was wrong. +<a name="page241" id="page241"></a><span class="left">[page 241]</span> +He exacted rigid impartiality in all the courts +of justice; he held public servants of every rank +and station to a strict accountability; and in all +the colleges, and monasteries, and ecclesiastical +establishments of every kind, he corrected all +abuses, and enforced a rigid discipline, faithfully +extirpating from every lurking place all semblance +of immorality or vice. He did these +things, too, with so much kindness and consideration +for all concerned, and was actuated in +all he did so unquestionably by an honest and +sincere desire to fulfill his duty to his people +and to God, that nobody opposed him. The good +considered him their champion, the indifferent +readily caught a portion of his spirit and wished +him success, while the wicked were silenced if +they were not changed.</p> +<p> +Alfred's children had grown up to maturity, +and seemed to inherit, in some degree, their +father's character. He had a daughter, named +Æthelfleda, who was married to a prince of +Mercia, and who was famed all over England +for the superiority of her mental powers, her +accomplishments, and her moral worth. The +name of his oldest son was Edward; he was to +succeed Alfred on the throne, and it was a +source now of great satisfaction to the king to +<b><a name="page242" id="page242"></a><span class="left">[page 242]</span></b> +find this son emulating his virtues, and preparing +for an honorable and prosperous reign. Alfred +had warning, in the progress of his disease, +of the approach of his end. When he found +that the time was near at hand, he called his +son Edward to his side, and gave him these his +farewell counsels, which express in few words +the principles and motives by which his own +life had been so fully governed.</p> +<p> +"Thou, my dear son, set thee now beside +me, and I will deliver thee true instructions. +I feel that my hour is coming. My strength is +gone; my countenance is wasted and pale. My +days are almost ended. We must now part. +I go to another world, and thou art to be left +alone in the possession of all that I have thus +far held. I pray thee, my dear child, to be a +father to thy people. Be the children's father +and the widow's friend. Comfort the poor, protect +and shelter the weak, and, with all thy +might, right that which is wrong. And, my +son, govern <i>thyself</i> by <i>law</i>. Then shall the +Lord love thee, and God himself shall be thy +reward. Call thou upon him to advise thee in +all thy need, and he shall help thee to compass +all thy desires."</p> +<a name="page243" id="page243"></a><span class="left">[page 243]</span> +<p> +Alfred was fifty-two years of age when he +died. His death was universally lamented. +The body was interred in the great cathedral +at Winchester. The kingdom passed peacefully +and prosperously to his son, and the arrangements +which Alfred had spent his life in +framing and carrying into effect, soon began to +work out their happy results. The constructions +which he founded stand to the present day, +strengthened and extended rather than impaired +by the hand of time; and his memory, as +their founder, will be honored as long as any +remembrance of the past shall endure among +the minds of men.</p> + +<br /><br /> +<a name="page244" id="page244"></a><span class="left">[page 244]</span> +<h3><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a><span class="smcaps">Chapter</span> XIII.</h3> + +<h2><span class="smcaps">The Sequel.</span></h2> + +<p> +The romantic story of Godwin forms the +sequel to the history of Alfred, leading us +onward, as it does, toward the next great era in +English history, that of William the Conqueror.</p> +<p> +Although, as we have seen in the last chapter, +the immediate effects of Alfred's measures +was to re-establish peace and order in his kingdom, +and although the institutions which he +founded have continued to expand and develop +themselves down to the present day, still it must +not be supposed that the power and prosperity +of his kingdom and of the Saxon dynasty continued +wholly uninterrupted after his death. +Contentions and struggles between the two great +races of Saxons and Danes continued for some +centuries to agitate the island. The particular +details of these contentions have in these days, +in a great measure, lost their interest for all but +professed historical scholars. It is only the history +of great leading events and the lives of +really extraordinary men, in the annals of early +<a name="page245" id="page245"></a><span class="left">[page 245]</span> +ages, which can now attract the general attention +even of cultivated minds. The vast movements +which have occurred and are occurring +in the history of mankind in the present century, +throw every thing except what is really +striking and important in early history into the +shade.</p> +<p> +The era which comes next in the order of +time to that of Alfred in the course of English +history, as worthy to arrest general attention, +is, as we have already said, that of William the +Conqueror. The life of this sovereign forms the +subject of a separate volume of this series. He +lived two centuries after Alfred's day; and although, +for the reasons above given, a full chronological +narration of the contentions between the +Saxon and Danish lines of kings which took +place during this interval would be of little interest +or value, some general knowledge of the +state of the kingdom at this time is important, +and may best be communicated in connection +with the story of Godwin.</p> +<p> +Godwin was by birth a Saxon peasant, of +Warwickshire. At the time when he arrived +at manhood, and was tending his father's flocks +and herds like other peasants' sons, the Saxons +and the Danes were at war. It seems that one +<a name="page246" id="page246"></a><span class="left">[page 246]</span> +of Alfred's descendants, named Ethelred, displeased +his people by his misgovernment, and +was obliged to retire from England. He went +across the Channel, and married there the sister +of a Norman chief named Richard. Her name +was Emma. Ethelred hoped by this alliance to +obtain Richard's assistance in enabling him to +recover his kingdom. The Danish population, +however, took advantage of his absence to put +one of their own princes upon the throne. His +name was Canute. He figures in English history, +accordingly, among the other English kings, +as Canute the Dane, that appellation being given +him to mark the distinction of his origin in +respect to the kings who preceded and followed +him, as they were generally of the Saxon line.</p> +<p> +It was this Canute of whom the famous story +is told that, in order to rebuke his flatterers, +who, in extolling his grandeur and power, had +represented to him that even the elements were +subservient to his will, he took his stand upon +the sea-shore when the tide was coming in, with +his flatterers by his side, and commanded the +rising waves not to approach his royal feet. He +kept his sycophantic courtiers in this ridiculous +position until the encroaching waters drove them +away, and then dismissed them overwhelmed +<a name="page247" id="page247"></a><span class="left">[page 247]</span> +with confusion. The story is told in a thousand +different ways, and with a great variety of different +embellishments, according to the fancy +of the several narrators; all that there is now +any positive evidence for believing, however, is, +that probably some simple incident of the kind +occurred, out of which the stories have grown.</p> +<p> +Canute did not hold his kingdom in peace. +Ethelred sent his son across the Channel into +England to negotiate with the Anglo-Saxon +powers for his own restoration to the throne. +An arrangement was accordingly made with +them, and Ethelred returned, and a violent civil +war immediately ensued between Ethelred and +the Anglo-Saxons on the one hand, and Canute +and the Danes on the other. At length Ethelred +fell, and his son Edmund, who was at the +time of his death one of his generals, succeeded +him. Emma and his two other sons had been +left in Normandy. Edmund carried on the war +against Canute with great energy. One of his +battles was fought in the county of Warwick, +in the heart of England, where the peasant Godwin +lived. In this battle the Danes were defeated, +and the discomfited generals fled in all +directions from the field wherever they saw the +readiest hope of concealment or safety. One of +<a name="page248" id="page248"></a><span class="left">[page 248]</span> +them, named Ulf,<a name="XIII1r"></a><a href="#XIII1"><sup>1</sup></a> took a by-way, which led +him in the direction of Godwin's father's farm.</p> +<p> +Night came on, and he lost his way in a wood. +Men, when flying under such circumstances +from a field of battle, avoid always the public +roads, and seek concealment in unfrequented +paths, where they easily get bewildered and lost. +Ulf wandered about all night in the forest, and +when the morning came he found himself exhausted +with fatigue, anxiety, and hunger, certain +to perish unless he could find some succor, +and yet dreading the danger of being recognized +as a Danish fugitive if he were to be discovered +by any of the Saxon inhabitants of the land. +At length he heard the shouts of a peasant who +was coming along a solitary pathway through +the wood, driving a herd to their pasture. Ulf +would gladly have avoided him if he could have +gone on without succor or help. His plan was +to find his way to the Severn, where some Danish +ships were lying, in hopes of a refuge on +board of them. But he was exhausted with +hunger and fatigue, and utterly bewildered and +lost; so he was compelled to go forward, and +take the risk of accosting the Saxon stranger.</p> +<p> +He accordingly went up to him, and asked +<a name="page249" id="page249"></a><span class="left">[page 249]</span> +him his name. Godwin told him his name, and +the name of his father, who lived, he said, at a +little distance in the wood. While he was answering +the question, he gazed very earnestly +at the stranger, and then told him that he perceived +that he was a Dane—a fugitive, he supposed, +from the battle. Ulf, thus finding that +he could not be concealed, begged Godwin not to +betray him. He acknowledged that he was a +Dane, and that he had made his escape from +the battle, and he wished, he said, to find his +way to the Danish ships in the Severn. He +begged Godwin to conduct him there. Godwin +replied by saying that it was unreasonable +and absurd for a Dane to expect guidance and +protection from a Saxon.</p> +<p> +Ulf offered Godwin all sorts of rewards if he +would leave his herd and conduct him to a place +of safety. Godwin said that the attempt, were +he to make it, would endanger his own life +without saving that of the fugitive. The country, +he said, was all in arms. The peasantry, +emboldened by the late victory obtained by the +Saxon army, were every where rising; and although +it was not far to the Severn, yet to attempt +to reach the river while the country was +in such a state of excitement would be a desperate +<a name="page250" id="page250"></a><span class="left">[page 250]</span> +undertaking. They would almost certainly +be intercepted; and, if intercepted, their +exasperated captors would show no mercy, Godwin +said, either to him or to his guide.</p> +<p> +Among the other inducements which Ulf +offered to Godwin was a valuable gold ring, +which he took from his finger, and which, he +said, should be his if he would consent to be +his guide. Godwin took the ring into his hand, +examined it with much apparent curiosity, and +seemed to hesitate. At length he yielded; +though he seems to have been induced to yield, +not by the value of the offered gift, but by compassion +for the urgency of the distress which +the offer of it indicated, for he put the ring back +into Ulf's hand, saying that he would not take +any thing from him, but he would try to save +him.</p> +<p> +Instead, however, of undertaking the apparently +hopeless enterprise of conducting Ulf to +the Severn, he took him to his father's cottage +and concealed him there. During the day they +formed plans for journeying together, not to the +ships in the Severn, but to the Danish camp. +They were to set forth as soon as it was dark. +When the evening came and all was ready, and +they were about to commence their dangerous +<a name="page251" id="page251"></a><span class="left">[page 251]</span> +journey, the old peasant, Godwin's father, with +an anxious countenance and manner, gave Ulf +this solemn charge:</p> +<p> +"This is my <i>only</i> son. In going forth to +guide you under these circumstances, he puts +his life at stake, trusting to your honor. He +can not return to me again, as there will be no +more safety for him among his own countrymen +after having once been a guide for you. When, +therefore, you reach the camp, present my son +to your king, and ask him to receive him into +his service. He can not come again to me." +Ulf promised very earnestly to do all this and +much more for his protector; and then bidding +the father farewell, and leaving him in his solitude, +the two adventurers sallied forth into the +dark forest and went their way.</p> +<p> +After various adventures, they reached the +camp of the Danes in safety. Ulf faithfully +fulfilled the promises that he had made. He +introduced Godwin to the king, and the king +was so much pleased with the story of his general's +escape, and so impressed with the marks +of capacity and talent which the young Saxon +manifested, that he gave Godwin immediately +a military command in his army. In fact, a +young man who could leave his home and his +<a name="page252" id="page252"></a><span class="left">[page 252]</span> +father, and abandon the cause of his countrymen +forever under such circumstances, must +have had something besides generosity toward +a fugitive enemy to impel him. Godwin was +soon found to possess a large portion of that peculiar +spirit which constitutes a soldier. He +was ambitious, stern, energetic, and always +successful. He rose rapidly in influence and +rank, and in the course of a few years, during +which King Canute triumphed wholly over his +Saxon enemies, and established his dominion +over almost the whole realm, he was promoted +to the rank of a king, and ruled, second only to +Canute himself, over the kingdom of Wessex, +one of the most important divisions of Canute's +empire. Here he lived and reigned in peace and +prosperity for many years. He was married, +and he had a daughter named Edith, who was +as gentle and lovely as her father was terrible +and stern. They said that Edith sprung from +Godwin like a rose from its stem of thorns.</p> +<p> +A writer who lived in those days, and recorded +the occurrences of the times, says that, when +he was a boy, his father was employed in some +way in Godwin's palace, and that in going to +and from school he was often met by Edith, +who was walking, attended by her maid. On +<a name="page253" id="page253"></a><span class="left">[page 253]</span> +such occasions Edith would stop him, he said, +and question him about his studies, his grammar, +his logic, and his verses; and she would +often draw him into an argument on those subtle +points of disputation which attracted so +much attention in those days. Then she would +commend him for his attention and progress, +and order her woman to make him a present +of some money. In a word, Edith was so gentle +and kind, and took so cordial an interest in +whatever concerned the welfare and happiness +of those around her, that she was universally +beloved. She became in the end, as we shall +see in due time, the English queen.</p> +<p> +In the mean time, while Godwin was governing, +as vicegerent, the province which Canute +had assigned him, Canute himself extended his +own dominion far and wide, reducing first all +England under his sway, and then extending +his conquests to the Continent. Edmund, the +Saxon king, was dead. His brothers Edward +and Alfred, the two remaining sons of Ethelred, +were with their mother in Normandy. They, +of course, represented the Saxon line. The Saxon +portion of Canute's kingdom would of course +look to them as their future leaders. Under +these circumstances, Canute conceived the idea +<a name="page254" id="page254"></a><span class="left">[page 254]</span> +of propitiating the Saxon portion of the population, +and combining, so far as was possible, the +claims of the two lines, by making the widow +Emma his own wife. He made the proposal to +her, and she accepted it, pleased with the idea +of being once more a queen. She came to England, +and they were married. In process of +time they had a son, who was named Hardicanute, +which means Canute <i>the strong</i>.</p> +<p> +Canute now felt that his kingdom was secure; +and he hoped, by making Hardicanute his +heir, to perpetuate the dominion in his own family. +It is true that he had older children, whom +the Danes might look upon as more properly his +heirs; and Emma had also two older children, +the sons of Ethelred, in Normandy. These the +<i>Saxons</i> would be likely to consider as the rightful +heirs to the throne. There was danger, therefore, +that at his death parties would again be +formed, and the civil wars break out anew. +Canute and Emma therefore seem to have acted +wisely, and to have done all that the nature +of the case admitted to prevent a renewal of +these dreadful struggles, by concentrating their +combined influence in favor of Hardicanute, +who, though not absolutely the heir to either +line, still combined, in some degree, the claims +<a name="page255" id="page255"></a><span class="left">[page 255]</span> +of both of them. Canute also did all in his power +to propitiate his Anglo-Saxon subjects. He +devoted himself to promoting the welfare of the +kingdom in every way. He built towns, he +constructed roads, he repaired and endowed the +churches. He became a very zealous Christian, +evincing the ardor of his piety, whether +real or pretended, by all the forms and indications +common in those days. Finally, to crown +all, he went on a pilgrimage to Rome. He set +out on this journey with great pomp and parade, +and attended by a large retinue, and yet +still strictly like a pilgrim. He walked, and +carried a wallet on his back, and a long pilgrim's +staff in his hand. This pilgrimage, at the time +when it occurred, filled the world with its fame.</p> +<p> +At length King Canute died, and then, unfortunately, +it proved that all his seemingly +wise precautions against the recurrence of civil +wars were taken in vain. It happened that +Hardicanute, whom he had intended should succeed +him, was in Denmark at the time of his +father's death. Godwin, however, proclaimed +him king, and attempted to establish his authority, +and to make Emma a sort of regent, to +govern in his name until he could be brought +home. The Danish chieftains, on the other +<a name="page256" id="page256"></a><span class="left">[page 256]</span> +hand, elected and proclaimed one of Canute's +older sons, whose name was Harold;<a name="XIII2r"></a><a href="#XIII2"><sup>2</sup></a> and they +succeeded in carrying a large part of the country +in his favor. Godwin then summoned Emma +to join him in the west with such forces as +she could command, and both parties prepared +for war.</p> +<p> +Then ensued one of those scenes of terror and +suffering which war, and sometimes the mere +fear of war, brings often in its train. It was +expected that the first outbreak of hostilities +would be in the interior of England, near the +banks of the Thames, and the inhabitants of +the whole region were seized with apprehensions +and fears, which spread rapidly, increased +by the influence of sympathy, and excited more +and more every day by a thousand groundless +rumors, until the whole region was thrown into +a state of uncontrollable panic and confusion. +The inhabitants abandoned their dwellings, and +fled in dismay into the eastern part of the island, +to seek refuge among the fens and marshes +of Lincolnshire, and of the other counties around. +Here, as has been already stated in a previous +chapter when describing the Abbey of Croyland, +were a great many monasteries, and convents, +<a name="page257" id="page257"></a><span class="left">[page 257]</span> +and hermitages, and other religious establishments, +filled with monks and nuns. The wretched +fugitives from the expected scene of war +crowded into this region, besieging the doors of +the abbeys and monasteries to beg for shelter, +or food, or protection. Some built huts among +the willow woods which grew in the fens; others +encamped at the road-sides, or under the +monastery walls, wherever they could find the +semblance of shelter. They presented, of course, +a piteous spectacle—men infirm with sickness +or age, or exhausted with anxiety and fatigue; +children harassed and way-worn; and helpless +mothers, with still more helpless babes at their +breasts. The monks, instead of being moved +to compassion by the sight of these unhappy +sufferers, were only alarmed on their own account +at such an inundation of misery. They +feared that they should be overwhelmed themselves. +Those whose establishments were large +and strong, barred their doors against the suppliants, +and the hermits, who lived alone in detached +and separate solitudes, abandoned their +osier huts, and fled themselves to seek some +place more safe from such intrusions.</p> +<p> +And yet, after all, the whole scene was only +a false alarm. Men acting in a panic are almost +<a name="page258" id="page258"></a><span class="left">[page 258]</span> +always running into the ills which they +think they shun. The war did not break out on +the banks of the Thames at all. Hardicanute, +deterred, perhaps, by the extent of the support +which the claims of Harold were receiving, +did not venture to come to England, and Emma +and Godwin, and those who would have taken +their side, having no royal head to lead them, +gave up their opposition, and acquiesced in +Harold's reign. The fugitives in the marshes +and fens returned to their homes; the country +became tranquil; Godwin held his province as +a sort of lieutenant general of Harold's kingdom, +and Emma herself joined his court in +London, where she lived with him ostensibly +on very friendly terms.</p> +<p> +Still, her mind was ill at ease. Harold, +though the son of her husband, was not her +own son, and the ambitious spirit which led her +to marry for her second husband her first husband's +rival and enemy, that she might be a second +time a queen, naturally made her desire +that one of her own offspring, either on the +Danish or the Saxon side, should inherit the +kingdom; for the reader must not forget that +Emma, besides being the mother of Hardicanute +by her second husband Canute, the Danish +<a name="page259" id="page259"></a><span class="left">[page 259]</span> +sovereign, was also the mother of Edward and +Alfred by her first husband Ethelred, of the +Anglo-Saxon line, and that these two sons were +in Normandy now. The family connection will +be more apparent to the eye by the following +scheme:</p> + +<table width="60%" align="center" border="0" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td> +Ethelred the Saxon. Emma. Canute the Dane.<br /> +————<sub><span style="font-family: arial;">V</span></sub>——————<sup>/\</sup>——————<sub><span style="font-family: arial;">V</span></sub>————<br /> + Edward. + Hardicanute.<br /> + Alfred. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p> +Harold was the son of Canute by a former +marriage. Emma, of course, felt no maternal +interest in him, and though compelled by circumstances +to acquiesce for a time in his possession +of the kingdom, her thoughts were continually +with her own sons; and since the attempt +to bring Hardicanute to the throne had +failed, she began to turn her attention toward +her Norman children.</p> +<p> +After scheming for a time, she wrote letters +to them, proposing that they should come to +England. She represented to them that the +Anglo-Saxon portion of the people were ill at +ease under Harold's dominion, and would gladly +embrace any opportunity of having a Saxon +king. She had no doubt, she said, that if one +of them were to appear in England and claim +the throne, the people would rise in mass to +<a name="page260" id="page260"></a><span class="left">[page 260]</span> +support him, and he would easily get possession +of the realm. She invited them, therefore, to +repair secretly to England, to confer with her +on the subject; charging them, however, to +bring very few, if any, Norman attendants with +them, as the English people were inclined to +be very jealous of the influence of foreigners.</p> +<p> +The brothers were very much elated at receiving +these tidings; so much so that in their +zeal they were disposed to push the enterprise +much faster than their mother had intended. +Instead of going, themselves, quietly and secretly +to confer with her in London, they organized +an armed expedition of Norman soldiers. +The youngest, Alfred, with an enthusiasm characteristic +of his years, took the lead in these +measures. He undertook to conduct the expedition. +The eldest consented to his making +the attempt. He landed at Dover, and began +his march through the southern part of the +country. <i>Godwin</i> went forth to meet him. +Whether he would join his standard or meet +him as a foe, no one could tell. Emma considered +that Godwin was on her side, though even +she had not recommended an armed invasion +of the country.</p> +<p> +It is very probable that Godwin himself was +<a name="page261" id="page261"></a><span class="left">[page 261]</span> +uncertain, at first, what course to pursue, and +that he intended to have espoused Prince Alfred's +cause if he had found that it presented any reasonable +prospect of success. Or he may have +felt bound to serve Harold faithfully, now that +he had once given in his adhesion to him. Of +course, he kept his thoughts and plans to himself, +leaving the world to see only his deeds. +But if he had ever entertained any design of +espousing Alfred's cause, he abandoned it before +the time arrived for action. As he advanced +into the southern part of the island, he called +together the leading Saxon chiefs to hold a +council, and he made an address to them when +they were convened, which had a powerful influence +on their minds in preventing their deciding +in favor of Alfred. However much they +might desire a monarch of their own line, this, +he said, was not the proper occasion for effecting +their end. Alfred was, it was true, an Anglo-Saxon +by descent, but he was a Norman by +birth and education. All his friends and supporters +were Normans. He had come now into +the realm of England with a retinue of Norman +followers, who would, if he were successful, +monopolize the honors and offices which he +would have to bestow. He advised the Anglo-Saxon +<a name="page262" id="page262"></a><span class="left">[page 262]</span> +chieftains, therefore, to remain inactive, +to take no part in the contest, but to wait for +some other opportunity to re-establish the Saxon +line of kings.</p> +<p> +The Anglo-Saxon chieftains seem to have +considered this good advice. At any rate, they +made no movement to sustain young Alfred's +cause. Alfred had advanced to the town of +Guilford. Here he was surrounded by a force +which Harold had sent against him. There +was no hope or possibility of resistance. In +fact, his enemies seem to have arrived at a time +when he did not expect an attack, for they entered +the gates by a sudden onset, when Alfred's +followers were scattered about the town +at the various houses to which they had been +distributed. They made no attempt to defend +themselves, but were taken prisoners one by +one, wherever they were found. They were +bound with cords, and carried away like ordinary +criminals.</p> +<p> +Of Alfred's ten principal Norman companions, +nine were beheaded. For some reason or other +the life of one was spared. Alfred himself was +charged with having violated the peace of his +country, and was condemned to lose his eyes. +The torture of this operation, and the inflammation +<a name="page263" id="page263"></a><span class="left">[page 263]</span> +which followed, destroyed the unhappy +prince's life. Neither Emma nor Godwin did +any thing to save him. It was wise policy, no +doubt, in Emma to disavow all connection with +her son's unfortunate attempt, now that it had +failed; and ambitious queens have to follow +the dictates of policy instead of obeying such +impulses as maternal love. She was, however, +secretly indignant at the cruel fate which her +son had endured, and she considered Godwin +as having betrayed him.</p> +<p> +After this dreadful disappointment, Emma +was not likely to make any farther attempts to +place either of her sons upon the throne; but +Harold seems to have distrusted her, for he banished +her from the realm. She had still her +Saxon son in Normandy, Alfred's brother Edward, +and her Danish son in Denmark. She +went to Flanders, and there sent to Hardicanute, +urging him by the most earnest importunities +to come to England and assert his +claims to the crown. He was doubly bound to +do it now, she said, as the blood of his murdered +brother called for retribution, and he could +have no honorable rest or peace until he had +avenged it.</p> +<p> +There was no occasion, however, for Hardicanute +<a name="page264" id="page264"></a><span class="left">[page 264]</span> +to attempt force for the recovery of his +kingdom, for not many months after these +transactions Harold died, and then the country +seemed generally to acquiesce in Hardicanute's +accession. The Anglo-Saxons, discouraged perhaps +by the discomfiture of their cause in the +person of Alfred, made no attempt to rise. +Hardicanute came accordingly and assumed +the throne. But, though he had not courage +and energy enough to encounter his rival Harold +during his lifetime, he made what amends he +could by offering base indignities to his body +after he was laid in the grave. His first public +act after his accession was to have the body +disinterred, and, after cutting off the head, he +threw the mangled remains into the Thames. +The Danish fishermen in the river found them, +and buried them again in a private sepulcher in +London, with such concealed marks of respect +and honor as it was in their power to bestow.</p> +<p> +Hardicanute also instituted legal proceedings +to inquire into the death of Alfred. He charged +the Saxons with having betrayed him, especially +those who were rich enough to pay the fines +by which, in those days, it was very customary +for criminals to atone for their crimes. Godwin +himself was brought before the tribunal, and +<a name="page265" id="page265"></a><span class="left">[page 265]</span> +charged with being accessory to Alfred's death. +Godwin positively asserted his innocence, and +brought witnesses to prove that he was entirely +free from all participation in the affair. He +took also a much more effectual method to secure +an acquittal, by making to King Hardicanute +some most magnificent presents. One of +these was a small ship, profusely enriched and +ornamented with gold. It contained eighty soldiers, +armed in the Danish style, with weapons +of the most highly-finished and costly construction. +They each carried a Danish axe on the +left shoulder, and a javelin in the right hand, +both richly gilt, and they had each of them a +bracelet on his arm, containing six ounces of +solid gold. Such at least is the story. The +presents might be considered in the light either +of a bribe to corrupt justice, or in that of a fine +to satisfy it. In fact, the line, in those days, +between bribes to purchase acquittal and fines +atoning for the offense seems not to have been +very accurately drawn.</p> +<p> +Hardicanute, when fairly established on his +throne, governed his realm like a tyrant. He oppressed +the Saxons especially without any mercy. +The effect of his cruelties, and those of the +Danes who acted under him, was, however, not +<a name="page266" id="page266"></a><span class="left">[page 266]</span> +to humble and subdue the Saxon spirit, but to +awaken and arouse it. Plots and conspiracies +began to be formed against him, and against +the whole Danish party. Godwin himself began +to meditate some decisive measures, when, +suddenly, Hardicanute died. Godwin immediately +took the field at the head of all his forces, +and organized a general movement throughout +the kingdom for calling Edward, Alfred's brother, +to the throne. This insurrection was triumphantly +successful. The Danish forces that +undertook to resist it were driven to the northward. +The leaders were slain or put to flight. +A remnant of them escaped to the sea-shore, +where they embarked on board such vessels as +they could find, and left England forever; and +this was the final termination of the political +authority of the Danes over the realm of England—the +consummation and end of Alfred's +military labors and schemes, coming surely at +last, though deferred for two centuries after his +decease.</p> +<p> +What follows belongs rather to the history +of William the Conqueror than to that of Alfred, +for Godwin invited Edward, Emma's +Norman son, to come and assume the crown; +and his coming, together with that of the many +<a name="page267" id="page267"></a><span class="left">[page 267]</span> +Norman attendants that accompanied or followed +him, led, in the end, to the Norman invasion +and conquest. Godwin might probably have +made himself king if he had chosen to do so. +His authority over the whole island was paramount +and supreme. But, either from a natural +sense of justice toward the rightful heir, or +from a dread of the danger which always attends +the usurping of the royal name by one +who is not of royal descent, he made no attempt +to take the crown. He convened a great assembly +of all the estates of the realm, and there +it was solemnly decided that Edward should be +invited to come to England and ascend the +throne. A national messenger was dispatched +to Normandy to announce the invitation.</p> +<p> +It was stipulated in this invitation that Edward +should bring very few Normans with him. +He came, accordingly, in the first instance, almost +unattended. He was received with great +joy, and crowned king with splendid ceremonies +and great show, in the ancient cathedral +at Winchester. He felt under great obligations +to Godwin, to whose instrumentality he +was wholly indebted for this sudden and most +brilliant change in his fortunes; and partly impelled +by this feeling of gratitude, and partly +<a name="page268" id="page268"></a><span class="left">[page 268]</span> +allured by Edith's extraordinary charms, he proposed +to make Edith his wife. Godwin made +no objection. In fact, his enemies say that he +made a positive stipulation for this match before +allowing the measures for Edward's elevation +to the throne to proceed too far. However +this may be, Godwin found himself, after Edward's +accession, raised to the highest pitch of +honor and power. From being a young herdsman's +son, driving the cows to pasture in a +wood, he had become the prime minister, as it +were, of the whole realm, his four sons being +great commanding generals in the army, and +his daughter the queen.</p> +<p> +The current of life did not flow smoothly with +him, after all. We can not here describe the +various difficulties in which he became involved +with the king on account of the Normans, who +were continually coming over from the Continent +to join Edward's court, and whose coming +and growing influence strongly awakened the +jealousy of the English people. Some narration +of these events will more properly precede +the history of William the Conqueror. We accordingly +close this story of Godwin here by +giving the circumstances of his death, as related +by the historians of the time. The readers of +<a name="page269" id="page269"></a><span class="left">[page 269]</span> +this narrative will, of course, exercise severally +their own discretion in determining how far +they will believe the story to be true.</p> +<p> +The story is, that one day he was seated at +Edward's table, at some sort of entertainment, +when one of his attendants, who was bringing +in a goblet of wine, tripped one of his feet, but +contrived to save himself by dexterously bringing +up the other in such a manner as to cause some +amusement to the guests; Godwin said, referring +to the man's feet, that <i>one brother saved +the other</i>. "Yes," said the king, "brothers +have need of brothers' aid. Would to God that +mine were still alive." In saying this he directed +a meaning glance toward Godwin, which +seemed to insinuate, as, in fact, the king had +sometimes done before, that Godwin had had +some agency in young Alfred's death. Godwin +was displeased. He reproached the king with +the unreasonableness of his surmises, and solemnly +declared that he was wholly innocent of +all participation in that crime. He imprecated +the curse of God upon his head if this declaration +was not true, wishing that the next mouthful +of bread that he should eat might choke him +if he had contributed in any way, directly or +indirectly, to Alfred's unhappy end. So saying, +<a name="page270" id="page270"></a><span class="left">[page 270]</span> +he put the bread into his mouth, and in the act +of swallowing it he was seized with a paroxysm +of coughing and suffocation. The attendants +hastened to his relief, the guests rose in terror +and confusion. Godwin was borne away by +two of his sons, and laid on his bed in convulsions. +He survived the immediate injury, but +after lingering five days he died.</p> +<p> +Edward continued to reign in prosperity long +after this event, and he employed the sons of +Godwin as long as he lived in the most honorable +stations of public service. In fact, when +be died, he named one of them as his successor +to the throne.</p> +<br /><br /><br /><br /> +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcaps">The End.</span></p> + +<br /><br /><br /><br /> + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +<br /><br/><br/><hr/><br/><br/><br/> +<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4><br /><br /> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="I1" id="I1">I</a></h5> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#I1r">[Footnote 1:</a> For some account of the circumstances connected with +this war see our history of Alexander, chapter vi.] +</p> + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="II1" id="II1">II</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#II1r">[Footnote 1:</a> Spelled sometimes Gwenlyfar and Ginevra.]</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#cotemporary">[Footnote *:</a> <a name="IIx" id="IIx">Concise</a> Oxford Dictionary: co-temporary etc. See <span style="font-size: 0.8em;">CONTEMPORARY</span> etc.] +</p> + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="V1" id="V1">V</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#V1r">[Footnote 1:</a> A great many other tales are told of the miraculous phenomena +exhibited by the body of St. Edmund, which well +illustrate the superstitious credulity of those times. One writer +says seriously that, when the head was found, a wolf had +it, holding it carefully in his paws, with all the gentleness and +care that the most faithful dog would manifest in guarding a +trust committed to him by his master. This wolf followed +the funeral procession to the tomb where the body was deposited, and then disappeared. +The head joined itself to the body again where it had been severed, leaving only a purple +line to mark the place of separation.] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Vx" id="Vx"></a> +<a class="note" href="#Vxr">[Footnote *:</a> <br /><br /><img src="images/p111-500.png" width="500" height="49" alt="Anglo Saxon inscription" border="0" /><br /><br /> +(Old English font is available here: [http://www.] uk-genealogy.org.uk/resources/).] +</p> + + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="VI1" id="VI1">VI</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#VI1r">[Footnote 1:</a> "Here rests the body of Ethelred, king of West Saxony, +the Martyr, who died by the hands of the pagan Danes, +in the year of our Lord 871."] +</p> + + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="VII1" id="VII1">VII</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#VII1r">[Footnote 1:</a> For an account of Henrietta's adventures and sufferings +at Exeter, see the History of Charles II., chap. iii] +</p> + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="VIII1" id="VIII1">VIII</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#VIII1r">[Footnote 1:</a> The name is spelled variously, Ethelney, Æthelney, +Ethelingay, &c. It was in Somersetshire, between the rivers +Thone and Parrot.]</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#VIII2r">[Footnote 2:</a> <a name="VIII2" id="VIII2"></a>As this +incident has been so famous, it may amuse the +reader to peruse the different accounts which are given of it +in the most ancient records which now remain. They were +written in Latin and in Saxon, and, of course, as given here, +they are translations. The discrepancies which the reader +will observe in the details illustrate well the uncertainty +which pertains to all historical accounts that go back to so +early an age.</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"He led an unquiet life there, at his cow-herd's. It happened +that, on a certain day, the rustic wife of the man prepared +to bake her bread. The king, sitting then near the +hearth, was making ready his bow and arrows, and other warlike +implements, when the ill-tempered woman beheld the +loaves burning at the fire. She ran hastily and removed them, +scolding at the king, and exclaiming, 'You man! you will not +turn the bread you see burning, but you will be very glad to +eat it when it is done!' This unlucky woman little thought +she was addressing the King Alfred."</p> +<p class="footnote"> +In a certain Saxon history the story is told thus:</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"He took shelter in a swain's house, and also him and his +evil wife diligently served. It happened that, on one day, +the swain's wife heated her oven, and the king sat by it warming +himself by the fire. She knew not then that he was the +king. Then the evil woman was excited, and spoke to the +king with an angry mind. 'Turn thou these loaves, that +they burn not, for I see daily that thou art a great eater!' He +soon obeyed this evil woman because she would scold. He +then, the good king, with great anxiety and sighing, called to +his Lord, imploring his pity."</p> +<p class="footnote"> +The following account is from a Latin life of St. Neot, which +still exists in manuscript, and is of great antiquity:</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"Alfred, a fugitive, and exiled from his people, came by +chance and entered the house of a poor herdsman, and there +remained some days concealed, poor and unknown.</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"It happened that, on the Sabbath day, the herdsman, as +usual, led his cattle to their accustomed pastures, and the king +remained alone in the cottage with the man's wife. She, as +necessity required, placed a few loaves, which some call +<i>loudas</i>, on a pan, with fire underneath, to be baked for her +husband's repast and her own, on his return.</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"While she was necessarily busied, like peasants, on other +offices, she went anxious to the fire, and found the bread +burning on the other side. She immediately assailed the king +with reproaches. 'Why, man! do you sit thinking there, and +are too proud to turn the bread? Whatever be your family, +with your manners and sloth, what trust can be put in you +hereafter? If you were even a nobleman, you will be glad +to eat the bread which you neglect to attend to.' The king, +though stung by her upbraidings, yet heard her with patience +and mildness, and, roused by her scolding, took care to bake +her bread thereafter as she wished."</p> +<p class="footnote"> +There is one remaining account, which is as follows:</p> +<p class="footnote"> +"It happened that the herdsman one day, as usual, led his +swine to their accustomed pasture, and the king remained at +home alone with the wife. She placed her bread under the +ashes of the fire to bake, and was employed in other business +when she saw the loaves burning, and said to the king in her +rage, 'You will not turn the bread you see burning, though +you will be very glad to eat it when done!' The king, with +a submitting countenance, though vexed at her upbraidings +not only turned the bread, but gave them to the woman well +baked and unbroken."</p> +<p class="footnote"> +It is obvious, from the character of these several accounts +that each writer, taking the substantial fact as the groundwork +of his story, has added such details and chosen such +expressions for the housewife's reproaches as suited his own +individual fancy. We find, unfortunately for the truth and +trustworthiness of history, that this is almost always the case, +when independent and original accounts of past transactions, +whether great or small, are compared. The gravest historians, +as well as the lightest story tellers, frame their narrations +for <i>effect</i>, and the tendency in all ages to shape and +fashion the narrative with a view to the particular effect designed +by the individual narrator to be produced has been +found entirely irresistible. It is necessary to compare, with +great diligence and careful scrutiny, a great many different accounts, +in order to learn how little there is to be exactly and +confidently believed.] <a href="#VIII2r">[Return]</a> +</p> + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="IX1" id="IX1">IX</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#IX1r">[Footnote 1:</a> Spelled sometimes Godrun, Gutrum, Gythram, and in +various other ways.]</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#IX2r">[Footnote 2:</a> <a name="IX2" id="IX2"></a>Some think that this place is the modern Leigh; others, +that it was Highley; either of which names might have been +deduced from Æcglea.] +</p> + + +<br /><br/><br/> +<h5>CHAPTER <a name="XIII1" id="XIII1">XIII</a></h5> +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#XIII1r">[Footnote 1:</a> Pronounced <i>Oolf</i>] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a class="note" href="#XIII2r">[Footnote 2:</a> <a name="XIII2" id="XIII2"></a>Spelled sometimes Herald.] +</p> + +<br /><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br /><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br /><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br /><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/> + + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of King Alfred of England, by Jacob Abbott + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KING ALFRED OF ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 16545-h.htm or 16545-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/4/16545/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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