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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Indians of the Yosemite Valley and Vicinity
+by Galen Clark
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Indians of the Yosemite Valley and Vicinity
+       Their History, Customs and Traditions
+
+Author: Galen Clark
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2005 [EBook #16572]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Starner, Jim Land and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Taber_.]
+
+[Signature: Galen Clark]
+
+
+
+
+
+INDIANS
+OF
+THE YOSEMITE VALLEY
+AND VICINITY
+
+Their History, Customs and Traditions
+
+BY
+GALEN CLARK
+
+
+Author of "Big Trees of California," Discoverer of the Mariposa
+Grove of Big Trees, and for many years Guardian
+of the Yosemite Valley.
+
+
+With an Appendix
+of
+Useful Information for Yosemite Visitors
+
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY
+CHRIS. JORGENSEN
+AND FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+YOSEMITE VALLEY, CALIFORNIA
+
+GALEN CLARK
+
+1907
+
+
+
+
+Copyright 1904, by Galen Clark
+
+
+
+TO MY FRIEND
+CHARLES HOWARD BURNETT
+
+
+Contents
+
+INTRODUCTION AND SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR            ix
+
+CHAPTER
+  I. EARLY HISTORY                                1
+ II. EFFECTS OF THE WAR                          14
+III. CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS                 21
+ IV. SOURCES OF FOOD SUPPLY                      31
+  V. RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND BELIEFS            49
+ VI. NATIVE INDUSTRIES                           67
+VII. MYTHS AND LEGENDS                           76
+
+APPENDIX:
+     Hints to Yosemite Visitors                 101
+     Official Table of Distances and Livery
+       Charges                                  105
+     Supplementary Table of Distances           107
+     Interpretation of Indian Names             107
+     Tables of Altitudes                        110
+     Names of Indian Numerals                   111
+     Indian Words in Common Use                 111
+     Tribes Placed on Reservations in 1850-51   112
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+COVER DESIGN                         Mrs. Jorgensen
+FRONTISPIECE, GALEN CLARK                     Taber
+
+                                               PAGE
+
+YOSEMITE FALLS, Fiske                             3
+AN INDIAN DANCER, Boysen                          8
+THREE BROTHERS, Foley                            13
+CAPTAIN PAUL, Foley                              17
+YOSEMITE MOTHER AND PAPOOSE, Boysen              20
+INDIAN O'-CHUM, Jorgensen                        25
+YOSEMITE MAIDEN IN NATIVE DRESS, Jorgensen       27
+A YOSEMITE HUNTER, Jorgensen                     32
+INDIAN SWEAT HOUSE, Jorgensen                    34
+CHUCK'-AH, Mrs. Jorgensen                        39
+HO'-YAS AND ME-TATS', Fiske                      42
+A WOOD GATHERER, Fiske                           47
+A YOUNG YOSEMITE, Dove                           53
+LENA AND VIRGIL, Boysen                          55
+OLD KALAPINE, Boysen                             62
+YOSEMITE BASKETRY, Boysen                        66
+MRS. JORGENSEN'S BASKETS                         68
+INDIAN BEAD WORK, Fiske                          70
+A BASKET MAKER, Boysen                           73
+MARY, Boysen                                     79
+HALF DOME, Foley                                 84
+A BURDEN BEARER, Fiske                           88
+EL CAPITAN, Foley                                91
+NORTH DOME, Foley                                93
+BRIDAL VEIL, FALL, Fiske                         97
+
+
+
+
+Introduction and Sketch of the Author
+
+
+Galen Clark, the author of this little volume, is one of the
+notable characters of California, and the one best fitted to
+record the customs and traditions of the Yosemite Indians, but it
+was only after much persuasion that his friends succeeded in
+inducing him to write the history of these interesting people,
+with whom he has been in close communication for half a century.
+
+The Indians of the Yosemite are fast passing away. Only a handful
+now remain of the powerful tribes that once gathered in the
+Valley and considered it an absolute stronghold against their
+white enemies. Even in their diminished numbers and their
+comparatively civilized condition, they are still a source of
+great interest to all visitors, and it has been suggested many
+times that their history, customs and legends should be put in
+permanent and convenient form, before they are entirely lost.
+
+Many tales and histories of the California Indians have been
+written by soldiers and pioneers, but Mr. Clark has told the
+story of these people from their own standpoint, and with a
+sympathetic understanding of their character. This fresh point of
+view gives double interest to his narrative.
+
+Galen Clark comes of a notable family; his English ancestors came
+to the State of Massachusetts in the seventeenth century, but he
+is a native of the Town of Dublin, Cheshire County, New
+Hampshire, born on the 28th day of March, 1814, and is
+consequently nearly ninety years of age, but still alert and
+active in mind and body.
+
+He attended school in his early youth during the winter months,
+and worked on a farm during the summer, leading nearly the same
+life which was followed by so many others who afterwards became
+famous in our country's history.
+
+Later in life he learned chair-making and painting, an occupation
+which he followed for some years, when he removed to Philadelphia
+and subsequently to New York City.
+
+Whilst residing in New York, in 1853, he resolved, after mature
+reflection, to visit the new Eldorado. His attention was first
+attracted to this State by visiting the celebrated Crystal
+Palace in New York, where was then on exhibition quantities of
+gold dust which had been sent or brought East by successful
+miners.
+
+Mr. Clark left New York for California in October, 1853, coming
+via the Isthmus of Panama, and in due time reached his
+destination. In 1854 he went to Mariposa County, attracted
+thither by the wonderful accounts of the gold discoveries, and
+the marvelous stories he had heard of the grandeur and beauty of
+the Yosemite Valley and the surrounding mountains.
+
+Upon his first arrival in Mariposa, he engaged in mining, and was
+also employed to assist in surveying Government land on the west
+side of the San Joaquin Valley, and canals for mining purposes,
+some of which passed through the celebrated "Mariposa Grant," the
+subject of prolonged and bitter litigation, both in this country
+and in Europe. He probably knows more about the actual facts
+concerning the Mariposa Grant than any one now living, and it is
+to be hoped that some day he may overcome his natural repugnance
+to notoriety, and give to the public the benefit of his
+knowledge.
+
+In the year 1855 Mr. Clark made his first trip into the Yosemite
+Valley with a party made up in Mariposa and Bear Valley.
+
+Returning to Mariposa, he resumed his old occupation of surveying
+and mining, and, whilst so engaged, by reason of exposure, had a
+serious attack of lung trouble, resulting in severe hemorrhages
+which threatened to end his life.
+
+He then removed, in April, 1857, to the South Fork of the Merced
+River, and built a log cabin in one of the most beautiful of our
+mountain valleys, on the spot where Wawona now stands. He soon
+recovered his health entirely, and, though constantly exposed to
+the winter storms and snows, has never had a recurrence of his
+malady.
+
+Wawona is twenty-six miles from Yosemite, and at that time became
+known as Clark's Station, being on the trail leading from
+Mariposa to the Valley, and a noted stopping place for travelers.
+This trail, as well as one from Coulterville, was completed to
+the Valley in 1857, and the trip to Yosemite then involved a
+stage ride of ninety-two miles, and a journey of sixty miles more
+on horseback. In 1874 and 1875 the three present stage roads were
+constructed through to the Valley.
+
+All travelers by the Raymond route will remember Wawona and the
+surroundings; the peaceful valley, the swift-flowing Merced, and
+the surrounding peaks and mountains, almost equaling in grandeur
+the famous Yosemite itself.
+
+In the early days this locality was annually visited by several
+bands of Indians from the Chowchilla and Fresno rivers. The
+Indian name for the place was Pal-lah'-chun. Whilst residing
+there Mr. Clark was in constant contact with these visiting
+tribes; he obtained their confidence, and retains it to this day.
+
+Whilst on a hunting trip, in the summer of 1857, Mr. Clark
+discovered and made known to the public the famous Big Tree
+Grove, now known all over the world as the "Mariposa Grove of Big
+Trees," belonging to the State of California. On this expedition
+he did not follow the route now traveled, but came upon the grove
+at the upper end, near the place where the road to Wawona Point
+now branches off from the main drive. The spot where he caught
+his first view of the Big Trees has been appropriately marked,
+and can be seen from the stage road.
+
+So impressed was Mr. Clark with the importance of his discovery,
+that he opened up a good horse trail from Wawona to the Trees,
+and shortly afterwards built a log cabin in the grove, for the
+comfort and convenience of visitors in bad or stormy weather.
+This cabin became known as "Galen's Hospice."
+
+In the year 1864 the Congress of the United States passed an Act,
+which was approved in June of the same year, granting to the
+State of California the "Yosemite Valley" and the "Mariposa Grove
+of Big Trees." This grant was made upon certain conditions, which
+were complied with by the State, and a Commission was appointed
+by Governor Low to manage and govern the Valley and the Big Tree
+Grove. Galen Clark was, of course, selected as one of the
+commissioners. He was subsequently appointed Guardian of the
+Valley, and under his administration many needed improvements
+were made and others suggested. Bridges were built, roads
+constructed on the floor of the Valley, and trails laid out and
+finished to various points of interest overlooking the Valley
+itself. In a word, the Guardian did everything possible with the
+limited means at his disposal.
+
+After serving twenty-four years, Mr. Clark voluntarily retired
+from the position of Guardian, carrying with him the respect and
+admiration of every member of the Commission, of all the
+residents of the Valley, and of every visitor who enjoyed the
+pleasure of his personal acquaintance.
+
+As showing the opinion of those with whom Mr. Clark was
+intimately and officially associated for so long a time, the
+following resolutions passed by the Board of Commissioners upon
+his voluntary retirement from the office of Guardian, are herein
+given:
+
+     Whereas, Galen Clark has for a long number of years been
+     closely identified with Yosemite Valley, and has for a
+     considerable portion of that time been its Guardian; and
+
+     Whereas, he has now, by his own choice and will,
+     relinquished the trust confided in him and retired into
+     private life; and
+
+     Whereas, his faithful and eminent services as Guardian, his
+     constant efforts to preserve, protect and enhance the
+     beauties of Yosemite; his dignified, kindly and courteous
+     demeanor to all who have come to see and enjoy its wonders,
+     and his upright and noble life, deserve from us a fitting
+     recognition and memorial; Now, Therefore, be it
+
+     Resolved, That the cordial assurance of the appreciation by
+     this Commission of the efforts and labors of Galen Clark, as
+     Guardian of Yosemite, in its behalf, be tendered and
+     expressed to him.
+
+     That we recognize in him a faithful, efficient and worthy
+     citizen and officer of this Commission and of the State;
+     that he will be followed into his retirement by the
+     sincerest and best wishes of this Commission, individually
+     and as a body, for continued long life and constant
+     happiness.
+
+The subject of this sketch is one of the most modest of men; but
+perfectly self-reliant, and always actively engaged in some
+useful work. He has resided in the Valley for more than twenty
+summers, and has also been a resident during many winters, and
+his descriptions of the Valley, when wrapped in snow and ice, are
+intensely interesting. Though always ready to give information,
+he is naturally reticent, and never forces his stories or
+reminiscences upon visitors; indeed it requires some persuasion
+to hear him talk about himself at all. For some years Mr. Clark
+was postmaster of Yosemite; and he has made many trips on foot,
+both in winter and summer, in and out of the Valley.
+
+In September, 1903, this writer made a trip through the high
+Sierras from Yosemite, and, upon reaching the top of the Valley
+Mr. Clark was met coming down the trail, having in charge a party
+of his friends, amongst whom was a lady with her two small
+children. This was at a point 2700 feet above the floor of the
+Valley, which is itself 4000 feet above the level of the sea.
+
+Needless to say, he is perfectly familiar with all the mountain
+trails, and, notwithstanding his great age, he easily makes long
+trips on foot and horseback which would fatigue a much younger
+man. Mr. Clark is thoroughly familiar with the flora, fauna and
+geology of the Valley and its surroundings. His knowledge of
+botany is particularly accurate, a knowledge gleaned partly from
+books, but mainly from close personal observation, the best
+possible teacher.
+
+His long residence in Yosemite has made him familiar with every
+spot, his love for the Valley is deep and strong, and when he
+departs this life his remains will rest close to the Yosemite
+Falls, in the little grave yard where other pioneers are buried.
+
+With his own hands he has dug his grave, and quarried his own
+tombstone from one of the massive blocks of granite found in the
+immediate neighborhood. His monument now rests in his grave, and
+when it is removed to receive his remains, will be used to mark
+his last resting place. His grave is surrounded by a neat fence,
+and trees, shrubs and vines, which he has himself planted, grow
+around in great profusion. In each corner of the lot is a young
+_Sequoia_.
+
+May it be many years before he is called to occupy his last
+earthly tenement.
+
+W.W. FOOTE.
+
+_San Francisco,
+February, 1904_.
+
+
+
+
+INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE
+
+
+
+
+INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE
+
+
+
+
+Chapter One.
+
+EARLY HISTORY.
+
+
+During the past few years a rapidly growing interest in the
+native Indians has been manifested by a large majority of
+visitors to the Yosemite Valley. They have evinced a great desire
+to see them in their rudely constructed summer camps, and to
+purchase some articles of their artistic basket and bead work, to
+take away as highly prized souvenirs.
+
+They are also anxious to learn something of their former modes of
+life, habits and domestic industries, before their original
+tribal relations were ruthlessly broken up by the sudden advent
+of the white population of gold miners and others in 1850, and
+the subsequent war, in which the Indians were defeated, and, as
+a result, nearly exterminated.
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE YOSEMITE INDIANS.
+
+According to statements made by Teneiya _(Ten-eye'-ya)_ [see
+footnote] chief of the Yosemites, to Dr. L.H. Bunnell, and
+published by him in his book on the "Discovery of the Yosemite",
+the original Indian name of the Valley was Ah-wah'-nee, which
+has been translated as "deep grassy valley", and the Indians
+living there were called Ah-wah-nee'-chees, which signified
+"dwellers in Ah-wah'-nee."
+
+[Footnote: The Indian names are usually pronounced exactly as
+spelled, with each syllable distinctly sounded, and the principal
+accent on the penult, as in Ah-wah'-nee, or the antepenult, as
+in Yo-sem'-i-te. Where doubt might exist, the accent will be
+indicated, or the pronunciation given in parenthesis.]
+
+[Transcriber's note: The remaining footnotes in the original text are
+moved, in the present version, into the line of text and are
+marked by square brackets, thus: Ah-wah'-nee [Yosemite Valley].]
+
+Many years ago, the old chief said, the Ah-wah-nee'-chees had
+been a large and powerful tribe, but by reason of wars and a
+fatal black sickness, nearly all had been destroyed, and the
+survivors of the band fled from the Valley and joined other
+tribes.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+YOSEMITE FALLS (CHO'-LACK), 2,634 Feet.
+Near the foot of these falls was located the village of
+Ah-wah'-nee, the Indian capital and residence of Chief Teneiya.
+There were eight other villages in the Valley.]
+
+For years afterwards this locality was uninhabited, but finally
+Teneiya, who claimed to be descended from an Ah-wah-nee'-chee
+chief, left the Mo'nos, where he had born and brought up,
+and, gathering of his father's old tribe around him, visited the
+Valley and claimed it as the birthright of his people. He then
+became the founder of a new tribe or band, which received the
+name "Yo-sem'-i-te." This word signifies a full-grown grizzly
+bear, and Teneiya said that the name had been given to his band
+because they occupied the mountains and valley which were the
+favorite resort of the grizzly bears, and his people were expert
+in killing them; that his tribe had adopted the name because
+those who had bestowed it were afraid of the grizzlies, and also
+feared his band.
+
+The Yosemites were perhaps the most warlike of any of the tribes
+in this part of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, who were, as a rule,
+a peaceful people, dividing the territory among them, and
+indulging in few controversies. In fact, these Indians in general
+were less belligerent and warlike than any others on the Pacific
+Coast. When difficulties arose, they were usually settled
+peacefully by arbitration, in a grand council of the chiefs and
+head men of the tribes involved, without resorting to open
+hostilities.
+
+
+OTHER TRIBES.
+
+Other bands of Indians in the vicinity of the Yosemite Valley
+were the Po-ho-nee'-chees who lived near the headwaters of the
+Po-ho'-no or Bridal Veil Creek in summer, and on the South Fork
+of the Merced' River in winter, about twelve miles below
+Wawo'na; the Po-to-en'-cies, who lived on the Merced River;
+Wil-tuc-um'-nees, Tuol'-unme River; Noot'-choos and
+Chow-chil'-las, Chowchilla Valley; Ho-na'-ches and
+Me'-woos, Fresno River and vicinity; and Chook-chan'-ces, San
+Joaquin River and vicinity.
+
+These tribes, including the Yosemites, were all somewhat
+affiliated by common ancestry or by intermarriage, and were
+similar in their general characteristics and customs. They were
+all called by the early California settlers, "Digger Indians," as
+a term of derision, on account of their not being good fighters,
+and from their practice of digging the tuberous roots of certain
+plants, for food.
+
+
+INDIAN WAR OF 1851.
+
+Dr. Bunnell, in his book already referred to, has given the
+soldiers' and white men's account of the cause of the Indian war
+of 1851, but a statement of the grievances on the part of the
+Indians, which caused the uniting of all the different tribes in
+the mining region adjacent to Yosemite, in an attempt to drive
+the white invaders from their country, has never been published,
+and a brief account of these grievances may be interesting.
+
+
+AGGRESSIONS BY THE WHITE SETTLERS.
+
+The first parties of prospecting miners were welcomed by the
+Indians with their usual friendliness and hospitality toward
+strangers--a universal characteristic of these tribes,--and the
+mining for gold was watched with great interest. They soon
+learned the value of the gold dust, and some of them engaged in
+mining, and exchanged their gold at the trading stations for
+blankets and fancy trinkets, at an enormous profit to the
+traders, and peace and good feeling prevailed for a short time.
+
+The report of the rich gold "diggin's" on the waters of the
+Tuolumne, Merced, Mariposa, Chowchilla, and Fresno Rivers, soon
+spread, and miners by thousands came and took possession of the
+whole country, paying no regard to the natural rights or wishes
+of the Indians.
+
+Some of the Indian chiefs made the proposition that if the miners
+would give them some of the gold which they found in their part
+of the country, they might stay and work. This offer was not
+listened to by the miners, and a large majority of the white
+invaders treated the natives as though they had no rights
+whatever to be respected. In some instances, where Indians had
+found and were working good mining claims, they were forcibly
+driven away by white miners, who took possession of their claims
+and worked them.
+
+Moreover, the Indians saw that their main sources of food supply
+were being rapidly destroyed. The oak trees, which produced the
+acorns--one of their staple articles of food,--were being cut
+down and burned by miners and others in clearing up land for
+cultivation, and the deer and other food game were being
+rapidly killed off or driven from the locality.
+
+[Illustration: _Copyrighted Photograph by Boysen_.
+AN INDIAN DANCER.
+Chow-chil-la Indian in full war-dance costume.]
+
+In the "early days," before California was admitted as a free
+State into the Union, it was reported, and was probably true,
+that some of the immigrants from the slave-holding States took
+Indians and made slaves of them in working their mining claims.
+It was no uncommon event for the sanctity of their homes and
+families to be invaded by some of the "baser sort," and young
+women taken, willing or not, for servants and wives.
+
+
+RETALIATION.
+
+In retaliation, and as some compensation for these many grievous
+outrages upon their natural inalienable rights of domain and
+property, and their native customs, the Indians stole horses and
+mules from the white settlers, and killed them for food for their
+families, who, in many instances, were in a condition of
+starvation.
+
+Finally the chiefs and leading men of all the tribes involved met
+in a grand council, and resolved to combine their warrior forces
+in one great effort to drive all their white enemies from the
+country, before they became more numerous and formidable.
+
+
+BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES.
+
+To prepare for this struggle for existence, they made raids upon
+some of the principal trading posts in the mining sections,
+killed those in charge, took all the blankets, clothing and
+provisions they could carry away, and fled to the mountains,
+where they were soon pursued by the soldiers and volunteer
+citizens, and a spirited battle was fought without any decisive
+advantage to either side.
+
+The breaking out of actual hostilities created great excitement
+among the whites, and an urgent call was made upon the Governor
+of the State for a military force to meet the emergency, and
+protect the settlers--a force strong enough to thoroughly subdue
+the Indians, and remove all of them to reservations to be
+selected by the United States Indian Commissioners for that
+purpose.
+
+Meantime the Governor and the Commissioners, who had then
+arrived, were receiving numerous communications, many of them
+from persons in high official positions, earnestly urging a more
+humane and just policy, averring that the Indians had real cause
+for complaint, that they had been "more sinned against than
+sinning" since the settling of California by the whites, and that
+they were justly entitled to protection by the Government and
+compensation for the spoliations and grievances they had
+suffered.
+
+These protests doubtless had some influence in delaying hostile
+measures, and in the inauguration of efforts to induce the
+Indians to come in and treat with the Commissioners, envoys being
+sent out to assure them of fair treatment and personal safety.
+Many of the Indians accepted these offers, and, as the different
+tribes surrendered, they were taken to the two reservations which
+the Commissioners had established for them on the Fresno River,
+the principal one being a few miles above the place where the
+town of Madera is now located.
+
+As before stated, these Indians were not a warlike people. Their
+only weapons were their bows and arrows, and these they soon
+found nearly useless in defending themselves at long range
+against soldiers armed with rifles. Moreover, their stock of
+provisions was so limited that they either had to surrender or
+starve.
+
+
+DISCOVERY OF YOSEMITE VALLEY.
+
+The Yosemites and one or two other bands of Indians had refused
+to surrender, and had retreated to their mountain strongholds,
+where they proposed to make a last determined resistance. Active
+preparations were accordingly made by the State authorities to
+follow them, and either capture or exterminate all the tribes
+involved. For this purpose a body of State volunteers, known as
+the Mariposa Battalion, was organized, under the command of Major
+James D. Savage, to pursue these tribes into the mountains; and,
+after many long marches and some fighting, the Indians were all
+defeated, captured, and, with their women and children, put upon
+the reservations under strong military guard.
+
+It was during this campaign that Major Savage and his men
+discovered the Yosemite Valley, about the 21st of March, 1851,
+while in pursuit of the Yosemites, under old Chief Teneiya, for
+whom Lake Teneiya and Teneiya Canyon have appropriately been
+named.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Foley._
+THREE BROTHERS (WAW-HAW'-KEE), 3,900 Feet.
+Named by the soldiers who discovered the Valley, to commemorate
+the capture of three sons of Teneiya near this place. The Indian
+name means "Falling Rocks."]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Two.
+
+EFFECTS OF THE WAR.
+
+
+The Yosemites and all of the other tribes named in the previous
+chapter were put upon the Fresno reservation. Major Savage, who
+had been the leading figure in the war against the Indians, was
+perhaps their best friend while in captivity, and finally lost
+his life in a personal quarrel, while resenting a wrong which had
+been committed against them.
+
+The tribes from south of the San Joaquin River, who were also
+conquered in 1851, were put upon the Kings River and Tejon
+(_Tay-hone'_) reservations.
+
+
+LIFE ON THE RESERVATIONS.
+
+Ample food supplies, blankets, clothing and cheap fancy articles
+were furnished by the Government for the subsistence, comfort and
+pleasure of the Indians on the reservations, and for a short time
+they seemed to be contented, and to enjoy the novelty of their
+new mode of life. The young, able-bodied men were put to work
+assisting in clearing, fencing and cultivating fields for hay
+and vegetables, and thus they were partially self-supporting. A
+large portion of them, however, soon began to tire of the
+restraints imposed, and longed for their former condition of
+freedom, and many of them sickened and died.
+
+Old Teneiya, chief of the "Grizzlies," was particularly affected
+by the change in his surroundings, and by the humiliation of
+defeat. He suffered keenly from the hot weather of the plains,
+after his free life in the mountains, and begged to be allowed to
+return to his old home, promising not to disturb the white
+settlers in any way, a pledge which he did not break.
+
+
+DEATH OF TENEIYA.
+
+Teneiya was finally allowed to depart, with his family, after
+having been on the reservation only a few months, and some of his
+old followers afterwards stole away and joined him. With this
+remnant of his band he returned to the Yosemite, but not long
+afterwards they were set upon by the Monos, a tribe from the
+eastern side of the Sierras, with whom they had quarreled, and
+the old chief and many of his warriors were killed. It was
+perhaps fitting that he should meet his death in the valley which
+he loved, and which he had so long defended against his enemies.
+
+
+RESTORED TO LIBERTY.
+
+In 1855, after four years of confinement on the reservations, an
+agreement was made with the Indian Commissioners, by the head men
+of the tribes, that if their people were again allowed their
+freedom, they would forever remain in peace with the white
+settlers, and try and support themselves free of expense to the
+Government. They were soon permitted to leave, and have ever
+since faithfully kept their promise.
+
+Most of them went back to the vicinity of their old homes, and
+made temporary settlements on unoccupied Government land, as many
+of their old village sites were now in possession of white
+settlers. As there was a very large crop of acorns that season,
+they gathered an abundant supply for winter use, and, with what
+was given to them in the way of food and clothing by some of the
+white settlers, they managed to get through the winter fairly
+well.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Foley_.
+CAPTAIN PAUL.
+One of the characters of the Valley. Supposed to be 105 years
+old, and a survivor of Teneiya's band.]
+
+
+HARDSHIP AND SUFFERING.
+
+Their four years' residence on the reservations, however, had
+been more of a school in the vices of the whites than one of a
+higher education. They became demoralized socially, addicted to
+many bad habits, and left the reservations in worse condition
+than when they were taken there. Their old tribal relations and
+customs were nearly broken up, though they still had their head
+men to whom they looked for counsel in all important matters.
+
+As the country became more settled, much of their main food
+supply, the acorns, was consumed by the domestic animals of the
+ranchers, and their mode of living became more precarious and
+transitory, and many of them were, at times, in a condition near
+to starvation. In these straitened and desperate circumstances,
+many of their young women were used as commercial property, and
+peddled out to the mining camps and gambling saloons for money to
+buy food, clothing or whisky, this latter article being obtained
+through the aid of some white person, in violation of law.
+
+Their miserable, squalid condition of living opened the way for
+diseases of a malignant character, which their medicine men could
+not cure, and their numbers were rapidly reduced by death.
+
+At the present time there are not in existence a half-dozen of
+the old Yosemites who were living, even as children, when the
+Valley was first discovered in 1851; and many of the other tribes
+have been correspondingly reduced.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen._
+YOSEMITE MOTHER AND PAPOOSE.
+The baby basket is carried on the back, like all burdens, and
+supported by a band across the forehead.]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Three.
+
+CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+
+As stated in a previous chapter, all of the Indian tribes
+occupying the region in the vicinity of the Yosemite Valley were
+more or less affiliated by blood and intermarriage and resembled
+each other in their customs, characteristics and religious
+beliefs. What is said, therefore, on these subjects in the
+following pages, will be understood to apply generally to all of
+the tribes which have been mentioned as inhabiting this region,
+although, of course, minor differences did exist, principally due
+to environment. As in the case of all primitive peoples, their
+mode of life, food supply, etc., were largely determined by
+natural conditions, and the tribes living in the warm foot-hills
+differed somewhat in these respects from those dwelling higher in
+the mountains.
+
+
+DIVISION OF TERRITORY.
+
+In their original tribal settlements, at the time the first
+pioneer whites came among them, the Indians had well defined or
+understood boundary lines, between the territories claimed by
+each tribe for their exclusive use in hunting game and gathering
+means of support; and any trespassing on the domain of others was
+likely to cause trouble. This arrangement, however, did not apply
+to the higher ranges of the Sierras, which were considered common
+hunting ground.
+
+
+COMMERCE AMONG THE TRIBES.
+
+As there was a difference in the natural products and resources
+of different sections of the country, there was a system of
+reciprocal trade in the exchange of the different desirable
+commodities. Sometimes commerce between tribes extended for a
+long distance, as, for instance, the Indians on the western side
+of the Sierra Nevada Mountains were entirely dependent upon the
+Pai-utes _(Pye-yutes')_ on the eastern side for the obsidian, a
+kind of volcanic glass, from which they made the points for their
+most deadly arrows, used in hunting large game or when in mortal
+combat with their enemies. They were also dependent upon the
+Pai-utes for their supply of salt for domestic use, which came in
+solid blocks as quarried from salt mines, said to be two days'
+travel on foot from Mono Lake.
+
+From the Indians at or near the Catholic Missions to the South,
+on the Pacific Coast, they got their hunting knives of iron or
+steel, and sea shells of various kinds, for personal or dress
+ornaments, and also to be used as money. From the same source
+they obtained beads of various forms, sizes and colors, cheap
+jewelry and other fancy articles, a few blankets, and pieces of
+red bunting, strips of which the chiefs and head men wore around
+their heads as badges, indicating their official positions.
+
+
+COMMUNICATION.
+
+They had a very efficient system of quickly spreading important
+news by relays of special couriers, who took the news to the
+first stations or tribes in different directions, where others
+took the verbal dispatches and ran to the next station, and so
+on, so that all tribes within an area of a hundred miles would
+get the good or bad tidings within a few hours. In this manner
+important communication was kept up between the different tribes.
+They also had well organized signal systems, by fires in the
+night and smoke by day, on high points of observation--variations
+in the lights (either steady, bright or flashing) indicating
+somewhat the character of the tidings thus given.
+
+
+DWELLINGS.
+
+Their winter huts, or _o'-chums_, as they termed them, were
+invariably of a conical form, made with small poles, and covered
+with the bark of the incense cedar (_Libocedrus decurrens_). A
+few poles ten or twelve feet long were set in the ground around
+an area of about twelve feet in diameter, with their tops
+inclined together. The outside was then closely covered with long
+strips of the cedar bark, making it perfectly water-tight. An
+opening was left on the south side for an entrance, which could
+be readily closed with a portable door. An opening was also left
+at the top for the escape of the smoke, a fire being kindled in
+the center inside.
+
+[Illustration: _Drawing by Jorgensen_.
+INDIAN O'-CHUM.
+This style of house, made of cedar poles covered with bark, is
+more easily heated than any other form of dwelling known.]
+
+One of these huts would hold a family of a half-dozen persons,
+with all their household property, dogs included; and there is
+no other form of a single-room dwelling that can be kept warm
+and comfortable in cold weather with so little fire, as this
+Indian _o'-chum._
+
+Their under-bedding usually consisted of the skins of bears,
+deer, antelope or elk, and the top covering was a blanket or robe
+made of the skins of small fur-bearing animals, such as rabbits,
+hares, wildcats and foxes. The skins were cut in narrow strips,
+which were loosely twisted so as to bring the fur entirely around
+on the outside, and then woven into a warp of strong twine made
+of the fine, tough, fibrous bark of a variety of milkweed
+(_Asclepias speciosa_). These fur robes were very warm, and were
+also used as wraps when traveling in cold weather.
+
+During the warm summer season they generally lived outside in
+brush arbors, and used their _o'-chums_ as storage places.
+
+
+CLOTHING.
+
+Their clothing was very simple and scant, before being initiated
+into the use of a more ample and complete style of covering while
+living at the reservations. The ordinary full complement of dress
+for a man (_Nung'-ah_) was simply a breech-clout, or short
+hip-skirt made of skins; that for a woman (_O'-hoh_) was a
+skirt reaching from the waist to the knees, made of dressed
+deerskin finished at the bottom with a slit fringe, and sometimes
+decorated with various fancy ornaments. Both men and women
+frequently wore moccasins made of dressed deer or elk skin. Young
+children generally went entirely nude.
+
+[Illustration: _Drawing by Jorgensen_.
+YOSEMITE MAIDEN IN NATIVE DRESS.
+This buckskin costume has now been replaced by the unpicturesque
+calico of civilization.]
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+The Indians of the various tribes in this part of the Sierras
+vary somewhat in physical characteristics, but in general are of
+medium height, strong, lean and agile, and the men are usually
+fine specimens of manhood. They are rather light in color, but
+frequently rub their bodies with some kind of oil, which gives
+the flesh a much redder and more glossy appearance. The hair is
+black and straight, and the eyes are black and deep set. The
+beard is sparse, and in former times was not allowed to grow at
+all, each hair being pulled out with a rude kind of tweezers.
+They are naturally of a gentle and friendly disposition, but
+their experience with the white race has made them distant and
+uncommunicative to strangers.
+
+Most of the older Indians still cling to their old customs and
+manner of living, and are very slow to learn or talk our
+language, but the younger ones are striving to live like the
+white people, and seem proud to adopt our style of dress and
+manner of cooking. They all speak our language plainly, and some
+few of them attend the public schools when living near by, and
+acquire very readily the common rudiments of an education.
+
+Their style of architecture is in a state of transition, like
+themselves. Their old _o'-chum_ form of dwelling is now very
+seldom seen--a rude building of more roomy and modern design
+having taken its place.
+
+All the able-bodied men are ready and willing to work at any kind
+of common labor, when they have an opportunity, and have learned
+to want nearly the same amount of pay as a white man for the same
+work.
+
+As a rule, they are trustworthy, and when confidence is placed in
+their honesty it is very rarely betrayed. During nearly the past
+fifty years, a great many thousands of people have visited the
+Yosemite Valley with their own camping outfits, and, during the
+day, and often all night, are absent on distant trips of
+observation, with no one left in charge of camp, yet there has
+never to my knowledge been an instance of anything being stolen
+or molested by Indians. There are, however, some dishonest
+Indians, who will steal from their own people, and some times,
+when a long distance from their own camp, they may steal from the
+whites. A few, if they can get whisky, through the aid of some
+white person, will become drunk and fight among themselves, and
+occasionally one of them may be killed; but, as a rule, they are
+peaceful and orderly, and hold sacred the promise made to the
+Indian Commissioners by the old tribal chiefs, when released from
+confinement on the reservations, that they would forever keep the
+peace, and never again make war against the white people.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Four.
+
+SOURCES OF FOOD SUPPLY.
+
+
+The food supply of the Sierra Indians was extensive and abundant,
+consisting of the flesh of deer, antelope, elk and mustang
+horses, together with fish, water-fowls, birds, acorns, berries,
+pine nuts, esculent herbage and the tuberous roots of certain
+plants, all of which were easily obtained, even with their simple
+and limited means of securing them. Mushrooms, fungi,
+grasshoppers, worms and the larvae of ants and other insects,
+were also eaten, and some of these articles were considered great
+delicacies.
+
+
+HUNTING.
+
+Their main effective weapons for hunting large game were their
+bows and obsidian-pointed arrows. Their manner of hunting was
+either by the stealthy still hunt, or a general turn-out,
+surrounding a large area of favorable country and driving to a
+common center, where at close range the hunters could sometimes
+make an extensive slaughter.
+
+[Illustration: _Drawing by Jorgensen._
+A YOSEMITE HUNTER.
+He wears a false deer's head, to deceive the game.]
+
+When on the still hunt for deer in the brushy, sparsely timbered
+foothills of the Sierra Range of mountains, or higher up in the
+extensive forests, some of the hunters wore for a headgear a
+false deer's head, by which deceptive device they were enabled to
+get to a closer and more effective range with their bows and
+arrows. This head-dress was made of the whole skin of a doe's
+head, with a part of the neck, the head part stuffed with light
+material, the eyeholes filled in with the green feathered scalp
+of a duck's head, and the top furnished with light wooden horns,
+the branching stems of the manzanita (_Arctostaphylos_) being
+generally used for this purpose. The neck part was made to fit on
+the hunter's head and fasten with strings tied under the chin.
+This unique style of headgear was used by some Indian hunters for
+many years after they had guns to hunt with.
+
+[Illustration: _Drawing by Jorgensen_
+INDIAN SWEAT HOUSE.
+Used by the Yosemite hunters before starting after game.]
+
+The high ranges of the mountains, as already stated, were
+considered common hunting ground by the different tribes. The
+deer, many of them, were in some degree migratory in their
+habits, being driven from the higher ranges to the foothills by
+the deep winter snows, and in the spring following close to the
+melting, receding snow, back again to their favorite summer
+haunts.
+
+Late in the summer, or early in the fall, just before holding
+some of their grand social or sacred festivals, the Indian
+hunters would make preparation for a big hunt in the mountains,
+to get a good supply of venison for the feast. One of the first
+absolute prerequisites was to go through a thorough course of
+sweating and personal cleansing. This was done by resorting to
+their sweat houses, which were similar in construction to the
+_o'-chums_, except that the top was rounded and the whole
+structure was covered thickly with mud and earth to exclude the
+air. These houses were heated with hot stones and coals of fire,
+and the hunters would then crawl into them and remain until in a
+profuse perspiration, when they would come out and plunge into
+cold water for a wash-off. This was repeated until they thought
+themselves sufficiently free from all bodily odor so that the
+deer could not detect their approach by scent, and flee for
+safety.
+
+After this purification they kept themselves strictly as
+celibates until the hunt was over, though their women went along
+to help carry the outfit, keep camp, cook, search for berries and
+pine nuts, and assist in bringing to camp and taking care of the
+deer as killed, and in "packing" the meat out to the place of
+rendezvous appointed for the grand ceremonies and feast.
+
+Their usual manner of cooking fresh meat was by broiling on hot
+coals, or roasting before the fire or in the embers. Sometimes,
+however, they made a cavity in the ground, in which they built a
+fire, which was afterwards cleared away and the cavity lined with
+very hot stones, on which they placed the meat wrapped in green
+herbage, and covered it with other hot rocks and earth, to remain
+until suitably cooked.
+
+When they had a surplus of fresh meat they cut it in strips and
+hung it in the sun-shine to dry. The dried meat was generally
+cooked by roasting in hot embers, and then beaten to soften it
+before being eaten.
+
+A young hunter never ate any of the first deer he killed, as he
+believed that if he did so he would never succeed in killing
+another.
+
+
+FISHING.
+
+They had various methods of catching fish--with hook and line,
+with a spear, by weir-traps in the stream, and by saturating the
+water with the juice of the soap-root plant (_Chlorogalum
+pomeridianum_). Before they could obtain fishhooks of modern
+make, they made them of bone. Their lines were made of the tough,
+fibrous, silken bark of the variety of milkweed or silkweed,
+already mentioned. Their spears were small poles pointed with a
+single tine of bone, which was so arranged that it became
+detached by the struggles of the fish, and was then held by a
+string fastened near its center, which turned it crosswise of the
+wound and made it act as an effective barb.
+
+Their weir-traps were put in the rapids, and constructed by
+building wing dams diagonally down to the middle of the stream
+until the two ends came near together, and in this narrow outlet
+was placed a sort of wicker basket trap, made of long willow
+sprouts loosely woven together and closed at the pointed lower
+end, which was elevated above the surface of the water below the
+dam. The fish, in going down stream, ran into this trap, and soon
+found themselves at the lower end and out of the water.
+
+The soap-root was used at a low stage of water, late in summer.
+They dug several bushels of the bulbous roots and went to a
+suitable place on the bank, where the roots were pounded into a
+pulp, and mixed with soil and water. This mixture, by the
+handful, was then rubbed on rocks out in the stream, which roiled
+the water and also made it somewhat foamy. The fish were soon
+affected by it, became stupid with a sort of strangulation, and
+rose to the surface, where they were easily captured by the
+Indians with their scoop baskets. In a stream the size of the
+South Fork of the Merced River at Wawona, by this one operation
+every fish in it for a distance of three miles would be taken in
+a few hours.
+
+The fish were generally cooked by roasting on hot coals from
+burned oak wood or bark.
+
+
+ACORNS AS FOOD.
+
+Acorns were their main staple article of breadstuff, and they are
+still used by the present generation whenever they can be
+obtained.
+
+[Illustration: _Drawing by Mrs. Jorgensen._
+CHUCK'-AH.
+Storehouse for nuts and acorns, thatched with pine branches,
+points downward, to keep out mice and squirrels.]
+
+They are gathered in the fall when ripe and are preserved for
+future use in the old style Indian _cache_ or storehouse. This
+consists of a structure which they call a _chuck'-ah_, which is
+a large basket-shaped receptacle made of long willow sprouts
+closely woven together. It is usually about six feet high and
+three feet in diameter. It is set upon stout posts about three
+feet high and supported in position by four longer posts on the
+outside, reaching to the top, and there bound firmly to keep them
+from spreading. The outside of the basket is thatched with small
+pine branches, points downward, to shed the rain and snow, and to
+protect the contents from the depredations of squirrels and
+woodpeckers. When filled, the top also is securely covered with
+bark, as a protection from the winter storms. When the acorns are
+wanted for use, a small hole is made at the bottom of the
+_chuck'-ah_, and they are taken out from time to time as
+required.
+
+The acorns from the black or Kellogg's oak (_Quercus
+Californica_) are considered much the best and most nutritious
+by the Indians. This is the oak which is so beautiful and
+abundant in the Yosemite Valley.
+
+These acorns are quite bitter, and are not eaten in their natural
+condition, as most fruit and nuts are eaten, but have to be quite
+elaborately prepared and cooked to make them palatable. First,
+the hull is cracked and removed, and the kernel pounded or ground
+into a fine meal. In the Yosemite Valley and at other Indian
+camps in the mountains, this is done by grinding with their stone
+pestles or _metats (may-tat's)_ in the _ho'yas_ or mortars,
+worn by long usage in large flat-top granite rocks, one of which
+is near every Indian camp. Lower down in the foothills, where
+there are no suitable large rocks for these permanent mortars,
+the Indians used single portable stone mortars for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+HO'-YAS AND ME-TATS'.
+Rude mortars and pestles for grinding acorn meal. The holes have
+been worn in the granite by constant use.]
+
+After the acorns are ground to a fine meal, the next process is
+to take out the bitter tannin principle. This is done in the
+following manner: They make large shallow basins in clean washed
+sand, in the center of which are laid a few flat, fan-like ends
+of fir branches. A fire is then made near by, and small stones
+of four or five pounds in weight are heated, with which they warm
+water in some of their large cooking baskets, and mix the acorn
+meal with it to the consistency of thin gruel. This mixture is
+poured into the sand basins, and as the water leaches out into
+the sand it takes with it the bitter quality--the warm water
+being renewed until all the bitter taste is washed out from the
+meal sediment, or dough.
+
+This is then taken, and, after being cleansed from the adhering
+sand, is put into cooking baskets, thinned down with hot water to
+the desired condition, and cooked by means of hot stones which
+are held in it with two sticks for tongs. The mush, while
+cooking, is stirred with a peculiar stirring stick, made of a
+tough oak sprout, doubled so as to form a round, open loop at one
+end, which is used in lifting out any loose stones. When the
+dough is well cooked, it is either left _en masse_ in the basket
+or scooped out in rolls and put into cold water to cool and
+warden before being eaten. Sometimes the thick paste is made into
+cakes and baked on hot rocks. One of these cakes, when rolled in
+paper, will in a short time saturate it with oil. This acorn
+food is probably more nutritious than any of the cereals.
+
+
+INDIAN DOGS.
+
+The Indian dogs, of which every family had several, are as fond
+of the acorn food as their owners. These dogs are made useful in
+treeing wild-cats, California lions and gray squirrels, and are
+very expert in catching ground squirrels by intercepting them
+when away from their burrows, and when the Indians drown them out
+in the early spring by turning water from the flooded streams
+into their holes.
+
+As far as can be learned, dogs were about the only domestic
+animals which the Yosemites, and other adjacent tribes of
+Indians, kept for use before the country was settled by the white
+people.
+
+
+NUTS AND BERRIES.
+
+Pine nuts were another important article of food, and were much
+prized by the Indians. They are very palatable and nutritious,
+and are also greatly relished by white people whenever they can
+be obtained. The seeds of the Digger or nut pine (_Pinus
+Sabiniana_) were the ones most used on the western side of the
+Sierras, although the seeds of the sugar pine (_P. Lambertiana_)
+were also sometimes eaten. On account of their soft shell, nuts
+from the pinon pine (_P. monophylla_), which grows principally on
+the eastern side of the mountains, were considered superior to
+either of the other kinds, and were an important article of
+barter with the tribes of that region. All of these trees are
+very prolific, and their crop of nuts in fruitful years has been
+estimated to be even greater than the enormous wheat crop of
+California, although of course but a very small portion of it is
+ever gathered. Many other kinds of nuts and seeds were also
+eaten.
+
+The principal berries used by the Indians of Yosemite and tribes
+lower down in the foothills were those of the manzanita
+(_Arctostaphylos glauca_). They are about the size of
+huckleberries, of a light brown color, and when ripe have the
+flavor of dried apples. They are used for eating, and also to
+make a kind of cider for drinking, and for mixing with some food
+preparations. Manzanita is the Spanish for "little apple," and
+this shrub, with its rich red bark and pale green foliage, is
+perhaps the most beautiful and most widely distributed in
+California. Strawberries, black raspberries, elderberries, wild
+cherries and the fruit of the Sierra plum (_Prunus subcordata_)
+are also used by the Indians, but wild edible berries are not as
+plentiful in California as they are in the Atlantic States.
+
+
+GRASSHOPPERS AND WORMS.
+
+In addition to the staple articles of food already mentioned,
+many other things were eaten when they could be obtained. These
+included grasshoppers, certain kinds of large tree worms, the
+white fungi which grows upon the oak, mushrooms, and the larvae
+and pupae of ants and other insects. The pupae of a certain kind
+of fly which breeds extensively on the shores of Mono Lake, about
+forty miles from Yosemite, was an important article of commerce
+across the mountains, and was made into a kind of paste called
+_ka-cha'-vee_, which is still much relished by the Indians, and
+is a prominent dish at their feasts.
+
+The manner of catching grasshoppers was to dig a large hole,
+somewhat in the shape of a fly trap, with the bottom larger
+than the opening at the top, so that the insects could not
+readily get out of it. This hole was dug in the center of a
+meadow, which was then surrounded by Indians armed with small
+boughs, who beat the grasshoppers towards a common center and
+drove them into the trap. A fire was then kindled on top of them,
+and after they had been well roasted they were gathered up and
+stored for future use.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+A WOOD GATHERER.
+As in all Indian tribes, the women do most of the work.]
+
+Other articles of food were various kinds of roots, grasses and
+herbage, some of which were cooked, while others were eaten in
+their natural condition. The lupine (_Lupinus bicolor_ and other
+species), whose brilliant flowers are such a beautiful feature of
+all the mountain meadows in the spring and summer, was a favorite
+plant for making what white people would call "greens," and when
+eaten was frequently moistened with some of the manzanita cider
+already referred to. Among the roots used for food were those of
+the wild caraway (_Carum_), wild hyacinth (_Brodioea_), sorrel
+(_Oxalis_), and camass (_Camassia esculenta_).
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Five
+
+RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND BELIEFS.
+
+
+The Indians of this region, in common with most, if not all, of
+the North American aborigines, were of a highly religious
+temperament, most devout in their beliefs and observances, and
+easily wrought upon by the priests or medicine men of their
+tribes. Elaborate ceremonies were carried out, in which all of
+the details were highly symbolical, and some of their curious and
+picturesque superstitions were responsible for acts of cruelty
+and vengeance, which in many cases were foreign to their natural
+disposition.
+
+
+DANCES.
+
+Dancing was an important part of all religious observances, and
+was practiced purely as a ceremonial, and never for pleasure or
+recreation. Both men and women took part, the men executing a
+peculiar shuffling step which involved a great deal of stamping
+upon the ground with their bare feet, and the women performing a
+curious sideways, swaying motion. Some of the dancers carried
+wands or arrows, and indulged in wild gesticulations. They
+usually circled slowly around a fire, and danced to the point of
+exhaustion, when others would immediately take their places. The
+ceremony was accompanied by the beating of rude drums, and by a
+monotonous chant, which was joined in by all the dancers.
+
+The great occasions for dancing were before going to war, and
+when cremating the bodies of their dead. The war dance was
+probably the most elaborate in costume and other details, and of
+recent years the Indians have sometimes given public exhibitions
+of what purported to be war dances, but these performances, like
+everything else which they do from purely mercenary motives, are
+very poor imitations of the originals, and it is doubtful if they
+have ever allowed a genuine war dance to be witnessed by white
+men.
+
+
+FESTIVALS.
+
+The various tribes in the vicinity of Yosemite Valley are
+accustomed to hold a great meeting or festival once a year, each
+tribe taking its turn as hosts, and the others sometimes coming
+from considerable distances. At these meetings there are dances
+and other ceremonials, and also a grand feast, for which
+extensive preparations are made. Another feature of the occasion
+is the presentation of gifts to the visiting tribes, consisting
+of money, blankets, clothing, baskets, bead-work, or other
+valuable articles. These presents, or their equivalent, no matter
+how small they may be, are always returned to the givers at the
+next annual festival, together with additional gifts, which, in
+turn, must be given back the following year, and so on.
+
+At these gatherings an Indian is appointed to secure and keep on
+hand a good supply of wood for the camp fires, and every day he
+spreads a blanket on the ground and sits on it, and the other
+Indians throw money, clothing, or other contributions, into the
+blanket, to pay him and his assistants for their services. At
+other times this man acts as a messenger or news carrier--first
+spreading his blanket to collect his fees, and then starting off
+on his mission.
+
+
+MARRIAGE.
+
+Many of the Indians in Mariposa and adjoining counties were
+polygamists, having two or three, and sometimes more, wives. Some
+of the chiefs and head men would have wives from several of the
+adjacent tribes, which had a tendency to establish permanent
+friendly relations among them.
+
+Every man who took a young woman for his wife had to buy her.
+Young women were considered by their parents as personal
+chattels, subject to sale to the highest suitable bidder, and the
+payment of the price constituted the main part of the marriage
+ceremony. The wife was then the personal property of the husband,
+which he might sell or gamble away if he wished; but such
+instances were said to be very rare. In case negotiations for a
+marriage fell through, the preliminary payments were scrupulously
+returned to the rejected suitor by the parents.
+
+Even a widow, independent of control in the matter of marriage,
+if she consented to become a man's wife, received some
+compensation herself from her intended husband.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Dore_.
+A YOUNG YOSEMITE.
+The babies are tied to their baskets to make them straight, and
+keep them out of mischief.]
+
+It is said that in their marital relations they were as a rule
+strictly faithful to each other. If the woman was found to be
+guilty of unfaithfulness to her husband, the penalty was death.
+Such a thing as a man whipping or beating his wife was never
+known. Whipping under any circumstances was considered a more
+humiliating and disgraceful punishment than death.
+
+Even in the management of children, whipping was never resorted
+to as punishment for disobedience. In fact, children were always
+treated in such a kind, patient, loving manner, that disobedience
+was a fault rarely known. The pre-natal maternal influence, and
+subsequent treatment after birth, were such that they were
+naturally patient and readily submissive to kind parental
+control.
+
+In recent years, under the influence and examples often seen in
+what is called civilized life, Indian husbands have been known to
+beat their wives, and mothers to whip their children.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen_.
+LENA AND VIRGIL.
+The canopy of the baby basket is called Cho-ko'-ni and the
+Royal Arches, from their resemblance to it, have also received
+this name from the Indians.]
+
+
+MEDICINE MEN.
+
+At the time of the settlement of California by the whites, every
+Indian tribe had its professional doctors or medicine men, who
+also acted as religious leaders. They were the confidential
+counselors of the chiefs and head-men of the tribes, and had
+great influence and control over the people. They claimed to be
+spiritual mediums, and to have communication with the departed
+spirits of some of their old and most revered chieftains and dear
+friends, now in a much more happy condition than when here in
+earthly life. They were thought to be endowed with supernatural
+powers, not only in curing all diseases (except those due to old
+age), but also in making a well person sick at their pleasure,
+even at a distance; but when their sorcery failed to work on
+their white enemies and exterminate them, they lost the
+confidence of their followers to a large extent.
+
+With the invasion of the white settlers came forced changes in
+their old customs and manner of living, and a new variety of
+epidemic and other diseases. When a doctor failed to cure these
+diseases, and several deaths occurred in quick succession in a
+camp, they believed the doctor was under the control of some evil
+spirit, and killed him.
+
+After the Indians were given their freedom from the reservations
+in 1855, the old ones, subdued and broken-hearted, sickened and
+died very fast, and most of the men doctors were killed off in a
+few years. There are none known who now attempt to act in that
+capacity.
+
+There are still some women doctors who continue to practice the
+magic art, but as there are now but very few Indians, there is
+not so much sickness, and very few deaths in a year, so that the
+doctors very rarely forfeit their lives by many of their patients
+dying in quick succession.
+
+Their most common mode of treatment in cases of sickness was to
+scarify the painful locality with the sharp edge of a piece of
+obsidian, and suck out the blood with the mouth. In cases of
+headache, the forehead was operated on; in a case of colic the
+abdomen was treated in the same way, as were also all painful
+swellings on any part of the body.
+
+The grand object of the doctor was to make the patient and
+family firmly believe that his course of treatment was removing
+the cause of the sickness. To aid in strengthening this belief,
+after diagnosing the case, and before commencing operations, he
+would quietly retire for a short time, ostensibly to get under
+the influence of the divine healing spirit, but in reality to
+fill his mouth with several small articles, such as bits of wood
+or stone; he was then ready to commence treatment. After sucking
+and spitting pure blood a few times, he began to spit out with
+the blood, one after another, the things he had in his mouth, at
+the sight of which all the attendants would join in a chorus of
+grunts of astonishment, and the doctor would pretend to be very
+much nauseated. In most ordinary cases two or three treatments
+effected a cure.
+
+The doctors also made use of certain rare medicinal plants in
+treating some diseases. The Indian women have great faith in
+charms made of the pungent roots of some rare plants from the
+high mountain ranges, which they wear on strings around their
+necks, or on a string of beads, to protect them from sickness.
+
+In cases of malignant sores or ulcers on any part of the body,
+the doctors treated them by applying dirt or earth, and in warm
+weather would excavate a place in the ground and put the patient
+in it, either in a sitting or recumbent position, as the nature
+of the case required, and cover the affected part with earth for
+several hours, daily. Sometimes, by this mode of treatment,
+wonderful cures were made.
+
+In all cases, if a doctor failed to cure a disease, and the
+patient died, he was obliged to refund to the relatives any fee
+which he had received for his services.
+
+
+DISPOSING OF THE DEAD.
+
+In the early days of the settlement of California, it seemed to
+be the universal custom of the Indians along the foothills of the
+Sierra Nevada range of mountains to burn the bodies of their
+dead.
+
+A suitable pile of readily combustible wood was prepared. The
+body was taken charge of by persons chosen to perform the last
+sacred rites, and firmly bound in skins or blankets, and then
+placed upon the funeral pyre, with all the personal effects of
+the deceased, together with numerous votive offerings from
+friends and relatives. The chief mourners of the occasion seemed
+to take but little active part in the ceremonies. When all was
+ready, one of the assistants would light the fire, and the
+terrible, wailing, mournful cry would commence, and the
+professional chanters, with peculiar sidling movements and
+frantic gestures, would circle round and round about the burning
+pile. Occasionally, on arriving at the northwest corner of the
+pile, they would stop, and, pointing to the West, would end a
+crying refrain by exclaiming "_Him-i-la'-ha!_" When these
+became exhausted, others would step in and take their places, and
+thus keep up the mournful ceremony until the whole pile was
+consumed.
+
+After the pile had cooled, the charred bones and ashes were
+gathered up, a few pieces of bone selected, and the remainder
+buried. Of the pieces retained, some would be sent to distant
+relatives, and the others pounded to a fine powder, then mixed
+with pine pitch and plastered on the faces of the nearest female
+relatives as a badge of mourning, to be kept there until it
+naturally wore off. Every Indian camp used to have some of these
+hideous looking old women in it in the "early days."
+
+One principal reason for burning the bodies of the dead was the
+belief that there is an evil spirit, waiting and watching for the
+animating spirit or soul to leave the body, that he may get it to
+take to his own world of darkness and misery. By burning the
+perishable body they thought that the immortal soul would be more
+quickly released and set free to speed to the happy spirit world
+in the _El-o'-win_, or far distant West, while with their loud,
+wailing cries the evil spirit was kept away.
+
+The young women take great care of their long, shiny, black hair,
+of which they all feel very proud, as adding much to their
+personal beauty, and they seldom have it cut before marriage. But
+upon the death of a husband the wife has her hair all cut off and
+burned with his body, so that he may still have it in his future
+spirit home, to love and caress as a memento of his living
+earth-wife.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen_.
+OLD KALAPINE.
+One of the oldest Indians in the Valley. The short hair is a
+badge of widowhood.]
+
+These Indians believe that everything on earth, both natural and
+artificial, is endowed with an immortal spirit, which is
+indestructible, and that whatever personal property or precious
+gifts are burned, either with the body or in later years for the
+departed friend's benefit, will be received and made use of in
+the spirit world. In recent years the Yosemites and other
+remnants of tribes closely associated with them, have adopted the
+custom of the white people, and bury their dead. The fine,
+expensive blankets, and most beautifully worked baskets, which
+have been kept sacredly in hiding for many years, to be buried
+with the owner, are now cut into small fragments before being
+deposited in the ground, for fear some white person will
+desecrate the grave by digging them up and carrying them away.
+
+There are no people in the world who more reverence for their
+dead, or hold memory more sacred, than these so-called "Digger"
+Indians. After being released from the reservations they kept
+themselves in abject poverty for many sacrificing their best
+blankets, baskets and clothing in the devouring flames of a fire
+kindled for that purpose, when holding their annual mourning
+festivals in memory of their dead friends.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS BELIEFS.
+
+The old Indians are all very reticent regarding their religious
+beliefs. They hold them too sacred to be exposed to possible
+ridicule, and it is therefore very difficult to get information
+from them by direct questions.
+
+They seem, however, to have a vague, indistinct belief or
+tradition that their original ancestors, in the long forgotten
+past, dwelt in a better and much more desirable country than
+this, in the _El-o'-win_, or distant West, and that by some
+misfortune or great calamity they were separated from that nappy
+land, and became wanderers in this part of the world. They also
+believe that the spirits of all good Indians will be permitted,
+after death, to go back to that happy country of their ancestors'
+origin; but that the spirits of bad Indians have to serve another
+earth life in the form of a grizzly bear, as a punishment for
+their former crimes. Hence, no Indians ever eat bear meat if
+they know it.
+
+All the old Indians are spiritualists, and very superstitious in
+their religious beliefs. One special tenet is that if one of
+their relatives or friends has been murdered, he will not receive
+them on terms of friendship in the spirit world unless they
+revenge his death, by either killing the murderer or some one of
+the same blood. This belief sometimes results in an entirely
+innocent person being put to death.
+
+They all have a great fear of evil spirits, which they believe
+have the power to do them much harm and defeat their
+undertakings. They also have a fairly distinct idea of a Diety or
+Great Spirit, who never does them any harm, and whose home is in
+the happy land of their ancestors in the West.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen_.
+YOSEMITE BASKETRY.
+The Ellen Boysen collection of baskets and bead work.]
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Six
+
+NATIVE INDUSTRIES.
+
+
+The Yosemites and other kindred or adjacent tribes have been
+branded as "Diggers," and are generally thought to be the lowest
+class of Indians in America, but in some lines of artistic work
+they excelled all other tribes. For example, their basketry work,
+for domestic and sacred purposes, and their bows and arrows, were
+of very superior workmanship and fine finish.
+
+
+BASKETRY AND BEAD WORK.
+
+Many years ago the chief industry of the Indian women, aside from
+their other domestic duties, was the making of baskets. They made
+a great variety of shapes and sizes for their common use, and
+also many of a more artistic design and finer finish for the
+sacred purpose of being burned or buried with their bodies, or
+that of some relative or dear friend, after death. The baskets
+devoted to this special purpose are the finest made, but are very
+seldom seen by any white person, and are not for sale at any
+price. This finest style of work seems to have been made a
+specialty by certain of the most artistic workers in each tribe.
+
+[Illustration: MRS. JORGENSEN'S COLLECTION OF BASKETS.
+For the mythical origin of basket-making in the Yosemite see
+"Legend of To-tau-kon-nu'-la and Tis-sa'-ack."]
+
+At the present time, in their more modern style of living, they
+do not require so many baskets, and the industry of making them
+is fast on the decline. Some of the old women, however, still
+continue to make such as are required for their own use, and a
+few others for sale.
+
+Most of the ornamental figures and designs worked into the finest
+basketry are symbolical in character, and of so ancient an origin
+that Indians of the present day do not know what many of them are
+intended to represent. They have simply been copied from time
+immemorial, with the idea that they were necessary for the
+complete finish and beauty of the article made.
+
+In recent years they sometimes make use of more modern styles of
+ornamentation, which they see in print.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+INDIAN BEAD WORK.
+Mrs. George Fiske's collection of Yosemite and Pai-ute' bead
+work.]
+
+Many of the young women are now giving their attention to making
+fancy bead work, in the form of ornamental belts and hat-bands,
+but this is an industry of very modern origin. Some of them are
+employed by white people to do laundry and other work, and any
+labor of this kind pays them better than making baskets for sale.
+Forty years ago a finely made basket could have been bought for
+less than ten dollars. At present, if the time spent in getting
+and preparing the necessary materials, and in working them into
+the basket, were paid for at the same rate per day that a young
+woman receives for doing washing in the hotel laundry, or for
+private families, it would amount to over one hundred dollars.
+
+Most of the baskets made for domestic use are so closely woven
+that they are practically water-tight, and are used for cooking
+and similar purposes. Over on the eastern side of the Sierra
+Nevada Mountains, near the dry, desert country, the Indians make
+some of their baskets in the form of jugs of various sizes. These
+are smeared over with a pitch composition, which renders them
+perfectly water-tight, and they are used for carrying water when
+traveling over those desolate, sandy wastes.
+
+
+BOWS AND ARROWS.
+
+The Indian men showed no less ingenuity artistic skill in their
+special lines of work than the women, especially in manufacture
+of their bows and arrows, in the making of fish lines and coarser
+twine out of the soft, flexible bark of the milkweed (_Asclepias
+speciosa_), and in making other useful implements and utensils
+with the very limited means at their disposal.
+
+Their bows were made of a branch of the incense cedar
+(_Libocedrus decurrens_), or of the California nutmeg (_Tumion
+Californicum [Torreya])_, made flat on the outer side, and
+rounded smooth on the inner or concave side when the bow is
+strung for use. The flat, outer side was covered with sinew,
+usually that from the leg of a deer, steeped in hot water until
+it became soft and glutinous, and then laid evenly and smoothly
+over the wood, and so shaped at the ends as to hold the string in
+place. When thoroughly dry the sinew contracted, so that the bow
+when not strung was concave on the outer side.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen._
+A BASKET MAKER.
+She is weaving a burden basket. The one to the left is for
+cooking, and a baby basket stands against the tent.]
+
+When not in use the bow was always left unstrung. To string it
+for use, it was necessary in cold weather to warm it, thus making
+it more elastic and easily bent. The best strings were also
+made of sinew, or of pax-wax cartilage, for their finest bows.
+
+The arrows were made of reeds and various kinds of wood,
+including the syringa (_Philadelphus Lewisii_) and a small shrub
+or tree which the Indians called _Le-ham'-i-tee,_ or
+arrow-wood, and which grew quite plentifully in what is now known
+as Indian Canyon, near the Yosemite Falls.
+
+The finest arrows were furnished with points made of obsidian, or
+volcanic glass, which was obtained in the vicinity of Mono Lake
+on the eastern side of the Sierras. It required great care and
+delicate skill to work this brittle material into the fine sharp
+points, and the making of them seemed to be a special business or
+trade with some of the old men. Arrows furnished with these
+points were only used in hunting large game, or in hostile combat
+with enemies; for common use, in hunting small game, the hard
+wooden arrow was merely sharpened to a point.
+
+The butt, or end used on the string, was furnished with three or
+four short strips of feathers taken from a hawk's wing, and
+fastened on lengthwise. These strips of feathers are supposed to
+aid in the more accurate flight of the arrow when shot from the
+bow.
+
+When out on a hunt the Indian carried his bow strung ready for
+use, and his bundle of assorted arrows in a quiver made of the
+skin of a small fox, wild-cat or fisher, hung conveniently over
+his shoulder.
+
+These primitive weapons, which were in universal use by the
+Yosemite Indians fifty years ago, are now never seen except in
+some collection of Indian relics and curios.
+
+Other articles manufactured by these tribes were stone hammers,
+and also others made from the points of deer horns mounted on
+wooden handles, which they used in delicately chipping the
+brittle obsidian in forming arrowheads. Rude musical instruments,
+principally drums and flageolets, were also made.
+
+
+
+
+Chapter Seven.
+
+MYTHS AND LEGENDS.
+
+
+The Indians of the Yosemite Valley and vicinity have a great fund
+of mythological lore, which has been handed down verbally from
+generation to generation for hundreds of years, but they are very
+reluctant to speak of these legends to white people, and it is
+extremely difficult to get reliable information on the subject.
+Moreover, the Indians most familiar with them have not a
+sufficient knowledge of the English language to be able to
+express their ideas clearly.
+
+Many Yosemite legends have been published at different times and
+in various forms, and it is probable that most of them have had
+at least a foundation in real Indian myths, but many are
+obviously fanciful in some particulars, and it is impossible to
+tell how much is of Indian origin and how much is due to poetic
+embellishment. When asked about some of these legends, many years
+ago, one of the old Yosemite Indians remarked contemptuously,
+"White man too much lie."
+
+On the other hand, red men as well as white men are sometimes
+given to romancing, and I have known of cases where "legends"
+would be manufactured on the spur of the moment by some young
+Indian to satisfy an importunate and credulous questioner, to the
+keen but suppressed amusement of other Indians present.
+
+It will therefore be seen that this subject is surrounded with
+some difficulty, and it must not be understood that the legends
+here given are vouched for as of wholly Indian origin. Some of
+them, notably those of the Tul-tok'-a-na and the second legend
+of Tis-sa'-ack, have been accepted by eminent ethnologists, and
+are believed to be purely aboriginal, while others have doubtless
+been somewhat idealized in translation and in the course of
+numerous repetitions.
+
+The legend of To-tau-kon-nu'-la and Tis-sa'-ack is made up of
+fragments of mythological lore obtained from a number of old
+Indians at various times during the past fifty years. It varies
+somewhat from other legends which have been published regarding
+these same characters, but it is well known that the Indians
+living in Yosemite in recent years are of mixed tribal origin and
+do not all agree as to the traditional history of the region, nor
+the names of the prominent scenic features, nor even of the
+Valley itself. And this largely accounts for the fact that some
+of the legends do not harmonize with each other in details or in
+sentiment. All of them, however, are picturesque, and they
+certainly give an added interest to the natural beauties and
+wonders with which they are associated.
+
+
+LEGEND OF TO-TAU-KON-NU'-LA AND TIS-SA'-ACK.
+
+Innumerable moons and snows have passed since the Great Spirit
+guided a little band of his favorite children into the beautiful
+vale of Ah-wah'-nee [Yosemite Valley], and bid them stop and
+rest from their long and weary wanderings, which had lasted ever
+since they had been separated by the great waters from the happy
+land of their forefathers in the far distant _El-o'-win_
+(West).
+
+Here they found food in abundance for all. The rivers gave them
+plenty of _la-pe'-si_ (trout). They found in the meadows sweet
+_ha'-ker_ (clover), and sour _yu-yu-yu-mah_ (oxalis) for spring
+medicine, and sweet _toon'-gy_ and other edible roots in
+abundance. The trees and bushes yielded acorns, pine nuts, fruits
+and berries. In the forests were herds of _he'-ker_ (deer) and
+other animals, which gave meat for food and skins for clothing
+and beds. And here they lived and multiplied, and, as instructed
+by their medicine men, worshipped the Great Spirit which gave
+them life, and the sun which warmed and made them happy.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Boysen_.
+MARY.
+Daughter of Captain John, one of the last Chiefs of the
+Yosemites.]
+
+They also kept in memory the happy land of their forefathers. The
+story was told by the old people to the young, and they again
+told it to their children from generation to generation, and they
+all believed that after death their spirits would return to dwell
+forever in that distant country.
+
+They prospered and built other towns outside of Ah-wah'-nee,
+and became a great nation. They learned wisdom by experience and
+by observing how the Great Spirit taught the animals and insects
+to live, and they believed that their children could absorb the
+cunning of the wild creatures. And so the young son of their
+chieftain was made to sleep in the skins of the beaver and
+coyote, that he might grow wise in building, and keen of scent in
+following game. On some days he was fed with _la-pe'-si_ that
+he might become a good swimmer, and on other days the eggs of the
+great _to-tau'-kon_ (crane) were his food, that he might grow
+tall and keen of sight, and have a clear, ringing voice. He was
+also fed on the flesh of the _he'-ker_ that he might be fleet
+of foot, and on that of the great _yo-sem'-i-te_ (grizzly bear)
+to make him powerful in combat.
+
+And the little boy grew up and became a great and wise chieftain,
+and he was also a rain wizard, and brought timely rains for the
+crops.
+
+As was the custom in giving names to all Indians, his name was
+changed from time to time, as his character developed, until he
+was called Choo'-too-se-ka', meaning the Supreme Good. His
+grand _o-chum_ (house) was built at the base of the great rock
+called To-tau-kon-nu'-la [El Capitan], because the great
+_to-tau'-kons_ made their nests and raised their young in a
+meadow at its summit, and their loud ringing cries resounded over
+the whole Valley.
+
+As the moons and snows passed, this great rock and all the great
+rocky walls around the Valley grew in height, and the hills
+became high mountains.
+
+After a time Choo'-too-se-ka' built himself a great palace
+_o'-chum_ on the summit of the rock To-tau-kon-nu'-la, and
+had his great chair of state a little west of his palace, where
+on all festival occasions he could overlook and talk to the great
+multitude below; and the remains of this chair are still to be
+seen.
+
+Choo'-too-se-ka' was then named To-tau-kon-nu'-la, because
+he had built his _o'-chum_ on the summit of the great rock and
+taken the place of the _to-tau'-kons_. He had no wife, but all
+the women served him in his domestic needs, as he was their great
+chief, and his wishes were paramount. The many valuable donations
+which he received from his people at the great annual festivals
+made him wealthy beyond all personal wants, and he gave freely to
+the needy.
+
+One day, while standing on the top of the great dome [Sentinel
+Dome] above the south wall of the Valley, watching the great
+herds of deer, he saw some strange people approaching, bearing
+heavy burdens. They were fairer of skin, and their clothing was
+different from that of his people, and when they drew near he
+asked them who they were and whence they came.
+
+And a woman replied, "I am Tis-sa'-ack, and these are some of
+my people. We come from _cat'-tan chu'-much_ (far South). I
+have heard of your great wisdom and goodness, and have come to
+see you and your people. We bring you presents of many fine
+baskets, and beads of many colors, as tokens of our friendship.
+When we have rested and seen your people and beautiful valley we
+will return to our home."
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Foley_
+HALF DOME (TIS-SA'-ACK). 5,000 Feet.
+Named for a woman in Indian mythology who was turned to stone for
+quarreling with her husband. See "Legend of Tis-sa'-ack."]
+
+To-tau-kon-nu'-la was much pleased with his fair visitor, and
+built a large _o'-chum_ for her and her companions on the
+summit of the great dome at the east end of the Valley [Half
+Dome], and this dome still retains her name.
+
+And she tarried there and taught the women of Ah-wah'-nee how
+to make the beautiful baskets which they still make at the
+present day; and To-tau-kon-nu'-la visited her daily, and
+became charmed with her loveliness, and wanted her to remain and
+be his wife, but she denied him, saying, "I must return to my
+people," and, when he still persisted, she left her _o'-chum_
+in the night and was never seen again. And the love-stricken
+chieftain forgot his people, and went in search of her, and they
+waited many moons for his return and mourned his long absence,
+but they never saw him more.
+
+This was the beginning of a series of calamities which nearly
+destroyed the great tribe of Ah-wah-nee'-chees. First a great
+drouth prevailed, and the crops failed, and the streams of water
+dried up. The deer went wild and wandered away. Then a dark cloud
+of smoke arose in the East and obscured the sun, so that it gave
+no heat, and many of the people perished from cold and hunger.
+Then the earth shook terribly and groaned with great pain, and
+enormous rocks fell from the walls around Ah-wah'-nee. The
+great dome called Tis-sa'-ack was burst asunder, and half of it
+fell into the Valley. A fire burst out of the earth in the East,
+and the _ca'-lah_ (snow) on the sky mountains was changed to
+water, which flowed down and formed the Lake Ah-wei'-yah
+[Mirror Lake]. And all the streams were filled to overflowing,
+and still the waters rose, and there was a great flood, so that a
+large part of the Valley became a lake, and many persons were
+drowned.
+
+After a time the Great Spirit took pity on his children, and the
+dark cloud of smoke disappeared, the sun warmed the Valley again
+into new life, and the few people who were left had plenty of
+food once more.
+
+Many moons afterwards there appeared on the face of the great
+rock To-tau-kon-nu'-la the figure of a man in a flowing robe,
+and with one hand extended toward the West, in which direction he
+appears to be traveling. This figure was interpreted to be the
+picture of the great lost Chieftain, indicating that he had gone
+to the "happy hunting grounds" of his ancestors, and it is looked
+upon with great veneration and awe by the few Indians still
+living in Yosemite. At about the same time the face of the
+beautiful Tis-sa'-ack appeared on the great flat side of the
+dome which bears her name, and the Indians recognized her by the
+way in which her dark hair was cut straight across her forehead
+and fell down at the sides, which was then considered among the
+Yosemites as the acme of feminine beauty, and is so regarded to
+this day.
+
+
+ANOTHER LEGEND OF TIS-SA'-ACK.
+
+Tis-sa'-ack and her husband traveled from a far-off country,
+and entered the Valley footsore and weary. She walked ahead,
+carrying a great conical burden-basket, which was supported by a
+band across her forehead, and was filled with many things. He
+followed after, carrying a rude staff in his hand and a roll of
+woven skin blankets over his shoulder. They had come across the
+mountains and were very thirsty, and they hurried to reach the
+Valley, where they knew there was water. The woman was still far
+in advance when she reached the Lake Ah-wei'-yah [Mirror Lake],
+and she dipped up the water in her basket and drank long and
+deep. She was so thirsty that she even drank up all the water in
+the lake and drained it dry before her husband arrived. And
+because the lake was dry there came a terrible drouth in the
+Valley, and the soil was dried up and nothing grew.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_
+A BURDEN BEARER.
+The women are the principal burden bearers and all loads are
+carried in large baskets, supported by a band across the
+forehead.]
+
+And the husband was much displeased because the woman had drunk
+up all the water and left none for him, and he became so angry
+that he forgot the customs of his people and beat the woman with
+his staff. She ran away from him, but he followed her and beat
+her yet more. And she wept, and in her anger she turned and
+reviled her husband, and threw her basket at him. And while they
+were in this attitude, one facing the other, they were turned
+into stone for their wickedness, and there they still retain. The
+upturned basket lies beside the husband, where the woman threw
+it, and the woman's face is tear stained with long dark lines
+trailing down.
+
+Half-Dome is the woman Tis-sa'-ack and North Dome is her
+husband, while beside the latter is a smaller dome which is still
+called Basket Dome to this day.
+
+
+LEGEND OF THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
+
+The significance and derivation of the name "Yosemite," as given
+by old Tenei'-ya, chief of the tribe, have been explained in
+another chapter, but there is also a legendary account of its
+origin, which may be of interest.
+
+Long, long ago, when the remote ancestors of the Yosemite Indians
+dwelt peacefully in the valley called Ah-wah'-nee [Yosemite
+Valley], one of the stalwart young braves of the tribe went early
+one morning to spear some fish in the lake Ah-wei'-yah [Mirror
+Lake]. Before reaching his destination he was confronted by a
+huge grizzly bear, who appeared from behind one of the enormous
+boulders in that vicinity, and savagely disputed his passage.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Foley._
+EL CAPITAN (TO-TAU-KON-NU'-LA), 3,300 Feet.
+Indians believe that this great rock grew from a small boulder.
+See "Legend of the Tul-tok'-a-na."]
+
+Being attacked in this unexpected manner, the Indian defended
+himself to the best of his ability, using for the purpose the
+dead limb of a tree which was near at hand, and, after a long and
+furious struggle, in which he was badly wounded, he at length
+succeeded in killing the bear.
+
+His exploit was considered so remarkable by the rest of the tribe
+that they called him Yo-sem'-i-te (meaning a full-grown grizzly
+bear), in honor of his achievement, and this name was transmitted
+to his children, and eventually to the whole tribe.
+
+
+LEGEND OF THE TUL-TOK'-A-NA.
+
+There were once two little boys living in the Valley of
+Ah-wah'-nee, who went down to the river to swim. When they had
+finished their bath they went on shore and lay down on a large
+boulder to dry themselves in the sun. While lying there they fell
+asleep, and slept so soundly that they never woke up again.
+Through many moons and many snows they slept, and while they
+slept the great rock [El Capitan] on which they lay was slowly
+rising, little by little, until it soon lifted them up out of
+sight, and their friends searched for them everywhere without
+success. Thus they were carried up into the blue sky, until
+they scraped their faces against the moon; and still they slept
+on.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+NORTH DOME (TO-KO'-YA). 3,725 Feet.
+This rock is believed by the Indians to represent Tis-sa'-ack's
+husband, turned into stone for beating his wife. The lower dome
+to the right is the basket which she threw at him. See "Legend of
+Tis-sa'-ack."]
+
+Then all the animals assembled to bring down the little boys from
+the top of the great rock. Each animal sprang up the face of the
+rock as far as he could. The mouse could only spring a hand's
+breadth, the rat two hands' breadths, the raccoon a little more,
+and so on. The grizzly bear made a great leap up the wall, but
+fell back like all the others, without reaching the top. Finally
+came the lion, who jumped up farther than any of the others, but
+even he fell back and could not reach the top.
+
+Then came the _tul-tok'-a-na,_ the insignificant measuring
+worm, who was despised by all the other creatures, and began to
+creep up the face of the rock. Step by step, little by little, he
+measured his way up until he was soon above the lion's jump, and
+still farther and farther, until presently he was out of sight;
+and still he crawled up and up, day and night, through many
+moons, and at length he reached the top, and took the little boys
+and brought them safely down to the ground. And therefore the
+rock was named for the measuring worm, and was called
+Tu-tok-a-nu'-la.
+
+
+LEGEND OF GROUSE LAKE.
+
+I will here relate a personal experience which occurred in
+September, 1857, while out with a large party of Indians on a
+deer hunt in the mountains.
+
+One day, after a long tramp, I stopped to rest by the side of a
+small lake about eight miles from the present site of Wawona, and
+I then named it Grouse Lake on account of the great number of
+grouse found there. Very soon a party of Indians came along
+carrying some deer, and stopped on the opposite side of the lake
+to rest and get some water. Soon after they had started again for
+their camp I heard a distinct wailing cry, somewhat like the cry
+of a puppy when lost, and I thought the Indians must have left
+one of their young dogs behind.
+
+When I joined the Indians in camp that night I inquired of them
+about the sound I had heard. They replied that it was not a
+dog--that a long time ago an Indian boy had been drowned in the
+lake, and that every time any one passed there he always cried
+after them, and that no one dared to go in the lake, for he
+would catch them by the legs and pull them down and they would,
+be drowned. I then concluded that it must have been some unseen
+water-fowl that made the cry, and at that time I thought that the
+Indians were trying to impose on my credulity, but I am now
+convinced that they fully believed the story they told me.
+
+Po-ho'-no Lake, the headwaters of the Bridal Veil Creek, was
+also thought to be haunted by troubled spirits, which affected
+the stream clear down into the Yosemite Valley; and the Indians
+believed that an evil wind there had been the cause of some fatal
+accidents many years ago. The word Po-ho'-no means a puffing
+wind, and has also been translated "Evil Wind," on account of the
+superstition above referred to.
+
+
+LEGEND OF THE LOST ARROW.
+
+Tee-hee'-nay was a beautiful Ah-wah'-nee maiden, said to be
+the most beautiful of her tribe, and she was beloved by
+Kos-su'-kah, a strong and valiant young brave. Valuable
+presents had been made to the bride's parents, and they had given
+their consent to an early marriage, which was to be celebrated by
+a great feast.
+
+To provide an abundance of venison and other meat for this
+banquet, Kos-su'-kah gathered together his young companions and
+went into the mountains in search of game. In order that
+Tee-hee'-nay might know of his welfare and the success of the
+hunt, it was agreed between the lovers that at sunset Kos-su'-kah
+should go to the high rock to the east of Cho'-lak [Yosemite
+Falls], and should shoot an arrow into the Valley, to which
+should be attached a number of grouse feathers corresponding to
+the number of deer that had fallen before the skill of the
+hunters.
+
+[Illustration: _Photograph by Fiske_.
+BRIDAL VEIL FALL (PO-HO'-NO).  940 Feet.
+The-source of this stream is supposed by the Indians to be
+haunted by troubled spirits, which affect the water along its
+whole course. The word Po-ho'-no means a "puffing wind."]
+
+At the time appointed Tee-hee'-nay went near the foot of the
+great cliff and waited, with her eyes raised to the towering
+rocks above, hoping with her keen sight to see the form of her
+lover outlined against the sky, but no form could she see, and no
+arrow fell into the Valley. As darkness gathered, gloomy
+forebodings took possession of her, and she climbed part way up
+the canyon called Le-ham'-i-tee [now known as Indian Canyon]
+because the arrow-wood grew there, and finally she stood at the
+very foot of the rocky wall which rose to dizzy heights above
+her, and there she waited through the long night.
+
+With the first streak of dawn she bounded swiftly up the rough
+canyon, for she was fully convinced that some terrible fate had
+overtaken the brave Kos-su'-kah, and soon she stood upon the
+lofty summit [Yosemite Point], where she found her lover's
+footsteps leading towards the edge of the precipice. Drawing
+nearer she was startled to find that a portion of the cliff had
+given way, and, upon peering over the brink, what was her horror
+to discover the blood-stained and lifeless body of Kos-su'-kah
+lying on a rocky ledge far beneath.
+
+Summoning assistance by means of a signal fire, which was seen
+from the Valley below, a rope was made of sapling tamaracks
+lashed firmly together with thongs from one of the deer that was
+to have furnished the marriage feast, and Tee-hee'-nay herself
+insisted on being lowered over the precipice to recover the body
+of her lover. This was at last successfully accomplished, and
+when his ghastly form lay once more upon the rocky summit, she
+threw herself on his bosom and gave way to passionate outburst of
+grief.
+
+Finally she became quiet, but when they stooped to raise her they
+found that her spirit had fled to join the lost Kos-su'-kah and
+that the lovers were re-united in death!
+
+The fateful arrow that was the cause of so much sorrow could
+never be found, and the Indians believe that it was taken away by
+the spirits of Kos-su'-kah and Tee-hee'-nay. In memory of
+them, and of this tragedy, the slender spire of rock [sometimes
+called "The Devil's Thumb"] that rises heavenward near the top of
+the cliff at this point is known among the Indians as Hum-mo',
+or the Lost Arrow.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix
+
+HINTS TO YOSEMITE VISITORS.
+
+
+Secure stage seats in advance.
+
+Take only hand baggage, unless for a protracted visit. For a
+short trip, an outing suit and two or three waists, with a change
+for evening wear, will be found sufficient. The free baggage
+allowance on the stage lines is fifty pounds.
+
+Men will find flannel or negligee shirts the most comfortable.
+
+In April, May and June wear warm clothing and take heavy wraps.
+In July, August and September wear medium clothing, with light
+wraps. In October and November wear warm clothing, with heavy
+wraps. The nights are cool at all seasons.
+
+Dusters are always advisable, and ladies should provide some
+light head covering to protect the hair from dust. Sun bonnets
+are frequently worn.
+
+Short skirts are most convenient.
+
+Divided skirts are proper for trail trips, as ladies are required
+to ride astride. Heavy denim for skirt and bloomers is very
+satisfactory. Such skirts can be hired in the Valley.
+
+Waists of soft material and neutral shades are appropriate. Avoid
+white.
+
+Something absolutely soft for neckwear will be found a great
+comfort, both by men and women.
+
+Leggings, stout, comfortable shoes, and heavy, loose gloves, will
+be found very serviceable.
+
+A soft felt hat is preferable to straw. One that will shade the
+eyes is best. A cloth traveling cap is the worst thing to wear.
+
+Smoked glasses will sometimes save the wearer a headache.
+
+Except in April, May and November, an umbrella is apt to be a
+useless encumbrance.
+
+If the skin is sensitive, and one wishes to avoid painful
+sunburn, the use of a pure cream and soft cloth is preferable to
+water, and far more efficacious.
+
+A week is the shortest time that should be allowed for a trip to
+Yosemite. Two weeks are better. The grandeur of the Valley cannot
+be fully appreciated in a few days. Those not accustomed to
+staging or mountain climbing should make some allowance in their
+itineraries for rest. Many visitors spoil their pleasure by
+getting too tired.
+
+Take a little more money than you think will be needed. You may
+want to prolong your stay.
+
+Hunting, or the possession of firearms, is not permitted in the
+Yosemite National Park. Fishing is allowed, and in June and July
+an expert angler is likely to be well rewarded. Rods and tackle
+may be hired in the Valley.
+
+There is no hardship, risk or danger in any part of the Yosemite
+trip. Many old people and children visit the Valley without
+difficulty.
+
+A knowledge of horsemanship is not needed for going on the
+trails. The most timid people make the trips with enjoyment. Some
+of the finest views can only be obtained in this way.
+
+There is a laundry in the Valley.
+
+There is a barber shop.
+
+There is a post office, telegraph and express. There is a
+general store and places for the sale of photographs, curios and
+Indian work.
+
+Treat the Indians with courtesy and consideration, if you expect
+similar treatment from them. Do not expect them to pose for you
+for nothing. They are asked to do it hundreds of times every
+summer, and are entitled to payment for their trouble.
+
+Kodak films and plates can be obtained in the Valley.
+
+Developing and printing are done in the Valley.
+
+TAKE YOUR CAMERA.
+
+
+OFFICIAL TABLE OF DISTANCES AND LIVERY CHARGES.
+
+The following are the legal rates for transportation of tourists
+in and about the Yosemite Valley:
+
+CARRIAGES.
+
+FROM HOTELS OR PUBLIC        E D (    R o M    R o F
+CAMPS, AND RETURN.           s i R    a f o    a f o
+                             t s o    t   r    t   u
+                             i t u    e F e    e L r
+                             m a n      o        e
+                             a n d    f u      f s
+                             t c      o r      o s
+                             e e t    r        r
+                             d   r      o        t
+                                 i    P r      P h
+                                 p    a        a a
+                                 )    r        r n
+                                      t        t
+                                      y        y
+
+
+                           Miles      Each     Each
+                                      Person   Person
+To Cascades, Yosemite and
+ Bridal Veil Falls         16.00      $1.50    $2.00
+
+To Mirror Lake              5.82       1.00     1.00
+
+To River View and Bridal
+ Veil Falls                10.41       1.00     1.50
+
+To New Inspiration Point   14.38       2.00     2.50
+
+To Happy Isles              4.00        .50     1.00
+
+To Yosemite Falls           3.00        .50      .75
+
+
+SADDLE HORSES.
+
+----------------------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+FROM HOTELS OR PUBLIC       | Estimated  | Rate for      | Rate for
+CAMPS, AND RETURN.          | Distance   | Party of      | Party of Less
+                            | (Round     | Four or More  | Than Four
+                            | Trip)      |               |
+----------------------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+                            | Miles      | Each Person   | Each Person
+To Vernal and Nevada Falls  | 10.90      | $ 2.50        | $ 3.00
+To Yosemite Falls and Eagle |            |               |
+Peak                        | 13.18      |   3.00        |   3.00
+To Glacier Point and        |            |               |
+Sentinel Dome               | 11.14      |   3.00        |   3.00
+To Yosemite Point           | 10.00      |   2.50        |   3.00
+To Eagle Peak               | 13.00      |   3.00        |   3.00
+To Vernal and Nevada Falls  |            |               |
+and Glacier Point           |            |               |
+(Continuous Trip)           | 19.22      |   4.00        |   5.00
+To Glacier Point, Sentinel  |            |               |
+Dome and Fissures           | 14.00      |   3.50        |   3.75
+To Old Inspiration Point    |            |               |
+and Stanford Point          | 16.00      |   4.00        |   4.00
+To Vernal and Nevada Falls  |            |               |
+and Cloud's Rest (Same Day) | 22.00      |   4.00        |   5.00
+Charges for Guide           |            |               |
+(Including Horse)           |            |               |
+When Furnished              |            |   Free        |   3.00
+----------------------------+------------+---------------+----------
+
+1. Trips other than those above specified shall be subject to
+special arrangements between the parties and the stables.
+
+2. Any excess of the above rates, as well as any extortion,
+incivility, misrepresentation, or riding of unsafe animals,
+should be reported to the Superintendent's office.
+
+3. All distances are estimated from the Superintendent's office.
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE OF DISTANCES.
+
+FROM SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE.
+
+                                          MILES
+Bridal Veil Falls                           4
+Yosemite Falls, base                          3/4
+Upper Yosemite Fall, base                   2 3/4
+Upper Yosemite Fall, top                    4 1/4
+Little Yosemite Valley                      8
+Glacier Point (short trail)                 4 1/2
+Glacier Point (via Nevada Falls)           14 1/2
+Cascades                                    8
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INTERPRETATION OF INDIAN NAMES.
+
+The Indians had names for all the prominent features of the
+Yosemite Valley, and these have been variously translated
+(sometimes with considerable poetic license), and variously
+spelled. The translations given below are as literal as possible,
+without embellishment, and are believed to be fairly accurate.
+The spelling adopted is such as best indicates the pronunciation.
+
+The English names, by which the falls and peaks are commonly
+known, bear no relation to the Indian names, but were bestowed by
+the soldiers of the Mariposa Battalion at the time the Valley
+was discovered. The appropriateness and good taste of most of
+them are due to Dr. L.H. Bunnell, the surgeon of the expedition.
+
+
+AH-WAH'-NEE (original name of Yosemite Valley)--"Deep grassy
+valley."
+
+YO-SEM'-I-TE--"Full-grown grizzly bear."
+
+PO-HO'-NO (Bridal Veil)--"A puffing-wind."
+
+LOI'-YA (The Sentinel)--"A signal station."
+
+CHO'-LACK (Yosemite Falls)--"The falls."
+
+CHO-KO'-NI (Royal Arches)--"Canopy of baby basket." Strictly
+speaking, this name applies only to a deep alcove near the top of
+this cliff.
+
+YO-WEI'-YEE (Nevada)--"Twisting."
+
+TO-TAU-KON-NU'-LA (El Capitan)--Named from the To-tau'-kons,
+or cranes, which used to make their nests in a meadow near the
+top of this rock.
+
+KU-SO'-KO (Cathedral Rock)--Interpretation doubtful.
+
+PU-SEE'-NA CHUCK'-AH (Cathedral Spires)--"Pu-see-na" means
+mouse or rat, and might possibly be applied to a squirrel.
+"Chuck-ah" is a store house or _cache_.
+
+WAW-HAW'-KEE (Three Brothers)--"Falling rocks."
+Pom-pom-pa'-sus, usually given as the Indian name of the Three
+Brothers, is the name of a smaller rock immediately to the West.
+
+WEI-YOW' (Mt. Watkins)--"Juniper Mountain."
+
+TO-KO'-YA (North Dome)--"The Basket."
+
+TIS-SA'-ACK (Half Dome)--A character in Indian mythology.
+
+MAH'-TA (Cap of Liberty)--Said to mean "Martyr Mountain."
+
+PI-WEI'-ACK (Vernal Fall)--Said to mean "Sparkling water."
+
+LE-HAM'-I-TEE (Indian Canyon)--"The place of the arrow-wood."
+
+HUM-MO' (Devil's Thumb)--"The Lost Arrow."
+
+AH-WEI'-YA (Mirror Lake)--"Quiet Water."
+
+TOO-LOO'-LO-WEI-ACK (Illillouette Fall)--Interpretation
+doubtful.
+
+WAH'-WO-NAH--"Big Tree." (Now commonly spelled and pronounced
+Wa-wo'-na.)
+
+
+HEIGHTS OF YOSEMITE'S WATER-FALLS.
+                                               FEET
+
+Cascades                                        700
+Bridal Veil                                     940
+Ribbon                                        3,300
+Sentinel                                      3,270
+Yosemite (Upper 1,600 ft.; Lower 400 ft.)     2,634
+Royal Arch                                    2,000
+Vernal                                          350
+Nevada                                          700
+Illillouette                                    500
+
+
+YOSEMITE'S PEAKS AND DOMES. WITH ALTITUDES ABOVE FLOOR OF VALLEY.
+
+(The Valley Floor is about 4,000 feet above sea level.)
+
+                                     FEET
+
+Inspiration Point                    1,248
+El Capitan                           3,300
+Cathedral Rock                       2,678
+Cathedral Spires                     1,934
+Royal Arches                (span)   2,000
+The Sentinel                         3,100
+Sentinel Dome                        4,122
+Three Brothers                       3,900
+Eagle Peak                           3,900
+Yosemite Point                       3,220
+Glacier Point                        3,250
+North Dome                           3,725
+Half Dome                            5,000
+Cap of Liberty.                      3,062
+Union Point                          2,350
+Cloud's Rest.                        5,912
+Mt. Starr King                       5,100
+
+
+NAMES OF INDIAN NUMERALS.
+
+King-eet'           One
+O-tee'-cat          Two
+Tul-o'-cat          Three
+O-e'-sart           Four
+Mo'-ho''-cat        Five
+Te'-mo''-cat        Six
+Te-tow'-ok          Seven
+Cow-in'-tuk         Eight
+El'-e''-wok         Nine
+Ne-ah'-jah          Ten
+
+Larger numbers are expressed by combinations of these numbers.
+
+
+INDIAN WORDS IN COMMON USE.
+
+Wat-too'          The Sun
+Co'-ma            Moon
+He-a'-mah         Day
+Cow-il'-la        Night
+Tum-aw'-lin       North
+Chu'-muck         South
+He'-home          East
+El-o'-win         West
+Het-a-poo'-pa     Cold
+Wool-tut'-tee     Hat*
+Come'-haw         Burn
+Chum'-haw         Dead or Die
+Na'-win           Up or Above
+Hoo'-ya           Down or Below
+Wool-ar'-nee      To Hunt or Look For
+Took'-hah         To Kill
+E'-win            Now
+Oo'-haw           By and By
+Man'-nik          More
+Ut'-tee           Much
+Wa'-le-co         Quick
+Now'-tah          To Steal
+Nung'-hah         Man
+O'-hock           Woman
+Es-el'-lo         Baby or Infant
+
+*Transcriber's note: This appears to be a typographical error for "Hot."
+See "Central Sierra Miwok Dictionary with Texts" by L. S. Freeland
+and Sylvia M. Broadbent (Publications in Linguistics vol. XXIII,
+University of California Press, Berkeley, 1960).
+
+
+NAMES OF THE INDIAN TRIBES PLACED ON THE FRESNO AND KINGS RIVER
+RESERVATIONS IN 1850 AND 1851.
+
+Names of Tribes--                            From--
+
+Wil-tuk'-um-nees                           Tuolumne River
+Yo-sem'-i-tees                             Yosemite Valley
+Po-to-en'-sees and Noot'-choos             Merced River
+Chow-chil'-lies                            Chowchilla Valley
+Me'-woos                                   Fresno Valley
+Chook-chan'-cies                           Fresno and San Joaquin Rivers
+Ho-na'-ches                                San Joaquin River
+Pit-cal'-chees and Tal-an'-chees           San Joaquin Valley
+Cas-was'-sees                              Fine Gold Gulch
+Wah-too'-kees,  Wat'-chees,
+No'-to-no'-tose and We-mel'-chees          Kings River
+Cow-il'-lees and Tel-um'-nees              Four Creeks
+Woo'-wells and Tal'-chees                  Tule Lake
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Indians of the Yosemite Valley and
+Vicinity, by Galen Clark
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF THE YOSEMITE ***
+
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