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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:49:11 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:49:11 -0700 |
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diff --git a/16575-h/16575-h.htm b/16575-h/16575-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..235b24e --- /dev/null +++ b/16575-h/16575-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,29222 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content= +"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 12 April 2005), see www.w3.org"> +<meta name="description" content="Political Economy"> +<meta name="keywords" content="william playfair, powerful wealthy nations, decline fall"> +<meta name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta name="robots" content="noarchive"> +<meta name="revised" content="22 July, 2005"> +<meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Office HTML Filter 2.0"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=us-ascii"> +<meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 9"> +<title>William Playfair--An Inquiry Into The Permant Causes Of The +Decline And Fall Of Powerful And Wealthy Nations</title> +<style type="text/css"> + +<!-- + +p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal + { + margin:0cm; + margin-bottom:.0001pt; + font-size:12.0pt; + font-family:"Times New Roman";} +p.MsoPlainText, li.MsoPlainText, div.MsoPlainText + {margin:0cm; + margin-bottom:.0001pt; + font-size:10.0pt; + font-family:"Courier New";} +span.msoins0 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel0 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop0 + { + color:white;} +span.msoins1 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel1 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop1 + { + color:white;} +span.msoins2 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel2 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop2 + { + color:white;} +span.msoins3 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel3 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop3 + { + color:white;} +span.msoins4 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel4 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop4 + { + color:white;} +span.msoins5 + { + color:teal; + text-decoration:underline;} +span.msodel5 + { + color:red; + text-decoration:line-through;} +span.msochangeprop5 + { + color:white;} +span.msoIns + { + text-decoration:underline; + color:teal;} +span.msoDel + { + text-decoration:line-through; + color:red;} +span.msoChangeProp + { + color:white;} +body {background:#FFFFCC; } + +--> +</style> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Inquiry into the Permanent Causes of the +Decline and Fall of Powerful and Wealthy Nations., by William Playfair + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Inquiry into the Permanent Causes of the Decline and Fall of Powerful and Wealthy Nations. + Designed To Shew How The Prosperity Of The British Empire + May Be Prolonged + +Author: William Playfair + +Release Date: August 21, 2005 [EBook #16575] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF NATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Robert W. Jones from an original print of the +1st edition held by The British Library, London. (Shelfmark: +432d12/432.d.12). The text was then compared against that +of an original print of the 2nd edition held by the Library +(Archives & Rare Books), London School of Economics and +Political Science. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="Section1"> +<br> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='font-size:10.0pt; color:black'> +This book was copy typed by R.W. Jones (rwj@freeshell.org) from an original print of the 1st edition held by +The British Library, London. (Shelfmark: 432d12/432.d.12). +<br> +The resultant text was then compared, using a text to speech player, against an original print of the 2nd +edition held by the Library (Archives & Rare Books), London School of Economics and Political Science. +This e-text incorporates the (very few) modifications included in the later edition.<br> +Images of the four Charts are not included nor were they or the Indexes of the respective editions compared. +</span></p> +<br> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>{Here appears before +the fly-leaf the first chart, entitled</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>"Chart</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>of</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><i><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Universal +Commercial History</span></i></b><b><span style= +'font-size:8.0pt;color:black'>,</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>from the year 1500 +before the Christian Era</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>TO THE PRESENT YEAR +1805.</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>being a space of +Three Thousand three hundred and four years,</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>by William +Playfair.</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Inventor of Linear +Arithmetic"}</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>AN</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='font-size:16.0pt;color:black'>INQUIRY</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>INTO THE</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='font-size:14.0pt;color:black'>PERMANENT +CAUSES</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>OF THE</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>DECLINE AND FALL</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>OF</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='font-size:15.0pt;color:black'>POWERFUL AND WEALTHY +NATIONS,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>ILLUSTRATED BY FOUR ENGRAVED +CHARTS.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>By</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>WILLIAM PLAYFAIR,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>AUTHOR OF NOTES AND CONTINUATION OF AN +INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS, BY +ADAM SMITH, LL.D. AND INVENTOR OF LINEAR ARITHMETIC, +&C.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>DESIGNED TO SHEW HOW THE</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style= +'font-size:14.0pt;color:black'>PROSPERITY OF THE BRITISH +EMPIRE</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>MAY BE PROLONGED.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>===========================</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>____________________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>THE SECOND EDITION</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>____________________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>LONDON:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>PRINTED FOR GREENLAND AND NORRIS, +BOOKSELLERS, FINSBURY-SQUARE.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>1807.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:black'>W. Marchant, Printer, 3 +Greville-Street, Holborn.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='font-size:14.0pt;color:black'>P R E F A C E.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IF it is of importance to study by what means a nation may acquire +wealth and power, it is not less so to discover by what means +wealth and power, when once acquired, may be preserved.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The latter inquiry is, perhaps, the more important of the two; for +many nations have remained, during a long period, virtuous and +happy, without rising to wealth or greatness; but there is no +example of happiness or virtue residing amongst a fallen +people.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In looking over the globe, if we fix our eyes on those places where +wealth formerly was accumulated, and where commerce flourished, we +see them, at the present day, peculiarly desolated and +degraded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the borders of the Persian Gulf, to the shores of the Baltic +Sea; from Babylon and Palmyra, Egypt, Greece, and Italy; to Spain +and Portugal, and the whole circle of the Hanseatic League, we +trace the same ruinous [end of page #iii] remains of ancient +greatness, presenting a melancholy contrast with the poverty, +indolence, and ignorance, of the present race of inhabitants, and +an irresistible proof of the mutability of human +affairs.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As in the hall, in which there has been a sumptuous banquet, we +perceive the fragments of a feast now become a prey to beggars and +banditti; if, in some instances, the spectacle is less wretched and +disgusting; it is, because the banquet is not entirely over, and +the guests have not all yet risen from the table.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From this almost universal picture, we learn that the greatness of +nations is but of short duration. We learn, also, that the state of +a fallen people is infinitely more wretched and miserable than that +of those who have never risen from their original state of poverty. +It is then well worth while to inquire into the causes of so +terrible a reverse, that we may discover whether they are +necessary, or only natural; and endeavour, if possible, to find the +means by which prosperity may be lengthened out, and the period of +humiliation procrastinated to a distant day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the career of prosperity must necessarily have a termination +amongst every people, yet there is some reason to think that the +degradation, which naturally follows, and which has always followed +hitherto, may be [end of page #iv] averted; whether it may be, or +may not be so, is the subject of the following Inquiry; which, if +it is of importance to any nation on earth, must be peculiarly so +to England; a nation that has risen, both in commerce and power, so +high above the natural level assigned to it by its population and +extent. A nation that rises still, but whose most earnest wish +ought to be rather directed to preservation than extension; to +defending itself against adversity rather than seeking still +farther to augment its power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With regard to the importance of the Inquiry, there cannot be two +opinions; but, concerning its utility and success, opinions may be +divided.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One of the most profound and ingenious writers of a late period, +has made the following interesting observation on the prosperity of +nations. {1}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +"In all speculations upon men and human affairs, it is of no small +moment to distinguish things of accident from permanent causes, and +from effects that cannot be altered. I am not quite of the mind of +those speculators, who seem assured, that necessarily, and, by the +constitution of things, all states have the same period of infancy, +manhood, and decrepitude, that are found in the individuals who +compose them. The objects which are</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{1} Mr Burke.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #v]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>attempted to be forced into an analogy +are not founded in the same classes of existence. Individuals are +physical beings, subject to laws universal and invariable; but +commonwealths are not physical, but moral essences. They are +artificial combinations, and, in their proximate efficient cause, +the arbitrary productions of the human mind.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We are not yet acquainted with the laws which necessarily influence +that kind of work, made by that kind of agent. There is not, in the +physical order, a distinct cause by which any of those fabrics must +necessarily grow, flourish, and decay; nor, indeed, in my opinion, +does the moral world produce any thing more determinate on that +subject than what may serve as an amusement (liberal indeed, and +ingenious, but still only an amusement) for speculative men. I +doubt whether the history of mankind is yet complete enough, if +ever it can be so, to furnish grounds for a sure theory on the +internal causes, which necessarily affect the fortune of a state. I +am far from denying the operation of such causes, but they are +infinitely uncertain, and much more obscure, and much more +difficult to trace than the foreign causes that tend to depress, +and, sometimes, overwhelm society."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The writer who has thus expressed his scepticism on this sort of +inquiry, speaks, at the same time, of the im- [end of page #vi] +portance of distinguishing between accidental and permanent causes. +He doubts whether the history of mankind is complete enough, or, if +ever it can be so, to furnish grounds for a sure theory, on the +internal causes which necessarily affect the fortune of a state. +Thus, he not only admits the existence of permanent causes, but +says, clearly, that it is from history they are discoverable, if +ever their discovery can be accomplished. This is going as far as +we could wish, and, as for the sure theory, we join issue with him +in despairing of ever obtaining one that will deserve the name of +sure.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The meaning of the word, sure, in this place, appears to be +intended in a sense peculiarly strict. It seems to imply a theory, +that would be certain in its application to those vicissitudes and +fluctuations to which nations are liable, and not merely to +explaining their rise and decline. As to such fluctuations, it +would be absurd to enter into any theory about them; they depend on +particular combinations of circumstances, too infinite, in variety, +to be imagined, or subjected to any general law, and of too +momentary an operation to be foreseen.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That Mr. Burke alludes to such fluctuation is, however, evident, +from what that fanciful but deeply-read man says, immediately +after: "We have seen some states which have spent their vigour at +their commencement. Some have [end of page #vii] blazed out in +their glory a little before their extinction. The meridian of some +has been the most splendid. Others, and they the greatest number, +have fluctuated, and experienced, at different periods of their +existence, a great variety of fortune. The death of a man at a +critical juncture, his disgust, his retreat, his disgrace, have +brought innumerable calamities on a whole nation; a common soldier, +a child, a girl, at the door of an inn, have changed the face of +fortune, and almost of nature."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From this it is abundantly evident, that the theory he wished for, +but despaired of ever establishing, was one that would explain such +effects; but the object of this Inquiry is totally +different.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the Romans were in their vigour, their city was besieged by +the Gauls, and saved by an animal of proverbial stupidity; but this +could not have happened when Attila was under the walls, and the +energy of the citizens was gone. The taking or saving the city, in +the first instance, would have been equally accidental, and the +consequences of short duration; but, in the latter days, the fall +of Rome was owing to <i>PERMANENT</i> causes, and the effect has +been without a remedy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is, then, only concerning the permanent causes, (that is to say, +causes that are constantly acting, and produce [end of page #viii] +permanent effects) that we mean to inquire; and, even with regard +to those, it is not expected to establish a theory that will be +applicable, with certainty, to the preservation of a state, but, +merely to establish one, which may serve as a safe guide on a +subject, the importance of which is great, beyond +calculation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There remains but one other consideration in reply to this, and +that is, whether states have, necessarily, by the constitution and +nature of things, the same periods of infancy, manhood, and +decrepitude, that are found in the individuals that compose them? +Mr. Burke thinks they have not; and, indeed, if they had, the +following Inquiry would be of no sort of utility. It is of no +importance to seek for means of preventing what must of necessity +come to pass: but, if the word necessity is changed for tendency or +propensity, then it becomes an Inquiry deserving attention, and, as +all states have risen, flourished, and fallen, there can be no +dispute with the regard to their tendency to do so.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +However much, at first sight, Mr. Burke's opinion may appear to +militate against such an Inquiry, when duly considered, it will be +found, not only to approve of the end, but to point out the manner +in which the inquiry ought to be conducted; namely, by consulting +history. [end of page #ix]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If it is allowed that any practical advantage is to be derived from +the history of the past, it can only be, in so far as it is +applicable to the present and the future; and, if there is none, it +is melancholy to reflect on the volumes that have been written +without farther utility than to gratify idle curiosity. Are the +true lessons of history, because they are never completely +applicable to present affairs, to be ranked with the entertaining, +but almost useless, pages of romance? No, certainly. Of the +inheritance possessed by the present generation, the history of +those that are gone before, is not the least valuable portion. Each +reader now makes his application in his own way. It is an irregular +application, but not an useless one; and it is, therefore, hoped, +that an Inquiry, founded on a regular plan of comparison and +analogy, cannot but be of some utility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But why do we treat that as hypothetical, of which there can be no +doubt? Wherefore should there be two opinions concerning the +utility of an inquiry into those mighty events, that have removed +wealth and commerce from the Euphrates and the Nile, to the Thames +and the Texel? Does not the sun rise, and do not the seasons +return to the plains of Egypt, and the deserts of Syria, the same +as they did three thousand years ago? Is not [end of page #x] +inanimate nature the same now that it was then? Are the principles +of vegetation altered? Or have the subordinate animals +refused to obey the will of man, to assist him in his labour, or to +serve him for his food? No; nature is not less bountiful, and +man has more knowledge and more power than at any former period; +but it is not the man of Syria, or of Egypt, that has more +knowledge, or more power. There he has suffered his race to decay, +and, along with himself, his works have degenerated.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When those countries were peopled with men, who were wise, prudent, +industrious, and brave, their fields were fertile, and their cities +magnificent; and wherever mankind have carried the same vigour, the +same virtues, and the same character, nature has been found +bountiful and obedient.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Throughout the whole of the earth, we see the same causes producing +nearly the same effects; why then do we remain in doubt respecting +their connection? Or, if under no doubt, wherefore do we not +endeavour to trace their operation, that we may know how to +preserve those advantages we are so eager to obtain?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If an Inquiry into the causes of the revolutions of nations is more +imperfect and less satisfactory than when [end of page #xi] +directed to those of individuals, and of single families, if, ever +it should be rendered complete, its application will, at least, be +more certain. Nations are exempt from those accidental vicissitudes +which derange the wisest of human plans upon a smaller scale. +Number and magnitude reduce chances to certainty. The single and +unforeseen cause that overwhelms a man in the midst of prosperity, +never ruins a nation: unless it be ripe for ruin, a nation never +falls; and when it does fall, accident has only the appearance of +doing what, in reality, was already nearly accomplished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no physical cause for the decline of nations, nature +remains the same; and if the physical man has degenerated, it was +before the authentic records of history. The men who built the most +stupendous pyramid in Egypt, did not exceed in stature those who +now live in mean hovels at its immense base. If there is any +country in the world that proves the uniformity of nature, it is +this very Egypt. Unlike to other countries, that owe their +fertility to the ordinary succession of seasons, of which regular +registers do not exist, and are never accurate, it depends on the +overflowing of the waters of a single river. The marks that +indicated the rising of the Nile, in the days of the Pharaos, and +of the Ptolemies, do the same [end of page #xii] at the present +day, and are a guarantee for the future regularity of nature, by +the undeniable certainty of it for the past.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +By a singular propensity for preserving the bodies of the dead, the +Egyptians have left records equally authentic, with regard to the +structure of the human frame. {2} Here nothing is fabulous; and +even the unintentional errors of language are impossible. We have +neither to depend on the veracity nor the correctness of man. The +proofs exhibited are visible and tangible; they are the object of +the senses, and admit of no mistake.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But while that country exhibits the most authentic proofs of the +uniform course of nature, it affords also the most evident examples +of the degradation of the human mind. It is there we find the cause +of those ruins that astonish, and the desolation that afflicts. Had +men continued their exertions, the labour of their hands would not +have fallen to decay.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is in the exertion and conduct of man, and in the information of +his mind, that we find the causes of the mutability of human +affairs. We are about to trace</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{2} Most part of the mummies found in +Egypt, instead of being of a larger size, are considerably under +the middle stature of the people of England. Those dead monuments +of the human frame give the direct lie to Homer and all the +traditions about men's degenerating in size and +strength.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #xiii]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>them through an intricate labyrinth; but, +in this, we are not without a guide.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The history of three thousand years, and of nations that have risen +to wealth and power, in a great variety of situations, all +terminating with a considerable degree of similarity, discovers the +great outline of the causes that invigorate or degrade the human +mind, and thereby raise or ruin states and empires. {3}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>_____________________________________________________________________________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{3} The utility of this Inquiry is +considerably strengthened by the opinion of a writer of great +information and first-rate abilities. {*}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +An historical review of different forms under which human affairs +have appeared in different ages and nations naturally suggests the +question, whether the experience of former times may not now +furnish some general principles to enlighten and direct the policy +of future legislators? The discussion, however, to which the +question leads is of singular difficulty; as it requires an +accurate analysis of by far the most complicated class of phenomena +that can possibly engage our attention; those which result from the +intricate and often from the imperceptible mechanism of political +society -- a subject of observation which seems at first view so +little commensurate to our faculties, that it has been generally +regarded with the same passive emotions of wonder and submission +with which, in the material world, we survey the effects produced +by the mysterious and uncontroulable operation of phisical =sic= +causes. It is fortunate that upon this, as on many other +occasions, the difficulties which had long baffled the effort of +solitary genius begin to appear less formidable to the united +exertions of the race; and that, in proportion as the experience +and the reasonings of different individuals are brought to bear on +the objects, and are combined in such a manner as to illustrate and +to limit each other, the science of politics assumes more and more +that systematical form which encourages and aids the labours of +future inquirers.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>_____________________________________________________________________________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{*} Mr Dongald Stuart, whose name is well +known and much honoured amongst men whose studies have led them to +investigate these subjects: the intimate friend and biographer of +Dr. Adam Smith.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #xiv]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>ADVERTISEMENT.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +IN the following Inquiry I have inserted four engraved Charts, in +order to illustrate the subjects treated of in the Book, by a +method approved of both in this and in other countries. +{4}</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +The Chart, No. 1, representing the rise and fall of all nations or +countries, that have been particularly distinguished for wealth or +power, is the first of the sort that ever was engraved, and has, +therefore, not yet met with public approbation.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +It is constructed to give a distinct view of the migrations of +commerce and of wealth in general. For a very accurate view, there +are no materials in existence; neither would it lead to any very +different conclusion, if the proportional values were ascertained +with the greatest accuracy.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +I first drew the Chart in order to clear up my own ideas on the +subject, finding it very troublesome to retain a distinct notion of +the changes that had taken place. I found it answer the purpose +beyond my expectation, by bringing into one view the result of +details that are dispersed over a very wide and intricate field of +universal history; facts sometimes connected with each other, +sometimes not, and always requiring reflection each time they were +referred to. I found the first rough draft give =sic= me a +better</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>---</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>{4} The Charts, Nos. 3 and 4, were +copied in Paris, before the revolution, and highly approved of by +the Academy of Sciences. No. 2, though of late invention, has been +copied in France and Germany. Of No. 1, the public has yet to +judge, and, perhaps, it will treat me with indulgence and good +nature, as on former occasions.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>-=-</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>[end of page #xv]</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>comprehension of the subject, than all +that I had learnt from occasional reading, for half of my lifetime; +and, on the supposition that what was of so much use to me, might +be of some to others, I have given it with a tolerable degree of +accuracy.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +No. 2, relates entirely to the present state of nations in Europe, +and the extent, revenue, and population, as represented, are taken +from the most accurate documents. Where statistical writers +differed, I followed him who appeared to me the most likely to be +right.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +Nos. 3 and 4, relate entirely to England, and are drawn from the +most accurate documents.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +Opposite to each Chart are descriptions and +explanations.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +The reader will find, five minutes attention to the principle on +which they are constructed, a saving of much labour and time; but, +without that trifling attention, he may as well look at a blank +sheet of paper as at one of the Charts.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +I know of nothing else, in the Book, that requires previous +explanation.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'>_____________________________________________________________________________</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>I think it well to embrace this +opportunity, the best I have had, and, perhaps, the last I ever +shall have, of making some return, (as far as acknowledgement is a +return,) for an obligation, of a nature never to be repaid, by +acknowledging publicly, that, to the best and most affectionate of +brothers, I owe the invention of those Charts.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'> </span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style= +'color:black'> +At a very early period of my life, my brother, who, in a most +examplary manner, maintained and educated the family his father +left, made me keep a register of a thermometer, expressing the +variations by lines on a divided scale. He taught me to know, that, +whatever can be expressed in numbers, may be represented by lines. +The Chart of the thermometer was on the same principle with those +given here; the application only is different. The brother to whom +I owe this, now fills the Natural Philosophy Chair in the +University of Edinburgh. [end of page #xvi]</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CONTENTS.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>---o0o---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="right" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:right'> +<span style='color:black'>Page</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="right" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:right'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INTRODUCTION and plan of the work. -- +Explanation of what the author understands by wealthy and powerful +nations, and of the general cause of wealth and +power......1</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the general causes that operate, both +externally and internally, in bringing down nations that have risen +above their level to that assigned to them by their extent, +fertility, and population; and of the manner in which wealth +destroyed power in ancient nations...............14</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the nations that rose to wealth and +power previous to the conquests in Asia and Africa, and the causes +which ruined them...............20</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the Romans. -- The causes of their +rise under the republic, and of their decline under the emperors. +-- The great error generally fallen into with respect to the +comparison between Rome and Carthage; proofs that it is wrong, and +not at all applicable to France and +England................27</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the cities and nations that rose to +wealth and power in the middle ages, after the fall of the Western +Empire, and previous to the discovery of the passage to the East +Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, and of America. -- Different +effects of wealth on nations in cold and in warm climates, and of +the fall of the Eastern Empire..............44</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #xvii]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Digression concerning the commerce with +India. -- This the only one that raised ancient nations to wealth. +-- Its continual variations. -- The envy it excited, and +revolutions it produced....................51</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the causes that brought on the decline +of the nations that had flourished in the middle ages, and of +Portugal, Spain, Holland, and the Hans Towns..........62</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VIII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>General view and analysis of the causes +that operated in producing the decline of all nations, with a +chart, representing the rise, fall, and migrations of wealth, in +all different countries, from the year 1500, before the birth of +Christ, to the end of the eighteenth century, -- a period of 3300 +years...............70</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the interior causes of decline, +arising from the possession of wealth. -- Its general operation on +the habits of life, manners, education, and ways of thinking and +acting of the inhabitants of a country................81</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the education of youth in nations +increasing in wealth. -- The errors generally committed by writers +on that subject. -- Importance of female education on the manners +of a people. -- Not noticed by writers on political economy. -- +Education of the great body of the people the chief object. -- In +what that consists............94</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of increased taxation, as an interior +cause of decline. -- Its different effects on industry, according +to the degree to which it is carried. -- Its effects on the people +and on government.............102</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the interior causes of decline, +arising from the encroachments of public and privileged bodies; and +of those who have a common interest on those who have no common +interest.....................116</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #xviii]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the internal causes of decline, +arising from the unequal division of property, and its accumulation +in the hands of particular persons. -- Its effects on the +employment of capital...............125</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the interior causes of decline, which +arise from the produce of the soil becoming unequal to the +sustenance of a luxurious people. -- Of +monopoly............137</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the increase of the poor, as general +affluence becomes greater. -- Of children left unprovided for. -- +Of their division into two classes. -- Those that can labour more +or less, and those that can do no labour.................. +156</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VIII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the tendency of capital and industry +to leave a wealthy country, and of the depreciation of money in +agricultural and commercial countries............. 161</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IX.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Conclusion of the interior causes. -- +Their co-operation. -- Their general effect on the government and +on the people. -- The danger arising from them does not appear till +the progress in decline is far advanced......... 166</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. X.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the external causes of decline. -- The +envy and enmity of other nations. -- Their efforts, both in peace +and war, to bring wealthy nations down to their level........ +175</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. XI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Why the intercourse between nations is +ultimately in favour of the poorer one, though not so at +first............................. 179</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. XII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Conclusion of exterior causes. -- Are +seldom of much importance, unless favoured by interior ones. -- +Rich nations, with care, capable, in most cases, of prolonging +their prosperity. -- Digression on the importance of public +revenue, illustrated by a statistical chart................... +184</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #xix]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Result of the foregoing Inquiry applied +to Britain. -- Its present state, in what its wealth consists; +illustrated by a chart, shewing the increase of revenue and +commerce........................191</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of education, as conducted in England. -- +Amelioration proposed. -- Necessity of government interfering, +without touching the liberty of the +subject............................ 216</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the effects of taxation in +England........229</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of the national debt and sinking fund. -- +Advantages and disadvantages of both. -- Errors committed in +calculating their effects. -- Causes of error. -- Mode proposed for +preventing future increase....................234</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Of taxes for the maintenance of the poor. +-- Their enormous increase. -- The cause. -- Comparison between +those of England and Scotland. -- Simple, easy, and humane mode of +reducing them..............247</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Causes of decline, peculiar to +England.................... 257</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Circumstances peculiar to England, and +favourable to it............. 261</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VIII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Conclusion.................... +276</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Application of the present Inquiry to +nations in general..............289</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>AN</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>I N Q U I R Y,</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>&c. &c.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>======</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>======</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Introduction and Plan of the Work. -- +Explanation of what the Author understands by Wealthy and Powerful +Nations, and of the General Causes of Wealth and +Power.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +ONE of the most solid foundations on which an enquirer can proceed +in matters of political economy, as connected with the fate of +nations, seems to be by an appeal to history, a view of the effects +that have been produced, and an investigation of the causes that +have operated in producing them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Unfortunately, in this case, the materials are but very scanty, and +sometimes rather of doubtful authority; nevertheless, such as they +are, I do not think it well to reject the use of them, and have, +therefore, begun, by taking a view of the causes that have ruined +nations that have been great and wealthy, beginning with the +earliest records and coming down to the present time. +{5}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{5} Dr. Robertson very truly says, "It is +a cruel mortification, in searching for what is instructive in the +history of past times, to find that the exploits of conquerors who +have desolated the earth, and the freaks of tyrants who have +rendered nations unhappy, are recorded with minute, and often +disgusting accuracy, while the discovery of useful arts, and the +progress of the most beneficial branches of commerce are passed +over in silence, and suffered to sink in oblivion." Disquisition on +the Ancient Commerce to India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #1]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +I divide this space into three periods, because in each is to be +seen a very distinct feature.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +During the first period, previous to the fall of the Roman empire, +the order of things was such as had arisen from the new state of +mankind, who had gradually increased in numbers, and improved in +sciences and arts. The different degrees of wealth were owing, at +first, to local situation, natural advantages, and priority in +point of settlement, till the causes of decline begun to operate on +some; when the adventitious causes of wealth and power, producing +conquest, began to establish a new order of things.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The second period, from the fall of the Roman government till the +discovery of America, and the passage to the East Indies, by the +ocean, has likewise a distinct feature, and is treated of by +itself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rulers of mankind were not then men, who from the ease and +leisure of pastoral life, under a mild heaven, had studied science, +and cultivated the arts; they were men who had descended from a +cold northern climate, where nature did little to supply their +wants, where hunger and cold could not be avoided but by industry +and exertion; where, in one word, the sterility of nature was +counteracted by the energy of man.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The possessors of milder climates, and of softer manners, falling +under the dominion of such men, inferior greatly in numbers, as +well as in arts, intermixed with them, and formed a new race, of +which the character was different; and it is a circumstance not a +little curious, that while mankind were in a state at which they +had arrived by increasing population, and by the arts of peace, +slavery was universal: but that when governed by men who were +conquerors, and owed their superiority to force alone, where +slavery might have been expected to originate, it was abolished. +{6}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{6} This fact, which is indisputable, +has, at first sight, a most extraordinary appearance, that is to +say, seems difficult to account for; but a little examination into +circumstances will render it easily understood.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In warm and fertile countries, the love of ease is predominant, and +the services wanted are such as a slave can perform. The indolent +habits of people make them consider freedom as an object of less +importance than exemption from care. While the rulers of mankind +were indolent and luxurious, they were interested in continuing +slavery, which must have [end of page #2] originated in barbarism +and ignorance. But the northern nations were different; with them, +neither the moral character, the physical powers, or the situation +of things, favoured slavery. The services one man wanted of another +were not such as a slave could be forced to perform: neither are +men who are fitted for performing such offices disposed to submit +to slavery. Shepherds may be reduced to the situation of slaves, +but hunters will not be likely to submit to such a situation, even +if their occupation admitted of it. Slaves can only be +employed to perform labour that is under the eye of an overseer or +master, or the produce of which is nearly certain: but the labour +of a hunter is neither the one nor the other, it is, therefore, not +of the sort to be performed by slaves. The athletic active life +necessary for a hunter is, besides, unfriendly to slavery, if not +totally at variance with it. What does a slave receive in return +for his service? Lodging, nourishment, and a life free from care. A +hunter is obliged to provide the two former for himself, and the +latter it is impossible for him to enjoy. The same thing goes even +to hired servants. In the rudest state of shepherds, there are +hired servants, but men in a rude state never hunt for wages: they +are their own masters: they may hunt in society or partnership, but +never as slaves or hired servants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The progress towards wealth in this new state of things was very +slow, but the equality that prevailed amongst feudal barons, their +love of war and glory, and the leisure they enjoyed, by degrees +extended the limits of commerce very widely, as the northern world +never could produce many articles which its inhabitants had by +their connection with the south learnt to relish and +enjoy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The intermediate countries, that naturally formed a link of +connection between the ancient nations of the east and the rough +inhabitants of the north, profited the most by this circumstance; +and we still find the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, though no +longer the seat of power, the places where wealth was chiefly +concentrated.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The impossibility of the inhabitants of the northern countries +transporting their rude and heavy produce, in order to exchange it +for the luxuries of the south, gave rise to manufactures as well as +fishing on the southern confines of the Baltic Sea; from whence +arose the wealth of Flanders, Holland, and the Hans Towns. This +forms an epoch entirely new in its nature and description, and its +termination was only brought on by the great discovery of the +passage to Asia, by the Cape of Good Hope, and to America, by +sailing straight out into the Atlantic Ocean.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nations that had till those discoveries been the best situated +for [end of page #3] commerce no longer enjoyed that advantage; by +that means it changed its abode; but not only did it change its +abode, it changed its nature, and the trifling commerce that had +hitherto been carried on by the intervention of caravans by land, +or of little barks coasting on the borders of the Mediterranean +Sea, (never venturing, without imminent danger, to lose sight of +the shore,) {7} was dropt for that bold and adventurous navigation, +connecting the most distant parts of the world; between which since +then large vessels pass with greater expedition and safety than +they formerly did between the Grecian Islands, or from Italy to +Africa.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Three inventions, two in commerce and the other in war, nearly of +equal antiquity, formed this into one of these epochs that gives a +new feature to things.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The discovery of the magnetic power of the needle improved and +totally altered navigation. The art of printing gave the means of +extending with facility, to mankind at large, the mode of +communicating thoughts and ideas, which had till then been attended +with great difficulty, and confined to a few. This placed men +nearer upon an equality with respect to mind, and greatly +facilitated commerce and the arts. The invention of gun-powder +nearly at the same time changed the art of war, not only in its +manner, but in its effect, a point of far greater importance. While +human force was the power by which men were annoyed, in cases of +hostility, bodily strength laid the foundation for the greatness of +individual men, as well as of whole nations. So long as this was +the case, it was impossible for any nation to cultivate the arts of +peace, (as at the present time), without becoming much inferior in +physical force to nations that preferred hunting or made war their +study; or to such as preferred exercising the body, as rude nations +do, to gratifying the appetites, as practised in wealthy ones. To +be wealthy and powerful long together was then +impossible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Since this last invention, the physical powers of men have ceased +to occupy any material part in their history; superiority in skill +is now the great object of the attainment of those who wish to +excel, {8} and</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{7} It was forbidden by law, formerly, in +Spain, to put to sea from the 11th of November to the 10th of +March.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{8} In the divine poem of the Iliad, +Nestor, for experience and wisdom, and Ulysses, for [end of page +#4] cunning, are the only two heroes whose minds gave them a +superiority; but they make no figure compared to Achilles and +Hector, or even the strong, rough, and ignorant Ajax. To bear +fatigue, and understand discipline, is the great object at present; +for though, of late years, the increased use of the bayonet seems +to be a slight approximation to the ancient mode of contending by +bodily strength, it is to be considered, on the other hand, that +artillery is more than ever employed, which is increasing the +dissimilarity. Again, though the bayonet is used, it is under +circumstances quite new. Great strength enabled a single man, by +wearing very thick armour, and wielding a longer sword or spear, to +be invulnerable to men of lesser force, while he could perform what +feats he pleased in defeating them. As gun-powder has destroyed the +use of heavy armour, though with the sabre and bayonet men are not +equal, they are all much more nearly so. No one is invulnerable, +even in single combat, with the <i>arme blanche</i>, and with fire +arms they are nearly on an equality. The changes that this makes, +through every department of life, are too numerous to be enlarged +upon, or not to be visible to all.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>men may devote themselves to a life of +ease and enjoyment without falling under a real inferiority, +provided they do not allow the mind to be degraded or sunk in +sloth, ignorance, or vice.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those discoveries, then, by altering the physical powers of men, by +changing their relations and connections, as well as by opening new +fields for commerce, and new channels for carrying it on, form a +very distinct epoch in the history of wealth and power, and alter +greatly their nature in the detail; though, in the main outline and +abstract definition, they are still the same; having always the +same relation to each other, or to the state of things at the +time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This last period is then very different in its nature, and much +more important than either of the others that preceded it; yet, in +one thing, there is a similarity that runs through the whole, and +it is a very important one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The passions and propensities of mankind, though they have changed +their objects, and the means of their gratification, have not +changed their nature. The desire of enjoyment; and of enjoyment +with the least trouble possible, appears to be the basis of all the +passions. Hence, envy, jealousy, friendship, and the endless train +of second-rate effects, appear all to be produced by that primary +passion; {9} and as from</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{9} The very learned and ingenious author +of the Inquiry into the Origin and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, +traces all this to an innate propensity to barter. But barter is +only a means, and not even the means to which mankind shew the +greatest pro- [end of page #5] pensity; for, wherever they have +power to take by force or pillage, they never barter. This is seen +both in an infantine and adult state; children cry for toys, and +stretch at them before they offer to exchange; and, conquerors or +soldiers never buy or barter, when they can take, unless they are +guided by some other motive than mere natural propensity. A +highwayman will pay for his dinner at an inn, as willingly as a +traveller, because he acts from other motives than propensity, but +he will strip the inn-keeper when he meets him on the +road.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>this originate the wealth as well as the +decline of nations, the history of the revolutions in wealth and +power, during the two first periods, are by no means unimportant; +besides, as their duration was much longer than that of the latter, +they lead to a more certain conclusion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The review of what has taken place will occupy the first book; and +serve as a data for an inquiry into the nature and causes of the +fall of nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The first part of the second book will be dedicated to +investigating the internal causes of decline; that is to say, all +those causes which arise from the possession of wealth and power, +operating on the habits, manners, and minds of the inhabitants; as +also on the political arrangements, laws, government, and +institutions, so far as they are connected with the prosperity or +decline of nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The latter part of the same book will treat of the exterior causes +of decline, arising from the envy of other nations; their +advancement in the same arts to which the nations that are rich owe +their wealth, or their excelling them in other arts, by which they +can be rivalled, reduced, or subdued.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After having inquired into external and internal causes; and the +operation of each and of both, (though they never act quite +separately,) accidental causes, will make an object for +consideration, which will bring the general inquiry to a +conclusion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The third book will begin with an application of the information +obtained to the present state of England: by comparing its +situation with that of nations that were great; and, by +endeavouring to point out a means by which its decline may be +prevented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though we know that, in this world, nothing is eternal, +particularly in the institutions of man; yet, by a sort of fiction +in language, when the final term is not fixed, and the end +desirable, what is known to be [end of page #6] temporary is +considered as perpetual. Thus, the contract between the king and +the people, the constituent laws of a country, &c. are +considered as permanent and of eternal duration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this case, though the final decline of a nation cannot be +prevented; though the nature of things will either, by that regular +chain of causes which admits of being traced, or by their regular +operation of coincident causes which is termed accidental, sooner +or later put an end to the prosperity of every nation, yet we shall +not speak of prolonging prosperity, but of preventing decline, just +as if it were never to happen at any period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before entering upon this Inquiry, it may be well, for the sake of +being explicitly understood, to define what I mean by wealthy and +powerful nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In speaking of nations, wealth and power are sometimes related to +each other, as cause and effect. Sometimes there is between a +mutual action and re-action. In the natural or ordinary course of +things, they are, at first, intimately connected and dependent on +each other, till, at last, this connection lessening by degrees, +and they even act in opposite directions; when wealth undermines +and destroys power, but power never destroys wealth. +{10}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Though wealth and power are often found +united, they are sometimes found separated. Wealth is altogether a +real possession; power is comparative. Thus, a nation may be +wealthy in itself, though unconnected with any other nation; but +its power can only be estimated by a comparison with that of other +nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wealth consists in having abundance of whatever mankind want or +desire; and if there were but one nation on earth, it might be +wealthy; but it would, in that case, be impossible to measure its +power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wealth is, however, not altogether real; it is in a certain degree +comparative, whereas power is altogether comparative.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Romans, for example, may very justly be called the +most</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{10} Till a nation has risen above its +neighbours, and those to whom it compares itself, wealth and power +act in the same direction; but, after it has got beyond that point, +they begin to counteract each other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #7]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>powerful nation that ever existed, yet a +single battalion of our present troops, well supported with +artillery, would have probably destroyed the finest army they ever +sent into the field. A single ship of the line would certainly have +sunk, taken, or put to flight, all the fleets that Rome and +Carthage ever sent to sea. The feeblest and least powerful of +civilized nations, with the present means of fighting, and the +knowledge of the present day, would defeat an ancient army of the +most powerful description. Power then is entirely relative; and +what is feebleness now, would, at a certain time, have been force +or power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not altogether so with wealth, which consists in the +abundance of what men desire. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, +had wealth; and this, though, perhaps, not consisting in the same +objects, was, perhaps, not inferior to ours at the present time; +but as wealth, purely and simply, no comparison between different +nations was necessary, farther than that men's desires are +augmented, by seeing the abundance possessed by others; and +therefore they become comparative, as to wealth. Without, however, +entering into a long examination respecting the various possible +combinations of wealth and power, which are something similarly +connected in states, as health and strength are in the animal body, +{11} let both be considered only in a comparative way; the +comparison either being made with other nations at the same time, +or with the same nation at different times. Thus, for +example, in comparing the wealth and power of Britain now, with +what they were at the latter end of Queen Elizabeth's reign, we +find that the merchants of Liverpool, during the first three years +of last =sic= war, fitted out a force of privateers equal to the +Spanish armada; and consequently superior to the whole naval force +of England at that time; there can be no doubt, then, that both the +wealth and power of the nation are increased. Again, if we find +that our ships block up the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{11} A man may be very feeble, yet in +very good health for his whole life-time. He may also have great +strength, though he may not enjoy a very good state of health; yet +nevertheless, health and strength are very intimately connected, +and never can be completely separated.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #8]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ports of Holland, and prevent their navy +from venturing to sea, we must conclude, that the relative power of +the two nations is altered, since the time that the Dutch fleet +rode triumphant in the river Thames. But, if we want to make a +comparison between the naval power of England and that of France +and Spain, we must not compare it with the strength of their navies +in the year 1780, when they bid us defiance at Plymouth, but take +things actually as they are at this present time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a nation is upon an equality with others, for wealth, it may +be considered as neither deserving the name of a rich or a poor +nation, whatever its real wealth or poverty may be. The same thing +holds with power. When a nation is merely able to protect itself, +but fully equal to that, though unable to make conquests, or +aggrandize itself, against the will of other nations, it may be +said to be neither weak nor strong. Thus, for example, Denmark as a +nation is upon a par with others; and neither to be called wealthy +and powerful, nor weak and poor, though it certainly has both more +actual wealth and power than it had in the eighth century, when the +Danes burnt London, Paris, and Cologne.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus, then, with respect to my reasoning, the whole is to be +considered as applying to other nations at the same time; and the +degree they are above or below par, is the measure of wealth and +power, poverty and weakness. {12}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But, with respect to a nation itself, wealth is comparative in the +progression of time. In speaking of power, we compare nations at +the same period, and, in speaking of wealth, we may either compare +a nation with itself at different periods, or with others at the +same time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We shall not find any example of a nation's becoming less wealthy +whilst it increased in power; but we shall find many instances of +nations becoming wealthy whilst they were losing their power, +though,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{12} According to this definition, if all +the nations on earth were to increase in wealth and power equally, +they would be considered as stationary; their relative situations +would remain the same; like those of the fixed stars, or those of +soldiers who march in a regiment with perfect regularity, and +retain their relative portion in the same manner as if they stood +still. But this case, among nations, is only an imaginary one; +therefore, the definition given answers the true purpose of +investigation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #9]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>together with the power, the wealth +always, a little sooner or a little later, vanishes +away.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Sometimes nations owe their wealth and greatness to accidental +causes, that, from their nature, must vanish away; and sometimes to +causes which, depending upon the nations themselves, may be +prolonged. In general, both the two sorts of causes have united to +render every nation great that has been distinguished amongst +others for riches or power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The causes, then, divide themselves into two of distinct kinds;-- +those which are independent of the nation itself, and those over +which it has some degree of influence and controul.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In early ages, when knowledge was but little advanced, and when the +small stock that had been accumulated was confined nearly to a +single spot, the first description of causes were the principal +ones. -- Local situation, priority in discovery, or in +establishment, gave to one nation a superiority over others, and +occasioned the accumulation of wealth, and the acquisition of power +and territory. {13} As in the early stages of human life, a few +years more or less occasion a greater difference, both in physical +powers and mental faculties, than any difference of innate genius, +or adventitious circumstances; so, in the early days of the world, +when it was young in knowledge, and scanty in population, priority +of settlement gave a great advantage to one nation over others, +and, of consequence, enabled them to rule over others; thus the +Assyrian and Egyptian empires were great, powerful, and extensive, +while the nations that were beyond their reach were divided into +small states or kingdoms, on the most contemptible +scale.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Time, however, did away the advantages resulting from priority of +establishment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Local situation was another cause of superiority, of a more +permanent nature; but this, also, new discovery has transferred +from one na-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{13} It is not meant, by any means, to +enter into an inquiry, much less controversy, respecting the +antiquity of mankind; but it is very clear that the knowledge of +arts and sciences can be traced to an infant state about two +thousand years before the Christian aera.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #10]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>tion to another. Qualities of the soil +and climate are counteracted by the nature and habits of the +inhabitants, which frequently, in the end, give the superiority +where there was at first an inferiority.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If ever the nations of the world come to a state of permanence, +(which in all probability will never be the case,) it must be when +population is nearly proportioned to the means of subsistence in +different parts; when knowledge is nearly equally distributed and +when no great discoveries remain to be made either in arts, +science, or geography.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While the causes from which wealth and power rise in a superior +degree, are liable to change from one nation to another, wealth and +power must be liable to the same alterations and changes of place; +so long any equal balance among nations must be artificial. +But when circumstances become similar, and when the pressure +becomes equal on all sides, then nations, like the particles of a +fluid, though free to move, having lost their impulse, will remain +at rest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If such a state of things should ever arrive, then the wealth and +power would be only real, not comparative. The whole might be very +rich, very affluent, and possess great abundance of every thing, +either for enjoyment or for defence, without one nation having an +advantage over another: they would be on an equality.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But this state of things is far from being likely soon to take +place. Population is far from come to its equilibrium, and +knowledge {14} is farther distant still. Russia and America, in +particular, are both behind in population, and the inhabitants of +the latter country are far from being on a par in knowledge with +the rest of Europe; when they become so, the balance will be +overturned, and must be re-established anew.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great discoveries that have taken place in knowledge and +geography have been connected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While navigation was little understood, the borders of the +Mediterranean Sea, and the islands in it, were naturally the first +places for wealth and commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The discovery of the compass, and others that followed, +rendered</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{14} By knowledge is only meant the +knowledge of the arts that make men useful, =sic= such as +agriculture, manufactures, legislation, &c.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #11]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>the navigation of the open ocean, more +easy and safe than that of the circumscribed seas. This laid a +great foundation for change and discovery; it brought Britain into +importance, ruined Italy, Genoa, Venice, &c. and has laid the +foundation for further changes still.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As for discoveries in arts, it would be bold and presumptuous +indeed to attempt to set any bounds to them. Discoveries, however, +that alter the relations of mankind very materially, are probably +near at an end. In arts they give only a temporary preference. {15} +If a method should be discovered to cultivate a field with half the +trouble, and to double the produce, which seems very possible, it +would be a great discovery, and alter the general state of mankind +considerably; but it would soon be extended to all nations, as the +use of gunpowder has been. New produce, or means of procuring the +old more easily, are the things chiefly sought after. Potatoes, +coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, silk, distilled spirits, are new +productions, unknown to the Romans. Glass, gunpowder, printing, +windmills, watermills, steam-engines, and the most part of spinning +and weaving machines, are new inventions, but they can be extended +to all countries. The mariners compass changed the relative +position of places, and no new invention of the same importance, as +to its effects on nations, probably can take place. Navigation does +not admit of a similar improvement to that which it has received. +If goods could be conveyed for a quarter of the present price it +would not produce the same sort of effect. To render navigating the +ocean practicable was a greater thing than any possible improvement +on that practicability.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As for new discoveries in geography, they are nearly at an end. The +form and the extent of the earth are known, and the habitable +regions are nearly all explored.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We have, then, arrived at a state of things where many of the +causes that formerly operated on reducing wealthy nations can never +again produce a similar effect. But still there are other causes +which ope-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{15} The end of all discovery is to +supply men with what they want; and, accordingly, all nations that +are considered as civilised find the means of participating in the +advantage of a new discovery, by imitating that which possesses the +invention first, and that is done almost immediately. It was very +different formerly.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #12]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>rate as they did formerly; accordingly, +wealth and power are very unequally distributed amongst nations at +this moment; and, in Europe, there is not one nation that is not +either rising or on its decline. (see Appendix A.) =sic - there is +none=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The purpose of the present Inquiry is, by tracing those causes that +still continue to operate, to discover how nations that now stand +high may be prevented from sinking below their level: a thing to +which history shews they have a natural tendency, and which history +shews also is attended with very distressing +consequences.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We do not labour in Utopia on schemes, but in Britain on real +business; and the inquiry is, how a nation, situated as this is, +and having more than its share of power, importance, and wealth, +may prolong their possession?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this Inquiry we shall begin with taking a lesson from history, +which will serve as some guide.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to the rise of other nations, we neither can nor should attempt +to impede that; let them rise to our level, but let us not sink +down to theirs. [end of page #13]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the General Causes that operate, +both externally and internally, in bringing down Nations that have +risen above their Level to that assigned to them by their Extent, +Fertility, and Population; and of the Manner in which Wealth +destroyed Power in ancient Nations.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +WITHOUT considering the particular causes that have raised some +nations greatly above others, there are some general causes of +decline which operate in all cases; but even the general causes are +not always similar, they vary their way of producing the effect, +according to circumstances.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If a nation excels in arts and manufactures, others acquire a taste +for what they make, and imitate them. If they excel in the art of +war, they teach their enemies to fight as well as themselves. If +their territories are large, the unprotected and far distant parts +provoke attack and plunder. They become more difficult and +expensive to govern. If they owe their superiority to climate and +soil, they generally preserve it but a short time. Necessity acts +so much more powerfully on those who do not enjoy the same +advantages, that they soon come to an equality. --In whatever the +superiority exists, emulation and envy prompt to rivalship in +peace, and to frequent trials of strength in war. The contempt and +pride which accompany wealth and power, and the envy and jealousy +they excite amongst other nations, are continual causes of change, +and form the great basis of the revolutions amongst the human +race.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wants of men increase with their knowledge of what it is good +to enjoy; and it is the desire to gratify those wants that +increases necessity, and this necessity is the spur to +action.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are a few natural wants that require no knowledge in order to +be felt; such as hunger and thirst, and the other appetites which +men have in common with all animals, and which are linked, as it +[end of page #14] were, to their existence. {16} But while nations +satisfy themselves with supplying such wants, there is neither +wealth nor power amongst them. Of consequence, it is not into the +conduct of such that we are to inquire.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Excepting, however, those wants which are inseparable from our +existence, all the others are, more or less, fictitious, and +increase with our knowledge and habits; it is, therefore, evident +that the nation that is the highest above others feels the fewest +wants; or, in other words, feels no wants. She knows nothing that +she does not possess, and therefore may be said to want nothing; or +which is the same thing, not knowing what she does want, she makes +no effort to obtain it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus necessity of rising higher, does not operate, on a nation that +sees none higher than itself; at least, it does only operate in a +very slender degree. {17} Whereas, in the nation that is behind +hand with other nations around, every one is led by emulation and +envy, and by a feeling of their own wants, to imitate and equal +those that are farther advanced.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{16} A child cries for food without +knowing what it is; and all the other natural appetites, though +they may be increased by habit, by knowledge, and fancy, are +independent of the mind in its first state.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{17} The necessity, no doubt, continues +to preserve what they have; and, therefore, tends to keep them in a +permanent state. Some individuals again, in less affluence than +others, endeavour to equal them; by which means some progress is +still making in the nation that possesses the greatest share of +wealth and power; but it is only partial and feeble. Those who live +in the nation that is the most advanced are contented and have all +they wish; they possess every thing of which they know, they can +have no particular desire for any thing they have not got, that +will produce great energy and exertion. A man may wish for wings, +or for perpetual youth; but, as he can scarcely expect to obtain +either, he will make little exertion. With things really +attainable, but not known, the case is less productive of energy +still. The people of Asia found silk a natural produce of their +country; till the Europeans saw it, they never attempted to produce +so rich a material; but no pains has since been spared to try to +produce it, in almost every country, where there was the least +chance of success. We imitated the silk mills of Italy, and the +Italians (as well as many other nations) are now imitating our +cotton mills. In the case of a nation that follows others, it +always knows what it wants, and may judge whether it can obtain it; +but the nation the most advanced, gropes in the dark.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #15]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus it is, that necessity acts but in a very inferior degree on +the nation that is the farthest advanced; while it operates in a +very powerful way on those that are in arrear; and this single +reason, without the intervention of wars or any sort of contest or +robbery, would, in the process of time, bring nations to a sort of +equality in wealth and refinement; that is, it would bring them all +into possession of the means of gratifying their wants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +War, excited by the violent and vile passions,-- by the overbearing +pride and insolence of one, and the envy and villainy of another, +derange this natural and smooth operation, which, nevertheless, +continues to act in silence at all times, and in every +circumstance, and which, indeed, is in general the chief cause of +those very disorders by which its operations are sometimes +facilitated; sometimes apparently interrupted; sometimes, their +effect for a moment reversed; but their action never, for one +instant, totally suspended.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The desire of enjoyment makes all mankind act as if they were +running a race. They always keep the goal in view, though they +attempt to be the foremost to arrive at it by various means. But +the greatest exertions are never made by those who have got the +advance of their competitors. Amongst the wants of mankind, ease is +one of very permanent operation; and whenever the necessity of +supplying other wants ceases, the desire of supplying that, leads +to a state of inaction and rest. {18} To seek ease, however, does +not imply necessarily to seek total inaction or rest; a diminished +exertion is comparative ease; and this is always observable in a +state of prosperity, either of an individual or of a nation, after +the prosperity has been long enough</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{18} The truth of this may be disputed by +those who look at mankind in an artificial state; because a variety +of their actions seem without any particular motive. But not the +smallest exertion is ever made without it. The man who walks out +and takes exercise, wants health or amusement as much as the +working man does bread. Even those who toil in the rounds of +pleasure, are always in pursuit of something. Their not finding the +object is another part of the consideration; but they always have +one in view. As to savages, and the poorer classes of people, they +shew their propensity by a more simple process; that is, merely by +resting inactive, when they are not compelled to labour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #16]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>enjoyed to create a certain degree of +lassitude and indifference, which it does on every nation. +{19}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever may be the accidental circumstance which first raises one +nation above others, or the train of adventitious ones that +increase for a while and continue that superiority, nothing can be +more clear and certain, than, that they have a natural tendency to +come back to a level, merely by the exertions of men in the +direction of acquiring wealth by industry, and without any of those +causes which arise out of war, or interrupting the career of each +other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When, from the conduct of one nation towards another, or from +whatever other cause war, =sic= becomes the means by which the +superiority of two nations is to be decided, there are many things +in favour of the least wealthy nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has less to protect and to lose, and more to attack and to gain; +the task is much easier and more alluring. There is a sort of +energy in attempting to obtain, that is not to be found in those +who are only exerting themselves to keep, of which it is difficult +to explain the cause, but of which the existence is very +certain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where natural strength, and the struggle with want is great, as is +the case with nations who have made but little progress in +acquiring wealth, the contest with a people more enervated by ease, +and less inured to toil is very unequal, and does more than +compensate those artificial aids which are derived from the +possession of property. {20} From this cause, the triumph of poorer +over more wealthy nations has generally arisen, and, in most cases, +has occasioned the contest to end in favour of the more hardy and +poorer people.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of the revolutions that took place in the ancient world; whether +operated by degrees or by violence and suddenly, those may be +ge-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{19} Doctor Garth, in his admirable poem +of the Dispensary, says;--</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +"<i>Even health for want of change becomes disease</i>."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>This is the case with nations sunk in +prosperity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{20} Why men should have been less +tenacious to keep that which is fairly theirs, than rapaciously to +obtain that which is not, is a strange thing; but nothing is more +certain; and the effects of that propensity are very great, and its +existence very general. In the ruin of nations, it is a most active +and powerful cause.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #17]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>nerally traced as the causes. In those +ancient nations any considerable degree of luxury and military +success were incompatible with each other; but, in the present age, +the case is greatly altered. Military discipline is not near so +severe as formerly, and bodily strength has but little effect, +while the engines of war can only be procured by those resources +which wealth affords; by this means, the decline of nations is, at +least, now become a less natural and slower progress than formerly; +the operations of war have now a quite different tendency from what +they formerly had, and this effect is produced by the introduction +of cannon, and a different mode of attack and defence; to carry on +which, a very considerable degree of wealth is necessary. +{21}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In former times, the character and situation of the people, the +object they had in view, their bravery and the skill of their +leaders, did every thing; but now the skill of leaders and the +command of money are the chief objects; for there is not sufficient +difference between any two nations in Europe as to counterbalance +those: and, indeed, (except so far as military skill is +accidental,) it is to be found principally in nations who have a +sufficient degree of wealth to exercise it and call it into +action.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We shall see that the first revolutions in the world were effected +by the natural strength, energy, and bravery of poor nations +triumphing over those that were less hardy, in consequence of the +enjoyment of wealth, until the time of the Romans; who, like other +nations, first triumphed by means of superior energy and bravery; +and, afterwards by making war a trade, continued, by having regular +standing armies, to conquer the nations who had only temporary +levies, or militias, to fight in their defence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The triumph of poor nations, over others in many respects their +superiors, continued during the middle ages, but the wealth +acquired by certain nations then was not wrested from them by war, +but by an accidental and unforeseen change in the channel through +which it</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{21} An idea has gone abroad, since the +successes of the French armies, that money is not necessary to war, +even in the present times. It will be shewn, in its proper place, +that the French armies were maintained at very great expense, and +that a poor country could not have done what France did.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>flowed. At the same time that this change +took place, without the intervention of force, the art of war +changed in favour of wealthy nations, but the changes took place by +slow degrees, and the power of nations now may almost be estimated +by their disposable incomes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This change, however, has by no means secured the prosperity of +wealthy nations; it has only prevented poor ones, unable by means +of fair competition to do by conquest what they could not effect by +perseverance in arts and industry; for, in other respects, though +it makes the prosperity of a nation more dependant =sic= on wealth, +and more independent of violence; it prevents any nation from +preserving its political importance after it loses its riches. It +does not by any means interrupt that progress by which poor nations +gradually rise up and rival richer ones in arts. It has not done +away the advantages that arise from superior industry and attention +to business, or from the gradual introduction of knowledge amongst +the more ignorant, thereby lessening their inferiority, and tending +to bring nations to a level; on the contrary, by increasing the +advantages, and securing the gradual triumphs gained by arts and +industry, from the violence of war, it makes wealth a more +desirable object, and the loss of it a greater misfortune. It tends +to augment the natural propensity that there is in poor nations to +equal richer ones {22}, although it, at the same time, augments the +difficulty of accomplishing their intentions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The superior energy of poverty and necessity which leads men, under +this pressure, to act incessantly in whatever way they have it in +their power to act, and that seems likely to bring them on a level +with those that are richer, is then the ground-work of the rise and +fall of nations, as well as of individuals. This tendency is +sometimes favoured by particular circumstances, and sometimes it is +counteracted by them; but its operation is incessant, and it has +never yet failed in producing its effect, for the triumph of +poverty over wealth on the great scale as on the small, though very +irregular in its pace, has continued without interruption from the +earliest records to the present moment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{22} The present inferiority of Poland, +Denmark, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, compared with the rank they +held in former times, is easily accounted for by looking at the +scale of their revenues.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #19]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Nations that rose to Wealth and +Power previously to the Conquests in Asia and Africa, and the +Causes which ruined them.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +PREVIOUS to the conquests made by Alexander the Great, the history +of ancient nations is confused, incomplete, and +inaccurate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +During the contests of his successors, the intricacy and confusion +are still continued, but materials are more plentiful, more +accurate, and more authentic.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +During the first period, excepting what is contained in sacred +history, a few detached facts, collected by writers long after, are +our only guides in judging of the situation of ancient states, some +of which consisted of great empires, and others of single cities +possessed of a very small territory.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Add to this, that great and striking events occupied almost +exclusively the attention of historians. The means by which those +events were produced were considered as of lesser +importance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So far, however, as the present inquiry can be elucidated, although +materials are few, yet, by adhering to a distinct plan, and keeping +the object always before us, we may arrive at a +conclusion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The countries that appear to have been first inhabited were Syria +and Egypt, {23} both of them situated on the borders of the +Mediterranean Sea; and as early as any authentic records extend, +those were great and powerful countries in which agriculture and +population had made great progress, and into which commerce had +already brought many of the luxuries of the East.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Phoenicians, a people differing in name from those who were +subjected to the Assyrian monarchs, occupied that part of Syria, +now called the Levant, directly on the borders of the Mediterranean +Sea; they were the first who rose to wealth and power by arts and +com-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{23} Reasons have been given in the +preface for not taking any view of the situation of India, though, +by its produce, it appears, at least of equal antiquity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #20]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>merce. Tyre and Sidon were the abodes of +commerce long before the arrival of the Jews in the land of Canaan, +situated in the adjacent country, with whom, in the days of David +and Solomon, the Phoenicians were on terms of friendship and +alliance, {24} assisting the latter to carry on commerce, and +enrich his people. (See Appendix B.) =sic - there is +none=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The whole coast of the Mediterranean lay open to them for +navigation, as did also the Grecian islands, and as their own soil +was barren, they purchased the necessaries of life, giving in +exchange the rich stuffs they had manufactured, and the produce of +the East of which they almost exclusively possessed the +commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Egyptians were possessed of the most fertile soil in the world, +bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the north, and on the east and +west by barren deserts. Their country was of a triangular form, and +watered by the Nile, which, passing through it in its greatest +extent, runs nearly down the middle.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus situated, in the country depending on the Nile for its +fertility, and on all sides protected from enemies, it was +exceedingly natural to cultivate the arts of peace, and it was not +possible that it should be divided into many different nations, as +in other countries in early times was the case, when sovereignty +rose from parental authority, and when there was no natural bond +between the heads of different families.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great abundance with which the inhabitants were supplied, in +years when the Nile overflowed in a favourable manner, and the +uncertainty of future plenty were inducements for accumulation and +foresight, which are not equally necessary in countries where the +important circumstances of plenty or want do not depend on one +single event over the whole face of a country, separated, besides, +from others by a sea, which they could not navigate, and by deserts +not very easy to pass over.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The difficulties of transporting corn, which were sufficient to +deter the Egyptians from depending on a supply from other parts, +did not, however, prevent other nations from applying to them in +times of scarcity, and accordingly it was the granary of the +ancient world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{24} For farther particulars of this +commerce see the Digression on the Trade to India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #21]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To those natural advantages, the Egyptians added some others, +different in their nature, but not less precious.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +They enjoyed a mild government, and an admirable and simple code of +laws. Their docility and obedience have never been equalled, and as +one maxim, was, to admit of no person being idle, it is evident +that the population must have increased rapidly, and that there +must have been an impossibility to employ the whole labour of so +many hands on the means of providing subsistence in a country, +where the manners were simple, the soil fertile, and the wants +few.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The surplus of the industry of Egypt appears to have been at the +disposal of the sovereigns to whom all the lands belonged, and for +which they exacted a rent in kind, as is the custom among the +native powers on both peninsulas of India to this day. By that +means, they were enabled to produce those stupendous works which +have been the admiration and wonder of all succeeding generations, +and of every nation. The city of Thebes, with the labyrinth; +Memphis, the canals, and the pyramids would all be incredible, had +not their singular structure preserved those latter efforts of +industry from the ravages of time, and left them nearly entire to +the present day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Phoenicians were a colony from that great country; for the +Egyptians in general had a dislike to the sea. It is well known, +however, that people who live immediately on the coast have a +propensity to navigation, and it is probable that those Egyptians +who left their own fruitful land to settle on the barren borders of +Syria, were from the delta of Lower Egypt, which lies on the sea +coast, and is intersected by a number of branches of the river +Nile. {25}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not surprising that such a colony, following the natural +propensity to naval affairs, and carrying with it the arts of dying +and weaving, together with whatever else the Egyptians knew, should +become under the influence of necessity, and in a favourable +situation for arts and commerce, as much celebrated for commercial +riches, as their mother country had long been for agriculture and +the cultivation of the sciences.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{25} That the Phoenicians were from Egypt +is not doubted, and their becoming a totally different people from +being on a different soil and in a different situation, is a strong +proof of the influence of physical circumstances on the characters +of nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #22]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Tyre accordingly is the first example of a city becoming rich and +powerful by arts and commerce, and though few details are known, +yet those are of a very decided character.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The pride of the Tyrians appears to have been the cause of their +fall, and that pride was occasioned by the possession of wealth, +far beyond that of any other people then in the world. While they +were great they aimed at monopoly, and were partly the cause of the +rapid decay of Jerusalem. After the death of Solomon, they founded +a colony, well situated for the extention of their own trade, which +consisted chiefly in bringing the rich produce of Arabia, and +India, into the western world. Carthage was placed on the south +coast of the Mediterranean to the west of Egypt, so as never to +have any direct intercourse with India itself, while it lay +extremely well for distributing the merchandize, brought by the +Tyrians, from thence in the interior of Africa, Spain, Sicily, +Italy, and the parts that lay distant from the mother city. +{26}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the extent of its territory and situation, Tyre could only be +wealthy; it never could be powerful, as the great Assyrian +monarchy, which lay immediately to the eastward, prevented the +possibility of its extention; and, as to power at sea, there was +=sic= at that time no contests on that element; the most then that +could be expected was, that it should have sufficient strength to +protect itself, which, being on a small island, very near the +shore, was not difficult. If Alexander the Great had not joined it +to the land by an earthen mound, or mole, Tyre could never have +been taken till some other power got the superiority by sea; which +could not have been till after the Romans had conquered +Carthage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Babylon, which was the centre of the Assyrian empire, and +commu-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{26} The best account of the commodities +in which the commerce of the Tyrians consisted, as well as the best +description of their wealth, and the cause of the downfall is to be +found in Ezekiel, chap. xxvi. and the two following. It is +perfectly distinct and conclusive with respect to the principal +points of wealth, pride, and luxury founded on wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Tyre here spoken of is not the same taken by the king of +Babylon, or Assyrian monarch long before Alexander's time, which +only appears to have been a settlement on the main land belonging +to the same people, and subject to the same prince.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #23]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>nicated with the eastern part of Asia, by +the river Euphrates, and by the Persian Gulf with India, was, as +Memphis, of Egypt, a capital; but the Assyrians were not protected +on all sides, like the Egyptians, from foreign inroads; they +consequently did not cultivate the arts of peace and the sciences +so much. On the east, were the Medes and Persians; on the north, +the Scythians and Partheans; but, as the territory was fertile and +extensive, under one of the finest climates of the world, the +monarchs became rich and luxurious, which was the cause of their +subjection, and they were always subdued by people less advanced in +luxury than themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The whole of these countries, Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, and Greece, +fell under the arms of Alexander. This was the first great and +general revolution in that part of the world, from which Carthage +alone, of all the ancient seats of wealth and greatness, +escaped.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The triumph of Alexander was, no doubt, that of a great captain; +but, except the destruction of Tyre, and the foundation of +Alexandria, which changed the principal seat of commerce, there was +nothing durable in his conquests. The reigning families were +destroyed, and the dynasties altered; but, under his immediate +successors, the Egyptians, the inhabitants of Syria, and the +Greeks, had different masters.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was after the foundation of Alexandria, and under the successors +of Alexander, that Egypt became really a commercial country. Its +wealth had hitherto arisen rather from the great population and +fertility of the country, than from any participation in the trade +to the East; but after Alexandria was founded, the seat of empire, +which had always been in Upper Egypt, was established in Lower +Egypt, canals were dug, and every means taken to make the passage +from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean as commodious as +possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Carthage began then to decline. Tyre was no more: and Alexandria +was situated on the same side of the Mediterranean Sea, in a much +more advantageous position for receiving the productions of the +East, and equally advantageous for distributing them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Phoenicians never recovered their importance; and indeed it was +not the interest of the Persian monarch to encourage trade by [end +of page #24] the old channel of the Red Sea and Rhinocolura, but +rather to come directly through the Persian Gulf, ascend the +Euphrates, and cross the country to the borders of the +Mediterranean, which was a way not much more expensive than by the +old rout =sic=. As the greater part of the produce imported was to +be consumed at the luxurious court of Persia, and in the numerous +rich cities with which that empire was filled, there is no doubt +that the way by the Persian Gulf was by much the least expensive; +for even Solomon, King of Jerusalem, long before, though he lived +at one extremity of the journey, and had ships for trading by the +other channel, had carried on trade by this way; and, in order to +facilitate it, had laid the foundation of the magnificent city of +Palmyra, nearly in the middle between the Mediterranean Sea and the +Gulf of Persia.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whilst those revolutions were effecting amongst the ancient nations +on the continents of Asia and Africa, the Greeks, who had been the +most barbarous of all, became, by degrees, the most refined; their +learning and arts were all founded, originally, on the Egyptian +learning; and though at last they carried them to a higher pitch +than their masters; yet Egypt, for many centuries, was looked up +to, even by the Greeks, as they were afterwards for a number of +centuries by the Romans, and the other nations of the +world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The education of the Greeks; very different in some of the states +from what it was in others, had, however, the same tendency in all; +that tendency was to invigorate the body, and instruct and +strengthen the mind. While this continued, we see them at first +resist the Persians, though in very unequal numbers; and, at last, +the Grecian vigour, discipline, and skill, subdue the whole of the +then civilized world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After the conquests of Alexander, the wealth and luxury of Asia +were introduced into Greece, and indeed the Greeks refined on that +luxury. At Athens and the other cities which might be said to give +manners to the rest, shews, and theatrical representations were +after that more attended to than the military art; and cabal, +intrigue, and corruption, were introduced in the place of that +manly, pure, and admirable love of their country, for which, in +less wealthy, but in better [end of page #25] times, they had been +so highly distinguished above every other people.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This was the situation of things when a nation, less advanced in +arts, and uncorrupted with the possession of wealth, but which was +still considered by the Greeks as barbarous, prepared at once to +subdue the whole of them, and give a still more striking proof of +the triumph which vigour and energy obtain over those who have only +wealth; the possession of which, undoubtedly, gives a certain means +of defence, though one very unequal to resisting a nation when +excited by the desire of sharing its possessions, and yet vigorous +and strong, not being unnerved by the enjoyment of ease and luxury. +[end of page #26]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Romans. -- the Causes of their +Rise under the Republic, and of their Decline under the Emperors. +-- the great Error generally fallen into with respect to the +Comparison between Rome and Carthage; Proofs that it is wrong, and +not at all applicable to France and England.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN the rise and greatness of Rome, there was nothing accidental, +all was the effect of the most unremitting perseverance in a plan, +at first, of petty robbery; which, as it extended, was honoured +with the title of conquest; and, as it succeeded, has been +considered as deserving the appellation of great.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is true, that there were talents exercised, and methods +practised, which deserve the highest praise, and are worthy of +imitation. It is impossible to withhold admiration at the recital, +but the end in view, from the beginning, cannot be +justified.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Although neither the end in view, nor, generally speaking, the +means employed, are deserving of imitation, yet we shall find more +advantage from examining them than from the history of any other +nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the first place, so far as prosperity depends on good conduct, +and good conduct depends on the state of the mind, the Romans are a +most striking example. While they preserved the manners that first +occasioned their rise, they continued to become more powerful; as +they forsook these manners, their power abandoned them; and they, +after having conquered all with whom they ever contended, because +they had more skill or less corruption, were themselves overcome, +by men infinitely inferior to what they had been, before they +became enervated and corrupt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The smallness of the territory, which the Romans at first +possessed, laid them under the necessity of extending it, and +drawing resources from their neighbours; who, being brave and +hardy, could not be easily either robbed or subdued. [end of page +#27]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Romans began with robbing, and finished with subduing them all, +but the modes they practised deserve attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is in vain to think that superior bravery or skill would alone +have done the business; those are often triumphant, but +occasionally defeated. The Romans owed their gradual aggrandizement +to a line of conduct that, whether in good or ill fortune, tended +to make them the sovereigns of the world. A line of conduct in +which, if it had been in human nature to persevere, they would have +preserved the situation to which they had elevated +themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Along with this decided conduct, which seems to have arisen from +something innate in themselves, or to have been occasioned by some +circumstance that is not known, the Romans possessed a number of +methods, in addition to personal bravery, by which they advanced +the end they had in view.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the kings were abolished, Rome was only a small, rude, +irregular place, and a receptacle for plunder; inhabited, however, +by men who had great strength of mind, and who possessed a great +command over themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Their moral code was suitable to their situation. To rob, +plunder, and destroy an enemy was a merit; to betray a trust, or to +defraud a fellow citizen, was a crime of the greatest +magnitude. With the Romans, oaths were inviolable; and +attachment to the public was the greatest virtue.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As they had neither arts nor commerce, and but very little +territory, plunder was their means of subsistence; it was to them a +regular source of wealth, and it was distributed with perfect +impartiality; they were in fact an association; the wealth of the +public, and of the individual, were, to a certain degree, the same; +they were as an incorporated company, in which private interest +conspired with the love of their country to forward the general +interest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Plundering and pillage, as well as the modes of dividing the spoil, +were reduced to system and method; and the religious observation of +oaths was conducive to the success of both. Every soldier was +sworn to be faithful to his country, both in fighting its battles, +and in giving a rigid account of whatever might be the fruits of +the contest. [end of page #28]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The moveables and lands taken from an enemy were sold for the +benefit of the public; the former went wholly for that purpose, and +the latter were divided into two equal portions; one of which, like +the moveables, went into the general stock, the other was +distributed to the poorer citizens, at the price of a small +acknowledgement.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consequence of this system was, a perpetual state of warfare; +in which it was clear that the armies must obtain a superiority +over neighbours, who but occasionally employed themselves in acts +of hostility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From such a plan of operations it naturally followed that they must +either have been subdued altogether, or come off in general with +some advantage, otherwise it would have been impossible to proceed. +Of this they seem to have been fully sensible; for, with them, it +was a maxim never to conclude peace unless they were victorious, +and never to treat with an enemy on their own territory.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Acting in this manner, and engaging in wars with different nations, +unconnected with each other by treaties of alliance; without any +common interest, or even any knowledge of each others =sic= +affairs; ignorant, in general, even of what was going on, the +Romans had, in most cases, a great advantage over those with whom +they had to contend.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There were in Italy some very warlike people, and those were +nearest to Rome itself. The contest with those was long obstinate, +and repeatedly renewed; but still the system of conquest was +followed; and at last prevailed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consular government was favourable, also, for perpetual +warfare. Those temporary chief magistrates did not enjoy their +dignity long enough to become torpid or careless, but were +interested in distinguishing themselves by the activity of their +conduct while in office; whereas, in hereditary power, or elective +monarchy, the personal feelings of the chief, which must have an +influence upon the conduct of a nation, must sometimes, happily for +mankind, lead him to seek peace and quietness. {27}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{27} During the interruption of consular +government, by the decemvirs, though they did not reign long, the +energy of the people was suspended, and their enemies found them +much less difficult to resist.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #29]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Even when the Gauls burned the city, the Romans yielded no +advantages in treaty; they abandoned it to its fate, retired to +Veii, and renewed the war.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the art of war, the Romans had those advantages which men +generally possess in whatever is the natural bent of their genius, +and their constant occupation. Every thing that continual +attention, experience, or example, could do to increase their +success was attended to; and their hardy manner of education and +living, with constant exercise, enabled them to practice =sic= what +other men were unable to perform.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +They accustomed themselves to heavier armour than any other nation. +Their rate of marching was between four and five miles an hour, for +four or five hours together, loaded with a weight of above 60lb. +Their weapons for exercising were double the usual weight, and they +were inured to running and leaping when completely +armed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The success of the Romans in Europe was not sufficiently rapid, nor +were the nations they conquered sufficiently rich to bring on that +luxury and relaxation of discipline, which were the consequences in +those victories obtained in Egypt, Syria, and Greece; nor were the +soldiers the only persons inured to such exercises, for the Roman +citizens practised the same at home, in the Campus +Martius.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No people educated with less hardiness of body, or a less firm +attachment to their country, could have undergone, or would have +submitted, to the terrible fatigues of a Roman soldier, which were +such, that, even at a very late period of the republic, they were +known to ask as a favour to be conducted to battle, as a relief +from the fatigues they were made to undergo in the camp. +{28}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In addition to this unremitting and very severe discipline, and to +the inventions of many weapons, machines, and stratagems, unknown +to other nations, they had the great wisdom to examine very +carefully, if they found an enemy enjoy any advantage, in what that +advantage consisted. If it arose from any fault of their own, it +was rectified</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{28} This happened under Sylla, in the +war against Mithridates, which immediately preceded the fall of the +republic.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #30]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>without delay; and if it arose from any +new mode of fighting, or superior weapons, they adopted methods +with such promptitude that the advantage was only once in favour of +the enemy. {29}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Asiatic methods of fighting with elephants, though new, never +disconcerted them twice. If they knew of any superior art that they +could imitate, it was done; and when the advantage arose from +natural circumstances, and they could not themselves become masters +of the art, they took other methods. Expert slingers from the +Balearian Islands, and bowmen from Crete, were added to their +legions; as, in modern times, field-ordnance and riflemen are added +to ours.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is impossible not to view with astonishment and admiration such +wise conduct in such haughty men, whose simple citizens treated the +sovereigns of other nations as equals; but that greatness of mind +had a well-founded cause. They knew that the physical powers of men +are limited, and that to obtain a victory with the greatest ease +possible it was necessary to join together all the advantages that +could be obtained; they knew, also, that war is altogether a trial +of force, and a trial of skill, and that neither of the contending +parties can act by rule, but must be guided by circumstances and +the conduct of the enemy. {30}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This conduct of the Romans in war was supported by the laws at +home. The equal distribution of lands, their contempt for commerce +and luxury, preserved the population of the country in that state +where good soldiers are to be obtained. The wealthy, in any state, +cannot be numerous; neither are they hardy to bear the fatigue. +Their servants, and the idle, the indolent, and unprincipled +persons they have about them are totally unfit, and a wretched +populace, degraded by want, or inured to ease and plenty are +equally unfit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{29} This conduct appears the more +admirable to those who live in the present times that in the +revolutionary war with the French, who invented a number of new +methods of fighting, and had recourse to new stratagems, the +regular generals opposed to them never altered their modes of +warfare, but let themselves be beat in the most regular way +possible. One single general (the Archduke Charles) did not think +himself above the circumstances of the case, and his success was +proportioned to his merit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{30} The copying the form and structure +of a Carthaginian galley that was stranded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #31]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been a favourite opinion among many writers on political +economy that artists and workmen are cowardly and unfit for +soldiers; but experience does not warrant that conclusion; though +it is certain that, according to the manner the Romans carried on +war, the bodily fatigue was greater than men bred up promiscuously +to trades of different sorts could in general undergo.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So long as the Romans had enemies to contend with, from whom they +obtained little, the manners and laws, the mode of education, and +the government of their country, remained pure as at first. Their +business, indeed, became more easy; for the terror of their name, +their inflexibility, and the superior means they had of bringing +their powers into action, all served to facilitate their conquests. +But when they conquered Carthage, and begun =sic= to taste the +fruits of wealth, their ground-work altered by degrees, and the +superstructure became less solid. {31}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wealth, as we have already seen, was confined to Asia and Africa, +and of it the Carthaginians possessed a great share. It has long +been the opinion adopted by writers on those subjects that the +Carthaginians, as being a commercial and a trading nation, were +quite an unequal match for the Romans; that in Rome all was virtue, +public spirit, and every thing that was great and noble, while at +Carthage all was venal, vile, and selfish. A spirit of war and +conquest reigned, say they, in one place together with a spirit of +glory, in the other a spirit of gain presided over private actions +and public counsels.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is all very true, and very well said, with respect to the +fact, but with respect to the cause there is one of the greatest +errors into which a number of men of discernment and ability have +ever fallen. {32}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The true state of the case is easily to be understood, if we +only</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{31} It will be seen, in the subsequent +part of this inquiry, that, in the present mode of warfare, the +Romans would not have had equal advantage. -- Skill, and not +personal strength, is now the great object, and money to purchase +arms and ammunition is the next.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{32} M. Montesquieu, notwithstanding his +very superior knowledge, accuracy, and acuteness, enlarges upon +this subject; and never takes any notice of the corrupt, mercenary, +and degraded state into which Rome fell when it became as rich as +Carthage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #32]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>throw aside, for a moment, the favour for +the brave warrior, and the dislike to the selfish trader. The fact +was, that Rome, in the days of its vigour, when it was poor, +attacked Carthage in the days of its wealth and of its decline; but +let us compare Carthage before its fall to Rome in the time of the +Gordians, of Maximus, or Gallus, and see which was most vile, most +venal, or most cowardly. This would at least be a fair comparison; +and nothing relative to the two cities is more certain, than that +Rome became far more degraded, in the character both of citizens +and soldiers, than ever Carthage was.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wealth procured by commerce, far from degrading a nation more than +wealth procured by conquest, does not degrade it near so much; and +the reason is easily understood. Whenever a commercial nation +becomes too corrupted and luxurious, its wealth vanishes, and the +evil corrects itself. Whereas, a country that lives by tribute +received from others, may continue for a considerable while to +enjoy its revenues. This is so evident, that it would be absurd to +enlarge on the subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The reduction of Carthage, and the wealth it produced at Rome, soon +brought on a change in the education, the nature, and the manner of +acting, both in private life and public concerns. The conquest of +Greece, Syria, and Egypt, completed the business; and the same +people who had conquered every enemy, while they retained their +poverty and simplicity, were themselves conquered, when they became +rich and luxurious.. =sic=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After the fall of Carthage {33}, Rome was fundamentally changed; +but the armies still continued to act. Their ambition was now +strengthened by avarice, and became ten times more active and +dangerous to other nations. They then carried on war in every +direction, and neither the riches of the East, nor the poverty of +the North, could secure other nations from the joint effects of +ambition and avarice.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the Romans did not only get gold and wealth by their +con-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{33} Considering circumstances, it is +wonderful that the Carthaginians made so excellent a stand against +the Romans: for a long time they were victorious; they fought +excellently, even at the battle of Zama. The Romans could not say +so much for themselves, when afterwards they were attacked by the +barbarians.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #33]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>quests; they became corrupted by adopting +the manners of the inhabitants of countries that had long been +drowned in every voluptuous pleasure. Then it was that they ceased +to trust so much to their bravery for their conquests; they began +to employ politics and intrigue to divide their enemies. With the +poorer states, they found gold a very useful weapon, and, with the +richer, they employed weapons of iron.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The terror of the Roman name, the actual force that they could +exert against a powerful enemy, and the facility with which a weak +one could be silenced, till a proper opportunity arrived for his +destruction, were all calculated, and force and fraud were both +called into action.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever truth or honour the Romans had amongst themselves, they at +least had none towards other nations. They, in the most wanton +manner, interfered in every quarrel between strangers; and, +whenever it suited their conveniency to make war, they begun +without almost being at the pains to search for a pretext. They set +themselves up above all opinion, while, at the same time, they +required all nations to submit to theirs.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a city where all great offices were elective, the evil effects +of the introduction of riches were soon displayed. The first great +changes were, that the people became corrupted, dependent, and +degraded; fortunes became unequally divided; the provinces groaned +under the heavy contributions of generals and proconsuls; and, at +last, the country splitting into factions, the government was +overturned.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The splendour of Rome augmented, as a fiery meteor shines most +bright before it falls; but the means by which it obtained the +ascendency over other nations had long been at an end.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The same laws that had been found excellent, when the state was +small and poor, did not answer now that it had become great and +splendid. The freedom of the city, and the title and privileges of +a Roman citizen had been very widely extended; they were therefore +become an illusion, and a very dangerous one for the public weal; +they served as a foundation for cabal and intrigue of every +description.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Towards the latter days, after all those internal causes of +decline, which are common to other nations had rendered Rome +feeble, several [end of page #34] external ones began to +act.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The provinces became exhausted, and those who ruled them gradually +retained more and more of the money. {34} Thus, while the +oppression of the provinces was augmenting, the resources of the +state were daily on the decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The first effect of conquests had been to free the people at home +from taxes; and when, in a state of poverty and simplicity, the +effect was advantageous and tended to preserve that spirit by which +the Roman empire aggrandized itself. After wealth flowed in from +the destruction of Carthage, donations and shews were in use. The +Roman populace, idle and degraded, clamoured for corn and public +games. It is almost as difficult to conceive the degree to which +the character of the people was degraded, as it is to give credit +to the wealth and luxury of the great, in the latter days of the +empire.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Agriculture was neglected; and the masters of the world, who had +obtained every thing for which they contended, while they preserved +their purity of manners, now became unable either to govern others, +to protect themselves, or even to provide food. Sicily and Africa +supplied the Roman people with bread, long before the empire had +become feeble, and even at the very time when it is reckoned to +have been in its greatest splendour in the Augustan age. {35} The +cause of its decline was fixed beyond the power of human nature to +counteract: it began by unnerving the human character, and +therefore its progress was accelerated and became +irresistible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the nations, into which luxury is introduced, none feels its +effects</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{34} The detached facts related of the +wealth of the governors of provinces, compared with the poverty of +the state, are, if not incredible, at least, difficult to conceive. +They are, however, too well attested to admit of a doubt, though +the details are not sufficiently circumstantial to enable us to +know exactly how they happened.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{35} In the time of Augustus, the people +depended on the supplies from Sicily and Egypt, in so complete a +manner, that, if those failed, there was no remedy; and, at one +time, when there was only a sufficient quantity of grain for +twenty-four hours, that emperor was determined to have put an end +to his existence: but the supply arrived in time. Such is the +terrible situation into which a people is thrown, when agriculture +and industry are abandoned, and when the population becomes too +great for the production of the country!! This, however, was +a very recent change. Till some time after the conquest of +Egypt, Greece, and Sicily, it could not have happened.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #35]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>so severely as one where it comes by +conquest. A people of conquerors, who are wealthy, must, at all +events, be under military authority, and that is never a desirable +circumstance; depending also on revenues which come without the aid +of industry, they must become doubly degraded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With such a people, it would be fair to compare the Carthaginians +before their fall; for, to say nothing more than that the principle +of traffic and commerce is founded on morality and virtue, in +comparison to that trade of pillage which robbed and ruined all +nations; the physical situation of the Carthaginians was preferable +to that of the Romans in the days of their decline. This is +evident, from the noble struggle that the former made, and the +contemptible manner in which the mistress of the world terminated +her career.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Montesquieu bewails the fate of a monarch, who is oppressed by a +party that prevails after his fall. His enemies are his historians; +and this reflection is employed in mitigation of the crimes imputed +to Tarquin; but, surely, if true, on that occasion, it is no less +so with respect to Carthage. All the historians that give us the +character of the two nations were Romans and of the victorious +party; yet most of them are more equitable than the historians of +modern times, for they had not seen their own country in its last +state of degradation and misery. Those who now make the comparison +have proper materials; and it is the business of the writers of +history to free it from the errors into which cotemporary =sic= +authors fall, whether from prejudice, or from want of knowing those +events which happened after their days.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the case of the Roman historians, the error arose from a +combination of three different causes. In the first place, they +compared Rome in its healthy days and its vigour, to Carthage in +its decline. -- They were, next to that, led into an error, by not +knowing that all countries that have been long rich are liable to +the same evils as Carthage. And, last of all, they wrote with a +spirit of party, and a prediliction =sic= in favour of Rome. These +three causes are certain; and, perhaps, there was another. It is +possible they did not dare to speak the truth, if they did know +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is true, that the human mind is not proof against the effect +pro- [end of page #36] duced by what is splendid and brilliant; and +that success in all cases diminishes, and, in some, does away the +reproach naturally attached to criminality. It is also to be +admitted, that in the Roman character there was a degree of courage +and magnanimity that commands admiration, though the end to which +it was applied was in itself detestable. Even in individual life +(moral principle apart) there is something that diminishes the +horror attendant on injustice and rapacity, when accompanied with +courage and prodigality.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is no less true, that the manners of commercial men, though +their views are legitimate and their means fair, are prejudicial to +them in the opinion of others. Individuals, gaining money by +commerce, may sometimes have the splendour and magnanimity of +princes; but nations that depend only on commerce for wealth never +can. No nation, while it continues great or wealthy, can rid itself +of the characteristic manners that attend the way in which it +obtains its wealth and greatness. Merchants owe their wealth to a +strict adherence to their interest, and they cannot help shewing +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The cruelties of the Spaniards have not excited the detestation +they deserved, because they were accompanied with courage, and +crowned with success; and that nation found means, in the midst of +the most horrible of human crimes, to preserve an appearance of +greatness and dignity of character. But the Dutch, who have gained +wealth, like the Carthaginians, and though they were conquerors, +never quitted the character of merchants, and they never possessed +dignity of character, though they triumphed by virtue, +perseverance, and bravery, over that very Spain which did preserve +her dignity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is much more difficult to reconcile the character of trading +nations with the qualities that are improperly called great, than +that of any other. A commercial nation naturally will be just; it +may be generous; but it never can become extravagant and wasteful; +neither can it be incumbered with the lazy and the idle; for the +moment that either of these takes place, commerce flies to another +habitation. {36}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{36} It follows, from this, that a +commercial people never become so degraded as those who obtain +wealth by other means; but, then, it also follows, that they exist +a much shorter time after they become so, and that wealth and power +leave them much more speedily.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #37]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The purpose of this inquiry being, to examine the effects of +wealth, and its operation in the decline of nations; it appears to +be of considerable importance to remove the error, in which +historians and other writers have so long persevered, relative to +the two greatest republics of antiquity; particularly as their +example applies the most readily, and is the most frequently +applied to two rival nations of modern times; although the parallel +is extremely imperfect in almost every particular, and in some +directly inadmissible. {37}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It cannot but be attended with some advantage to set this matter +right. It may, perhaps, tend in some degree to prevent the French +from attempting to imitate the Romans, when we shew them that a +state, whether a whole people, or a single city, exempted from +taxes, and living by the tribute of other countries, must, at all +events, be dependent on its armies. In short, military government +and tributary revenue are inseparable. We see how closely they were +connected in ancient Rome. It is fit that its imitators should know +at what rate they pay (and in what coin) for those exemptions from +taxes, occasioned by the burthens imposed upon other +nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In general we find, that all nations are inclined to push to the +extreme those means by which they have attained wealth or power; +and it will also be found that their ruin is thereby brought on +with greater rapidity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{37} The reader must see the allusion is +to England and France; but, in point of time, their situation is +absolutely different. France is farther advanced in luxury than +England. Rome was far behind Carthage. The Romans exceeded their +rivals in perseverance; in following up their plans, and in +attention to their liberty. The contrary is the case with France +and England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The French, indeed, resemble the Romans in restlessness and +ambition; but not in their mode of exerting the former, or of +gratifying the latter: the resemblance, therefore, is a very faint +one, even where it does hold at all. The English, in whatever they +may resemble the Carthaginians, such as they have been represented, +neither do it in their want of faith and honour, nor in their +progress towards decline. The different wars with Rome, in which +Carthage came off a loser and became tributary, though only for a +limited time, were not the only causes of its decline. The trade of +Alexandria, which was better situated for commerce, had diminished +the resources of Carthage; so that it was, in every sense of the +word, a falling nation. It will be seen, in the subsequent part of +this inquiry, how, from the different modes of making war and also +the different effects of wealth in the present times, the +comparison is still less founded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #38]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Had the Romans stopped the career of conquest at an earlier period, +they probably would not have so soon sunk into a state of +corruption. It is very probable, that if Caesar had never attempted +the useless conquest of Britain, he never would have succeeded in +conquering the liberties of his own country. The reputation of +having conquered an island, and the passage of the British Channel, +made way for the passage of the Rubicon, and the battle of +Pharsalia.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Conquerors must be paid as well as common soldiers: and though +every man may have his price, and money and dignities may be a +sufficient reward for the most part, there are some who despise any +reward under that of royal power. -- Caesar was one of those men; +and both ancient and modern history shew, that though, perhaps, in +his abilities, he has had no equal, there have been others who have +rated theirs at as high a price.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Romans at last became sensible, when too late, that they had +pushed the spirit of conquest too far; and, as they had something +great in all they did, they had the magnanimity to retract their +error.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest extent of the Roman empire being from the north of +England to the Gulf of Persia, they consequently abandoned Britain, +and those conquests in Asia, which were the most difficult to keep. +The river Euphrates became the boundary, the Emperor Adrian having, +in a voluntary manner, given up all the country to the north of +that river, situated on its left bank.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The decline of the empire might have been as regular as the rise of +the republic, had it not been for the different characters of the +emperors; some of whom did honour to human nature, from their +possessing almost every virtue, while others were such monsters, +that their crimes excite the highest degree of horror and +indignation, and are almost beyond credibility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is but justice to the Romans to observe, that though they robbed +and conquered, yet their policy was to instruct, improve, and +civilize those whom they had robbed and conquered, wherever they +stood in want of it. They aimed, in every case, at making the most +of the circumstances in which they were placed, and they very truly +conceived, that it was more profitable and advantageous, to rule +over a civilized than a rude people. [end of page #39]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After the great influx of wealth had corrupted Rome, its public +expenses increased at an enormous rate, till at last that portion +of the tribute exacted from the provinces, which it pleased the +armies and the generals to remit to Rome, became unequal to the +expenditure. Taxation of every kind then became necessary, in Italy +itself, and the evils that attend the multiplication of imposts +were greatly augmented by the ignorant manner in which they were +laid on, by men who understood little but military affairs, added +to the severe manner in which were they =sic= levied by a rude, +imperious, and debauched soldiery.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The characters of soldier and citizen, which had been so long +united, ceased to have any connection. Soon after this, the +corruption of manners became general; and, at last, the Romans +unable to find soldiers amongst themselves, were obliged to retain +barbarians to fight in their defence, {38} and to bribe the +Persians, and other nations, to leave them in a state of +tranquility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No nation that ever yet submitted to pay tribute, has long +preserved its independence. The Romans knew this well; and if any +one, having had recourse to that expedient, has escaped ruin, it +has been from some other circumstance than its own exertion; or it +has sometimes been the effort of despair when pushed to +extremity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though, in many respects, Montesquieu's opinion of the affairs of +Rome is by no means to be taken, yet his short account of the whole +is unexceptionally just.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +"Take," says that able and profound writer, "this compendium of the +Roman history. The Romans subdued all nations by their maxims; but, +when they had succeeded in doing so, they could no longer preserve +their republican form of government. It was necessary to change the +plan, and maxims contrary to their first, being introduced, they +were divested of all their grandeur."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This was literally the case; but then it is clear that this +compendium, only includes the secondary causes, and their effects; +for the perseverance in maxims till they had obtained their end, +and then changing</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{38} This is exactly one of the charges +brought against the Carthaginians in the last Punic war.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #40]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>them, which was not an act of the will, +must have been occasioned by some cause inherent in their +situation, which had gradually changed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In searching for this cause we shall be very much assisted, and the +conclusion will be rendered more certain, by observing in what +particular circumstances, they resembled other nations who had +undergone a similar changes. =sic=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In doing this, we find the inquiry wonderfully abridged indeed, and +the conclusion reduced nearly to a mathematical certainty, by +observing that the change of maxims, that is to say, the change in +ways of thinking, whenever it has taken place, has followed soon +after the introduction of wealth and refinement, which change +manners, and consequently maxims.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wealth, acquired by conquest, was incompatible with that austere +virtue and independent principle which form the basis of republican +prosperity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As all public employments were obtained by the favour of the +people; and as all wealth and power were obtained by the channels +of public employment; bribery and corruption, which cannot take +place in a poor republic, became very common in this wealthy one; +so that this republican government, so constituted, lost all those +advantages it possessed while it was poor.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Had the murderers of Julius Caesar, either understood the real +corruption of the commonwealth, or foreseen that a new master would +rise up, they would never have destroyed that admirable man. Had +Rome not been ready to receive a master, Julius Caesar, with all +his ambition, would never have grasped at the crown.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In nations that obtain wealth by commerce, manufactures, or any +other means than by conquests, the corruption of the state is not +naturally so great. The wealth originates in the people, and not in +the state; and, besides that they are more difficult to purchase, +there is less means of doing so, and less inducement; neither can +they, being the sources of wealth themselves, become so idle and +corrupted. {39}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{39} The wild and ungovernable direction +that the French revolution took originated chiefly in the creation +of assignats, which not only exempted the people from taxes at +first, but had the effect of producing an artificial and temporary +degree of wealth, that [end of page #41] enabled vast numbers, +either in the pay of others, or at their own expense, to make +cabals and politics their whole study. Rome never was in such a +licentious state, because, before the citizens got into that +situation, the military power was established.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the ancient nations that fell one after another, we have seen +the young and vigorous subdue the more wealthy and luxurious; or we +have seen superior art and skill get the better of valour and +ignorance; but, in the fall of the Roman empire, the art and skill +were all on the side of those who fell, and the vigour of those who +conquered was not so powerful an agent as the very low and degraded +state into which the masters of the world had themselves +fallen.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is by no means consistent with the plan of this work, nor is it +any way necessary for the inquiry, to enter into the particular +details of the degraded and miserable state to which the Romans +were reduced; insomuch, that those who emigrated previously to its +fall, and settled amongst barbarous nations, found themselves more +happy than they had been, being freed from taxation and a variety +of oppressions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the Roman people are, of all others, those whose rise and +fall are the most distinctly known; yet, in some circumstances, +their case does not apply to nations in general. Had they +cultivated commerce and the arts, with the same success that they +pursued conquest, they must have become wealthy at a much earlier +period, and they would not have found themselves in possession of +an almost boundless empire, composed of different nations, subdued +by force, and requiring force to be preserved.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The decline of nations, who become rich by means of industry, may +be natural; but, the fall of a nation, owing its greatness to the +subjugation of others, must be necessary. Human affairs are too +complicated and varied to admit of perfect equality, and the +relative situations of mankind are always changing; yet, in some +instances, perhaps, changes might be obviated, or protracted, by +timely preventives. But there is no possibility of keeping them +long in so unnatural a situation, as that of a nation of wealthy +and idle people, ruling over and keeping in subjection others who +are more hardy, poorer, and more virtuous, than +themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before the western empire fell, the following causes of its +weakness were arrived at a great height. [end of page +#42]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manners were corrupted to the highest degree; there was neither +public nor private virtue; intrigue, cabal, and money, did every +thing.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Property was all in the hands of a few; the great mass of the +people were wretchedly poor, mutinous, and idle.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Italy was unable to supply its inhabitants with food. The lands +were in the possession of men, who, by rapacity in the provinces, +had acquired large incomes, and to whom cultivation was no object; +the country was either laid out in pleasure grounds, or +neglected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The revenues of the state were wasted on the soldiers; in shews to +keep the people occupied, and on the purchase of corn, brought to +Rome from a distance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The load of taxes was so great, that the Roman citizens envied the +barbarians, and thought they could not be worse than they were, +should they fall under a foreign yoke. All attachment to their +country was gone; and every motive to public spirit had entirely +ceased to operate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The old noble families, who alone preserved a sense of their +ancient dignity, were neglected in times of quiet, and persecuted +in times of trouble. They still preserved an attachment to their +country, but they had neither wealth, power, nor +authority.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The vile populace, having lost every species of military valour, +were unable to recruit the armies; the defence, against the +provinces which rebelled, was in the hands of foreign mercenaries; +and Rome paid tribute to obtain peace from some of those she had +insulted in the hour of her prosperity and insolence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Gold corrupted all the courts of justice; there were no laws for +the rich, who committed crimes with impunity; while the poor did +the same through want, wretchedness, and despair.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this miserable state of things, the poor, for the sake of +protection, became a sort of partizans or retainers of the rich, +whom they were ready to serve on all occasions: so that, except in +a few forms, there was no trace left of the institutions that had +raised the Romans above all other nations. [end of page +#43]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Cities and Nations that rose to +Wealth and Power in the middle Ages, after the Fall of the Western +Empire, and previously to the Discovery of the Passage to the East +Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, and of America.-- Different +Effects of Wealth on Nations in cold and in warm Climates, and of +the Fall of the Eastern Empire.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +AFTER the fall of the western empire, the Italian states were the +first that revived commerce in the west of Europe, which they may +indeed be said alone to have kept alive, with the single exception +of the city of Marseilles.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Venice had begun to flourish when the barbarians took Rome; and +Florence afforded a refuge for those of the nobility who escaped +from their terrible grasp: but, for four centuries after, till the +time of Charlemagne, there was, indeed, nothing that had either the +semblance of power, wealth, or greatness, in Europe. The Saracens, +as early as the seventh century, had got possession of Egypt, and +had extended their ravages in Asia, to the borders of the Black +Sea, having in vain endeavoured to take the city of Constantinople, +and make themselves masters of the eastern empire, as their rivals, +the Goths, had conquered that in the west.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The momentary greatness which shone forth in the reign of +Charlemagne was, in many respects, like that during the reign of +Alexander the Great. The power of each depended on the individual +character of the man, and their empires, extended by their courage +and skill, fell to pieces immediately after they were no +more.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the only permanent change that Alexander had effected was that +of removing the chief seat of commerce from Phoenicia to the +southern border of the Mediterranean Sea; so, the only permanent +effect of the reign of Charles the Great was, his extending +Christianity, and some degree of civilization, to the north of the +Danube; {40} thus bring-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{40} The people to the north of the +Danube had never been subdued by the Romans. In the time of +Charlemagne they were Pagans, and in a most rude state of +barbarism.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #44]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ing the borders of the Baltic Sea within +the limits of the civilized world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Charlemagne paved the way for the greatness of the Flemings, the +Saxons, and the Hans Towns, which began to flourish a few centuries +after his time; but his own country was never in a more abject +situation than soon after his decease.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Danes took and burned the city of Paris, and they conquered, +settled, and gave its name to the present country of Normandy. +{41}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would throw no light on the subject of the present inquiry to +notice the quarrels, the feuds, and revolutions, that took place +during the dark ages, and the reign of the feudal system, +previously to the time of the crusades; when a wild romantic spirit +extended civilization a little more widely than before, and laid +the foundation for a new order of things, and a new species of +wealth and power, different from those of the ancient world, the +extent of which was bounded by the fertile regions of the +south.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The first holy war took place in the eleventh century, and commerce +and industry were introduced into the north of Europe very soon +after. The Danes, who alone had power by sea in those times, +exercised it by piracies and seizing all merchant vessels; +particularly such as passed the Sound, from the Baltic to the North +Sea. This rendered it necessary for the cities that had commerce to +carry on to associate for the sake of protection, as the Arabian +merchants had formerly done by land, and do to this day, to prevent +being robbed by those who live by hunting and +depredation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This gave rise to the famous Hanseatic League, which began to +become formidable towards the end of the twelfth century. +{42}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As men living in northern countries have many wants unknown to +those of the south, so the industry that began on the borders of +the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{41} They were equally successful in +England, but that country was not then to be considered as making +any part of that world, with the revolutions of which this inquiry +is connected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{42} There is a dispute relative to this: +but, as no writers give it a later date, and some give it an +earlier one, it is certain that it must have existed at that time. +Many disputes never ascertain the point intended, yet clear up +something else that is equally useful.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #45]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Baltic was very different from that which +had flourished in ancient times on those of the Mediterranean +Sea.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this new order of things, Flanders, for its fertility, might be +compared to Egypt, and Holland to Phoenicia, from its want of +territory: but clothing of a more substantial sort, and +conveniences and pleasures of a different nature being necessary, +industry took a different turn. Besides this, the nature of the +governments, where men were more nearly upon an equality, made it +necessary to provide for their wants in a very different +way.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Instead of building pyramids for the tombs of kings, industry was +employed in procuring comfort for those who inhabited the country; +and instead of the greatest art being employed on the fabrication +of fine linen, and dying of purple, making vessels of gold and +silver, and every thing for the use of courts, the art of making +warm clothing of wool, and of fishing and salting fish, occupied +the attention of this new race of men.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Flemish had three sources of wealth at one time: they possessed +the depots of Indian produce, and dispersed it over the north of +Europe; they were the first who excelled in the art of weaving, and +in that of curing fish.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The towns of Flanders and Brabant were associated in the Hanseatic +League, and continued rising from the twelfth to the middle of the +sixteenth century, when several circumstances operated in bringing +on their decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Hanseatic association was one arising from the circumstances of +the times and from necessity. It was an artificial connection or +alliance, where towns, subject to different governments, acted as +independent states, entering into a society which treated on a +footing of equality with kings, and made war and peace like any +single sovereign. It was not to be expected that such a sort of +alliance could greatly outlive the cause of its formation. But +neither did the destruction of the league or federation, of +necessity, draw along with it that of the towns of which it was +composed. We shall see, however, that the general prosperity, and +that of the individual members of the league, disappeared for the +most part nearly together. [end of page #46]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch were far inferior to the Flemings for natural advantages; +but they acted under the influence of necessity, which spurred on +their industry; and no nation ever shewed so well how powerful its +operation is: so that, though they were at first behind the +Flemings in commerce and manufactures, they got the better, and +became more rich and powerful. While the persecution of +Philip, who was King of Spain, while his brother Ferdinand, Emperor +of Germany, was at the head of the Austrian dominions there, and +was a dependant of the Spanish monarchs.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> -- While the persecution of Philip, +uniting the authority of the hereditary dominions of Austria with +that of Spain, compelled many of the most industrious artisans, of +that portion of the Low Countries that has since been distinguished +by the title of the Austrian Netherlands, to leave their country, +the Dutch provinces were making preparations to throw off the yoke +of Spain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[Transcriber's note: possible partly +duplicated section, here reproduced as-is from the +original.]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Not only did the Dutch become more wealthy than their neighbours, +but they became also more tenacious of their liberty, more +patriotic and free; for the situation of their country required +economy, union, and patriotic exertion, even for the preservation +of its existence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After Holland had already made considerable advances towards +wealth, it obtained great superiority by a fortunate improvement on +the art of curing herrings. Though herrings had been barrelled for +exportation, for more than two hundred years, it was only towards +the end of the fourteenth, or beginning of the fifteenth century, +that the present method of curing them was invented by the Dutch, +which gave them a decided superiority in that article. {43} This +prepared the way for the downfal =sic= of Flanders; to which its +pride, and the mutinous spirit of the manufacturers in the towns +did not a little contribute.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The decline of the Austrian Low Countries was brought on entirely +by three causes; the oppression of the government, the Dutch +excelling and supplanting them in arts and industry, and their own +pride and insolence. At one time, Bruges, at another time, Antwerp, +took on them to act as sovereigns, and as if independent, while, at +the same time, the people were almost constantly disobedient to +their magistrates. They had first become industrious under the +influence of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{43} It was discovered in 1397, or soon +after.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #47]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>necessity; but that was gone, and they +could not continue in the same course, when in full enjoyment of +wealth, and of every thing they wanted.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Hanseatic Towns, from at first merely defending their trade +against the Danes, became their conquerors at sea, and, in the +years 1361 and 1369, they took and burnt Copenhagen, the capital, +twice. Crowned heads became desirous of their alliance, and no +power, at sea, was equal to oppose them; but their insolence to the +Dutch, their oppressions of the English, of Spain, and other +powers, laid the foundation for their decline in less than half a +century afterwards. {44}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the first three centuries of this extraordinary and unexampled +association, were employed in protecting commerce and protecting +trade, all those concerned in its success were ambitious of being +admitted members, or received as friends: but when they began to +assume the pride and dignity of sovereigns, and to meddle in +political quarrels, to become irascible and unjust, their numbers +diminished; and of those members that remained, the wealth and +prosperity gradually began to fall.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch, by great industry, by a strict attention to their +interest, and by keeping down pride, continued to increase in +wealth, while the Hans Towns and Flanders were considerably +advanced in their decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While this was happening on the northern shores of the continent of +Europe; to which and to Italy trade had been nearly confined, Spain +and Portugal, France and England, began to see the advantages of +manufactures and commerce, and to encourage them. If money was +wanted to be borrowed, it was either in Italy or Flanders, or in +some of the Hans Towns, that it could alone be found; so, that +though the monarchs of those days rather despised commerce, yet, as +a means merely of procuring what they found so indispensably +necessary, they began to think of encouraging it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Spain had taken possession of the Canary Islands, and Portugal had +made conquests on the coast of Africa, and seized the island +of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{44} In 1411 they were compelled, by +Henry IV. of England, to give him satisfaction for some of the +injuries done.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #48]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Madeira in the early part of the +fifteenth century, and by an attention to naval affairs, and +setting a value on possessions beyond seas, laid a foundation for +those new discoveries which have totally changed the face of the +world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In Europe then, at the end of the fifteenth century, the nations +were nearly in the following state. The Italians, possessed of the +whole trade to India, were wealthy but feeble. They had more art, +policy, and money, than other nations; but they had of themselves +scarcely any effective power, except a little exercised by the +Venetians and Genoese at sea.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Hanse Towns, extending over the northern part of Europe and +Flanders, which had become wealthy and powerful by their own +industry, and a participation of the trade to India with the +Italians, (though at second hand,) were on the decline, through +pride and luxury.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Holland alone was advancing fast towards wealth, by industry, and +an attention to commerce and economy. Spain and Portugal had turned +their attention to new discoveries; and France and England were +endeavouring to follow, though at a great distance, those who, in +this career, had gone before them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of the places that enjoyed wealth, all were declining in power from +the abuse of it; and Spain, which alone had possessed much power +without wealth, was abusing it, by banishing industry from +Flanders, and the Moors from their own country. In one case, there +was wealth without power; in the other, there was power without +wealth; and, in both, mistaken views and unwise conduct had laid +the foundation for decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The other nations that had not yet either wealth or power were all +seeking with great energy to acquire them; and they were successful +in their attempts. Even Spain, which had unwisely banished the +Moors, and thereby laid a foundation for its own decline and fall, +found that event retarded for a century, by a most unexpected +discovery: in consequence of which discovery it fell from a greater +height at a later period. {45}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{45} It would not be to the purpose to +speak at present either of Poland, Sweden, or Russia, or of the +German empire, in which many of the Hanse Towns were situated. [end +of page #49] The history of the Hanse Towns is very curious, and +well worth attention: perhaps, next to that of Rome, it is the best +calculated to illustrate the subject of this inquiry; but it is too +long to be entered on.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As for the eastern empire; held up by a participation of the +commerce of India, and retaining still some of the civilization of +the ancient world, it had sustained the irregular, though fierce +attacks of the barbarians till the middle of this century; when, +having very imprudently made a display of the riches of the city, +and the beauty of the women, the envy of the Mahomedan barbarians +was raised to a pitch of frenzy, that it would, in any situation, +have been difficult to resist, but for which the enervated emperors +of the east were totally unequal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This added one instance more of a poor triumphing over an enervated +and rich people. Nothing could exceed the poverty of the +Turks, unless it was the ugliness of their women. But the +case was not the same here as when the Goths and Vandals, from +violence and revenge, attacked Rome merely to plunder and +destroy. The Turks were, comparatively, from a southern +climate themselves; though poor, they had been living amongst the +wreck of ancient greatness, and they conquered with an intention to +occupy and enjoy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus was extinguished the last remains of ancient grandeur, in the +middle of the fifteenth century. About fifty years before, many new +sources of wealth were discovered, and the old ones were entirely +converted into a channel that was new also. Thus, those who had, +from the earliest ages, been in possession of wealth were preparing +the way for enriching poor nations, that, from their geographical +situation and other circumstances, never could otherwise have +participated in it. [end of page #50]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Digression concerning the Commerce +with India. -- This the only one that raised ancient Nations to +Wealth. -- Its continual Variations.-- The Envy it excited, and +Revolutions it produced.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +BEFORE there are any authentic records, Syria and Egypt were +populous; and the monarchs that ruled in those extensive countries +had established their governments upon the plan that has more or +less been adopted by all countries. There were different ranks of +people. The same offices did not fall indifferently upon all. +Wealth was unequally divided; and, of course, a foundation was laid +for that commerce which consists in supplying the affluent with +articles of taste and luxury, which are only produced in some +countries; whereas, articles of necessity are produced in every +country that is inhabited.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Commerce appears at first to have been entirely confined to the +productions of the eastern and middle parts of Asia, which have, +from the earliest periods, been sought after with great avidity by +the people of other countries.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +All that is most grateful to the taste, the eye, or the smell, is +found in peculiar excellence in India. It is not to be wondered at +then, if such objects of the desires of men were an abundant source +of riches to those nations who had the means of obtaining +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Egypt and Syria lay immediately in the road for this commerce. They +were rivals, and many contests and vicissitudes were the +consequence: for no commerce has ever created so much envy and +jealousy. None has ever raised those who carried it on so high, or, +on forsaking them, left them so low, as that which has been carried +on with India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though at a very early period Egypt had a share of this lucrative +commerce, yet the greatest part was carried on through Syria and +Arabia, between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea; that +part now called the Levant, where Tyre and Sidon once stood. [end +of page #51]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We shall examine briefly the changes of this commerce; the only one +almost existing, in early times, or at least which gave rise to +nearly all that did exist. {46}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the common necessaries of life are found in greater or less +abundance in every country, and as the population is in some degree +regulated by their quantity, they made no objects of trade, except +in the cases of famine. The precious metals, spices, jewels, and +aromatics, rare in their production, universally desirable and +easily transported, were long the chief objects of commerce; and +the changes which this commerce has undergone and produced, amongst +those who possessed it, greatly elucidate the subject of this +inquiry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The distance from Babylon to the Persian gulf, down the Euphrates, +to where Bussora now stands, was not great, and across the country +to Tyre there was little interruption; the Assyrian empire +extending to the sea-coast, and its monarchs being too powerful to +have any thing to fear.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There was, however, at a very early period, another channel, by +which the Tyrians obtained the productions of the East, namely, by +sailing up the Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, and across Arabia Petrea +to Rhinocolura. {47}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Egyptians, at that time, obtained the same sorts of +merchandize, by sailing likewise up the Red Sea, and landing at the +western extremity; from whence they were distributed through Lower +Egypt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Commerce was carried on in this manner, and was nearly all +engrossed by Tyre, when Alexander the Great, bred up under his +father, who had been educated at Athens, and travelled through +Greece,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{46} To carry on trade, capital is +necessary; that is to say, there must be some means of getting an +article before it can be carried away and sold. Spices, precious +stones, and the other produce of the East, cost little or almost +nothing amongst those who had more than they could use; and, as +they produced an immense profit to merchants, they laid a +foundation for those capitals that afterwards were employed in +other sorts of business.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{47} Rhinocolura was merely a sort of sea +port for embarking the merchandizes that had been brought across +the desert from the Red Sea, It was situated at the south-east +extremity or corner of the Mediterranean Sea, and till Alexandria +was built was the nearest port to the Red Sea.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #52]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>turned his arms against those countries +in which there was the most to be got by conquest, and from whom +there was the least danger of defeat.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before this took place, the pride and insolence of the inhabitants +of Tyre and Sidon had displayed itself on more than one occasion. +After having been on friendly terms with the Jews, under David and +Solomon, they became their enemies, and excited the King of Babylon +to take Jerusalem; by that means destroying a neighbouring and +dangerous rival. The wealth of these two cities had afterwards +induced the Babylonians to attack them also. Sidon was taken and +destroyed; and that part of the city of Tyre fell, which was upon +the main land; but the Tyre that was the place of real trade, +escaped the rage of the Assyrian monarchs.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Alexander seems to have determined on destroying Tyre, in order to +found Alexandria, which he placed indeed in a better situation for +the eastern trade. His romantic expedition to India had in view the +getting possession of the countries which had produced those gems +and aromatics that were so much sought after in the other parts of +the world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Had Alexander lived, perhaps he would not have found it in his +interest to depress Syria; but the division of his conquests +amongst his generals gave to Egypt and Syria two different +masters. They were rivals, and then every advantage that +nature gave to Alexandria was improved to the highest pitch under +the Ptolemys.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The river Nile, much more navigable than the Euphrates, was also +better adapted for this trade, because, in coming from India, it +was necessary to ascend the latter, while the other was descended. +Besides this, the flat country of the Delta was cut into canals, +which greatly facilitated this channel of commerce. {48}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This was the first great revolution in eastern commerce. It was +brought on first by the envy of Alexander and the pride of the +in-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{48} It does not appear what returns were +made to the Indians for their produce, therefore it must have been +money. The trade then consisted in bringing from thence goods, +comparatively weighty, and returning, as it were, empty. The +current of the rivers being in different directions was then an +object of importance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #53]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>habitants of Tyre, and gave a very great +superiority to Egypt, which was increased by the canals dug in that +country, and the discovery of the regular monsoon, (a periodical +wind,) which, at a certain time of the year, carried navigators +straight from the mouth of the Red Sea to the Malabar coast. +{49}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Under these disadvantages, flowing from superior prerogatives of +Egypt, the commerce of Syria fell off almost to nothing, till, by +another of those changes to which this commerce seems peculiarly +liable, the Roman empire, which had swallowed up the whole of the +civilized world, was itself divided into two, and one of the +capitals fixed at Constantinople.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The channel through Syria obtained then a preference for all the +eastern part of the empire; and owing to some change, either in the +politics or religion of the Persians, when conquered by the +Parthians, they became willing to permit them the navigation of the +Euphrates, which had long been shut up.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This continued to be the state of matters, particularly after the +fall of the western empire, when barbarians got possession of all +that part of Europe that used to be supplied with East India +produce by the way of Alexandria. It continued till the middle of +the seventh century of the Christian aera, when the Mahometan +religion was established from the westernmost part of Africa to the +confines of the Chinese empire; and as the followers of that +religion were unfriendly to commerce, and none could be carried on +with India that did not pass through their country, it was nearly +annihilated, and was almost wholly confined to the caravans of +pilgrims, who, going to visit Jerusalem and Mecca, under the cloak +of religious zeal, exchanged the various articles of traffic which +they had collected in their different countries and on their +journey.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{49} This passage, from the straits +of Babelmandel to the point of the peninsula of India, saved a very +long and dangerous navigation by the coast. It is almost due east, +and with the advantage of being much shorter, and having a fair +wind, was next to the discovery of the passage of the Cape of Good +Hope, the greatest discovery for shortening the route to India. +This was discovered during the time that Egypt was a Roman +province.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #54]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Such were the vicissitudes, changes, and variations of this +commerce in early periods, and during the middle ages; and, when we +come to treat of the same within the last two centuries, we shall +find it equally liable to alteration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the spots on the face of the earth that have undergone +revolution and ruin, they that are now the most completely sunk +below their natural level, are those which were formerly the +highest above it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We have left uninterrupted the detail of the commercial greatness +of those places, in order not to break the narrative; but as cities +cannot be great without connection, it is necessary to notice, that +Marseilles in France, and Carthagena, and some other places on the +coast of Spain, were those, by which eastern luxuries came into +Europe from Alexandria and Tyre. The Carthaginians, a Tyrian +colony, had the produce from Tyre, and from Rhinocolura, and +supplied Spain and the western portion of Africa; but when +Alexandria arose, Carthage began to fall. Alexandria, situated near +to it on the same coast, was a rival, not a friend, as Tyre had +been, and the first Punic war, in which the pride of that republic +had involved it with Rome, following soon after, hastened its +decline. {50}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nations of Greece, which had risen to power and wealth, owed +these more to their superiority in mind, in learning, and the fine +arts, than to any attention they ever paid to commerce; they had +begun by being the most barbarous of all the people in that part of +the globe, and got their first knowledge from the Egyptians, whom +they long considered as their superiors in science, as the Romans +afterwards did the Greeks; but when the barbarians broke down the +western empire, learning as well as commerce was very soon +extinguished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was the share of Indian commerce, settled at Constantinople, +that tended more than any other circumstance to preserve that +empire so long. To that, and to the barbarians having other +occupation, rather</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{50} Marseilles was founded soon after +the city of Rome, but it was a government of itself, and made no +part of ancient Gaul. The Gauls were warlike barbarians. The +inhabitants of Marseilles were polished, like the inhabitants of +other towns that enjoyed commercial wealth. They were always +allies, and steady friends to the Romans, whom they never +abandoned.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #55]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>than to any intrinsic strength of its +own, did the eastern empire owe its long preservation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A new channel for this varying commerce of the East, was opened, as +civilization extended to the north of Europe, and this chiefly on +account of the very small supply that was obtained through the +Mahomedan countries.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Goods were transported by land from Hindostan and China, to +Esterhabad, situated on the south-east corner of the Caspian Sea; +from whence they were carried in vessels to the north-east corner +of the same sea, and from thence by the Wolga and the Don; two +rivers which rise in Russia, and, after nearly meeting together, +fall into the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea. By ascending the +Wolga a short distance, and descending the Don, with only a few +miles of land-carriage, the produce of India arrived at the Black +Sea, and Constantinople became the emporium of the Indian trade. +This was a great stroke to Venice and Genoa, {51} which rivalled +each other in bringing the Asiatic commodities, for the supply of +Europe, through the old channels. This jealousy of each other, and +of Constantinople, was at its height when the crusades carried most +of the princes and nobles of Europe to Venice and Constantinople. +The Venetians, merely a mercantile people, with little territory or +power, neither gave nor received umbrage from those warlike chiefs; +but it was not so with Constantinople, the seat of a great empire; +so that the crusaders and Venetians united against that power, and +the eastern emperors were compelled to divide their city into four +parts: the sovereignty of one part fell to the lot of the +Venetians, who, for more than half a century, had by this means a +decided superiority over both its rivals, and engrossed nearly the +whole commerce of the East. The Genoese and Greek emperors now +found</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>--</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{51} In the chart which I have given, +Venice and Genoa are put together, as if one, though they were +rivals, and the prosperity of the one injured the other; but as +nearly situated the same, and neither being considered as a nation, +but merely as an abode of commerce, I did not think it necessary to +distinguish them in the general history more than the variations +that take place between the different cities of the same country. +If, however, I should do the chart on a large scale, I should +certainly separate them, and shew their rises and falls +minutely.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #56]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>it their interest to unite against +Venice, and the Genoese, by supporting their ally with money, +expelled the Venetians from Constantinople. The imperial family was +reinstated, and the Genoese had the suburbs of Pera as a reward for +their assistance. This quarter of the city the Genoese fortified, +and the Venetians were compelled to return to their old channels by +Egypt and Syria. {52}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +During those contests, Florence arose, and became a rival both to +Venice and Genoa; and some degree of civilization, or, at least, a +taste for the luxuries and produce of the East was brought into the +north of Europe by those who returned from the crusades. The +consumption of Asiatic produce in the North, occasioned depots to +be established, and Bruges and Antwerp became to the north, what +Venice and Genoa were to the south of Europe. The Hans Towns rose +to wealth and opulence just about that period; but the effects of +wealth acquired by commerce in the north were found to be different +from what they had been in southern climates. Italy was going to +decay, while three of its cities were increasing in splendour; but, +in the north, the riches acquired by the cities set industry at +work: manufactures were improved, and affluence and the comforts of +life became more generally diffused than they had ever before been, +or than they are in the southern countries even at the present +day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While Constantinople was thus rivalling the cities of Italy, a new +revolution took place there, which overturned the Greek empire, and +established that of the Ottomans.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When Mahomet II. mounted the throne, the Genoese were expelled from +Pera, {53} and Venice regained the preponderance in +eastern</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{52} The depot of India commerce being in +the Crimea, which is near the mouth of the Wolga, is a strong +reason for believing the trade was carried on through the Caspian +Sea; but it has been asserted, that the chief route was directly by +land from the Tigris to the Black Sea. This seems a very good way; +but, in that case, why cross the Black Sea to go to the Crimea? Any +one who looks at the map will be able to judge that as being very +unlikely. Doctor Robertson, however, has taken no notice of this +difficulty. Two things are certain: that the depot was in the +Crimea, and that merchants never go out of their road without +having some cause for doing it. The reader must then determine for +himself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{53} Before the Genoese were expelled, +their insolence and avarice had time to display themselves in their +full extent; about the year thirteen hundred and forty, says an +eye-witness, [end of page #57] (Nicepho[r/i]as [illeg.] Gregoras,) +they dreamed that they had acquired the dominion of the sea, and +claimed an exclusive right to the trade of the Euxine, prohibiting +the Greeks to sail to the Chersonesus, or any part beyond the mouth +of the Danube, without a licence from them. The Venetians were not +excepted, and the arrogance of the Genoese went so far as to form a +scheme for imposing a toll on every vessel passing through the +Bosphorous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>commerce, which she maintained, till the +discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, which opened a +new channel, more certain, much less expensive, and not so liable +to interruption from the revolutions that nations are liable to. It +is deserving of observation, that whatever alterations took place +in the channel through which the India trade was carried on, +whatever were the vicissitudes or the difficulties, the trade +itself never was suspended; so great was the propensity of those +who were affluent in the West, to enjoy the productions of the +East. {54}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The vicissitudes of this eastern commerce were thus very great in +former times. The wealth and arrogance which the possession of it +produced, and the envy it excited, may, in general, be ascribed as +the cause; indeed it is not certain whether the envy of the +Genoese, at the success of the Venetians, did not make them, in an +underhand manner, favour those attempts to find out a new channel +which might destroy the prosperity of a haughty and successful +rival. {55}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whether it was so or not, it is certain that the discovery of the +passage by the Cape of Good Hope was not accidental; but that the +Portuguese were induced to listen to the proposal of trading to +India by that route, under the certainty of rivalling the greatest +commercial city of the world, if she should succeed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though no new channel can now be expected, and the present one is +every day becoming more easy and frequented, yet the capricious +shiftings of the India trade were not ended by this new +discovery.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Instead of the contest being, as formerly, between cities situated +on</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{54} The prices of Asiatic produce were +exorbitant. Silk was sold for its weight in gold; and a Roman +emperor refused his empress the luxury, or rather the splendour, of +a silk gown.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{55} Amongst the passions that get hold +of rivals in commerce, that of envy is so great, when avarice is +defeated, that, to humble a successful rival, they will meet ruin +themselves, without fear, and even with satisfaction.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #58]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, +those maritime powers who navigated the main ocean became the +contending parties.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are only two ways by which wealth is accumulated and brought +into few hands; the one by compulsion and levying taxes, the other +by producing or procuring objects of desire; for a small quantity +of which, people give up a great portion of their +labour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Sovereigns have amassed wealth and possessed revenue by the first +means, and the use they have put it to has been magnificence in +building, or in great or useful works, for war, or for +pleasure.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wealth obtained by the other means, of which the trade to the +East seems to have been the chief, produced a different effect. In +Italy it occasioned the invention of bills of exchange, and gave +encouragement to the fine arts, and to some manufactures. In the +north of Europe it infused a general spirit for trade and +manufactures; for the luxuries of the East only served to teach the +people of the north the necessity of acquiring comfort by +manufacturing the produce of their own country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To improve the arts of weaving, to make woollen and linen cloths of +a finer texture, was very natural, after having seen the silks and +muslins that came from India; particularly to people living in a +cold climate, where a more substantial covering was wanted, and +where the materials were in abundance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was, accordingly, in Flanders, and the adjacent country, that +the modern spirit of manufactures rose up, nourished by the wealth +which the ancient commerce of India had produced.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the early ages, when the Tyrians had this trade, they amassed +great wealth, though they had not any large countries to supply; +for, probably, neither Egypt nor the eastern part of Syria would +receive the produce by so circuitous a road. But, during the +first ages, sacrifices to the gods and the funeral ceremonies +consumed vast quantities of aromatics of every sort, as well as the +enjoyments of the living. The two former causes of request +for aromatics have long been at an end, owing to the changes in +religion. They are now neither burned on the altar nor at the +grave; and custom and taste, which are to a certain [end of page +#59] degree variable and arbitrary, have lessened the consumption +of some, and others have been supplied by the progress that we have +ourselves made in manufactures. {56}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While this diminution of consumption took place, the western world +was advancing in civilization, and the progress of wealth became +vastly more extended; so that if the consumers of eastern luxuries +were less profuse in the use of them, they were, at the same time, +greatly increased in number.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The taste for tea, alone, which was introduced not much above a +century ago, has alone, overbalanced all the others, and it is +still augmenting in Europe; besides the discovery of a new quarter +of the world rapidly increasing in population, into which the +custom of drinking tea, as in Britain, has been introduced +also.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The reasonable price at which an article can be afforded, always +augments the consumption: and though we have no criterion to go by +in judging of the prices in former times, yet it is certain they +must have been very great. At the time when silk was sold for its +weight in gold, that metal was compared with common labour of six +times the value that it is now; silk was, then, at least three +hundred times as dear as it is now; indeed, even that extravagant +price scarcely accounts for the parsimony of the Roman emperor, who +refused his wife a robe of that rich material. {57}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though new discoveries have robbed Egypt and Syria for ever of the +commerce of the East; and though the loss of trade was the +proximate cause of the degradation, yet both countries had long +been desolate and</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{56} Wrought silks, muslins, and +porcelains. Cotton stuffs are now no longer bought as formerly, so +that, except in porcelain, the raw material is the only object of +commerce. The silk worm was introduced into Italy during the time +that the intercourse with the East was very difficult, and +therefore had not the increase of wealth, and a taste for new +articles extended the demand and brought a new one, the trade would +at last have been nearly done away.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{57} The carriage is 24 L. a ton +backwards and forwards, or out and home, which is only equal to +what is paid in England by land for 500 miles. Indeed, none but +articles of a very great value and high price could pay for the +carriage by any of the channels hitherto discovered but that of the +Cape.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #60]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>degraded before this change happened; for +though the commerce came through their countries, the riches it +produced centred in Italy. Syria had long become a desert, and the +ruined palaces were become the habitations of scorpions, reptiles, +and beasts of prey, long before those discoveries which seemed to +have sealed their doom. That discovery only completed what had long +been begun, and rendered permanent and irrevocable what might +otherwise have been altered. {58}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At the rate at which this trade now goes on to increase, all the +gold and silver mines in the West, will soon be insufficient to +afford enough of the precious metals to pay for produce from that +country: for few European manufactures are taken in return. This is +laying a foundation for a great revolution, either in manners or in +nations at some future day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is extraordinary that, from the earliest ages, the inhabitants +of India have been receiving gold and silver from all other +countries, and yet, that those metals are not so abundant there as +with European nations. As our demand for the produce of the mines +increases in order to send remittances in specie to that country, +the mines themselves diminish in their produce, so that whatever +change this may bring on, can be at no very great distance. +{59}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{58} What Dr. Robertson says of Palmyra +may be applied nearly to all the cities in Asia and Africa that +shared in this commerce. "Palmyra, after the conquest by Aurelian +never revived." At present, a few miserable huts of beggarly +Arabs are scattered in the courts of its stately temples, or deform +its elegant porticoes, and exhibit a humiliating contrast to its +ancient magnificence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{59} If the taste of the Anglo Americans +for tea continues, allowing one pound to each person in the year, +which is very little, one hundred millions of pounds weight will be +annually wanted in less than half a century.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #61]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Causes that brought on the +Decline of the Nations that had flourished in the middle Ages, and +of Portugal, Spain, Holland, and the Hans Towns.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THE trade with India, which had been almost the only one, and +always an occasion for envy and contest, was sought for by the +Spaniards and the Portuguese; who, as we have seen, were the first +amongst modern nations that seemed to aspire at naval +discovery.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The manner in which Spain discovered America; and Portugal, the +passage by the Cape of Good Hope, both nearly at the same period, +and at the beginning of the sixteenth century, is too well known to +require the smallest detail.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Europeans, with the superior degree of knowledge they possessed, +and particularly that of the use of fire-arms: incited also by the +love of gold; and careless of keeping their word with the +unsuspecting natives, soon triumphed wherever they went, and the +consequence was, that both nations brought home immense riches. The +trade of Venice, Alexandria, and Aleppo, was all transferred to +Lisbon, {60} and never was so small a country so suddenly enriched; +and it may be added, more quickly deprived afterwards of the chief +source of its wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch had triumphed over the power of Spain, on their own soil, +and they soon rivalled that of Portugal in the East. It was a very +different thing to combat the natives, and to fight with the Dutch, +who very soon deprived Portugal of the rich means of wealth she had +discovered in India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The prosperity of Portugal, arising from its possession =sic= in +the East, continued at its height exactly a century. Its decline is +accounted for by the following causes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{60} Lisbon had its depot for the north +of Europe, at Antwerp, and the value of the consignments have been +estimated at a million of crowns, annually; but this is, probably, +an exaggeration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #62]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Its domineering principles, too great an extent of conquests, which +were widely scattered, and the haughtiness of the Portuguese, both +towards the natives and Europeans; the envy and rivalship which +brought the Dutch into the same countries; a great want of +attention and energy; and, lastly, giving a preference to the trade +to the Brazils. The Brazils had been first discovered by the +Portuguese, afterwards seized upon by the Dutch, whom they, +however, expelled about the middle of the sixteenth century; that +is, about fifty years after its first discovery, and an equal +period of time previous to the decline of their trade in +India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The possession of the whole of this lucrative trade, that had +enriched so many great nations, and that by so easy a channel, and +without almost any contest, for nearly a whole century, had so +enriched the small kingdom of Portugal, that after being too eager, +and grasping at too much, it was almost ready to resign the whole +without a struggle, had it not been for some reasons of another +sort. {61} So immense was the influx of wealth, from the united +sources of India and the Brazils, that the former, which has been +at every other period the object of ambition of all nations, and is +so still, was considered as scarcely worth retaining.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is almost unnecessary to add, that from that moment Portugal has +been on the decline. If ever the cup of prosperity ran over, in +large streams, it was then; and when the possession of the trade to +India was scarcely thought worth preserving, it is clear that no +great efforts could be made to encourage internal +industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Spain, extensive and powerful before it discovered the Indies, did +not so immediately feel the effects of the wealth imported, as the +Portuguese had done; but its prosperity was of less duration, +though the decline was not quite so rapid.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch must have known the effects of wealth on a nation, +else</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{61} It was debated in council, at +Lisbon, whether it would be worth while to keep India, the wealth +from the Brazils was so much more easily obtained. A scruple +of conscience, least =sic= the missionaries should be destroyed, +turned the scale in favour of retaining the trade of +India!!</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #63]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>they would scarcely have tried to throw +off the yoke of Spain, at the very moment when it appeared in its +greatest splendour and power. {62}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Insolence and pride, we have too often had occasion to remark, +accompany wealth; and Philip was no more proof against its effects, +than those potentates who had gone before him. -- There was a great +resemblance between the project of invading England, with the +invincible armada, as it was called, and the attack on Greece by +the King of Persia. That monarch must have thought very meanly of +England, to suppose that the island could be conquered by 30,000 +men, even if they could have made good their landing. Indeed, to +try such an experiment on a nation that had supported its claim to +valour so well at Agincourt and Cressy, and which was not, in any +respect, degenerated, manifests his being blinded by the effects of +wealth and greatness.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consequence was, a gradual decline of the affairs of his +kingdom; so that, in little less than a century, England placed a +king on the throne of Spain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the effect produced on Spain was not so rapid as on +Portugal, it was, in some respects, more irretrievable. The vast +numbers of persons who quitted that country, in quest of gold, +injured its population, already reduced by the expulsion of the +Moors, who were the most industrious of its inhabitants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wealth that came to Spain, came in a very unequal distribution, +which is a considerable disadvantage, and hastens on that state of +things which is the natural forerunner of the decay of a nation. +Wealth, arising by commerce, however great its quantity, must be +distributed with some degree of equality; but the great adventurers +in the gold mines only shared with their sovereign, and the whole +of their wealth came in prodigious quantities, pouring in upon the +country. {63}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{62} Though the Dutch were subject to +Spain, yet that had not prevented them from acting in an +independent manner in their modes of following trade and +commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{63} We see an example of this in our own +trade to India. Captains of ships, merchants, and all those who get +money by that trade, come home with moderate fortunes; but the +governors, and civil and military officers, who have been settled +in the country, come home with princely fortunes, and eclipse the +old nobility of the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #64]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Both Spain and Portugal, finding that wealth came with such ease +from India and America, neglected industry. This, indeed, was a +very natural consequence; and, when the sources of their riches +began to dry up, they found, though too late, that instead of +having increased in wealth, they had only been enriching more +industrious nations, and ruining themselves. The gold that arrives +from the West passes through the hands of its masters with almost +the same rapidity as if they were only agents for the English and +the Dutch; so chimerical an idea is that of wealth existing without +industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch were the only rivals of the Portuguese in the East +Indies; for though other nations came afterwards in for a share, +yet the transition from wealth to weakness was already made by the +Portuguese, before any of them had begun to set seriously to work, +in acquiring possessions, or in carrying on trade with that +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Portugal thus fell, merely from the rivalship of a more industrious +and less advanced nation, after having embraced more territory than +she had power to keep. Spain fell, because she had embraced a wrong +object as a source of riches. {64}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Hans Towns, which owed their prosperity, partly to their own +wisdom and perseverance, in the beginning, and partly to the +contempt with which sovereigns, in the days of chivalry, viewed +commerce, might, with very little penetration, and much less +exertion of wisdom than they had displayed, have seen that the +spirit of commerce was becoming general, and that moderation and +prudence were necessary to preserve them in their proud situation; +but the prudence which they possessed at first had given way to +pride, and abandoned them; and the first great stroke they received +was from Queen Elizabeth. The ruin of so widely-extended a +confederacy could not be astonishing, and, indeed, was a natural +consequence of the changes in the manners of the times: but it was +not so with Flanders. There was nothing to have prevented the +Flemish from continuing to enjoy wealth, and follow up industry, +except in the rivalship of other nations,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{64} So short a time did the wealth +remain in the country, that, when the famous armada was fitted out +against England, a loan of money was solicited, from Genoa, for the +purpose.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #65]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>particularly of Holland and England; for, +though France was farther advanced, as a manufacturing and wealthy +nation, than England, yet it was not in the same line of industry +with the people of the Netherlands, whose prosperity was not +therefore injured by it in the same degree.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As for the Dutch, they continued to increase in wealth till the end +of the seventeenth century, and their decline requires a more +particular attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In addition to their great industry, the fisheries, and art of +curing fish, the Dutch excelled in making machines of various +sorts, and became the nation that supplied others with materials, +in a state ready prepared for manufacturing: this was a new branch +of business, and very lucrative, for, as the machines were kept a +secret, the abbreviation of labour was great, and the materials had +still the advantage in their sale that a raw material has over +manufactured goods; so that the advantages were almost beyond +example.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Add to all this, that the Dutch were the first who established the +banking system, (copying in part from the Italians,) on a solid +plan. The advantages that Holland enjoyed were, indeed, all of its +own procuring, but they were numerous and inappretiable, without +counting the trade to India, of which it enjoyed a greater share +than any other nation, for a considerable period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No nation has shewn, so completely as the Dutch, how exterior +enemies may be repelled, and difficulties overcome, while there is +a true attention to the real welfare of the country. The exertions +of the Romans, to conquer others, scarcely surpassed those of the +Dutch to preserve themselves, when they were in a state of +necessity; but, when they became affluent, energy and unanimity +left them. The manufacturers became merchants, and the merchants +became agents and carriers; so that the solid sources of riches +gradually disappeared.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +All this time, taxation increased, and though no nation ever +allowed its manners to be less corrupted by the possession of +wealth, yet there was a sensible change; but the change in the way +of thinking was the most pernicious. Discontent with the +government, and disagreements amongst themselves, completed their +misfortunes, while England was [end of page #66] all the time +endeavouring to supplant them in the most beneficial sources of +their wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch, fairly sunk by that rivalship, and natural change of +things, which transfers the seat of wealth and commerce from one +nation to another. There was no violent revolution, no invasion by +an enemy; it was the silent operation of that cause of decline, +which has been already mentioned in the Second Chapter, and will be +farther and more particularly illustrated and explained.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch had a superabundance of capital; the interest of money +was low; and wealth had begun to leave Holland long before the +symptoms of decay became visible; by which means, the trade of +other countries was encouraged, and, as always will be the case, +capital emigrated, the moment it could find secure employment, and +greater profits than were to be obtained at home. The leading +causes of the decline of Holland may be distinguished +thus:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The taxes were gradually increasing.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Its superiority in manufactures over other countries was +continually diminishing; consequently, industry was not so well +rewarded, and less active.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The merchants preferred safe agencies for foreigners to trading on +their own bottom, thereby lending their credit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Dutch capital was employed to purchase goods in one country and +sell them in another: so that the Dutch became carriers for others, +instead of manufacturing and carrying for themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The trade to India, and the banking business, were both taken up by +other nations; so that Holland then lost her superiority in these +branches.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus circumstanced, Holland was gradually sinking, when political +troubles, the end of which it is not easy to foresee, put her at +the feet of France: an event that would not have happened in the +manner it did, when the true spirit of patriotism reigned, that +distinguished her in her more prosperous days. From this, at +least, there is one distinct lesson to be learnt, that however it +may be natural for nations to lose a superiority, owing to arts, +inventions, or foreign trade, yet, if the minds of the people and +their manners remain pure, they will not be degraded, by falling a +prey to an enemy. When Holland was not rich [end of page #67] +it resisted Spain in all her glory, during a very hard, arduous, +and continued struggle; but then the people were united as one man: +there were no traitors to raise a voice for Spain against their +country. When Holland was wealthy, it did not even attempt to +resist France when invaded; but then Holland was divided, and there +were in every city men, who wished more for the plunder than the +prosperity of their country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In viewing the fall of those nations that sunk before the discovery +of America, the eastern empire was the last that attracted +attention. It had been reduced by the Turks, with a vigour and +energy that promised a renovation, which, however, it did not +effect. The Turks brought with them the Mahometan religion, which +has debased the manners and degraded the minds of every people. +Constantinople, by this change, lost the remains of ancient +learning and of commerce, which even the weakness of the emperors, +and the repeated wars, had not been able entirely to destroy. The +Greeks were reduced to a state of subordination and slavery, but +the Turks were not civilized. They adopted what was luxurious and +effeminate of Grecian manners, yet still retained their former +ignorance and ferocity. Amongst modern nations, the Turkish +government is, in form, a monster, and its existence an enigma; yet +it extended its sway over all that was most valuable or most +splendid in the ancient world. Greece, Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria, the +three Arabias, and countries then but little known, are subject to +a brutish people, who do not even condescend to mix with the +inhabitants of the country, but who rule over them in a manner the +most humiliating and disgraceful. {65}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>The Turkish government has never been +powerful. The city of Venice was always its equal at sea; and, as +it disdains to adopt the systems of other nations, it is every day +becoming weaker, in comparison with them. It has formerly +maintained successful struggles against</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{65} In all other conquests, the +conquered and the conquerors have become, at last, one people, when +they have settled in the same country, whether Christians or +Pagans; but the Turks and Greeks keep as distinct to this day as at +the first, and this is probably owing to the nature of the Turkish +religion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #68]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Germany, Poland, and Russia; but that +time is now over, and it owes its present existence to the jealousy +of other powers. It is possessed of a greater quantity of good +territory than all the leading nations of Europe, Russia excepted; +and it is not the interest of men living in less favoured climates, +to endeavour to renovate the country of Alexander, and of the other +great nations of antiquity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Turkish nation is represented as greatly on the decline, but, +soon after its establishment, it had every vice that could well +exist in a government, and its greatest weakness now arises more +from the alteration produced in other nations for the better, than +in itself for the worse. The difficulty of keeping people in +ignorance is becoming every day greater; and when the Ottoman +throne falls the usual order of things will be reversed. For, as +other governments may attribute their destruction to corruption of +manners, and to ignorance, the Turkish government looks there for +its security; and the day that any reasonable degree of light +breaks in amongst its subjects will be its last.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To endeavour tracing the causes of decline in a state that owes its +existence to its defects, and is in every respect different from +other nations, would be useless in the present Inquiry, it has only +been noticed to shew, that, in the infinite variety of things, some +may owe their existence to what is in general the cause of +destruction. [end of page #69]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII. [=sic= - error in +printer's copy, should read VIII.]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>General View and Analysis of the +Causes that operated in producing the Decline of all Nations, with +a Chart, representing the Rise, Fall, and Migrations of Wealth, in +all different Countries, from the Year 1500, before the Birth of +Christ, to the End of the Eighteenth Century, -- a Period of 3300 +Years.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +FROM the revolutions that have taken place amongst wealthy and +powerful nations to the present time, though the origin has been +owing to very different causes, and the decline and removal from +one place to another has been attended with circumstances not +similar; yet the same leading cause for that decline may not only +be traced easily and distinctly, but is so evident that it is +impossible for it to be overlooked or mistaken.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Local situation, or temporary circumstances, have always afforded +the first means of rising to wealth and greatness. The minds of +men, in a poor state, seem never to have neglected an opportunity, +presented either by the one or the other, and they have generally +proved successful, till energy of mind and industry were banished, +by the habits of luxury, negligence, and pride, which accompany, or +at least soon follow, the acquisition of either.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where wealth has been acquired first, power has generally been +sought for afterwards; and, where power came first, it has always +sought the readiest road to wealth, by attacking those who were in +possession of it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nations and cities on the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, +where arts and commerce first began, where agriculture flourished, +and population had risen to a high pitch, carried on perpetual +struggles to supplant each other; and, in those struggles, the most +wealthy generally sunk under; till Alexander, the first great +conqueror, with whose history we are tolerably well acquainted, +reduced them all to [end of page #70] his yoke; one small and brave +people triumphing over the Egyptian and Assyrian empires, where +wealth and luxury had already produced their effects.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though this triumph of poverty over riches was very complete, +except in one single instance, it did not occasion any real change, +either in the abodes of wealth, or the channels of commerce. Tyre, +the richest commercial city till then, was ruined, to make way for +the prosperity of Alexandria, which became the most wealthy; +drawing great part of the commerce from Carthage on the west, and +taking the whole from Rhinocolura on the east: but, in Egypt and +Syria, Babylon and Memphis still remained great cities.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The whole of this ancient world was for a moment under one chief, +but was soon again divided amongst the generals who succeeded to +that great conqueror; and the Egyptian and Persian empires became +rivals, as Egypt and Syria had been before. The Grecian nations +still remained the chief seats of civilization and the fine arts; +and this continued till the Romans, originally a poorer people than +the Macedonians, conquered the whole. This was the second great +triumph of poverty and energy over wealth and grandeur, and, in +this struggle, Greece itself fell.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The effects of wealth were not less formidable to the Romans +themselves, than they had been to those nations they had enabled +that brave and warlike people to conquer; so that the mistress of +the world, in her turn, fell before nations that were rude and +barbarous, but uncorrupted by wealth and luxury.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The conquerors of Rome were too rude, and too many in number, to +become themselves enervated by wealth, which disappeared under +their rapacious grasp, and which they neither had the art nor +inclination to preserve.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This invasion of the fertile and rich provinces by men rude and +ignorant, but who came from northern climates, established a new +order of things; and only a small remnant of former wealth and +greatness was preserved in Egypt and at Constantinople.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +For several centuries of war and confusion commerce and the arts +appear to have been undervalued and neglected; but still the taste +[end of page #71] for oriental luxuries was not entirely banished, +and, at the first interval of peace and safety, sprung up again. It +was then that Alexandria, Venice, Genoa, and Constantinople, became +the channels through which the people of Europe procured the +luxuries of Asia. Babylon, Memphis, Palmyra, and all the other +great cities of antiquity, were no more; even Greece had lost its +arts and splendour; Alexandria and Constantinople were repeatedly +assailed, taken, and conquered, by the barbarians, who envied their +wealth, but who still found an interest in continuing them as +channels for procuring to European nations the refinements of the +East. Though Venice and Genoa were wealthy, they were but small, +and of little importance; and all the nations who might have +crushed them at a blow, only considering them as sea-ports of +convenience and utility, allowed them to remain +independent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As an intercourse had been established between the northern and +southern parts, a taste for the luxuries of Asia had extended to +the shores of the Baltic, soon after the victorious arms of +Charlemagne had carried there some degree of civilization, and the +Christian religion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Then it was that a new and more widely-extended system of commerce, +but something like what had formerly existed in Tyre and Carthage, +began in all the maritime towns of Europe, when Italy and Flanders +became the most wealthy parts of Europe. A spirit of chivalry, and +a desire of conquest, not founded on the same principles with the +conquests of ancient nations, or of Rome, to obtain wealth, +pervaded all Europe, and the greatest confusion prevailed. In the +history of wealth and power, as connected together, this is a +chasm. Those who had power despised wealth, and were seeking after +what they esteemed more -- military glory; and wealth was confined +to a number of insulated spots, and possessed by men who were +merchants, without any share of power or authority.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This extraordinary and unprecedented state of things gave rise to +the Hanseatic League, which rose at last to such importance that +those who had been so long seeking after glory, without finding it, +began to see the importance which was derived from wealth. They +began to see that, even in the pursuit of their favourite object, +wealth was an ex- [end of page #72] cellent assistant, and the +friendship of merchants begun =sic= to be solicited by princes, as +in the days of Tyre and Sidon.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This progress was greatly facilitated and accelerated by the +crusades, which, at the same time that they beggared half the +nobility of Europe, gave them a taste for the refinements of the +East, and taught them to set some value on the means by which such +refinements could be procured.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this manner were things proceeding, when three great discoveries +changed the situation of mankind. {66}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The mariners compass, gunpowder, and the art of printing, were all +discovered nearly about the same time; and, independent of their +great and permanent effects, they were wonderfully calculated to +alter the situation of nations at that period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The navigation of the ocean, which led to the discovery of a +passage to the East Indies, and of America, gave a mortal blow to +the nations situated on the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, who +thus found themselves deprived of the commerce of the +East.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The discovery of gunpowder, a means so powerful of annoying an +enemy, without the aid of human force, which places a giant and a +dwarf in some sort upon an equality, was wonderfully adapted for +doing away the illusions of knight errantry, that had such a +powerful effect in making war be preferred to commerce: while +printing facilitated the communication of every species of +knowledge.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was then that northern nations began to cultivate arts and +sciences, as those of the south under a mild heaven, and on a +fertile soil, had done three thousand years before. But +ingenuity and invention took a different direction in the north +from what they had done in the southern climates; instead of +sovereigns and slaves, men were more in mutual want of each other, +and therefore a more equal division of the fruits of industry was +required.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The manufactures of former times had been confined chiefly to +luxuries for the great, and simple necessaries for slaves; and +commerce, though productive of great wealth to a few, was in its +limits equally confined.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{66} For the dates see the chart, and for +their effects, chap. i. book ii. [Transcriber's note: See in the +Chart "Mariners Compass /Gunpowder/Printing Invented +1300-1400"].</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #73]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was natural that the two nations which had first discovered the +passage to the East, and the continent of the West, which abounded +with the precious metals, should become rich and powerful, as those +cities had formerly done that possessed exclusively the channels of +commerce. Those two countries were Spain and Portugal; but here +again we find the same fatality attend the acquisition of wealth +that had formerly been remarked. It was, indeed, not to be +expected, that the steadiness and virtue of the Spaniards and +Portuguese could resist the operation of a cause, that neither the +wisdom of the Egyptians; the arts and industry of Greece, nor the +stubborn and martial patriotism of the Romans could +withstand.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those two nations soon sunk, and the Dutch, the French, and the +English, became participators of the commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manufactures were a new source of wealth, almost unknown to the +ancient world. Those begun first to be set in activity in Flanders, +then in Holland and France, and, last of all, in England; but, like +commerce, and every other means by which wealth is acquired, they +have a tendency to leave a country. The cause and the effect are at +variance, after a certain time; and though we cannot illustrate +this from history, as we may the migrations of wealth arising from +other sources, the tendency appears of the same nature, though with +this difference; that men may always labour for themselves, and +enjoy the fruits of their labours, though they cannot always find +the means of being the carriers to other nations, or becoming +merchants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This alteration in the nature of wealth; the inventions of mankind; +the alterations brought on by the facility of communicating +knowledge; the systematical manner in which men pursue their +interests, and other changes: give reason to hope that, in the +present situation of things, those possessions may be rendered +permanent, that have hitherto been found to be so evanescent and +fugitive.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where wealth has not been wrested from a country by absolute force, +(in doing which the poorer nations were always successful,) it has +emigrated from other causes, and taken up its abode amongst a new +people, where circumstances were more favourable for its +encouragement. [end of page #74]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before we leave this recapitulation, it is necessary, however, to +take notice of one revolution that did not take place on similar +principles with the others, so far as wealth and luxury are in +question; but which has in some respects a similarity, and, in +others, is precisely the reverse.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +About two centuries and a half ago, the Polish nation was one of +the most powerful in Europe; Russia could not then, nor for long +after, contend with it. The Prussians were its vassals; and the +capital of the German empire, when besieged by the Turks, in 1650, +owed its safety to the Poles, its brave and faithful +allies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Such was the case; but, at this day, the Polish nation is no longer +in existence: it is subdued, parcelled out, and divided, amongst +those very powers, to any of which it was at least equal, and to +the others superior, at so late a period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It may be asked, whether Poland was one of those states that has +been borne down by its own wealth and opulence? If its ambition, +injustice, or any of the other causes so prominent in the decline +of nations, operated in the total extinction of it from the rank of +independent states? Not one of those causes operated, but still it +is not altogether an exception to the general rule.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the feudal system was established all over Europe, nations +under its influence were so far on an equality; and as they all +emerged from that situation nearly about the same time, Poland +excepted, they still preserved their relative situations. The +Poles, during this change in other states, comparatively lost +power. Amongst the alterations produced, was that of placing in the +hands of the sovereign all the disposable revenue and force of a +country, with which standing armies were maintained. Those +irregular militias, till then composed of the barons and their +retainers; a species of force, at best, far inferior to regular +armies, became useless; but particularly so, after the modes of +fighting had been changed by the invention of gunpowder, and the +adoption of large trains of artillery, which could never have been +employed in the feudal armies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The disposable force of Poland and its revenues did not, by any +means, keep pace with those of neighbouring nations; and what was +still worse, the strength of that unfortunate country was divided; +the [end of page #75] monarchy was elective, and foreign influence +had a means of exertion, which, under a hereditary line of kings, +is not practicable. Poland was not only weaker than its neighbours, +but became a prey to intestine divisions, cabal, and +intrigue.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though Poland was not wealthy, according to the meaning applied to +that word, it was a populous and fertile country, and therefore a +desirable possession to the neighbouring states. To Prussia, a most +ambitious and aggrandising power, with a military government, and +of a very limited extent, it was peculiarly desirable. To Russia, +extensive as it is, the fruitful territory was also an object of +ambition, from its proximity to the seat of an empire, the most +fertile and fine provinces of which lie at a distance. The same +desire of possessing what they wanted, operating at the same time +on two neighbouring nations, occasioned them to unite their power +in a first dismemberment of Poland, for their mutual benefit. The +interior convulsions of the country served as a pretext, and its +weakness furnished the means of executing the design. In 1772, that +independent country first lost some of its finest provinces; but +this was only a prelude to its final fall.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nature of ambition is to augment with success, and as the same +divisions continued in the state, a pretence for a farther +interference in its affairs was easily found; and, in 1794, Poland +ceased to be one of the number of European states. In this last +seizure, the house of Austria had no immediate hand. It was, +however, necessary to have its consent: and, as the aggrandisement +of Prussia was not an object of indifference to Austria, +participation in the spoils was proposed, as the price of +acquiescence, and it was readily accepted.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this case, the weakness of Poland, and the ambition of its +rivals and neighbours, were the immediate causes of its +destruction; but that weakness arose from a want of true patriotism +and proper attention in the people themselves. Jealous of +liberties, and disobedient to their king, the Poles were slaves to +the feudal proprietors of the soil. Though the first cause was +different, yet their divisions and quarrels were the same in +effect, as if they had proceeded from real causes of discontent, +and a deranged state of society, such as we have seen, when the +love of the country is lost. In Poland, that love of the country +[end of page #76] was not lost, but it was badly directed, which is +nearly the same thing; at least, it is equally +dangerous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Why, it may be asked, did not the other powers of Europe interfere? +To this, indeed, it would be difficult to give a satisfactory +answer. Those who did not interfere, probably, may have cause to +repent their indifference. It was an infraction of that sort of +federation of nations, which had been found necessary to prevent a +repetition of conquests like those of Alexander, or of the Romans; +yet, still there is a way of accounting for their conduct, though +it cannot be vindicated.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the first place, Poland lays =sic= remote from those powerful +nations that have had the greatest sway in modern times. It was not +very easy to interfere with great efficacy; besides, as Poland was +previously under foreign influence, the essential evil was done. +The example of partitions, indeed, was not given, but it is not +impossible that some powers on the continent, though they got no +share, might not be sorry to see such an example. Britain and Spain +certainly could not wish for the example, but others might, and +others probably did wish for it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The first division was, besides, only a beginning; some degree of +moderation was preserved, and Poland was only mutilated; it was not +destroyed. The case was not entirely new, nor without +example.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The second and last division took place at a time when the nations +whose interest it was, and whose wish it might have been to +interfere, had not the means of doing so. It was when the +republican frenzy in France was at its most desperate height, and +whom =sic= the whole of civilized Europe appeared to be in +danger.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is one more excuse to be found. The aspect of affairs in +Poland resembled, with regard to its revolutions, those of France +so much, that those, who at another time would have probably +interfered, were rather inclined to co-operate in stifling a rising +flame in the north, similar to that which had endangered the whole +of the south of Europe.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all this, the thing the most difficult to be accounted for, is +the conduct of the Polish nation; but an inquiry into the causes of +that would be quite foreign to the present subject: this is, +however, an instance of the danger arising from not keeping pace +with other nations [end of page #77] in those arts of government, +and internal policy, which constitute the power of nations in the +general order of things, whatever that may be.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Although we have seldom found intestine divisions carried to so +blameable a length in any other nation that was not corrupt in +itself, yet, it is clear, that the influence obtained by the wealth +of its neighbours was at the bottom of those highly blameable, and +dreadfully fatal divisions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When aggrandisement is the aim of modern states, there will not now +be any difficulty of pleading example; and there is one of those +very powers that on this occasion participated in the division +which has all the seeds of discord in itself that brought on the +ruin of the Polish empire. That power has already felt the effect +of example; and, though it may repine, it cannot complain, as it +might otherwise have done; or if it does, it cannot expect equal +commiseration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE INTENDED TO +ILLUSTRATE THE RISE AND FALL OF NATIONS.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the chart, at the beginning of the work, the lines, from top to +bottom, represent the division of time into centuries, each +indicating the year, marked under and above it, in the same way +that has been adopted in Dr. Priestley's Chart of Universal +History, in works of chronology, and in statements of commerce and +finance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The countries that have flourished, whether by commerce, or any +other means are supposed to be represented by the parallel spaces +from right to left, according to the names written on the right +hand.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rise of the black part, something like a distant range of low +mountains, shews at what periods the country was great; when its +greatness began and when it ended. This plan would be +unexceptionally correct, if the materials for it could be procured; +but if they were, it would not lead to any very different +conclusion from what it does in its present state. The times, +when the elevation began, and its duration are exact. The +rises and falls are, as nearly as I am able, estimated from +existing documents.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The part shaded of a darkish colour, and growing gradually lighter +at both edges, represent those centuries of ignorance which +succeeded the fall of the Roman empire. [end of page +#78]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At the bottom, on the part not stained, is a chronological list of +events, inventions, and discoveries, connected with the +subject. Those which are not, however, important or curious, +have no place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The commerce of France, Britain, Russia, and America, are upon a +true scale with respect to their proportional amount, as well as to +their rise and progress. The others are not, owing to want of +documents; but, as before observed, the amount has very little to +do with the subject; the business is to see how wealth and power +were divided at any particular time, if they were rising or +falling, or if they were at their height, comparing them with the +manners of the people at the time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is the use of the chart, as to the representation of +individual places and nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The general conclusion is, from taking the whole together, that +wealth and power have never been long permanent in any place. +That they never have been renewed when once destroyed, though they +have had rises and falls, and that they travel over the face of the +earth, something like a caravan of merchants. On their +arrival, every thing is found green and fresh; while they remain +all is bustle and abundance, and, when gone, all is left trampled +down, barren, and bare.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This chart is a sort of a picture, intended to make those +migrations and change of place distinct and easily conceived, on +which the whole of this book has been occupied. Being once +acquainted with the changes that have taken place, we may more +accurately compare them with the state of this country at the +present time. Those who will take the trouble to read +Ferguson's History of the Roman Republic, and Gibbon's Decline and +Fall of the Empire, may form a judgement of the accuracy or +inaccuracy of the chart.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>EXAMPLE OF THE MANNER OF INSPECTING THE +CHART.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To know when Rome was at the highest pitch of greatness, find, on +the right hand, the space marked Roman empire: then look between +the lines for the highest part of the dark ground, and look +immediately under for the year, it will be seen to be at the birth +of Christ, that is, during the reign of Augustus; and by the same +means it will be found declining gradually till the year 490. [end +of page #79]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In like manner, Carthage will be found at the zenith of its power +about 300 years before Christ. The founding of Alexandria and +the wars with Rome began then to diminish both its wealth and +power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is intended by the author of this to execute a chart of the same +sort on a very large scale, and assign to the different powers +spaces proportioned to their importance, as nearly as he can +ascertain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With respect to the chronology of this chart, to prevent criticisms +which might perhaps be made; but do not apply to it, according to +the purpose for which it was constructed, the reader is requested +to observe, that I am desirous of illustrating a very important +investigation, by representing a very confused and long series of +events. The result to be derived from this, is not to be +affected by any small inaccuracy. In counting before the +birth of Christ, having found many different opinions, and much +uncertainty relative to dates, (which I neither have abilities nor +inclination to investigate,) I measured backwards, without +pretending to settle the year of the world, respecting which there +are so many different opinions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The materials for ancient history are few, and sometimes not much +to be relied upon; but, in great leading facts, such as alone are +of use in this picture, the authenticity is not to be +doubted.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Assyrian and Egyptian empires had attained wealth and power +previous to the time at which this commences. They stood +then, and for long after, as if it =sic= were alone in the world; +their revolutions, and the rise, prosperity, and decline of other +nations, are all represented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +I have not wished to continue the view of France, since the +revolution, its present real situation is so imperfectly known; +and, from what is known of it, it cannot be compared with any other +nation, or with itself previous to that period. [end of page +#80]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>========</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>========</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Interior Causes of Decline, +arising from the Possession of Wealth. -- Its general Operation on +the Habits of Life, Manners, Education, and Ways of thinking and +acting of the Inhabitants of a Country.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +AS necessity was the first cause of industry and invention, from +which wealth and power arise, it is natural that, when the action +of that necessity becomes less urgent, those exertions to which it +gave rise will gradually fall away. Though habit may +sometimes counteract this tendency, in the individual, yet, taken +upon a general scale, and from generation to generation, it must +inevitably take place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this case, an individual who has obtained wealth enjoys an +advantage, which no nation ever can expect. With only common +prudence, he may cease from exertion or industry, and remain in +affluence. If he has property in land, he may let it, and +live on the rent; if in money, he may lend it, and live on the +interest; but one nation cannot let its lands, or lend its capital +to another. It must, by its own industry, render them +productive. The great bulk of every nation, then, must be +industrious, however wealthy it may be; otherwise, the wealth will +soon be dissipated and disappear. The people of Flanders +cannot, for example, cultivate the fields of the French, and live +in Flanders; and, if the agriculture of a country is neglected, +that country must soon become poor and miserable. {67}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{67} We have seen what became of the +Romans, when the tribute paid by other nations enabled them to live +in idleness. The influx of wealth from America produced +nearly the same effect on Spain: though it lasted for a very short +time, yet it ruined the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #81]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not absolutely necessary, then, for an individual to +conciliate affluence with industry, or, which is the same thing, to +preserve one of the effects of necessity, after the necessity has +ceased to exist. But if it were possible for a sum of money, +or property of any sort, to be given to each individual in a +nation, which would be sufficient, in the midst of an industrious +people, to enable him to live in perfect idleness, the whole nation +could not become idle. Such a case never can exist, as that +of all the individuals in a country becoming sufficiently rich to +live without labour. But something approaching towards that +state of things actually does take place, when, by the general +increase of wealth, the necessity for labour is diminished. +The number of idle people is constantly augmenting; and even those +who continue to labour do it less intensely than when the operation +of necessity was more severe. When a cause is diminished, the +effect must in time fall off in proportion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With individuals, nature has given very powerful auxiliaries to +necessity, which strengthen and prolong its operation, but which do +not operate equally on nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Habit or custom is the one auxiliary, and ambition or avarice is +the other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Habit, in all cases, diminishes the reluctance to labour, which is +inherent in the most part of mankind, and sometimes entirely +overcomes it. {68} Ambition, which appears under many different +forms, renders labour absolutely an enjoyment. Sometimes +ambition is merely a desire of amassing property, an avaricious +disposition: sometimes it is a desire to create a family; and even, +sometimes, the vain and delusive idea of retiring from business, +and becoming happy in a state of total idleness, spurs a man on to +labour. It is a very curious, but well-known fact, that, +after necessity has entirely ceased to promote industry, the love +of complete idleness, and the hope of enjoying it at some distant +date, leads the wealthy man on, to his last hour, in a train of +augmented industry. Thus has nature most wisely +counteracted</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{68} There are many instances where habit +has rendered a particular sort of labour absolutely a want. +It has become a necessary,-- a means of enjoyment without which +life has become a burthen.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #82]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>the disposition of man to idleness; by +making the very propensity to it, after a certain time, active in +promoting industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But this can never be the case with a race of men: {69} and, as a +nation consists of a greater number of individuals, so, also, its +existence consists of successive generations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is a difference between idleness and inaction. It is +the natural propensity of man to be idle, but not to be +inactive. Enjoyment is his aim, after he has secured the +means of existence. Enjoyment and idleness are supposed, in +many cases, to go hand in hand; at any rate, they can be +reconciled, whereas inaction and enjoyment are irreconcilable. +{70}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But we may still go farther. As taste for any particular +enjoyment is acquired when a man is young, and the same taste +continues in a more advanced age; a man who has been long in +business has had no time to acquire a taste for those enjoyments +that are incompatible with, or perhaps that admit of being +substituted for it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Reading the study of the fine arts, and such other means of +employing time as men enjoy, who, at an early period of life, are +exempted from labour, afford no amusement to the man who has been +always accustomed to a life of business, {71} with whom there is an +absolute ne-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{69} It is perhaps amongst chances that +seem likely enough; the only one that has never happened, that of a +race of misers, in the same lineal descent, for several +generations. The reason why I say it never has happened is, +that, if it had, the effects would have become so conspicuous, by +the riches accumulated, that they could not have passed +unobserved.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{70} By inaction is not meant the +opposite of loco-motion, such as laying =sic= in bed, or basking in +the sun; it is supposed that a man, to enjoy himself, must be +reading, talking, in company, or <i>doing something</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{71} They sometimes affect this, but it +is little else than through vanity. It would be easy to give +a hundred striking proofs, but their frequency renders that +unnecessary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Hunting and fishing, the two most anxious and painful occupations +in the world, are, in all countries, followed by the affluent and +idle as amusements; they want to interest the mind, and occupy +themselves. Gaming, which is attended with very painful +sensations, is followed much more frequently from propensity than +from the love of gain; and, indeed, it would appear, that a life +without occupations that interest the mind, is of all others the +most insipid: it appears to be worse, it appears to be +miserable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #83]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>cessity of filling up the time in one way +or another. A certain portion of time may be spent in company; but +even that, to be enjoyed, must be spent in the society of men of +the same class. The inducement, then, to a man who has +dedicated the first part of his life advantageously to industry, to +become idle, is not great, even when he is at free liberty to +follow his inclination.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is totally different with a young man; his propensity is to +idleness, without any of those favourable circumstances that +counteract that propensity. Necessity alone can be expected +to operate on him; it is in vain to seek for any other +substitute. Not that we mean, by idleness, to signify +inaction; but that sort of idleness, which resists regular +labour. There is a natural propensity to action, but then it +is a propensity that operates irregularly, unless under the +influence of necessity. It is a continued and regular +exertion, directed to a proper object, that is wanted to obtain +wealth; to procure this, it is well to imitate nature, and create +necessity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But, in proportion as a nation grows wealthy, that necessity is +done away. It is of the art of prolonging necessity, or +rather of reconciling necessity with affluence and ease, for which +we are going to search, that we may, by that means, reconcile +affluence with industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must, in the first place, find what the natural operation is by +which industry leaves a country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a country is in a state of poverty, it maintains the same +degree of industry, from generation to generation, without any +effort. The new race is brought up in the same way that the +former was before it, and the same pressure of necessity, acting on +the same desire (but no greater desire) to shun labour, produces +the same effect at one time that it did at another. The son +of a man, who has arrived at a greater degree of affluence than +that to which he was born, is generally brought up +differently. He is not brought up so hardily in his infancy +as his father was, nor so soon called to labour; and probably when +he is called to it, he is neither called with so imperious a voice, +nor is he so willing to obey the call.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though we do not live long enough to see an example of this +operation on a whole nation, the progression being too slow for the +life [end of page #84] of a man, yet we see it in different parts +of the same country, that are in different degrees of +advancement. How frequent are the instances of men, bred in +distant counties, (particularly in the North,) bringing all that +industry and those habits of labour to London, that the poverty of +their parents, and the state of their part of the country naturally +occasioned. Some of those have arrived at affluence, and many +of them have to competency; and even those who do not arrive at a +comparatively higher rank in London, than their father held in his +own county, bring up their children in a very different +manner.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Suppose, for example, a blacksmith, from Northumberland, or a +baker, from Scotland, settles in London, as his father did at +Newcastle or Edinburgh, his son or sons will be bred very +differently from what he was; and, after their father's death, the +business will most probably go to some new comer, from a distant +county.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The father was brought up with the necessity of labouring, or the +alternative of wanting food to eat. From his earliest days, +he considered himself as fortunate if he could obtain a competent +living by honest industry; and this impression, with the habits +acquired while it was strong, lead a man, so brought up, to fill +his place in life with honour and advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The son, who sees that his father is in affluence, and who partakes +of the fruits of a whole life of industry, seldom considers that he +must continue that industry, otherwise, that the affluence will +cease with the life of his father. It is impossible to make a +young man, brought up in this manner, feel as his father did; and, +not having the same impulse given to him at first, he never can set +off in his course of life with the same energy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the cause of this evil does not stop here. Frequently the +mother is an enemy to the industry of her son; and between the +workings of real affection, badly exercised, which leads her to +humour the lad; and a sort of silly vanity, equally misplaced, she +encourages him, if not in idleness, at least, in the hope that he +will never need to stoop to incessant industry. It is not +necessary to ascertain the absolute portion of idleness and pride +that is infused into the young man; that depends [end of page #85] +on particular circumstances: {72} but, in most cases, it is +sufficient to prevent his following the footsteps of his father +with equal energy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps the capital, or the connections a father leaves in trade, +may, in some degree, and for some time, compensate for this; but +the instances where they do so are not numerous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is an example of the manner in which every succeeding +generation is brought up differently from that preceding it; but it +is an extreme example, and one that, though very real in the +individuals, can never suddenly take place on a national +scale.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The difference between the general affluence of a nation, and the +change of its manners during the life of a man, is by no means +equal to the difference between a remote province and the capital +of an empire; but, though the example is extreme, the same effect +is produced, in the course of several generations upon a nation, +that was occasioned by change of place in one individual family +from father to son. {73}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a change like this takes place in one family, (and there are +numerous instances of it every day,) poverty comes on again, and +the children fall back into the laborious class of society, +probably in a degraded state; but as the evil is supplied by new +people rising up, it is little felt on the nation; if, however, it +occurs very generally, it must have a bad effect; and, indeed, the +best thing that can happen for the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{72} If the mother has been herself born +in affluence, she generally has a sort of smothered contempt for +the mean origin of her husband. She seldom is fully sensible +of the merit by which he has raised himself, and consequently +cannot be capable of appreciating the advantage of bringing up her +boy in the same way; on the contrary, the habits of industry, which +the father acquired at an early age, under the pressure of +necessity, are generally secret objects of ridicule to the rest of +the family. If, again, the woman has been of low origin in +herself, and is become affluent, then matters are ten times +worse. Then there is all the pride and vanity that ignorance, +and a desire to hide that mean extraction create. Incapable +of shewing delicacy and fine breeding in herself, she spoils her +harmless children by converting them into specimens of the +gentility of the family. For more of this, see the chapter on +Education.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{73} In Rome, after the taking of +Carthage; and in Portugal, immediately after it got possession of +the trade to India; the change must have been as great over the +whole of the people in one generation, as it is generally between a +remote province and near the capital.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #86]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>general welfare is, that such men may +return to a state of insignificance and labour as fast as possible; +for, while they remain above that, and in a declining state, they +are filling their place in society badly.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is different where the change goes on through a whole country, +then no one can supply the place, they are all going the same way, +and at nearly the same rate; {74} the consequence will be, that +this will not be the fall of a family, but the fall of a whole +people; the motion will, indeed, be much more slow, but the moving +body will be vastly greater, and the effect will be in +proportion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every nation in Europe there is, between the capital and the +distant provinces, a difference of affluence, of wealth, &c. +equal to what probably takes place in a nation in one or two +centuries. The inhabitants of the capital have some great +advantages over those that come from a distance; they have +connections, they have money and stock; and, generally speaking, in +their early years, they possess a more ready and marketable +knowledge. But all these avail nothing against habits of +industry, and being taught to expect nothing from others, but to +depend all on one's own powers. With this single, but signal, +advantage, the sons of the wealthy citizens are always yielding to +the son of the peasant; they are one by one giving way, and their +places are filled by a new race; while their descendants are +sinking into poverty, and filling prisons, poor-houses, and +hospitals.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This vicissitude is so observable, that it would be unnecessary to +dwell upon it were it, =sic= not of such infinite importance. +{75}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The alarming and lamentable increase of the poor, in proportion +as</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{74} It is always to be observed, that +this reasoning is only applicable in general, and not in every +particular case. It has been remarked by the writer of the +notes on the Wealth of Nations, that where a fortune is not +realized in a family, sufficient to enable it to withdraw entirely +from trade, it seldom remains wealthy above two generations. +The sons most frequently want intelligence or industry to augment +what their father got, and the grandsons have generally dissipation +enough to squander entirely away what remains. This is so +frequent a case in London, that it may be called the regular +routine of the business; and, what arises by regular routine, must +be derived from some general and natural cause.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{75} In the chapter on Education, this +subject is entered into more fully, and the education of women +makes a principal part. A subject not noticed by the author +of the Wealth of Nations, though very important.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #87]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>a nation becomes rich, is a proof that it +is not in capital cities alone that the effect takes place, but +over the whole of a country. {76}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In England, the number of inhabitants is about six times the number +of those in Scotland; and, perhaps, it costs twice as much to +maintain a poor person in the former as in the latter. The +sum necessary for the maintenance of the poor in England may then +be reckoned at about twelve times as much as in Scotland, in order +to preserve a just proportion between the two countries. But +the poor cost more than sixty times as much in England as in +Scotland; that is, at least five times more than the true +proportion that ought to be !!!</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This, it may be said, is owing to the different manner of managing +the business, and, in some degree, it no doubt is; {77} but, as the +poor are only maintained in England, and as they are also +maintained in Scotland, it would be wrong to allow so great a +difference for that alone.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In order, however, to put the matter out of all doubt, let us +compare England with itself, and we shall find that the poor's +rates, or the expense of maintaining the indigent, has increased +more rapidly than the price of provisions, or the price of +labour. This ought not to be the case, as they would only +have augmented in the same proportion, unless the number of poor +was increased as well as the price of the provisions they eat, at +the same time that the nation is growing more wealthy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of whom do the poor in every nation consist, but of the lame, the +sick, the infirm, the aged, or children unprovided for? Of +those, the number, in proportion to the total number of +inhabitants, will be pretty nearly the same at all times; for it is +nature that produces this species of helpless poverty. It +would then appear that there is another species of poverty, not of +nature's creation, that comes in and destroys the proportion. +It would likewise appear, that that new species of +poverty</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{76} The Poor's Rate, and regulations +respecting that augmenting class of persons, are treated in a +chapter by itself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{77} For this see the chapter on the +Poor, in which the subject is investigated at considerable +length. At present, it is only mentioned by way of +illustrating the effect of wealth on the manners of the people; and +to prove, that it is not confined to the capital alone, but is +general all over the country of England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #88]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>is occasioned by the general wealth, +since it increases in proportion to it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If we find, then, that the increase of wealth renders the +descendants of a particular family helpless, and unable to maintain +their place in society; if we find, also, that it gives those +portions of a country, which are the least advanced, an advantage +over those which are the most advanced; and, if we find that the +number of indigent increase most where the wealth is greatest, we +surely must allow, that there is a strong tendency to decay that +accompanies the acquisition of wealth. The same revolutions +that arise amongst the rich and poor inhabitants of a country, who +change places gradually, and without noise, must naturally take +place between the inhabitants of rich and poor countries, upon a +larger scale and in a more permanent manner. {78} Such +changes are generally attended with, or, at least, productive of, +violent commotions. Nations are not subservient to laws like +individuals, but make forcible use of the means of which they are +possessed, to obtain the ends which they have in view.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As this tendency is uniformly felt by a number of individuals over +the whole of a country, when it advances in wealth, and over whole +districts that are more advanced than the others, it must operate, +in length of time, in producing the decline of a whole nation, as +well as it does of a certain portion of its people at all +times.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Changes, in the interior of a nation, take place by piece-meal or +by degrees; the whole mass sees nothing of it, and, indeed, it is +not felt. {79} But it is vain to think, that the same cause that +gives the poorer inhabitants of a nation an advantage over the +richer, will not likewise</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{78} As we find that wealth seldom goes +amongst people of business past the second, and almost never past +the third generation, families that rise so high as to be partners +in profit, and not in labour or attention, are an exception. +Nations resemble the families that acquire enough to be affluent, +but not enough to retire from business. A nation can never +retire; it must always be industrious. The inference is clear +and cannot be mistaken; neither can the fact stated be +denied.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{79} The number of bankruptcies have been +considered as signs of wealth; and their increase is a sign most +undoubtedly of more trade; but this is a barometer, of which it +requires some skill to understand the real index.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #89]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>give poor nations an advantage over rich +ones; or, at least, tend to raise the one and draw down the +other. Though we find, from the history of the various +revolutions that have taken place in different countries, that they +arose from a variety of causes, some peculiar to one nation, and +some to another; yet we have found a change of manners and ways of +thinking and acting, more or less operating in all of +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst the interior causes of the decline of wealthy nations, +arising from the wealth itself, we must set this down as one of a +very general and natural operation. We must be particularly +careful to remove this, as far as possible, if we mean to avert +those evils which hitherto have arisen from a superior degree of +wealth and power in every nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We are now going to examine other internal causes; but though they +are separate from this, yet this is at the root of all, this is +perpetually operating, we meet with it in every corner and at every +turning. It is what Mr. Pope says, speaking of the +master-passion in individuals:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +"The great disease that must destroy at length,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Grows with our growth, and strengthens with our +strength."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This radical case of decline is augmented by an ill conceived +vanity in the parents, as well as by necessity ceasing to act on +the children. Each is following a very natural inclination; +the one to indulge, the other to be indulged. It is the duty +and the interest of the state to counteract this tendency, and the +manner how that it is to be done will be inquired into in the first +chapter of the third book of this work. =sic - there is +none=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But it is not merely a neglect of industry and the means of rising +in society, or keeping one's place in it that is hurtful; the +general way of thinking and acting becomes different, and, by +degrees, the character of a nation is entirely altered. This +change was the most rapid, and the most observable in the Roman +republic, and was the cause that brought it to an end, and prepared +the people for submitting to be ruled by the emperors. The +human character was as much degraded under them, when the citizens +were rich, as it ever had been exalted under their consular +government, when the people were indigent. [end of page +#90]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The various effects of this change in manners will be considered +under different heads, but it is too deeply rooted in human nature +ever to be entirely counteracted, much less entirely done away. + It is firmly connected with the first principles of action in +man, and can no more be removed than his entire nature can be +altered. What is in the extreme, if dangerous, may be +diminished; and that is all that it would be any way useful to +attempt: it may be rendered less formidable in its operation, and +that is all that can be expected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The degradation of moral character; the loss of attention to the +first principles to which a society owes its prosperity and safety, +both of which accompany wealth, are most powerful agents in the +decline of nations. We have seen that the Romans, the +greatest of all nations, were ruined, chiefly, by degradation of +character, by effeminacy, by ignorance; for we generally find that +idleness degenerates, at last, into sloth and inaction. To a +love of justice, and a power of overcoming danger, or of preventing +it, listlessness and a total want of energy succeed: at length, the +mind becomes estranged from hope, and the body incapable of +exertion. This is the case with those who have for a time +enjoyed luxury when they begin to decline; their fall is then +inevitable. The Eastern empire, as well as the Western, fell +by this means; and it may be said to have been the ordinary course +in the decline of nations that have fallen gradually.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Turks, {80} the Spaniards, and the Portuguese, all owe part of +their present feebleness to this cause; and the government of +France certainly, in a great measure, owed its downfal =sic= to the +same. There the courtiers had sunk in character, and it was +become impossible even for the energy, the activity, and +intelligence of the nation at large, to counteract the baneful +effect of the change that had taken place amongst those who +regulated its affairs.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In history we have seen scarcely any thing similar to this, for it +was the effect operating on the rulers of the nation only; the +strength of the great body of the nation, on which it did not +operate, supported that</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{80} Those nations resemble each other in +feebleness, and in the cause of it, though, with respect to the +Turks, it has existed for a longer period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #91]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>pride and ignorance; whereas in Spain, +Portugal, and Turkey, this evil being general throughout the state, +those who have the conducting of affairs are held in some check by +the general feebleness of the nation. {81} This not only +limits the power of action, but is so visible, that it is +impossible for those who govern not to be led to reflection, and to +be taught moderation by it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The power of laying on taxes and the means of defending itself +against other nations are regulated by the situation of the people; +but the wisdom with which the affairs are conducted is dependent on +the rulers, and those who govern. It is therefore fortunate, +when the rulers are so far sensible of the feeble state of the +country as to be moderate and reasonable. {82}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +None of the nations that know their own weakness would ever have +risked the experiment that was made on St. Domingo by the French; +neither would any nation, in the vigour of acquiring riches, have +done so. It required a nation, ruled by men who were ignorant +of the true principles, who were corrupted with wealth, and, at the +same time, had a vigorous nation to govern, to admit of such a +situation of things. {83} Had the nation been less wealthy or +weaker, so as to have made the poverty or weakness obvious, this +could not have happened; or, had the rulers been less corrupted and +ignorant, it could not have taken place. {84}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{81} The French nation, in reality, was +never so powerful and wealthy as at the time of the revolution +breaking out. The effects of luxury had only perverted the +city of Paris and the court. The power which the energies of +the people at large put at the disposition of the government was +ill applied.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{82} Perhaps some of the greatest +advantages that arise from a form of government like that of +England are, that those who have ruled, owe their places to their +abilities, and not to favour; that they maintain their situations +by exertion, and not by flattery; and that the situation of the +nation never can be long disguised. Without the turbulence of +a democracy, we have most of the advantages that arise from one, +while we have, at the same time, the benefits that proceed from the +stability and order of established monarchy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{83} When the Portuguese were for +abandoning the India trade, it was a case pretty +similar.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{84} Though the men who overturned the +commerce of France were not the same with the members of the +ancient government, yet they also were men ignorant of the true +interests of the nation. A few amongst them were bent upon an +experiment, regardless of the ruin with which it might be +attended.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #92]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all the interior causes, for the decline of nations, which we +are endeavouring to investigate, we shall find a change of manners, +and ways of thinking, constantly producing some effect in the +direction towards decline. This takes place, from the time +that a nation becomes more wealthy than its neighbours; until then, +when it is only struggling to equal them, a nation cannot be said +to be rich, but to be emerging from poverty.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great aim then should be, to counteract this change of mind and +manners, that naturally attends an increased state of +prosperity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #93]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. II.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Education of Youth in Nations +increasing in Wealth.-- the Errors generally committed by Writers +on that Subject. -- Importance of Female Education on the Manners +of a People. -- Not noticed by Writers on Political Economy.-- +Education of the great Body of the People the chief Object.-- In +what that consists.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THE changes of which we have spoken, that take place, gradually, in +a nation, from the increasing luxury and ease in which every +succeeding generation is raised, cannot be prevented. They +are the natural consequences of the situation of the parents being +altered. But when that period of life comes, when children +enter upon what is called education, then a great deal may be done; +for, though the fathers and mothers have still power over their +offspring, it is a diminished power; besides which, they are seldom +so much disposed to exert even what power remains, as at an earlier +period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is necessary and fair, after the severe censure that has been +passed on parents, for bringing up children wrong, at an early +period, to admit, that for the most part, they would not run into +that error, and spoil their children, if they were sensible of +doing so; and that, as they grow up, they would have them properly +instructed, if it were in their power: that is to say, if they had +the means.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are certain things for which individuals can pay, but which +it is impossible for them to provide individually; and if they +attempt to do it collectively, it is liable to great abuse, and to +be badly done.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Individuals never could afford to send their letters, from one end +of the kingdom to the other, without combining together, unless +government furnished them the means: but, by the aid of the +government, they are enabled to do it at a very cheap rate, with +expedition and safety, whilst a profit arises to government greater +than any regular business in the world produces.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is a possibility of an individual sending a letter by a +particu- [end of page #94] lar messenger, at his own expense, to +the greatest distance, provided he can afford it; but, as it +happens, there are many more letters require sending than there are +messengers to send, or money to defray the expenses.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is the same with the education of youth. A man may have a +tutor to his son, and educate him privately, if he can afford it; +but it happens, as with the letters, that there are many more sons +to educate than there are tutors to be found, or money to pay +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the individual, in the case of the letters, would be obliged to +depend on some self-created carrier, if government did not +interfere, so they are with regard to the education of their +children; and, as in the one case they would be very badly served, +so they generally are in the other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the first place, the plans of education are every where bad, and +the manner of executing still worse. -- Those to whom the education +of youth, one of the most important offices in society, is +intrusted undergo no sort of examination, to ascertain whether they +are fit for the business. They, in general, depend upon their +submissive conduct towards the parents and improper indulgence of +the children for their success. It was found that the judges +of criminal and civil law could not be intrusted with the +administration of justice, while they depended on the pleasure of +the crown. Can it then be expected that a much more numerous +set of men, who are, in every respect, inferior in rank and +education, to judges, will maintain that upright and correct +conduct that is necessary, when they are infinitely more dependent +than the judges ever were at any period?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is one of the questions that is to be argued on the same +principles, that the independence, under a monarchical or +democratic government, is decided. Under the dominion of one +chief, on particular occasions, which occur but seldom, it may be +necessary to yield to his will, if the ruler is shameless enough +and infamous enough to insist upon it; but, with a community for +one's master, there is a complete system of submission, a perpetual +deviation from that which is right.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the first place, the fathers and mothers are no judges +themselves of the merits of the master, or the proficiency of the +boy, whom the [end of page #95] master is obliged to treat with +indulgence, that he may not complain. Where there is a +complete ignorance of the right and wrong of the case, any thing +will turn the balance; and it is clear, that where there is no +proof of superior merit, there must be good will, flattery, or some +other method taken, to obtain a preference.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are, occasionally, men of real merit, who distinguish +themselves as teachers; and who, having a solid claim to a +preference, use no mean arts to obtain it. It is but justice +to parents in general, to say that such men are always encouraged, +while they keep their good qualities uncontaminated by some fault +that counterbalances them. {85}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As this is a case where individuals cannot serve themselves, nor +provide the means of being properly served, it is one of those in +which the government of every country ought to interfere. Not +in giving salaries, at the public expense, to men, who, perhaps, +would do no duty; but in seeing that the men who undertake the task +of education are qualified, and that when they have undertaken it +they do their duty, and follow a proper system.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There should be proper examinations, from time to time, and +registers should be kept of the number of scholars, and the +satisfaction they have given to those who examined them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Parents would then have a measure, by which they could estimate the +merit of a school; the master would have another motive for action, +and there would be an emulation amongst the scholars. The business +professed to be done, and undertaken, would then be +performed. At present, at about three times the expense +necessary, children learn about half what they are intended to be +taught.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Interfering in this manner would be no infringement on private +liberty; nothing would be done that could hurt, in any way, the +individuals, but what must greatly benefit them. The evil +habits that are contracted in early childhood, at home, would be +counteracted, and the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{85} As even those find it is necessary +to make a strong impression on the minds of parents, (and as some +wish their children to be treated with rigour,) there are teachers, +who obtain a credit by overstraining the discipline, after having +obtained a fair reputation, by carrying it only to a proper +length.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #96]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>youth would be taught to know what it is +that renders a man happy in himself, and respected and valued by +society.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the consideration of the system to be followed is not the least +important part of the business. The useful should be +preferred to the useless, and in this the example of the ancients +might be followed with advantage. They had no dead languages +to study, and the mind appears to have been in many cases expanded, +far beyond its present compass.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Nothing, indeed, can equal the ignorance of the most part of boys, +when they leave school; those who are considered as bad scholars, +have lost the good opinion of themselves, that ought to be +maintained throughout life; they think every thing difficult or +impossible. Those, again, who have excelled, are something +less ignorant, but become vain and conceited, owing perhaps to +their having learnt some useless and superfluous pieces of +knowledge.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Education, on the general principle, consists in learning what +makes a man useful, respectable, and happy, in the line for which +he is destined, whether for manual labour, or for study; for a high +or a low occupation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +What is useful becomes a question, in some sort depending upon +place, and still more on circumstances, it will therefore be better +to discuss it at length in the Third Book, where England is the +place, and particular circumstances are taken into +consideration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are, however, some general rules that apply to all places and +to all situations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Good principles, honour, honesty, and integrity, are equally +necessary in every rank of society; with those qualities, even a +beggar is respectable, and will be respected; without them, no man +ever was or ever will be so. In every mode of education, the +importance of those should be inculcated; and that they may be +adhered to, every man, either by inheritance, or by talents, or by +habits of industry, should have it put in his power to command the +means of living in the way that he has been brought up.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Were this attended to, many scenes of misery and vice would be +prevented. Admitting that there are propensities in some +minds, [end of page #97] that lead to evil, independent of every +possible check or control, it must be allowed that the far greater +proportion of those who do well or ill in the world owe it to the +manner in which they have been brought up in their early +days.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It follows, from this general rule, that parents should carefully +avoid bringing up children in a manner in which they have not the +means of being afterwards maintained; and that, in the second +place, when they cannot leave them in an independent fortune, they +should, by making them learn a trade or profession, give them the +means of obtaining what they have been accustomed to consider as +necessary for them to enjoy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are, indeed, great numbers, and the greatest numbers of all; +unable even to have their children taught what is called a +trade. But there are none whom poverty prevents from bringing +their children up to industry; and, if they have been taught to +live according to their situation, they will find themselves above +their wants, and therefore the same general rule will still +apply.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Most writers have considered the subject of education as relative +to that portion of it only which applies to learning; but the first +object of all, in every nation, is to make a man a good member of +society; and this can never be done, unless he is fitted to fill +the situation of life for which he is intended.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Governments and writers on education fall, generally speaking, into +the same errors. They would provide for the education of +persons destined for the learned professions and sometimes for the +fine arts; but agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, are totally +left out: {86} the most essential, the most generally useful, are +not noticed at all.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As so much value is set upon the language of the Greeks and Romans, +surely we might pay a little attention to the example of those +distinguished nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Greeks studied the Egyptian learning, and improved upon it; but +this was only confined to those who followed learning as a +profes-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{86} Lord Somerville has some excellent +observations, relative to this, in his publication on Agriculture, +published in 1800.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #98]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>sion, or whose means allowed them to +prosecute it as a study. The common education of citizens was +different; it consisted in teaching them to perform what was +useful, and to esteem what was excellent. It was a principle +with them that all men ought to know how happiness is attained, and +in what virtue consists; but they neither trusted to precept nor +example. They enforced by habit and practice, and in this the +Romans followed the plan the Greeks had laid down, and, by that +means, they surpassed all other nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When those great nations of antiquity abandoned their attention to +the useful parts of education, they soon sunk in national +character. It so happens, in this case, that the mode of +education and the manners of a people are so closely connected that +it is difficult, from observation, to know which is the cause, and +which the effect. Youth, badly educated, make bad men, and +bad men neglect the education of their children; they set them a +wrong example: such is the case, when a government does not +interfere. How this is to be done with advantage is the +question.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Writers on political economy have, in general, considered female +education as making no part of the system; but surely, if the +wealth and happiness of mankind is the end in view, there can +scarcely be a greater object, for none is more nearly connected +with it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Let it be granted that, in the first instance, women are not +educated with any view to carry on those labours and manufactures, +on which wealth is considered as depending. Let all this be +admitted, and that, in an early state of life, they are of no +importance in this respect; yet, surely, when they become wives and +mothers, when the economy of the family, and the education of the +younger children depend chiefly on them, they are then of very +great importance to society. Their conduct, in that important +situation, must be greatly influenced by their +education.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Female education ought then to be considered as one of the things, +on the conducting of which well the prosperity of a state does in a +great measure depend; it ought, therefore, to be attended to in the +same manner as the education of youth of the other sex.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this case, also, so much depends on place and circumstances, +[end of page #99] that we shall follow the same rule as with male +education. It shall be treated of as for England, and with +the different ranks of society as they are; but there are some +general rules not to be forgotten, and which are applicable to all +places and all countries.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great error, in female education, does not consist in +neglecting to instil good principles; for that is, in most +countries, for obvious reasons, pretty well attended to; but good +principles, without the means of adhering to them, are of little +avail. If a desire for dress, or other enjoyments, that +cannot be gratified fairly, and by the means of which they are +possessed, are encouraged, principles will be abandoned in order to +gratify passions. -- Females are taught frivolous accomplishments +in place of what would be useful, and expensive vanity is +substituted for that modest dignity that should be taught; the +consequence is, that, in every rank of life, according to her +station, the woman aims at being above it, and affects the manners +and dress of her superiors.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is too much pains taken with adorning the person, and too +little with instructing the mind, in every civilized country; and +when women are wise, and good, and virtuous, it is more owing to +nature than to education.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As, indeed, the duties of a woman, in ordinary life, are of a +nature more difficult to describe than those of a man, who, when he +has learnt a trade, has little more to do, the care employed in +seeing that proper persons only are intrusted with the important +office of teaching them to perform those duties ought to be +proportionally great.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The farther remarks on the subject of education are deferred to the +Fourth Book =sic - there is none=, where place and circumstances +come into consideration. It is, however, to be observed, +that, in all cases, as a nation becomes more wealthy, the business +of education becomes more important, and has a natural tendency to +be worse managed; it therefore demands a double share of +attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the women of a nation are badly educated, it must have a great +effect on the education of their sons, and the conduct of their +husbands. The Spartan and Roman mothers had the glory of +making [end of page #100] their sons esteem bravery, and those +qualities in a man that were most wanted in their state of +society. It should be one part of female education to know +and admire the qualities that are estimable in the other sex. +To obtain the approbation of the other sex, is, at a certain time +of life, the greatest object of ambition, and it is never a matter +of indifference.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great general error consists in considering the woman merely in +her identical self, without thinking of her influence on +others. It appears to be for this reason, that writers on +political economy have paid no attention to female education; but +we find no state in which the virtue of men has been preserved +where the women had none; though there are examples of women +preserving their virtues, notwithstanding the torrent of corruption +by which that of the men has been swept away. [end of page +#101]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of increased Taxation, as an Interior +Cause of Decline.-- Its different Effects on Industry, according to +the Degree to which it is carried.-- Its Effects on the People and +on Government.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THERE has been no instance of a government becoming more +economical, or less expensive, as it became older, even when the +nation itself was not increasing in wealth; but, in every nation +that has increased in wealth, the expenditure, on the part of +government, has augmented in a very rapid manner.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst the interior causes of the decline of nations, and the +overthrow of governments, the increase of taxes has always been +very prominent. It is in the levying of taxes that the +sovereign and the subject act as if they were of opposite +interests, or rather as if they were enemies to each +other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every case almost, where the subjects have rebelled against +their sovereign, or where they have abandoned their country to its +enemies, the discontents have been occasioned by taxes that were +either too heavy, imprudently laid on, or rigorously +levied.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Sometimes the manner of laying on the tax has given the offence; +sometimes its nature, and sometimes its amount. The +revolution in England, in Charles the first's time, began about the +manner of levying a tax. The revolution of the American +colonies began in the same way; and it is generally at the manner +that nations enjoying a certain degree of freedom make +objection. The excise had very nearly proved fatal to the +government of this country, as the stamp duties did to that of +France, and as the general amount and enormity of taxes did to the +Western Empire. {87}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{87} The system of taxation was ill +understood amongst the Romans, and its execution, under a military +government, is always severe. The Romans were so tormented, +at last, that they lost all regard for their country. Taxes +seem to be the price we pay for the con- [end of page #102] +stitution we live under, and as they increase, the value of the +purchase lessens. The difference between value paid, and +value received, constitutes the advantage or loss of every +bargain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps the chief motive for submitting to the difficulties, the +oppressions, and the burthens, which people submit to under +republican forms of government arises in deception. They seem +to be paying taxes to themselves, and for themselves, when, in +reality, they are not doing so any more than under a monarchy, +where the taxes, in proportion to the service done, are generally +less than in a republic.{88}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{88} America is an exception, but then +there is no similarity between the United States and any other +country in the world. Their existence, as an independent +country, is only of twenty-five years standing; they have had no +wars during that time, and the revolutionary war cost little in +actual money. The comparison between the states and other +nations will not hold, but, if we compare the expense of their +government now, and when under the British, it will be found they +pay near thirty times as much; and, even allowing their population +to have risen one-half, they still pay proportionately twenty times +as much. Their revenue now amounts to 16,000,000 of +dollars. The public expense, in 1795, when they revolted, was +about 350,000 dollars.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This was the case in Holland and Venice. In England, the +first great increase of taxes took place under the long Parliament +and Commonwealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The only administration carried on by delegated authority, that is +from necessity obliged to be executed with unabaiting rigour, is +the department of finance. Money is a thing of such a nature, +that strict rules are absolutely necessary in its +administration. There is here a great distinction between +money and other property, or money's worth. A menial servant, +of whose honesty there is no proof, and even when it may be +dubious, is habitually trusted with the care of property to a +considerable amount, and the account rendered is seldom very +rigorous; but, in the case of trusting with money, every precaution +is first taken, as to being trust-worthy. Security is +generally demanded, and neither friendship, confidence, nor the +highest respectability, will supply the place of a strict account, +which, when not rendered, leaves an indelible stain. There +are many causes for this, but they are so generally understood, or, +at least, so generally felt, that it is not necessary to examine +them; the consequences are in some cases, however, not so +evident. One of the most important is, that the accuracy with +[end of page #103] which those appointed to collect taxes are +obliged to render their accounts, compels them to a strictness in +doing their duty that appears frequently rigorous to an extreme +degree, and scarcely consistent with justice or +humanity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A king is considered as an unrelenting creditor, and he certainly +appears in that character; but it should be considered why he is +obliged to be so; for, as a master, he is generally the most +indulgent in his dominions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No duty or service is exacted with less rigour than that belonging +to a civil department under government, when it is not connected +with accountability in money; none so rigorous where money is +concerned. How is this to be accounted for, unless it is by +shewing that the nature of the situation admits of giving way to +the feelings of humanity in one case, and not in the other? A few +examples will illustrate this point, which is very important, very +well known, but not well understood.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A clerk in a public office wants, either for health or private +business, or, perhaps, only for amusement, to absent himself from +duty; if his conduct merits any indulgence, and if his request is +any way reasonable, it is immediately granted, though his salary +during his absence may amount to a considerable sum; but he +receives the gift under the form of time, not of money. If +the same clerk is in arrear for taxes to one-twentieth part of the +amount, if he does not pay, his furniture will be seized, and that +perhaps by order of the same superior from whom he obtained the +leave of absence from his duty. {89}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consequences would be fatal if the case were reversed. +Supposing that leave of absence had been refused, and that a +remission of taxes had been granted, the man who remitted the tax +would be liable to suspicion, which he could never do away; the +receipt of the revenue would never be secure, and the clerk, who +had demanded a fair indulgence, would be disgusted and provoked at +the refusal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We cannot, however, alter the nature of things. Taxes cannot +be remitted, in any case, without discretional authority, and that +it would</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{89} Accountability in money may be +compared to military discipline, when on duty. No allowances are to +be made for negligence or deviation from rule. Of this we have +lately had a most striking and memorable example.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #104]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>be ruinous to the revenue to give, we +must, therefore, never expect that the augmentation of taxes will +take place without an increase of discontent, or, at least, an +augmented indifference towards government.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps nothing evinces more the general feeling, (even of the +respectable part of society,) with regard to the revenues of the +state, than the disposition to profit by evading the payment of +duties imposed upon articles of consumption.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The most respectable of the nobility or gentry will conceal a +contraband article, or one on which there is a heavy duty, on their +return from abroad: and what is more, if detected, they are more +ashamed, on account of their want of address, than on account of +the crime; for such it is, whatever custom may have taught us to +think.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A man who is rigorously treated, by what is commonly called a +lawful creditor, whom he would never attempt to defraud must +naturally feel doubly incensed, when still more rigorously treated +by one whom he would think it very little harm, and no disgrace, to +defraud. It is then very clear, that, the common habits of +thinking on the subject of debts due to the king, is such as does +not favour taxation, or incline people to submit willingly to +rigorous modes of recovery.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +All taxes raise the prices of the articles taxed, but those are +most felt and most obnoxious which fall on personal property, or on +persons themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +All taxes, then, when they pass a certain point, have a tendency to +send away persons, and property, and trade, from a country, which, +if they do, its decline is inevitable. The extent, however, +of that effect must depend on a great variety of circumstances, +such as the comparative situation of other nations, their distance, +the difficulty of removing, &c.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If America were as near to England as France is, the industrious +class would emigrate in multitudes; and, if in France, property and +persons were as safe and free as in England, part of both would go +there; but, as matters are, to the former it is impossible to +remove, and, to the latter, the risk surpasses the +advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +An increase of taxation tends to raise the wages of labour, and, +where it does so in due proportion, the labourer pays almost +nothing; he still for all that seems to pay, and he has the same +disagreeable feeling [end of page #105] as if he did pay. No +feeling is more disagreeable than that of being obliged, after +earning money that can ill be spared, to pay it away to a surly +tax-gatherer, who treats a man and his family with insolence, while +he receives the money that should purchase them bread. +Besides this, though the prices of many articles keep pace with the +wages of labour, yet many others do not. Thus, in a country +where wages are rapidly altering, though some are bettered by it, +penury is entailed on others, who have not the means of raising +their prices.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If heavy taxes are levied on a few articles of consumption, then +they become inefficient, and if they are divided amongst a great +many, they become troublesome, so that either way they are attended +with inconvenience and difficulty.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every country, where taxation has been carried to a great +height, it has, at last, become necessary to bear heavily upon +personal property. Such taxes are always attended with +disagreeable feelings, and peculiar inconveniency. The tax +always comes in the form of a debt, and whether convenient to be +paid or not, it admits at best but of little delay. {90}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In England the nature of the government, the disposition of the +people, and the same sort of genius that made them succeed in +commercial intercourse and regulation, led them to adopt the least +objectionable modes of taxation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The customs were the first great branch of revenue at the time of +the revolution. The excise, land-tax, and stamps, rose next, +none of which can be objected to; for the person who pays the tax +to government only advances the money, and is reimbursed by the +consumer, who, again on his part, when he really pays the tax (for +good and all) does it under the form of an advance in price. +Thus, then, the tax is disguised to him that really pays it, and it +is optional, inasmuch as he</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{90} It will be seen, in a future part of +this work, that the farmers have lost nothing, but rather got by +the high prices of grain in this country, and it is so probably in +all others. Those who sell necessaries raise the price; those +who make or sell superfluities have no such resource, and therefore +pay in the severest manner.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #106]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>may avoid the tax, by not consuming the +article. He never can be sued for the tax, and he pays it by +degrees, as he can spare the money. {91}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some time before the taxation which the American war rendered +necessary, it was thought that the customs and excise could not be +carried much farther. Ministers did not chuse =sic= to +venture on an additional tax on land, and, consequently, stamps +were augmented and extended, as were also duties on windows. +A variety of new taxes on particular articles of consumption were +resorted to. Those sort of taxes harassed and tormented individuals +more than they filled the treasury, yet still, when, after an +interval of a few years of peace, new burthens became necessary, in +1793, the same plan was pursued, till it was found ineffectual, +being too troublesome and tedious, besides being unequal to the +increase of expenditure.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was necessity that suggested a plan, which is the simplest and +easiest of any, so long as it succeeds and is productive. +=sic= To increase the excise and customs by an additional five or +ten per cent. on the articles that were supposed able to bear +it. This has been done again and again with those two +branches of revenue, and with the stamps likewise.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the necessities of the state still outrun the means, and the +assessed taxes, the worst and most obnoxious of all, were augmented +in the same way; but even those were not productive. The +inducement to privation was too great, and the restraints laid on +expenditure, suggested the adoption of a tax on income; that is, on +the means a man has to pay, which carries in its very name a +description of its nature.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We have mentioned the influence that necessity has on +industry. One of the effects of taxes, as well as of rent, is +to prolong the operation of necessity, or to increase it. A +man who has neither rent nor taxes to pay, as is the case in some +savage nations, only labours to supply his wants. Whatever +proportion rent and taxes bear to the wants of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{91} The land-tax is not precisely the +same, but very nearly. It operates as a tax on the produce of land, +that is on commodities for the use of man, the same as those +articles subject to duties of customs or excise. The +landholder just feels as the brewer, distiller, or importer of +foreign goods, he gets the tax reimbursed by the farmer, and the +farmer is reimbursed by the consumer.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #107]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>a people their industry will be increased +in the same proportion, unless their forces are exceeded, and then +the operation is indeed very different.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It follows, from this, that both rent and taxes, to a certain +degree, increase the wealth of a people, by augmenting their +industry. As rent is not compulsive, it never can in general +be carried beyond the point that augmented industry will bear; but +taxes are not either regulated by the industry of the individual, +or of the community; they may therefore be carried too far, and +when they are, the people become degraded, disheartened, their +independent spirit is lost and broken, and industry, in place of +increasing, as it did in the first stages of taxation, flies +away.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The government, in this case, generally becomes more severe, and +certainly more obnoxious. The broken spirit of the people +makes submission a matter of course, so that there is no effectual +resistance made to its power. Incapacity to pay comes at +last, and defeats the end; but, between incapacity and resistance, +the difference is very wide.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As calculators have been predicting the moment of a total stoppage +to the increase of revenue for nearly half a century; as ministers, +themselves, have never ventured to lay on a new burthen, except +when forced to it by necessity. {92} As taxes have been laid on at +random, in a manner similar to that in which the streets and houses +of old cities were built, without regularity or design, and as the +effects predicted have not taken place, it is fair to conclude, +that the subject is not well understood. If it were, the evil +would be in the way to be obviated; but still the conclusion would +be the same, that increased taxation tends to bring on discontent, +and to drive men and capital from a country. The degree of +tendency, and the rapidity of its operations, are a question; but +respecting the tendency itself there can be no question.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Two things more are to be observed, relative to the effects of +taxation, as tending towards decline. The first is, that the taxes +are levied by and expended on men, who, having income only for +their lives,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{92} Mr. Pitt seems an exception to this; +but the establishment of a sinking fund, at the end of the war, was +as necessary for his administration as any of the loans, during the +war, were for Lord North; and both measures required new +taxes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #108]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>generally leave families in +distress. Those who lose their parents when young are often +left destitute, and those who are farther advanced are frequently +ruined by being educated and accustomed to a rank in life that they +are not able to support. This is a very great evil, and is +renewed as it were every generation. As the revenues of a +country increase, this evil increases also: for, except what goes +to the proprietors of money in the stocks, all the public revenue, +very nearly, goes to people whose income perishes with +themselves. To begin with those who collect the taxes, +custom-house officers, excise men, collectors, and clerks of every +rank and demonination =sic=, there is not one in ten who does not +die in indigence; and if he leaves a family, he leaves it in +distress.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is no doubt the lot of the great bulk of mankind, that is to +say, the labouring part of the community in every country, to leave +children unprovided for; but then they are left in a rank of +society that does not prevent their going to work or to service, +which is not the case with the vast number left by those who enjoy, +during life, a genteel and easy existence under +government.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The education of such persons is either neglected entirely, or ill +fitted for the line of life into which they are to go. If the +sum-total of human vice and misery was to be divided into shares, +and if it were calculated how much fell to each person, there is +not a doubt but at least a double portion would fall to the lot of +those unfortunate persons who are left by parents enjoying offices +for life; who are generally obliged to expend their income as they +earn it. As, according to the natural chance of things, a +number of such persons must leave young families, the seeds of +misery are continually sowing a-fresh, to the great detriment of +society. This evil depends in a great degree upon the habits +and nature of the people, which augment or diminish it; and, in +commercial nations, the evil is far the greatest. Where +commerce does not flourish, persons belonging to the +revenue-department are seldom highly paid, and they by no means +consider themselves as a class of persons distinguished above the +general run, or obliged to live more expensively; but, in a +manufacturing country, to live without working, implies a degree of +gentility that is extremely ruinous to those who enjoy that fatal +and flimsy pre-eminence. [end of page #109]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A manufacturer, who is getting a thousand pounds a year, will, +perhaps, not assume so much importance as a man in office who does +not get one hundred pounds; and the former, as well as his family, +knowing that they are beholden to industry for what they have, do +not think themselves above following it. {93}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Unfortunately, it also happens, that, in all sorts of occupation +where trust is reposed and punctuality required, more than in +ordinary business, it is rather late in life before those employed +rise to situations of considerable emolument. When they are +old, their families are generally young; thus it is, that the +persons who are the most unfit to marry late in life are generally +those who do so. This order of things cannot easily be +changed. In the rate of payments governments are regulated by the +service done, and by the dependence that can be placed on the +person employed, who, on the other hand, follows the natural +propensities of human nature. When young, and on a small +allowance, a revenue-officer remains single; but when it is +necessary to become serious, attentive, and confidential, and when +he finds he has the means, he betakes himself to a domestic life, +which is the most natural to men arrived at a certain time of life, +and the best fitted for those who are to be depended upon for the +correctness of their conduct. It is impossible to prevent +this natural state of things; and if let go uncorrected, if not +counteracted, the consequences are very pernicious. It is to +this, in a great measure, the augmentation of vice and mendicity +=sic= is to be attributed in nations, as they become wealthy and +great.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps more depends upon the manner of taxation than the amount; +at least it certainly is so in all countries where the amount is +not very high. In America, for example, the amount is of no +importance; the manner might be of very pernicious consequence. In +France, before the revolution, the taxes were more oppressive, from +the manner of levying them than from their amount. The same +thing might be said</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{93} This is a very important part of the +consideration; but, as education and it are connected, and that +comes into the Fourth Book =sic - there is none=, the whole +consideration is left till then; not only the national prosperity +is injured, but the feelings of humanity are hurt, and the sum of +human misery increased by this consequence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #110]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of almost every country in Europe, +England and Holland excepted. At present, the case is greatly +altered, in many countries, by the increase: yet, still, one of the +principal evils arises from the manner of levying the taxes; the +restraints imposed by them, the inconveniency, the vexation, and, +finally, the misery and ruin they, in many cases, +occasion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the examples, where taxation contributed most to the fall of +a country, Rome is the greatest. The luxury of the imperial +court, and the expenses of a licentious and disorderly army, added +to the ignorance of the subject, rendered the taxes every way +burthensome. From the fall of Rome, to the time of Louis XIV. the +splendour of courts, and their expenses, were objects of no great +importance. We are but lately arrived at a new aera in +taxation; for, though taxation has been the occasion of much +discontent at all times, it was carried to no considerable length, +in any country in Europe, except in Spain and Holland, till within +this last century.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Indeed, when we consider the great noise that has often been made +about raising an inconsiderable sum, it is impossible not to be +astonished at the reluctance with which people pay taxes, when they +feel that they are paying them, and are not accustomed to the +feeling.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Taxation is, then, to the feelings of men, disagreeable; to their +manners hurtful; they are also, in their operation, to a certain +degree, inimical to liberty. The ultimate consequence of this +is, that persons and property have both of them a tendency to quit +a country where taxes are high, and to go to one, where, with the +same means, there may be more enjoyment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Taxes may be called a rent paid for living in a country, and +operate exactly like the rent of houses or land, or rent for any +thing else; that is, they make the tenant remove to a cheaper +place, unless he finds advantages where he is to counterbalance the +expense.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Unfortunately, the persons who have the greatest disposition to +quit a country that is heavily taxed are those, who, having a +certain income, which they cannot increase, wish to enjoy it with +some degree of economy. They are, likewise, the persons who +can remove with the greatest [end of page #111] facility. +Thus, people whose income is in money are always the first to quit +a country that is become too dear to live in with +comfort.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Many circumstances may favour or counteract this tendency, such as +the difficulty of finding an agreeable place to retire to, where +the money will be secure, or the interest regularly paid; but, an +inquiry into that will come more properly when we examine the +external causes of decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the increase of taxes, by augmenting the expense of living, +and of the necessaries of life, is little felt by the labouring +class, their wages rising in proportion; yet a most disastrous +effect is produced on the fine arts, and on all productions of +which the price does not bear a proportional rise.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where taxes are high, and luxury great, there must be some persons +who have a great deal of ostentation, even if they have little +taste. A picture or a jewel of great value will, very +certainly, find a purchaser, but that will only serve as a motive +for bringing the fine painting from another country, where the +necessaries of life are cheaper, and where men enjoy that careless +ease which is incompatible with a high state of +taxation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When Rome became luxurious, to the highest pitch, there were +neither poets, painters, nor historians, bred within its walls; +buffoons and fiddlers could get more money than philosophers, and +they had more saleable talents. Had Virgil not found an +Augustus, had he lived three centuries later, he must either have +written ballads and lampoons, or have starved; otherwise he must +have quitted Italy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When Rome was full of luxury, and commanded the world and its +wealth, there was not an artist in it capable of executing the +statues of its victorious generals. {94}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some Greek island, barren and bare, would breed artists capable of +making ornaments for imperial Rome.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{94} They were obliged to cut the heads +off from ancient statues, as their artists were only sufficiently +expert to carve the drapery of the body.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #112]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is an easy matter, in a rich country, to pay for a fine piece of +art, but a difficult matter to find a price for the bringing up a +fine artist. {95}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The fine arts have not, indeed, any intimate or immediate +connection with the wealth or strength of a nation. The +balance of trade has never been greatly increased by the +exportation of great masterpieces of art, nor have nations been +subdued by the powers of oratory; but the knowledge and the arts, +by which wealth and greatness are obtained, follow in the train of +the finer performances of human genius.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where money becomes the universal agent, where it is impossible to +enjoy ease or comfort for a single day without it, it becomes an +object of adoration, as it were. To despise gold, which purchases +all things, is reckoned a greater crime than to despise him to +whose bounty we are indebted for all things; consequently, +ambition, without which there never is excellence, is, at an early +period of life, bent towards the gaining a fortune. A man, +indeed, must either be of a singularly odd and obstinate +disposition, or very indifferent about the opinion of others, and +even about the good things of this world, (as they are termed,) to +persevere in obtaining perfection in science or art, while without +bread, when he might, with a tenth part of the care and study, live +in affluence, and get money from day to day. There are few +such obstinate fools; and without them, in a wealthy country, there +can be found few men profound in science, or excelling in any of +the arts.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The augmentation of taxes, by rendering the produce of industry +dearer than in other countries, tends to cut off a nation of that +de-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{95} This is liable to some +exceptions. Natural genius may make a man excel; but, even +then, it is ten to one if he is not compelled to labour in order to +get bread, in place of trying to obtain fame. It was thus the +great Dr. Johnson, with a genius that might have procured him +immortal fame, drudged, during life, on weekly or daily labours, +which will soon be forgotten. Even his dictionary, wonderful +as it is for a single man, is not worthy of the English nation, and +Johnson's name is little known beyond the limits of his own +country. His genius was great, but his labours were +little. His mind was in fetters; it was Sampson grinding at +the mill to amuse the Philistines; not Sampson slaying lions, and +putting to flight armies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #113]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>scription, from the markets in poorer +countries. If all other countries are poorer; and the taxes +lower; it has a tendency to shut it out from all the markets in the +world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +An operation, that, at the same time that it renders people less +happy, less contented, and more indifferent to the fate of their +country, and at the same time tends to shut them out from foreign +markets, is certainly very hurtful to any country, but particularly +so to one, the greatness of which is founded on manufactures and +commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would be useless to enlarge on so self-evident a consequence; +yet, even in this case, we shall find something of that mixture of +good, along with the bad, which is to be found in all human +things.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As exertion originates in necessity or want, which it removes, +taxation has the effect of prolonging the operation of necessity, +after it would otherwise have ceased, and of rendering its pressure +greater than it otherwise would be; the consequence of this is a +greater and larger continued exertion on the part of those who have +to pay the taxes. Human exertion, either in the way of +invention or of industry, is like a spring that is pressed upon, +and gains strength according to the pressure, until a certain +point, when it gives way entirely.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those investigators, who have calculated the effect of such and +such a degree of taxation, of national debt, &c. have all +erred, in not making any, or a sufficient, allowance for the action +of this elastic power. Mr. Hume and Mr. Smith, certainly, +both of them, men of profound research, have erred completely in +this. The former, in calculating the ultimatum of exertion, +at a point which we have long since passed; and, the latter, in +reasoning on the taxation at the time he wrote, as if nearly the +utmost degree, though it has since trebled, and the difficulty in +paying seems to be diminished; at least it appears not to have +augmented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To fix the point at which this can stop is not, indeed, very easy; +particularly, as the value of gold and silver, which are the +measures of other values, do themselves vary. Thus, for +example, a working man can, with his day's wages, purchase as much +bread and beer as he could have done with it forty years ago. +Though the national debt [end of page #114] is five times as great +as it was then, at the present price of bread, it would not take +twice the number of loaves to pay it that it would have required at +that time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The depreciation of money, then, as well as the continuation and +augmented pressure of necessity, counteract, to a certain degree, +and for a certain time, the natural tendency of taxes; but that +counteraction, though operating in all cases, in its degree and +duration, must depend upon particular circumstances; and though, +perhaps, it cannot be, with much accuracy, ascertained in any case, +it is impossible to attempt resolving the question in a general +way; we shall, therefore, return to the subject, when we apply the +general principles to the particular situation of +England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One conclusion, however, is, that as taxes, carried to a great +extent, are very dangerous, though not so if only carried to a +certain point; as that point cannot be ascertained, it ought to be +a general rule to lay on as few taxes as possible; and the giving +as little trouble and derangement to the contributor as may be, is +also another point, with respect to which there cannot be two +different opinions. [end of page #115]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the interior Causes of Decline, +arising from the Encroachments of public and privileged Bodies, and +of those who have a common Interest; on those who have no common +Interest.</span></i> <span style='color:black'>{96}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +FROM the moment that any particular form of government or order is +established in a nation, there must be separate and adverse +interests; or, which is the same thing, bodies acting in opposition +to each other, and seeking their own power and advantage at the +expense of the rest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a country where the executive government is under no sufficient +control, its strides to arbitrary power are well known; but, in a +government poised like that of England, where there are +deliberative bodies, with different interests, acting separately, +and interested in keeping each other and the executive in check, it +is not from the government that much danger is to be +apprehended.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not meant to dwell on this particular part of the +subject. As those governed hold a check on the executive +power, which alone can be supposed to profit by oppression, there +is a means of defence, in the first instance, and of redress, in +the second, which diminishes greatly, if it does not entirely do +away all danger from encroachment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Another thing to be said about this government is, that government +and the subject never come into opposition with each other, except +where there is law or precedent to determine between +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The danger, then, of encroachment on that side, is not very great, +and it is the less so in this country, that, when there have been +contests, they have always ended in favour of the people; whereas, +in most</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{96} The public certainly has a common +interest, but it feels it not, and even those who have separate +interests make part of that very public. -- This will be +exemplified, in a variety of instances, in the course of the +present chapter.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #116]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>other countries, they have terminated in +favour of the executive power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not so, however, with many other of the component parts of +society. Those deliberating bodies, who have separate +interests, and all those who live, as it were, on the public, and +have what they call, in France, <i>l'esprit du corps</i>, for which +we have no proper expression, though it may be defined to be those +who have a common interest, a fellow feeling, and the means of +acting in concert, are much more dangerous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In nations where the executive power has no control, the progress +of public bodies is less dangerous than where the power of the king +is limited. It is always the interest of the sovereign, who +monopolises all power, and those around him, to prevent any man, or +body of men, from infringing on the liberty of the subject, or +becoming rivals, by laying industry under contribution, so we find +that, in every such nation, the clergy excepted, all public bodies +are kept under proper subjection. {97}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{97} In all countries, those who have the +care of religious matters must necessarily have some control over +the minds of the people, which they can to a certain degree turn +either to a good or a bad purpose. It is, therefore, +impossible that the government and clergy can, for any length of +time, act in opposition to each other: one or other of the two must +soon fall, and there have been instances of the triumph of +each. We have sometimes seen kings triumph over the clergy, +but not very often; and we have frequently seen governments +overturned by their means: except, therefore, in a state of +revolution, they must mutually support each other. This is +the natural state of things; but, in Roman Catholic countries, +priests have a superior sway to what they have in any other, for +several reasons that are very obvious. In the first place, +the sovereign of the nation is not the head of the church; and, in +the second, by means of a very superior degree of art and +attention, during the dark ages, when the laity were sunk in +ignorance, the catholic clergy contrived to entail the church +property, from generation to generation, upon the whole body: at +the same time, enjoining celibacy, by which all chance of +alienation, even of personal property, was done away. As to +the means of acquiring property, and of augmenting it; they were +many, and, in every contest with the secular authority, they had a +great advantage, by speaking, as it were, through ten thousand +mouths at once, and giving the alarm to the consciences of the +weak. In countries where the protestant religion has been +established, the case is widely different. Gothic darkness +was nearly fled before the reformation: besides this, the clergy +are like other men, with regard to the manner of living; they are +fathers and husbands, and, as such, liable to have all the property +that is their own alienated, as much as any other set of men [end +of page #117] whatever. The reformers, who were neither +destitute of penetration nor zeal, and who knew all the abuses of +the church of Rome, in matters of regulation as well as of opinion, +were very careful to settle the new order of things on such a plan, +as to be free from the evils which they had experienced, and +against which they had risen with such energy and zeal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The simple state of the case is, that the interest of the people is +that of the sovereign; and, except in cases where there is a +profound ignorance of what is good for the nation, every wise +sovereign takes the part of the people. But, under a limited +monarchy, or in a democracy, the case is different. There, +those bodies, which an arbitrary monarch would reduce to obedience +at once, stand upon prerogative themselves; they form a band in the +legislature, and act true to their own interests; so that the +sovereign himself is compelled to admit of abuses, which he is +willing but not able to remedy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is a great mistake, and one of the greatest into which people +have of late been apt to run, that the government and people of a +country are of opposite interests; and that governments wish to +oppress the people, and rob them of the means of being affluent and +happy: the very contrary is the case; all enlightened monarchs have +acted quite differently.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Alfred the Great, Edward III. Queen Elizabeth, and nearly all her +successors have endeavoured to increase the wealth and happiness of +the people in England. Henry IV. of France, even Louis +XIV. Peter the Great of Russia, Catherine, and indeed all his +successors, as also the Kings of Prussia, the Grand Duke of +Tuscany, and other sovereigns, who know how to shew their +disposition, have tried to enrich their people, and render them +happy. The great study of the English government has always +been directed to that end, and the Romans extended their care even +to the nations they subdued. Though there are many sovereigns who +have not known how to do this, and therefore have either not +attempted it, or erred in the mode they have taken; yet, with very +few exceptions indeed, sovereigns have been found to wish for the +prosperity of the nations over which they ruled.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all human institutions there is much that is bad, and something +[end of page #118] that is good; and the best, as well as the +worst, are only combinations of good and evil, differing in the +proportions. In mixt governments, or in limited governments, +the people can defend their rights better against the sovereign +than against those bodies that spring up amongst themselves: +whereas, in pure monarchies, they have only to guard against the +encroachments of the sovereign; and he will take care to prevent +them from being oppressed by any other power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This tendency to destruction, from encroachments of public bodies +in established governments, is more to be dreaded in limited +monarchies, and in democracies, than in pure monarchies; but we +have had little occasion to observe the progress in governments of +the former sort, excepting the clergy, though the military and the +nobles generally play their part.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In Rome, the military never were dangerous, while the armies were +only raised, like militias, for the purpose of a particular war; +but, when they became a standing body, they were the proximate +efficient cause of destroying liberty, though this was only the +prelude to that decline which afterwards took place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In limited monarchies, the lawyers are the greatest body, from +which this sort of danger arises, and the reasons are numerous and +evident.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +United in interest, and constantly occupied in studying the law of +the country, while the public at large are occupied on a variety of +different objects, and without any bond of union, there can be +nothing more natural than that they should contrive to render the +business which they alone can understand, of as much importance and +profit as possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the criminal law of the country, where the king is the +prosecutor, and where the lawyers are not interested in multiplying +expense or embarrassment, our laws are administered with admirable +attention; though, perhaps, in some cases, they are blamed for +severity, they are justly admired over the world for their mode of +administration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is very different in cases of property, or civil actions, where +it is man against man, and where both solicitor and council =sic= +are interested in the intricacy of the case. Here, indeed, +the public is so glaringly imposed upon, that it would be almost +useless to dwell on the sub- [end of page #119] ject, and, as a +part of the plan of this work is to offer, or point out, a remedy, +it may be sufficient, in this case, to go over the business once, +and leave the examples till the relief is proposed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At present, it is, however, necessary to shew why, as things are +constituted in mixed governments like this, no remedy is to be +had. The public only acts by representatives; and, in the +House of Lords, the law-lords, who have <i>l'esprit du corps</i>, +may easily contrive to manage every thing. One or two +noblemen excepted, no one either has, or pretends to have +sufficient knowledge to argue or adjust a point of law. +Indeed, it is no easy matter to do so with effect, for, besides +that, the law-lords have ministers on their side, or, which is the +same thing, are on the side of ministers, the speaker is himself at +the head of the law. The other members who look up to the +law-lords, and who are generally very few in number on a +law-question, generally give their assent. In the House of +Commons, in which there are a number of lawyers, they are still +less opposed. The country gentlemen profess ignorance. +They think that to watch money-bills, the privileges of the house, +the general interests of the nation, roads, canals, and inclosures, +is their province. The mercantile, and other interests, +composed of men getting money with great rapidity, consider the +abuses of law as not to them of much importance; they do not feel +the inconvenience, and have neither time nor inclination to study +the subject. {98}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The prerogative of the king to refuse his assent, might, perhaps, +be expected to come in as a protection, but here there is least of +all any thing to be expected. In the first place, it is +thought to be wise never to use that prerogative, and, in the +second place, the lord-high-chancellor is the king's guide in every +thing of the sort, insomuch, that he is styled the keeper of the +king's conscience.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With power, influence, and interest on one side, and nothing to +oppose it on the other, (for the common proverb is true, as all +common</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{98} The law is the widest, and the +shortest, and the nearest road to a peerage. A Howe, Nelson, +and St. Vincent, play a game, partly of skill, and partly of +chance, for title; they must have luck and opportunity. The +others are sure with fewer competitors to have more +prizes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #120]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>proverbs are, that what is every body's +business is nobody's,) the lawyers must encroach on the public, and +they have done so to a most alarming degree.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this case, it is not, as in others, where the great cut out work +for and employ the small. No. The great generally +(indeed almost always) begin with the advice and by the means of an +attorney, who is only supposed to understand law-practice. +The proceeding does not originate with the council, who could form +some judgment of the justice of the case, so that a mean +petty-fogging attorney may, for a trifle, which he puts into his +own pocket, ruin two ignorant and honest men; he may set the ablest +council to work, and occupy, for a time, the courts of justice, to +the general interruption of law, and injury of the +public.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is, perhaps, one of the greatest and most crying evils in the +land, and calls out the most loudly for redress, as the effects are +very universal. In a commercial country, so many interests +clash, and there are such a variety of circumstances, that the vast +swarms of attorneys, who crowd the kingdom, find no difficulty in +misleading one of the parties, and that is the cause of most +law-suits.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As commercial wealth increases the evil augments, not in simple +proportion, but in a far more rapid progression; first, in +proportion to the wealth and gain to be obtained, and, secondly, +according to the opportunities which augment with the business +done.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In addition to the real dead expense, the loss of time, the +attention, and the misfortune and misery occasioned by the law, are +terrible evils; and, if ever the moment comes, that a general +dissatisfaction prevails, it will be the law that will precipitate +the evil.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The mildness of the civil laws in France, and the restraints under +which lawyers are held, served greatly to soften the rigours of the +revolution for the first two years. Had they possessed the +power and the means they do in England, the revolution must have +become much more terrible than it was at the first +outset.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The lawyers owe all their power to the nature of the government. An +arbitrary monarch will have no oppressor but himself, but here the +[end of page #121] different interests are supposed to be poised; +and when they are, all goes right, but, when they happen not to be +so, the most active interest carries the day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the law is the greatest of those bodies that is of a +different interest from the public at large, yet there are some +others deserving notice, and requiring reformation. It is the +interest of all those who are connected with government to do away +abuses that tend to endanger its security, or diminish its +resources.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the public revenue is all derived from those who labour, and as +it can come from no other persons, if the prosperity and happiness +of the subject were a mere matter of indifference, which it cannot +be supposed to be; still it would be an object for government to +preserve his resources undiminished. It was our lot, in +another chapter, to mention the enormous increase of the poor's +rate, which was in part attributed to the general increase of +wealth; mal-administration is, however, another cause, and, the +public is the more to be pitied, that the parish-officers defend +their conduct against their constituents at the expense of their +constituents.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In an inquiry after truth, it should be spoken without fear of +offending; and, in this case, though the feelings of Englishmen +may, perhaps, be hurt, and their pride wounded, it must be allowed, +that if it were not for the mock-democratical form of +administrating =sic= the funds for the maintenance of the poor, +they would never suffer the extortion, and the bare-faced +iniquities that are committed. {99} The ship-money, the poll-tax, +the taxes on the Americans, and others, that have caused so much +bloodshed and strife, never amounted to one-tenth, if all added +together, of what the English public pays to be applied to maintain +the poor, and administered by rude illiterate men, who render +scarcely any account, and certainly, in general, evade all regular +control. Those administrators, though chosen by the people, +always, while in office, imbibe <i>l'esprit du corps</i>, and make +a common cause.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{99} In Brabant and Flanders the people +were very jealous of their liberties. They were, however, +most terribly oppressed by the churchmen and lawyers.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #122]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The repairs of highways, bridges, streets, and expenses of police +in general; whatever falls on parishes, towns, or counties, in the +form of a tax or rate, is generally ill-administered, and the +wastefulness increases with wealth. The difficulty of +controling or redressing those evils proceeds from the same spirit +pervading all the separate administrations. Government alone +can remedy this; and it is both the interest and duty of the +government to keep a strict watch over every body of men that has +an interest separate from that of the public at large. +Similar to the human body, which becomes stiff and rigid with age, +so, as states get older, regulation upon regulation, and +encroachment on encroachment, add friction and difficulty to the +machine, till its force is overcome, and the motion stops. In +the human body, if no violent disease intervenes, age occasions +death. In the body politic, if no accidental event comes to +accelerate the effect, it brings on a revolution; hence, as a +nation never dies, it throws off the old grievances, and begins a +new career.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The tendency that all laws and regulations have to become more +complicated, and that all bodies, united by one common interest, +have to encroach on the general weal, are known from the earliest +periods; but we have no occasion to go back to early periods for a +proof of that in this country. As wealth increases, the +temptation augments, and the resistance decreases. The +wealthy part of society are scarcely pressed upon by the evils, and +they love ease too well to trouble themselves with fighting the +battles of the public. Those who are engaged in trade are too +much occupied to spare time; and, if they were not, they neither in +general know how to proceed, nor have they any fund at their +disposal, from which to draw the necessary money for +expenditure.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It sometimes happens, that an individual, from a real public +spirit, or from a particular humour or disposition, or, perhaps, +because he has been severely oppressed, musters sufficient courage +to undertake the redress of some particular grievance; but, unless +he is very fortunate, and possesses both money and abilities, it is +generally the ruin of his peace, if not of his fortune. He +finds himself at once beset with a host of enemies, who throw every +embarrassment in his way: his friends [end of page #123] may admire +and pity, but they very seldom lend him any assistance. If +some progress is made in redressing the grievance, it is generally +attended with such consequences to the individual, as to deter +others from undertaking a similar cause. Thus the incorporated body +becomes safe, and goes on with its encroachments with +impunity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Much more may be said upon this subject; but, as it is rather one +of which the operation is regulated by particular circumstances, +than by general rules, the object being to apply the result of the +inquiry to England, we shall leave it till we come to the +application of it to that country, only observing, that the church, +the army, and the law, are the three bodies universally and +principally to be looked to as dangerous; and each of them +according to the situation and the form of government of the +respective countries, though, in England, the church has less means +than in any country in Europe of extending its revenues or power, +the law and corporate bodies the most; and, under arbitrary +governments, the church and the military have the most, and the law +and corporate bodies little or none. [end of page #124]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the internal Causes of Decline, +arising from the unequal Division of Property, and its Accumulation +in the Hands of particular Persons.-- Its Effects on the Employment +of Capital.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN every country, the wealth that is in it has a natural tendency +to accumulate in the hands of certain individuals, whether the laws +of the society do or do not favour that accumulation. +Although it has been observed in a former chapter that wealth +follows industry, and flies from the son of the affluent citizen to +the poor country boy, yet that is only the case with wealth, the +possessor of which requires industry to keep it; for, where wealth +has been obtained, so as to be in the form of land or money at +interest, this is no longer the case. {100}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In America, and in countries that are new, or in those of which the +inhabitants have been sufficiently hardy, and rash to overturn +every ancient institution, precautions have been taken against the +accumulation of too much wealth in the hands of one person, or at +least to discourage and counteract it; but, in old nations, where +we do not chuse =sic= to run such risks, the case is +different. The natural vanity of raising a family, the means +that a rich man has to accumulate, the natural chance of wealth +accumulating by marriages, and many other circumstances, operate in +favour of all those rich men, who are freed from risk, and +independent of industry. In some cases, extravagance +dissipates wealth, but the laws favour accumulation of landed +property, and counteract extravagance; the advantages are in favour +of all the wealthy in general, and the consequence is, that from +the first origin of any particular order of things, till some +convulsion takes place, the division of property becomes more and +more unequal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Far from counteracting this by the laws of the land, in all +those</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{100} Amongst the Romans, in early times, +property in land was by law to be equally divided; but that absurd +law was never strictly attended to, and when the country became +wealthy was totally set aside.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #125]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>countries, the governments of which took +strength during this feudal system, there are regulations leading +greatly to accelerate the progress. The law of primogeniture +has this effect; and the law of entails, both immoral and impolitic +in its operation, has a still greater tendency.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +These laws only extend to agricultural property; but commerce, +which at first tends to disseminate wealth, in the end, has the +same effect of accumulating it in private hands.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Industry, art, and intelligence, are, in the early ages, the spring +of commerce; but, as machinery and capital become necessary, a set +of persons rise up who engross all the great profits, and amass +immense fortunes. {101}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consequence of great fortunes, and the unequal division of +property, are, that the lower ranks, though expensively maintained, +become degraded, disorderly, and uncomfortable, while the middling +classes disappear by degrees. Discontent pervades the great +mass of the people, and the supporters of the government, though +powerful, are too few in number, and too inefficient in character +to preserve it from ruin.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The proprietors of land or money should never be so far raised +above the ordinary class of the people as to be totally ignorant of +their manner of feeling and existing, or to lose sight of the +connection between industry and prosperity; for, whenever they do, +the industrious are oppressed, and wealth vanishes. +{102}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It requires not much knowledge, and little love of justice, to see +that there must be gradations in society, which, instead of +diminishing, increase the general happiness of mankind; but when +we</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{101} Invention has nearly the same +effect in commerce that the introduction of gunpowder and artillery +have on the art of war. Wealth is rendered more necessary to +carry them on. Every new improvement that is made, in either +the personal strength and energy of man becomes of less +importance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{102} Some of the greatest proprietors in +this kingdom, much to their honour, are the most exemplary men in +it, with respect to their conduct to their tenantry; but though the +instances are honourable and splendid, they are not general; nor is +it in the nature of things that they can be general. In +France, matters were in general different; and the inattention of +the nobility to their duty was one cause of the revolution; they +had forgot, that, if they neglected or oppressed the industrious, +they must ruin themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #126]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>find that the chance of being born half +an hour sooner or later makes one man the proprietor of 50,000 +acres and another little better than a beggar; when we consider +that, by means of industry, he never may be able to purchase a +garden to grow cabbages for his family, it loosens our attachment +to the order of things we see before us, it hurts our ideas of +moral equity. A man of reflection wishes the evil to be +silently counteracted, and if he is violent, and has any +disposition to try a change, it furnishes him with arguments and +abettors.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the Romans (with whose history we are tolerably well +acquainted) {103} grew rich, the division of property became very +unequal, and the attachment of the people for their government +declined, the middle classes lost their importance, and the lower +orders of free citizens became a mere rabble. When Rome was +poor, the people did not cry for bread, but when the brick +buildings were turned into marble palaces, when a lamprey was sold +for fifty-six pounds, {104} the people became a degraded populace, +not much better, or less disorderly than the Lazzeroni of +Naples. A donation of corn was a bribe to a Roman citizen; +{105} though there is not, perhaps, an order of peasantry in the +most remote corner of Europe, who would consider such a donation in +ordinary times as an object either worthy of clamour or deserving +of thanks. {106}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Romans, at the time when Cincinatus held the plough, and the +conquerors of nations roasted their own turnips, would have thought +themselves degraded by eating bread obtained by such means; but it +was different with the Romans after they had conquered the +world.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a more recent example, we may trace a similar effect, arising +from a cause not very different.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{103} We know better about the laws and +manners of the Romans 2000 years ago, in the time of the first +Punic War, than about those of England, in the time of Henry the +Fourth. They had fixed laws, their state was young, and the +division of property tolerably equal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{104} See Arbuthnot on Coins.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{105} Do not the soup-shops of late +invention, and certainly well intended, bear some resemblance to +these days of Roman wretchedness and magnificence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{106} It is to be observed, these +donations were not on account of scarcity, but to save the people +from the trouble of working to earn the corn; they were become idle +in body and degraded in mind.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #127]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The unequal division of property in France was one of the chief +causes of the revolution; the intention of which was, to overturn +the then existing order of things. The ignorance of the great +proprietors concerning of their true interests, and the smallness +of their numbers, disabled them from protecting themselves. +The middle orders were discontented, and wished for a change; and +the lower orders were so degraded, that, at the first signal, they +became as mutinous and as mean as the Plebians at Rome, in the days +of its splendor. {107}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That this was not alone owing to the unequal division of property +is certain, there were other causes, but that was a principal +one. As a proof that this was so in England, where property +is more equally divided than it was in France, the common people +are more attached to government, and of a different spirit, though +they are changing since the late great influx of wealth into this +country, and since difficulties which have accumulated on the heads +of the middle orders, while those who have large fortunes feel a +greater facility of augmenting them than at any former +period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In those parts of this country, where wealth has made the least +progress, the character of the people supports itself the best +amongst the lower classes; and the inverse progress of that +character, and of the acquisition of wealth, is sufficiently +striking to be noticed by one who is neither a very near, nor a +very nice observer.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Discontent and envy rise arise from comparison; and, where they +become prevalent, society can never stand long. They are +enemies to fair industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever may have been the delusive theories into which +ill-intentioned, designing, and subtile men have sometimes deluded +the great mass of the people, they have never been successful, +except when they could fight under the appearance of justice, and +thereby create discontent. The unequal division of property +has frequently served them in this case.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{107} The Parisian populace were the +instruments in the hand of those who destroyed the former +government, as the regular army is in the hands of him who has +erected that which now exists.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #128]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[possible omissis - page 128 ends as +above, page 129 starts as next follows...]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>while it increased the ignorance, and +diminished the number of the enemies they had to +encounter.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As this evil has arisen to a greater height in countries which have +had less wealth in the aggregate than England, it is not the most +dangerous thing we have to encounter; but, as the tendency to it +increases very rapidly of late years, we must, by no means, +overlook it. A future Chapter will be dedicated to the +purpose of inquiring how this may be counteracted in some cases, in +others modified and disguised, so as to prevent, in some degree, +the evil effects that naturally arise from it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the ways in which property accumulates, in particular hands, +the most dangerous is landed property; not only on account of +entails, and the law of primogeniture, (which attach to land +alone,) but because it is the property the most easily retained, +the least liable to be alienated, and the only one that augments in +value in a state that is growing rich.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +An estate in land augments in value, without augmenting in extent, +when a country becomes richer. A fortune, lent at interest, +diminishes, as the value of money sinks. A fortune engaged in +trade is liable to risks, and requires industry to preserve it: but +industry, it has been observed, never is to be found for any great +length of time in any single line of men; consequently, there are +few great monied men, except such as have acquired their own +fortunes, and those can never be very numerous nor +overgrown.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Besides our having facts to furnish proofs that there are no very +great fortunes, except landed fortunes; it can scarcely have +escaped the notice of any one, that no other gives such umbrage, or +shews the inferiority men =sic= who have none so much. +{108}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That there is a perpetual tendency to the accumulation of property, +in the hands of individuals, is certain; for, amongst the +nations</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{108} If a man has wealth, in any other +form, it is only known by the expenditure he makes, and it is +quickly diminished by mismanagement; but the great landed estate, +which is seldom well attended to, is mismanaged to the public +detriment without ruin to the proprietor.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #129]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of Europe, those who are the most +ancient, exhibit the most striking contrasts of poverty and +riches.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Nations obtaining wealth by commerce are less liable to this danger +than any others; at least we are led to believe so, from the +present situation of things: we are, perhaps, however, not +altogether right in the conclusion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In France there were, and in Germany, Russia, and Poland, there are +some immense fortunes, though general wealth is not nearly equal to +that of England: so much for a comparison between nations of the +present day. Again, it is certain, there were some fortunes +in England, in the times of the Plantagenets and Tudors, much +greater than any of the present times. {109} England was not +then near so wealthy as it is now, and had very little commerce: it +would then appear, that whether we compare England with what it was +before it became a wealthy and commercial nation, or with other +nations, at the present time, which are not wealthy, commerce and +riches appear to have operated in dividing riches, and making that +division more equal, rather than in rendering their accumulation +great in particular hands, and their distribution +unequal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before we are too positive about the cause, though we admit this +effect, let us inquire whether there are not some other +circumstances that are peculiar to the present situation of +England, that may, if not wholly, at least in part, account for +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The form of government in England is different from that of any of +those countries. It is also different in its nature, though +not in its form, from what it was under the Plantagenets and +Tudors. Court favour cannot enrich a family in this country, +and the operation of the law is tolerably equal. As neither +protection, nor rank, in this country, raise a man above the rest +of society, so the richest subject is obliged to obtain, by his +expenditure, that consideration which he would ob-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{109} Two centuries ago, land was sold +for twelve years purchase, and the rents are five times as great as +they were then; 10,000 L. employed in buying land then would now +produce 5000 L. a year. Had the same money been lent, at +interest, it would but produce 500 L. The land, too, would +sell for 140,000 L. The monied capital would remain what it +was.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #130]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>tain by other means, under another form +of government, {110} and he is as much compelled to pay his debts +as any other man.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not, however, the great wealth of one individual, or even of +a few individuals, that is an object of consideration. It +will be found that the great number of persons, who live upon +revenues, sufficiently abundant to exempt them from care and +attention, and to enable them to injure the manners of the people, +(being above the necessity of economy, feeling none of its wants, +and contributing nothing by their own exertion to its wealth or +strength,) is a very great evil, and one that tends constantly to +increase.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But if this progress goes on, while a nation is acquiring wealth, +how much faster does it not proceed when it approaches towards its +decline? It is, then, indeed, that the extremes of poverty +and riches are to be seen in the most striking degree.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The higher classes can never be made to contribute their share +towards the prosperity of a state; where there are no middling +classes to connect the higher and lower orders, and to protect the +lower orders from the power of the higher, a state must gradually +decline.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is in the middling classes that the freedom, the intelligence, +and the industry of a country reside. The higher class may be +very intelligent, but can never be very numerous; and being above +the feeling of want, except in a few instances, (where nature has +endowed the wealthy with innate good qualities,) there is nothing +to be expected or obtained of them, {111} towards the general +good.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the working and laborious classes, again, little is to be +expected. They fill the part assigned to them when they +perform their duty to themselves and families; and they have +neither leisure, nor other means of contributing to general +prosperity as public men;</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{110} In France, the richest subject +under the crown was a prince of the blood, &c.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{111} In this case, the English form of +government is good, because, it not only hinders any man from +forgetting that he is a man, but whenever there is any ambition, no +one in this country can rise above the necessity of acting with, +and feeling for, their inferiors, of whom they sometimes have to +ask favours, which they never do under a pure monarchy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #131]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>they, indeed, pay more than their share +of taxes in almost every country; {112} but they cannot directly, +even by election, participate in the government of the +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If any number of persons engross the whole of the lands of a +nation, then the labourers that live on those lands must be in a +degraded situation; they then become less sound and less important +members of the state than they would otherwise be.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Necessity does not act with that favourable impulse on people, +where property is very unequally divided, that it does where the +gradation from the state of poverty to that of riches is more +regular.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the action of the body is brought on by the effect produced on +the mind; and as there is no hope of obtaining wealth where it +appears very unequally divided, so also there is no exertion where +there is no hope. {113}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where there is no regular gradation of rank and division of +property, emulation, which is the spur to action, when absolute +necessity ceases to operate, is entirely destroyed; thus the lower +classes become degraded and discouraged, as is universally found to +be the case in nations that have passed their meridian; the +contrary being as regularly and constantly the case with rising +nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Besides the degradation and listlessness occasioned in the lower +ranks, by an unequal distribution of property, the most agreeable, +and the strongest bond of society is thereby broken. The bond +that</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{112} This is less the case in England +than in any other country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{113} It is strange how possibility, +which is the mother of hope, acts upon, and controuls, the +passions. Envy is generally directed to those who are but a +little raised above us. They are reckoned to be madmen who envy +kings, or fall in love with princesses, and, in fact, they are +such, unless when they belong to the same rank +themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Love, for example, which is not a voluntary passion, or under the +controul of reason, ought, according to the chances of things, +sometimes to make a sensible and wise man become enamoured of a +princess, but that never happens. It would appear, that, in +order to become the object of desire, there must be a hope founded +on a reasonable expectation of obtaining the object. This can +be but very small in the lower classes, when they look at the +overgrown rich, and have no intermediate rank to envy or +emulate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #132]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>consists, in the attachment of the +inferior classes, to those immediately above them. Where the +distance is great, there is but little connection, and that +connection is merely founded upon conveniency, not on a similarity +of feeling, or an occasional interchange of good actions, or mutual +services. By this means, the whole society becomes, as it +were, disjointed, and if the chain is not entirely broken, it has +at least lost that strength and pliability that is necessary, +either for the raising a nation to greatness, or supporting it +after it has risen to a superior degree of rank or +power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst the causes of the decline of wealthy nations, this then is +one. The great lose sight of the origin of their wealth, and +cease to consider, that all wealth originates in labour, and that, +therefore, the industrious and productive classes are the sinews of +riches and power. The French nation, to which we have had +occasion to allude already, was in this situation before the +revolution. Rome was so likewise before its fall. We +are not, however, to expect to find this as a principal cause in +the fall of all nations; many of them fell from exterior and not +interior causes. Venice, Genoa, and all the places that +flourished in the middle ages, fell from other causes. +Whatever their internal energy might have been, their fate could +not have been altered, nor their fall prevented. The case is +different with nations of which the extent is sufficiently great to +protect them against the attacks of their enemies; and where the +local situation is such as to secure them from a change taking +place in the channels of commerce, a cause of decline which is not +to be resisted by any power inherent in a nation itself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In Spain and Portugal the internal causes are the preponderating +ones, and, in some measure, though not altogether so, in +Holland. If England should ever fall, internal causes must +have a great share in the catastrophe. In this inquiry, then, +we must consider the interior state of the country as of great +importance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When property is very unequally divided, the monied capital of a +nation, upon the employment of which, next to its industry, its +wealth, or revenue, depend, begins to be applied less +advantageously. A preference is given to employments, by +which money is got with most ease and [end of page #133] certainty, +though in less quantity. A preference also is given to lines +of business that are reckoned the most noble and +independent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manufacturers aspire to become merchants, and merchants to become +mere lenders of money, or agents. The detail is done by +brokers, by men who take the trouble, and understand the nature of +the particular branches they undertake, but who furnish no +capital.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch were the greatest example of this. Independent of those +great political events, which have, as it were, completed the ruin +of their country, they had long ceased to give that great +encouragement to manufactures, which had, at first, raised them to +wealth and power in so surprising a manner. They had, in the +latter times, become agents for others, rather than merchants on +their own account; so that the capital, which, at one time, brought +in, probably, twenty or twenty-five per cent. annually, and which +had, even at a late period, produced ten or fifteen, was employed +in a way that scarcely produced three.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If it were possible to employ large capitals with as much +advantage, and to make them set in motion and maintain as much +industry as small ones are made to do, there would scarcely be any +limit to the accumulation of money in a country; but a vast variety +of causes operate on preventing this.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever, therefore, tends to accumulate the capital of a nation in +a few hands (thereby depriving the many) not only increases luxury, +and corrupts manners and morals, but diminishes the activity of the +capital and the industry of the country. {114}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all the great places that are now in a state of decay, we find +families living on the interest of money, that formerly were +engaged in manufactures or commerce. Antwerp, Genoa, and +Venice, were full</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{114} It is a strange fact, that when +this country was not nearly so far advanced as it is now, almost +all the merchants traded on their own capitals; they purchased +goods, paid for them, sold them, and waited for the returns; but +now it is quite different. They purchase on credit, and draw +bills on those to whom they sell, and are continually obliged to +obtain discounts; or, in other words, to borrow money, till the +regular time of payment comes round; they may, therefore, be said +to be trading with the capital of money-lenders, who afford them +discount.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #134]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of such, but those persons would not have +ventured a single shilling in a new enterprise. The +connection between industry and revenue was lost in their +ideas. They knew nothing of it, and the remnants of the +industrious, who still cultivated the ancient modes of procuring +wealth, were considered as an inferior class of persons, depending +upon less certain means of existence, and generally greatly +straitened for capital, which, as soon as they possessed in +sufficient quantity, enabled them to follow the same example, and +to retire to the less affluent, but more esteemed and idle practice +of living upon interest. </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In countries where there are nobility, the capital of the +commercial world is constantly going to them, either by marriage of +daughters, or by the other means, which rich people take to become +noble. Even where there are no nobility, the class of +citizens living without any immediate connection with trade +consider themselves as forming the highest order of society, and +they become the envy of the others. There appears to be no +means of preventing capital, when unequally divided, from being +invested in the least profitable way that produces revenue. +When more equally divided, it is employed in the way that produces +the greatest possible income, by setting to work and maintaining +the greatest possible quantity of labour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If there is not sufficient means of employing capital within a +nation or country that has a very unequal division of wealth, there +are plenty of opportunities furnished by poorer nations. +Accordingly, every one of the nations, states, or towns, that has +ever been wealthy, has furnished those who wanted it with capital, +at a low interest. Amsterdam has lent great sums to England, +to Russia, and France. The French owed a very large sum to +Genoa at the beginning of the revolution. Antwerp, Cologne, +and every one of the ancient, rich, and decayed towns had vested +money in the hands of foreign nations, or lent to German princes, +or to the great proprietors of land, on the security of their +estates. The American funds found purchasers amongst the +wealthy all over Europe, when they could not find any in their own +states; and, it is probable, that the far greater portion of their +debt is at this time in the hands of foreigners.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus it is that wealthy nations let the means by which the wealth +[end of page #135] was acquired go out of their hands; each +individual in a new state, or in an old, follows his own interest +and disposition in the disposal of his property. In the new +state, the individual interest and that of the country are +generally the same; in the old one, they are in opposition to each +other, and that opposition is greatly increased by the unequal +division of property. The middling class of proprietors never +seek the most profitable employment for their money; the very +wealthy are always inclined to seek for good security and certain +payment, without any consideration of the interest of their +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To counteract the tendency of property to accumulate, without +infringing on the rights of individuals, will be found +desirable. In the Fourth Book =sic - there is none=, a mode +of doing this shall be attentively taken into +consideration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #136]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Interior Causes of Decline, +which arise from the Produce of the Soil becoming unequal to the +Sustenance of a luxurious People.-- Of Monopoly.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IT has already been mentioned, and we have seen, in the case of +Rome and Italy, that the country which was sufficient to maintain a +certain population, when the manners of the people were simple, +becomes incapable of doing so, when wealth has introduced +luxury.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The case of the Romans, though the most clearly ascertained of any, +and the circumstances the best known, is only in part applicable to +an inquiry into the effects of luxury at the present day. The +nature of luxury, the nature of the wants of man, and the diffusion +of that luxury, its distribution amongst the different classes, are +so unlike to what they were, that the comparison scarcely holds in +any single instance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A most enormous increase of population (a forced population as it +were) in a small country, together with large tracts of land +converted from agriculture to the purposes of pleasure were the +principal causes why Italy, in latter times, was incapable of +supplying itself with corn. Wherever wealth comes in more +easily and in abundance, by other means than by agriculture, that +is to a certain degree neglected. To cultivate ceases to be +an object where it is more easy to purchase. This certainly +is, at all times, and in all places, one of the consequences of an +influx of wealth, from wheresoever it comes, or by whatever means +it is acquired; though, in Italy, it was felt more than perhaps in +any other part of the world. The manner in which wealth comes +into a nation has a great effect on the consumption of produce, +owing to the description of persons into whose hands it first +comes. In Rome, the wealth came into the hands of the +great. The slaves and servants, though more numerous, were, +perhaps, fed in the same manner with the slaves in earlier periods, +though probably not with so much economy. In a manufacturing +country, [end of page #137] the greatest part of the wealth comes +first into the hands of the labouring people, who then live better +and consume more of the produce of the earth; not by eating a +greater quantity, but by eating of a different quality.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every manufacturing or commercial country, wealth displays +itself in general opulence amongst the lower orders, and the means +of supplying that greater consumption is the same as it was in +Rome. The money that arrives from other countries enables the +community to purchase from other countries the deficiency of +provisions, and prevents the evil effects from being felt at the +moment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When, in course of time, there comes to be a difficulty of +obtaining the supply, from the want of produce in the country +itself, then the decline begins; and as no wealth, arising either +from conquest, colonies, or commerce, bears any great proportion to +the daily food of a people, its effect is soon felt in a very +ruinous and terrible manner.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +England is the greatest country for extensive commerce that ever +existed, yet the amount of the whole of its foreign trade would not +do much more than furnish the people with bread, and certainly not +with all the simple necessaries of life. If, therefore, a +country, such as this is, were unable to furnish itself with the +necessaries of life, the whole balance of trade, now in its favour, +would not be sufficient to supply any considerable +deficiency.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The desire of eating animal food, in place of vegetables, is very +general and, amongst a people living by manufactures, will always +be indulged. If the country was fully peopled, before +animal food was so much used; that is, if the population was as +great as the vegetable produce of the country was able to supply; +as the same quantity of ground cannot feed the same number of +people with animal food, there will be a necessity of importing the +deficiency.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The change that this produces, when once it begins to operate, is a +most powerful and effectual cause of decline; and, without the +intervention of conquest, or any violent revolution, would of +itself be sufficient to impoverish, in the first instance, and, in +the second, to depopulate a country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We find every country that was once wealthy, but that has fallen +[end of page #138] into decline, is thinly peopled; and if it were +not for the want of information, from which the cause may be +traced, a deficiency of food might most probably be found to be one +of the most efficient.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Flanders, which is one of the most fertile countries in Europe, and +has experienced a partial decline, is probably not near so fully +peopled as it once was. Its present population would not +support those armies, or give it that rank amongst nations which it +at one time maintained. It is true there have been +persecutions and emigrations, which must have reduced the +population of the country for a time, but not to an extent that +would account for such a diminution in its numbers, as there is +reason to think has taken place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Ghent, a town of an amazing size, could, at one time, send out +fifty thousand fighting men. It certainly could not now (that +is to say, at the time the French subdued the country) have +furnished one-fourth part of the number. Ghent is not the +only town in this situation, the others have all fallen off in the +same manner. When manufactures declined, the people did not go to +live in the country, for that also is thinly inhabited, the +richness of the soil being taken into consideration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The peasants of that country lived much better than their French +neighbours; they apparently brought up their children with more +ease, and fed them more fully; but the country was not so populous, +in proportion to its fertility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In southern climates, where the heat of the sun is great, and +vegetation difficult, unless the crop is of a nature to protect the +ground from its effects, natural grass is never luxuriant; and the +cattle are neither so large nor so fat as in more northerly +latitudes. Corn, on the other hand, which rises to a +sufficient height, before the hot season, to protect the ground +from the rays of the sun, is a more profitable crop; and, indeed, +the only one that could (potatoes excepted) support a great +population.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In such countries, scarcely any degree of general affluence would +enable the labouring classes to eat animal food. No degree of +wealth, that can well be supposed, would enable the inhabitants of +the southern parts of France, or of Spain, to live on butcher-meat, +which, [end of page #139] if it became to be in general demand, +would be dearer than poultry, or even than game. The absolute +necessity of living on vegetables, or rather the absolute +impossibility of contracting a habit of living on animal food, +must, then, in those countries, counteract the taste, and prevent +depopulation being produced by that cause.-- But it is very +different with more northerly countries, where it is almost a +matter of indifference, in point of expense, to an individual who +enjoys any degree of affluence, whether he lives on vegetable or +animal food, and where he gives a decided preference to the former. +{115}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is probable that nature (so admirable in adapting the manners of +the inhabitants to the nature of the country) has made heavy animal +food less congenial to the taste of southern nations than to those +of the north. There is, indeed, reason to believe it is so, +but, whether it is or not, as natural philosophy is not here the +study, but political economy, the fact is, that if southern nations +had the same propensity, it would be impossible to indulge it to an +equal extent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As wealth and power are intimately connected with population, and +depend in a great measure upon it, wherever they are the cause of +introducing a taste that will, in the end, depopulate a country, +they must, in so far, undermine their own support, and bring on +decay. This is a case that applies to all northern nations, +and particularly to Britain; in order, therefore, to treat the +subject at full length, it will be better to enter into the minute +examination when we come to apply the case directly to this +country, and seek for a remedy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{115} The proportion between the prices +of bread and butcher meat will help to a conclusion on this +subject. The warmer and dryer the climate, the cheaper bread +is in proportion. At Paris, which is a dry, but not a very +warm climate, the proportion, in ordinary times, was as four to +one. A loaf of bread of four pounds, and a pound of meat, were +supposed to be nearly the same price, but the meat was generally +the higher of the two. In England, the proportion (before the +late revolution in prices) was about two to one, and, in Ireland, +where the soil and climate are more moist, and better for cattle, +flesh meat was still cheaper, in proportion. The poverty of +the people, indeed, prevented them from living on animal food, but +buttermilk, (an animal production) and potatoes, a cheaper +vegetable, are their chief sustenance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #140]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though this cause of depopulation, arising from wealth, increasing +the consumption of food, is peculiar to northern nations, yet there +are others that have a similar effect, that fall more heavily on +the inhabitants of the south.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Rest from labour is, in warm climates, a great propensity, and +easily indulged. In no northern nation could there be found +so idle a set of beings as the Lazzeroni of Naples. If the +nations of the north have a desire to indulge themselves in +consuming more, those of the south have a propensity to be idle, +and produce less, the effect of which is in nearly the same; for, +whether they produce any thing or not, they must consume +something. The same listlessness and desire of rest, that +produces idleness and beggary amongst the poor, makes the rich +inclined to have a great retinue of servants, and, as those +servants are idly inclined, they serve for low wages, on condition +of having but light work to perform. Thus it is that the +fertility of the soil, and the other natural advantages are +destroyed by the disposition of the inhabitants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It does not appear, however, that this disposition was indulged or +encouraged to any hurtful extent, until wealth had vitiated the +original manners of the inhabitants. The Egyptians, Greeks, +and Romans, all of them performed works requiring great +exertion. They encouraged industry and arts, and became +great, wealthy, and populous; but, when once they fell to decline, +the same fate attended the descendants of them all. +{116}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the countries that were once great, and have fallen to +decay, Italy has retained its population the best; but, for this, +there is an evident cause to be found in the natural fertility of +the country, and the resource still drawn from foreigners, who have +never ceased to visit that once famous seat of arts and military +glory.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The number of horses and of domestic animals maintained by +the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{116} After the Augustan age, the +populace of Rome seem to have degenerated with great rapidity, as +the donations of corn clearly prove. Had the tributary +countries not furnished the means of providing food, the Goths +would have been saved the trouble of sacking the city, as the +people must have perished for want.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #141]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>fruits of the earth, but producing +nothing, as they increase, in every country where wealth prevails, +may be considered as a cause of depopulation, confined to no part +of the world. Thus we find either the same cause acting +throughout, or different causes producing the same effect in +different countries; thereby reducing them all much more nearly to +an equality than we could at first imagine.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been observed, that when wealth comes to the working orders, +and makes them indulge in animal food, it produces a greater +effect, with respect to the consumption of produce, than if the +same wealth came into the hands of the rich; this is, however, in +some degree, compensated by their not keeping pleasure horses, the +greatest of all consumers of the produce of the earth. One +horse will consume as much as a family of four persons living on +corn, and the ordinary vegetables used in England; and as much as +two families, living as they do in Ireland or Scotland, on +oat-meal, milk, and potatoes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As we find depopulation one of the effects that is universally +occasioned by decline, it must originate in some cause equally +general, and that cause must be one attending the state of wealth +and greatness, for it does not appear to be a necessary effect of +decline. We can very easily conceive a people, degraded and +numerous, reduced to live poorly, as they do in Naples, Cairo, and +some other particular spots: but taking the whole of those +countries together, we find evident marks of a falling off in +population; and we find it not progressive, but of long +standing. Those countries seem to have found a new maximum of +population, far inferior to the former standard, immediately after +they ceased to be wealthy and flourishing.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps it was from this cause that the idea of sumptuary laws +originated; for though, in some cases, the pride of being +distinguished might occasion the sovereign to enact, or the higher +orders of society to solicit them, yet they were always considered +as tending to prevent ruinous extravagance. When states +become very wealthy, they may consider such regulations as +ridiculous, and perhaps they may neither be necessary nor +effectual; yet, nevertheless, there must be some cause for the +general opinion of their utility. Though it is not the +fashion of the present times to hold an opinion as good be- [end of +page #142] cause it is general, and its prevalence in ignorant +times is considered as a mark of its being erroneous; yet, +observation and common sense have never been wanting at any period, +and it is from those sources that such maxims and opinions +arise. Any man who had travelled, first through Italy and +Spain, and then through England and America, would be very likely +to invent sumptuary laws, if he had never heard of such a +thing before. In the application of sumptuary laws, as a +device, for preventing decline, the traveller might, perhaps, be +very whimsical; sometimes forbidding what would never be attempted; +but there would be nothing at all ridiculous in his general +intention. {117}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It will certainly be found that, in all the causes of the decay of +nations, the increase of consumption, and decrease of production, +takes the greatest variety of forms, and disguises itself the most; +it is, therefore, one that is much to be guarded against, +particularly as its effects seem to be difficult to +remedy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the manner in which a country acquires riches has a considerable +influence on the habits of the people, a country acquiring riches +by conquest, or colonies, must naturally expend it in splendour and +magnificence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Merchants are less splendid than conquerors and planters. +Their ostentation is of a different sort; and, as the fortunes made +in that way are rather more equally divided, they cannot launch out +quite so far. Besides, merchants are seldom entirely +independent of credit and industry; at least, when acquiring their +fortunes they were not so; and, therefore, whether the necessity +continues or not, the habit, once contracted, is never quite +effaced.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manufacturers, again, are still less splendid than merchants. +With them, the gifts of fortune are more equally divided than with +either of the other three, and they seldom arrive at more than an +ordinary degree of affluence; which affords the means of gratifying +personal wants, of living with hospitality, ease, and +comfort.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{117} If, for example, it were a law at +Manchester or Birmingham, that no man should keep above fifty +servants in livery, or burn more than three-dozen wax-lights at a +time, it would be like mockery, and would be perfectly useless; at +Rome it would be very useful.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #143]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest part of manufacturing wealth, and that, indeed, is +divided with a pretty equal hand, is that which goes to the working +people, who spend nearly the whole on personal +enjoyment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The quantity of food that an individual may consume is nearly +limited by nature; but the extent of ground on which that food +grows depends chiefly on the quality. Thus, for example, it +will require nearly ten times the number of acres to maintain one +hundred people, who live on animal food, that =sic= it would +require to supply the same persons living on vegetables; and, as +wealth increases, animal food always obtains the preference. +This is evident, from so many proofs, that it scarcely needs +illustration. In London, which is the most wealthy part of +England, there is more animal food consumed than in any other part, +in proportion to the numbers; and, in the country there is always +less than in the towns. In the country, and in the towns of +England, there is more than in any proportional part of Scotland, +or in France, or, indeed, any part of Europe. Expensive as +animal food is here, still it bears less proportion to the wages of +labour, or the general wealth, than in any other country. In +every country, as riches have increased, the consumption of the +produce of the earth has augmented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch seem to have been well aware of the danger of wealth +making the people consume too much. A man in moderate +circumstances loses his credit there, who roasts his meat instead +of boiling it. It is reckoned wastefulness, and, as such, is +the occasion of confidence being withdrawn from him: it has nearly +as bad an effect on a man's credit, as if he were seen coming from +a gaming-house.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It will, perhaps, be said, that the parsimony of the Dutch is +ridiculous, but we ought not to attribute this merely to parsimony, +but to a feeling similar to what we have very properly in England +when we see bread wasted. It arises from a feeling of the +general want, not of the particular loss, which is totally a +different thing. If a man give away imprudently, that loss is +to himself, not to the community. As there cannot be givers +without receivers it is a change of hands, but there ends the +matter. A habit of wasting is another [end of page #144] +thing, it is a general loss, and, therefore, hurts the community at +large as well as the individual.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When this augmented consumption takes place, to any great extent, +it is the infallible cause of depopulation. How nearly +depopulation and decline are connected with each other is very +easily and well understood; indeed, it is impossible not to see +their intimate connection. {118}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While the exports of a country amount to a great sum, a few +millions can be spared for the importation of provisions, without +any great difficulty; but the evil may increase imperceptibly, till +it becomes impossible to remedy it. The distress that must be +occasioned, in such a case, is beyond the power of calculation; for +though, in times of plenty, animal food is preferred, whenever +there comes any thing like want, that can only be supplied by corn, +and there is no wealth sufficient, in any country, to procure that +for a number of years, to any great extent. {119}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is calculated, by the author of the notes on Dr. Smith's Inquiry +into the Wealth of Nations, that, if the supply of corn were to +fall short, one-fourth part, in England, for a number of years +running, there would be no means of finding either corn to buy, +ships to transport it, or money to pay for it, without totally +deranging the commerce of the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every country there are a number of persons who can afford +to</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{118} Till within these twelve or +fourteen years, England always was able to export some grain; but +now the demand for importation is great and regular. It has +had a vast influence on the balance of trade, which, though it has +been great some years, has not, upon the whole, been equal to what +it was previous to the American war, when the whole amount of +foreign commerce was not one-half of what it has been for these +last ten years.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{119} If it could be done, it would bring +on poverty; but, as the excess of crops over the consumption is +not, in any nation, equal to one-tenth of its whole revenue; and, +as the expense of eatables amount to nearly one-half, the wealth of +a nation would soon be destroyed, if it were possible to produce +from other nations a supply. The calculation would be nearly +as under for England, putting the population at nine +millions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In ordinary times, nine millions of people living on bread, +potatoes, &c. would require about four millions of acres; but +nine millions, living on animal food, will require thirty-six +millions of acres.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #145]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>live in a more expensive way than the +rest; perhaps, this may be reckoned at one-fourth, but, in +countries that are poor, even that fourth cannot afford to eat +animal food. If, however, a country becomes sufficiently rich +for one-sixth to live chiefly on animal food, and the other +five-sixths to live one day in the week on that food, the effect +will be as if one-third lived on it constantly, which would require +two-thirds more territory than when the whole lived on +bread.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those who think that such matters find their own level, and +regulate themselves, may be right in the long run, for so they +indeed do. But how? When poverty and want came, no +doubt the consumption of flesh-meat would be diminished; when the +country had no means of supplying itself as it did when it was +rich, famine would play its part in becoming one of the regulators; +but, before this regulation could be effected, the evil we wish to +prevent would have taken place. The country would be +depopulated and ruined. We must, therefore, in trying to +avert the decline of a nation, not set any thing down for the +counteracting and adjusting power, which is known sometimes to +interfere so very advantageously in the affairs of men. +Though it is true that it does interfere, it is in all cases of +this sort too late, it is an effect of the cause which we wish to +avoid; we can only look to it here for stopping the career in +process of time, but, never for preventing it. We know that +the extravagance of an individual impairs his fortune, and, that +the diminution of means will, at length, counteract the +extravagance; but, then it will do so when it is too late, and +after he is ruined. Wastefulness may be stopped, but it +cannot possibly stop itself, as the diminution of means is the +cause of the extravagance ceasing, and itself is an effect of the +prior existence of the extravagance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Regarding men merely then as producing and consuming, (the +proportion between which regulates the wealth of a nation,) we find +that, in their own persons, there is a rooted tendency to bring on +the decline. But we shall farther find that not only do +people in wealthy and luxurious nations produce less and consume +more than in nations less advanced, but they increase the number of +unproductive labourers, all of whom consume without +producing. They also main- [end of page #146] tain animals +who consume, but do nothing towards production. {120} No +country, in which the people live much upon animal food, can be +well peopled. Two hundred persons to a square mile of country +is nearly the highest population of any nation in Europe, that is, +as near as may be, three acres and a quarter to each person; but, +on an average, even in France, there are more than four acres to +each.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Supposing that one-half of the land is cultivated, then that gives +about two acres to each person.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Supposing, again, that one-third of this is consumed by horses or +other animals who labour; or, supposing that they do not serve for +the food of man, then there will be nearly about one acre and a +quarter for the maintenance of each person.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It will, however, only require half an acre to one person, if they +all lived on field vegetables; {121} and, if they all lived on +fresh meat, it would require four acres; the natural conclusion is, +that one-fourth live on animal food, and the other three-fourths on +vegetables, or what is the same thing, that the proportions of the +two sorts of food are as one to three.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +According to the proportion of the prices in France, of four to +one, it would certainly cost double the price to live on animal +food that =sic= it does on vegetables; that is to say, if the only +vegetable was bread, supposing which is the case, that one pound of +meat supplies the place of two pounds of bread, as it certainly +does. In England, where beef is only twice the price of +bread, {122} it is almost a matter of indifference as to price, +whether a working man lives on vegetables or animal food. To +the taste and the stomach, however, it is no matter of +indifference, the animal food, therefore, is preferred; but if it +were a matter of some importance, in point of economy, that would +not prevent the people of a country, flourishing by manufactures, +from</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{120} One good horse well kept, whether +for pleasure or labour (it has already been said) will consume +nearly as much as a moderate family.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{121} Vegetables raised in the +kitchen-garden would go vastly further, but this is a rough +average, the subject neither admitting of, nor requiring accurate +investigation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{122} That is about the usual proportion, +though about a year ago it was four times as much in +France.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #147]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>eating it, and thereby at length sinking +to a lower degree of population than a poor country living on +vegetable food.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all nations getting wealthy this is a consideration, but most so +when the wealth is acquired by manufactures, when the lower and +numerous class have an opportunity of gratifying themselves by +indulging in the species of food which they find the most +agreeable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This, like the other changes of manners, of which it is only a +part, is a natural consequence of a propensity inherent in human +nature; it cannot, therefore, be prevented or done away, though it +may, to a certain degree, be counteracted. The manner of +counteracting it not being a general manner, but depending on +circumstances, shall be treated of when investigating the +increasing danger, arising from this cause, in the English +nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It remains at present for us to examine another evil attendant on +the inadequacy of the soil to supply the consumption of a +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One of the most alarming circumstances attendant on this situation +of things is, that provisions become an object of monopoly, and the +most dangerous and destructive of all objects. The law has +interfered in regulating the interest of money, but not in the rent +of houses or of other use of property. Circumstances may +occur, in which the necessity of procuring a loan of money is so +great, as to induce the borrower to engage to pay an interest that +would be ruinous to himself, and that would grant the lender the +means of extortion, or of obtaining exorbitant profit. The +same interference would be just as reasonable, wherever the same +sort of necessity, by existing, puts one man in the power of +another. This is the case with every necessary article of +provision, which, indeed, may be considered as all one article, for +the price of one is connected with the prices of all the +others.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Provisions, indeed, are, in general, articles that cannot be +preserved for any very great length of time; but then, again, they +are articles of a nature that the consumers must have within a +limited time also, and for which they are inclined to give an +exorbitant price rather than not to have. The interference of +the law between a man and the use of his property, ought to be as +seldom as possible; but it has never been maintained as a general +principle, that it ought never to interfere. [end of page #148] If +it is at any time, or in any case, right to interfere legally, the +question of when it is to be done becomes merely one of expediency, +one of circumstance, but not one that admits of a general +decision.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A writer of great (and deservedly great) reputation has said so +much on this subject, and treated it in a way that both reason and +experience prove to be wrong, that it is become indispensably +necessary to argue the point. {123} Monopoly, regrating, and +forestalling, which two last are only particular modes of +monopolizing, have been considered as chimeras, as imaginary +practices that have never existed, and that cannot possibly +exist. They have been likewise assimilated to witchcraft, an +ideal belief, arising in the times of ignorance. It is now +become the creed of legislators and ministers, that trade should be +left to regulate itself, that monopoly cannot exist.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With all the respect justly due to the learned writer who advanced +so bold an opinion, it may be asked, since many instances occur, +both in sacred and profane history, in ancient times, and in our +own days, of provisions, on particular occasions, selling at one +hundred times their natural price, (and, every price above the +natural one, is called a monopoly price,) how can it be asserted +that they may not become an object of monopoly in a more general +way, though not at so exorbitant a price?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +How, it may be asked, can this thing, that has so often occurred in +an extreme degree, a thing that is allowed to be possible, be +compared with the miraculous effect of witchcraft, of the existence +of which there does not appear to be one authentic record? +The one, at all events, a natural, and the other, a supernatural +effect. How are those to be admitted in fair +comparison?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If we know that, at the siege of Mantua, the provisions rose to one +hundred times their usual price, we may believe the same thing +possible, at the siege of Jerusalem, two thousand years ago, and at +the siege of Leyden, or at that of Paris. If we know that a +guinea is given for a</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{123} Dr. Smith, in his Inquiry into the +Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The author of the +notes, and continuation, has, indeed, answered his arguments; but +that does not render it less necessary to do so here.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #149]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>bad dinner at an inn, which is not worth +a shilling, merely because some particular circumstance has drawn +more people together than can be provided for; and, because hunger +admits not patiently of delay, can we dispute the inclination to +extortion on the one hand, and the disposition to submit to it on +the other?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If that is admitted, the interference of the law is allowable on +the same principle on which it regulates the interest of money, +though not to the same extent; that is, it is allowable, in +particular instances, where the effects are similar, but not in all +instances, because, in all instances, they are not similar. +{124}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rate of provisions is then liable, on particular occasions, to +rise to a monopoly price, such as that of those rare productions of +nature, the quantity of which cannot be increased, whatever the +demand may be. {125} It follows, as an evident consequence, that +the price increases as the scarcity augments; but, if it only did +so, the evil would not be so great as it really is. In the +first place, the anxiety attendant on the risk of wanting so +necessary an article creates a greater competition amongst buyers +than the degree of scarcity would occasion in an article of less +necessity and importance. In a wealthy nation, the evil is +still farther increased, by two other causes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The high price which one part of the society is able to afford, and +the wealth of those who sell, enables them to keep back the +provisions from the market; the first cause operates in all +countries nearly alike, for, the anxiety to have food is nearly +equal all the world over. But the last two operate more or less, +according to the wealth of the buyers and of the sellers, as the +eagerness and ability of the former to purchase, and the interest +and ability of the latter to keep back from selling, are regulated +by the degree of wealth in a country. {126}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{124} The law concerning money is a +general law, because, at all times, there are some individuals in +want of it, and would be liable to grant exorbitant interest. +It is not so with provisions, for, it is only occasionally that +they cannot be had at reasonable prices.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{125} Dr. Smith divides produce into +three different sorts; the two first are such as can be only +produced in a certain quantity, whatever the demand may be; and +such as can be produced always in sufficient quantity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{126} This was proved by what happened in +Paris in 1789, and in England in 1790. The [end of page #150] +want in Paris was so real that there often was not, in that great +city, bread, and materials to make it, more than sufficient for +twenty-four hours: yet it never rose to above double the usual +price, or twopence English the pound, (that is, sixteen sols for +the four-pound loaf,) although the people were obliged to wait from +six in the morning till two or three in the afternoon, before they +could get a loaf a piece, and more they were not permitted to +purchase or carry away. In London, where bread could always +be had in plenty, for money, it rose to more than three times the +usual price, (one and tenpence the quartern loaf,) yet bread is a +much more necessary article to the poor in Paris than in +London. But the case was, in London, the people are richer, +and, in each place, it rose as high as the people were found able +to pay.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the necessaries of life become dear, and arrive at a +monopoly-price, then all taxes and other burthens laid on the +people become a matter comparatively of little importance. In +England, where the taxes are higher than in any nation in the +world, they do not come on the poor to above three pounds a head; +{127} and, of those, at least one-half can be avoided by a little +self-denial. But, when the provisions increase one-half in price, +it amounts to at least four pounds a head to each person; so that +the effect falls on the population of the country, with a most +extraordinary degree of severity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But, great as this evil is, it has, by the circumstances and nature +of things, a tendency to increase the very cause in which it +originates. Though the highness of price diminishes the +consumption of victuals in general, it diminishes the consumption +of vegetable food, or bread, more than it does that of animal +food. Though all sorts of eatables rise in price, in times of +scarcity, yet bread, being the article that excites the greatest +anxiety, rises higher in proportion than the others. This +affords an encouragement to gratify the propensity for eating +animal food; and this propensity is encouraged by an absurd and +mistaken policy, by which (or perhaps rather an affectation of +policy) economy in bread is prescribed, and not in other food; so +that when people devour animal food, and increase the evil, they +think they are most patriotically and humanely diminishing it. +{128}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{127} The whole taxes in this country do +not amount to above four pounds a head, of which one-third is paid +entirely by those wealthy, or at least affluent; it is, then, +putting the share paid by the labouring body very high to put it at +three pounds each person.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{128} Both in France and England, during +the last scarcity, the use of every other sort of [end of page +#151] food was recommended, to save the consumption of +bread-corn. Potatoes are the only substitute that tended +really to relieve the distress; all others, and, in particular, +animal food, had an effect in augmenting it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The danger of wanting food, though very formidable, does not act so +instantaneously as to serve as an excuse for want of reflection, +like an alarm of fire, where the anxiety to escape sometimes +prevents the possibility of doing so; yet the fact is, that all the +measures that have generally been taken, in times of scarcity, have +tended rather to increase than to diminish the evil.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In monopoly, a sort of combination is supposed to exist between the +sellers of an article, when the article does not happen to be all +in the hands of one person, or one body of persons. But +combinations are of various sorts; there are express combinations +entered into by people having the same interest for a particular +purpose. Those are done by a sort of an agreement, when the +interest of the individual and of the body are the same. Such +combinations are generally effectual, {129} but unlawful. +There are combinations not less effectual, that arise merely from +circulating intelligence of prices, and certain circumstances on +which prices are known to depend, amongst all those concerned, who +immediately know how to act in unison. -- This is not +unlawful.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +An elegant historian has said that there was a time when the +sovereign pontiff, like the leader of a band of musicians, could +regulate all the clergy in Europe, so that the same tones should +proceed from all the pulpits on the same day. The list of +prices, at a great corn-market, has the same effect on the minds of +all the sellers within a certain distance. Intelligence now +flies so swift that there is no interval of uncertainty; the whole +of the dealers know how to act, according to circumstances, and +they are all led to act nearly as if they were in one single +body. Like gamesters, who have won a great deal, rather than +hasten to sell, even when they fear that prices may fall, they keep +back their stock, and risk to lose something of what they have +gained, by continuing to speculate on the agreeable and winning +chance by which they have already profited.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{129} There are sometimes combinations +which it is the interest of a whole body to preserve, but of each +individual to break, if he can with impunity; such generally soon +fall to the ground.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #152]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The dealers in an article of ready sale, or for which there is a +certain demand, have never any difficulty, in a wealthy country, of +procuring money to make purchases, or to enable them to keep their +stock; and the gains are so immense that there is no speculation +equally attractive.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the rent of land, in England, is reckoned at twenty-five +millions a year; and it is reckoned that, in a common year, the +rent is worth one-third of the produce; it follows that, of all +sorts of produce of land, the value is seventy-five millions. +But, in the year 1799, when the prices were more than doubled, the +value was one hundred and fifty millions, of which the landlord +received (as usual) twenty-five to his share, leaving for the +farmer, &c. one hundred and twenty-five, instead of fifty, the +usual sum. As the wages of servants remained the same, and, +in an ordinary year, would amount to one-third of the rent, eight +millions went for that, leaving one-hundred and seventeen millions, +in place of forty-two, the usual residue. Two-thirds of the +value of rent, or sixteen millions, is, in an ordinary year, +supposed to go for seed, the maintenance of cattle, and labourers; +so that, in that year, the portion so consumed must be estimated at +double value, or thirty-four millions, which, deducted from one +hundred and seventeen, leaves eighty-three for the farmers, in +place of twenty-five, in an ordinary year: so that, when the price +doubles, the farmers =sic= profit does more than triple. In +the year 1799, the farmers were known to have the profit of four +ordinary years, supposing that they had been the actual sellers in +the market. The fact was otherwise no doubt, with regard to +those who pocketed the profit, which went in part only to farmers, +and the rest went to the monopolists, dealers, regraters, +forestallers, &c. who advanced money to keep up the +price. To the public who paid, the matter is the same, and, +to the business itself, there is little difference as to who +profited, or who found capital; for, as they shared the profit +amongst them, and as they received three times as much as in an +ordinary year, they could, out of the sales of the first four or +five months, make all the payments [end of page #153] for the whole +year to the landlord; and, therefore, could have the means of +keeping the remainder, just as long as they thought +proper.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus, then, while there is any degree of scarcity, the provisions +of a country are at a monopoly-price; and the dealers act, though +individually, as if they enjoyed one general monopoly. +{130}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before leaving his important subject, it is necessary to observe, +that, though dealers in provisions, in times of any degree of +scarcity, that is, when there is not quite enough fully to supply +the consumption of the country, act, in keeping up prices, as if +they had an exclusive privilege for monopoly, yet that is the only +cases =sic= in which they do so. A single monopolizer can +diminish the quantity, and perhaps destroy a part of it with +advantage to himself. Thus the Dutch East India company were +said to have done with the spices. {131} But the individual +dealer, though he is interested in a general high price and +monopoly, is still more interested in selling as much as he can; +and the higher the price, the more careful he is not to waste or +consume more than he can help. In this respect, the monopoly +of the many is not half so hurtful as the individual +monopoly. This proves that all the vulgar errors, which +occasion reports of farmers and dealers destroying their corn, are +not only without foundation, but would produce an effect quite +contrary to the avaricious principle, by which such men are +considered as being governed. {132}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{130} There is one moment only when they +do not, that is, when they find out, for certain, that prices are +going to fall. There, for a moment, individual interest, and +general interest are opposite, and they hasten to sell, and to +reduce the price too much. But even this does not relieve the +public; for, though it makes the reduction very rapid for a time, +and may sometimes bring it below the level, it quickly rises again +and finishes when the panic amongst the dealers is over, by +remaining higher than it ought to be.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{131} If diminishing the quantity +one-quarter rises =sic= the price one-half, then the monopolist +gains, if he possesses the whole market; but the individual dealer, +if he were to burn his whole stock, would not diminish the quantity +in the country one-thousandth part, and therefore make no sensible +difference.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{132} Both in London and Paris, the +reports of this sort, and, (making a little allowance for the +language and nature of the people,) exceedingly similar in nature +and tendency, prevailed during the scarcity of 1789 and +1799.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #154]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Monopoly of this sort, by raising the prices of the necessaries of +life, in the end, augments the prices of labour, the rent of land, +and the taxes of a country. We have already examined the +tendency of all this; it is only necessary to observe that the rise +in prices, or depreciation of money, which other causes bring on by +degrees, this brings on violently and suddenly. {133} This +cause will always exist in a country that cannot provide enough for +its own subsistence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +How far this may go it is not easy to say; for if it is clear that +the farmer, by double prices, gets eighty-three pounds in place of +twenty-five, he can certainly afford to give his landlord something +more. If he gave him double the usual rent, it would still leave +more than double for himself. {134}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Of all the causes, then, that hasten the crisis of a country, none +is equal to that of the produce becoming unequal to the maintenance +of the inhabitants; for it is only in that case that the effects of +monopoly are to be dreaded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the case of animal food becoming too much in request, there is a +remedy which may be easily applied; of which it will be our purpose +to speak, in treating of the application of the present inquiry to +the advantage of the British dominions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{133} The few years of dearth altered +wages and rent more than had been known for half a century +before. Wages rose more, from 1790 to 1802, than they had +done from 1740 to 1790.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{134} As the usual rent was twenty-five, +and the usual profit twenty-five, the landlord and tenant had fifty +to divide, at ordinary prices; but, at double prices, they had +eighty-three added to twenty-five, or one hundred and seven to +divide: so that, if the farmer gave fifty, that is, double, he +would still have fifty-seven to himself, which is more than double, +by nearly one-third over and above.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>No allowance has been made in this +calculation for the diminution in quantity. The reason is, +that was comparatively very small; increased consumption, rather +than deficiency of produce, being the cause. Besides, we only +stated the rise as being double the usual price, whereas, it was +three times greater. [end of page #155]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Increase of the Poor, as +general Affluence becomes greater.-- Of Children left unprovided +for.-- Of their Division into two Classes-- Those that can labour +more or less, and those that can do no Labour.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN the career of wealth, in its early state, when individual +industry is almost without any aid from capital, men are as nearly +on an equality as the nature of things can admit. But, in +proportion as capital comes in to the aid of industry, that +equality dies away, and men, who have nothing but industry, lose +their means of exerting it with advantage, some become then +incapable of maintaining their rank in society +altogether.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At the same time that this is taking place, articles of every sort, +that are necessary for the existence of men, are becoming +dearer. As some ranks of society have been described as +bringing up their children not to know the existence of necessity, +others, who are depressed below the natural situation of men, are +bringing them up to feel the extreme pressure of want.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no situation of things in which a man, with natural +strength, and a very slender capacity, may not gain sufficient to +maintain himself, if he will be industrious; but, in a wealthy +country, numbers are so pressed upon by penury, in their younger +years, that neither the powers of their body, nor of their mind, +arrive at maturity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Accustomed, from an early age, to depend rather upon chance, or +charity, for existence, than upon industry, or energy of their own, +they neither know the value of labour, nor are they accustomed to +look to it for a supply to their wants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whilst the foundation of idleness and poverty is laid in, for one +part of a nation, from the affluence of their parents, another +portion seems as if it were chained down to misery, from the +indigence in which they were born and brought up. [end of page +#156]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The depressed and degraded populace of great and wealthy cities are +not the accidental victims of misfortune; they are born to its hard +inheritance, and their numbers contaminate more, who, were it not +for their own misconduct and imprudence, might have shared a better +lot.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When nations increase in wealth, the fate of individuals ceases to +become an object of attention; and, of all the animals that exist, +and are capable of labour, the least value is set upon the human +species. {135} Like individuals who rise to wealth, and forget +their origin, societies forget the first foundation of all wealth, +happiness, and power. That individuals should do so is not to +be wondered at. They never saw society in an infant state; +nor is it the business of individual citizens to occupy themselves +with public affairs; but those who are intrusted with their +management, and whose business is to know the original sources of +prosperity, ought to attend to and counteract this growing +evil.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the Romans were poor, the people depended on exertion, and +they enjoyed plenty; but when Lucullus and other citizens were +squandering millions, at a single banquet, the people were +clamouring for bread. While the person of a Roman lady was +ornamented with the wealth of a province, the multitude were +covered with rags, and depressed with misery. It would have +been no hard matter, then, to have foretold the fate of Rome. +The natural order of things was deranged to too violent an extreme +to be of long duration. The state was become like a wall that +had declined from the perpendicular, while age was every day +weakening the cement, by which it was held together, and though of +the time and hour of destruction no man knew, the event was +certain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would, at first sight, appear that great cities are the only +places in which misery of this description arises; but that is not +the case.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{135} It was never heard of, that a young +horse, or any useful animal of the brute creation, was left to die +with hunger in a land of plenty; but it happens to many of the +human race, because there is no provision made, by which those who +furnish them food may be repaid by their labour, which would be a +very easy matter to adjust, if a little attention were paid to the +subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #157]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Great cities are the refuge of the miserable, who, perhaps, find it +in some shapes augmented, by a residence in so friendless an +asylum; but there they avoid shame, they see not the faces that +have smiled upon them in better days; they are more at ease amongst +strangers, and they are kept in countenance by companions in penury +and want. {136}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every wealthy nation, the rich shun the view of wretchedness, +which is attended with a silent reproach. Those who have +property, mistrust the honesty, and blame the conduct of those who +have none. In this state of things, the country affords no +retreat nor residence, and want and wretchedness find the evils of +a crowded society, where they pass unnoticed, much more +tolerable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In most countries, the law has taken precautions to punish, or to +stop the evil in the individual; but in no great and wealthy +country has it been thought of sufficient importance to take +effectual means to prevent it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In small states, when society is new, and under some absolute +sovereigns, (remarkable for their penetration, genius, and +love of their people,) a momentary stop has been put to this career +of misery; but, in the first place, there has been no such monarch +in any wealthy country; and, in the second, as soon as power fell +into other hands, the progress has begun again where it left +off.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One great cause of the increase of mendicity is the increase of +unproductive labourers, as a state becomes more wealthy, who, dying +before their children are able to provide for themselves, increase +the number of the indigent. Men living by active industry +naturally marry at an early age; menial servants, revenue officers, +and all those who administer to the gratifications of a wealthy and +luxurious people, marry later in life; and besides their not having +an industrious example to set before their children, are torn from +them sooner, by the course of things.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{136} If one of the brute creation is in +want, it will supply that where it is most easily to be had, +physical difficulty is the only one it knows; bodily pain the only +one it feels. But men are different, they often undergo great +want amongst strangers, to avoid more insufferable feelings amongst +friends.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #158]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been noticed, that, in every society, as wealth increases +hospitality dies away. And those good offices interchanged +between man and man, to which life owes many of its comforts in a +less advanced state of society, and which protect individuals from +the frowns of fortune, gradually disappear. The social +feelings become less active, and men turn selfish and interested, +thinking for themselves, and careless for the community; while, on +the other hand, the causes for poverty increase; on the other, the +means of relief are misapplied, neglected, or squandered +away. The funds that ought to be administered with +disinteredness and integrity are committed to the hands of men who +live on the general misfortune, and thus the wretched, who are +relieved, are not fairly treated, while the public, that is +burthened with their misfortunes, is loaded far beyond its proper +degree.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The population of a country is diminished in a double ratio as the +poor increases: they create nothing, but they consume; and if a +country sees one-tenth of its population living on charity, it is +equivalent at least to seeing one-seventh diminished in numbers +altogether.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Most sorts of labour require those employed in it to have some +capital, such as decent clothes, or tools, or money to live upon +till wages are due. Little as that capital is, yet thousands +are reduced to absolute beggary for want of it; their industry +finding no means of exertion. A man becomes dependant =sic= +on charity for existence; and, though able to work, eats the bread +of idleness, and that without being in fault.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The number of persons absolutely unable to labour is nearly the +same in every country, and is not much augmented by its wealth; so +that if there were, as there easily might be, always employment for +those who would otherwise be entitled to relief, and if they were +allowed a fair price for their labour, they would then cease either +to be a burthen to themselves or to the public.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Little coercion would, in this case, be necessary. A few +proper regulations, to prevent theft and losses, would be all that +could be wanted with those who could labour; and those who could +not, being few in number, would be provided for in a better manner +than when [end of page #159] they can be, where their portion is +shared with those who are able to procure for themselves an +existence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must by no means look for relief, in cases of this sort, from +difficult or intricate management and regulation. If we look +at the nature of things, it points out the way.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those that cannot labour are the only persons who ought to be a +burthen on the public; and they are the only ones that would be so, +if the matters were properly regulated and attended to. As it +is in most countries, there are many who cannot get work to do, and +those are provided for in different ways, but always at the expense +of the public. Sometimes it is by a regular assessment, +sometimes by theft and depredation, sometimes by individual +charity, or those other means to which a man has recourse before he +will absolutely starve for want.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those who, from philanthropy, are for relieving all, soon find +themselves deceived, and unable to proceed. Those who, +disgusted with the vices of a few, consider them all as equally +culpable are much to blame. Surely, the individual case of a +fellow-creature in misfortune is worth attending to; and he must be +ignorant indeed who cannot, in most instances, avoid deception. +[end of page #160]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VIII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Tendency of Capital and +Industry to leave a wealthy Country, and of the Depreciation of +Money in agricultural and commercial Countries.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +AS the increase of capital in every country is the consequence of +former productive industry, so also is it the support of future +exertion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the capital of a country has become sufficient for all the +employment that can be procured for it, the first effect is the +lowering of interest, which sinks down under the rate appointed by +law, and under the rate at which it is lent out at in other +countries.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When capital is not in sufficient quantity, those who want to +borrow are more numerous than those who have money to lend; then +the competition is amongst the borrowers to obtain the preference, +and they all give as high an interest as the law allows, and would +give more if they could avoid the penalty, which, in all countries, +has been attached to accepting more than the regulated sum; a sum +regulated merely to prevent the effect of competition, which might +induce people to give more than in the end they would find they +could afford to pay.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When capital becomes over abundant, the very reverse takes place; +the lenders become rivals, and offer to lend at an under rate of +interest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The first effect of this is, that people who were but scantily +supplied with capital before borrow, and carry on business more at +ease, so that more capital is employed in business, and new +employments are found out for capital.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The usual employments for a superabundant capital are improving +lands, building houses, erecting machines, digging canals, &c. +for the use of trade; and finally, giving longer credit to +merchants in other countries, {137} as well as to those who are +running in debt in their own. The stock on hand in +manufactured goods increases something also. But when all +these have taken place, to as great an extent as wanted, then the +money begins to flow into other countries. By degrees, more +money is sent away than should go, and the persons who are the +proprietors of it frequently follow.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the capital that leaves a country were only that which cannot +find employment in it, the harm would not be great, though it would +tend to enrich other countries, and bring them nearer a +level. But that is not the case, the advantage of lending +money abroad, if regularly paid at a higher interest than can be +obtained at home, induces people to draw their money from +trade, and vest it in the hands of foreigners. The +Venetians, the Genoese, the Dutch, the Hanseatic Towns, and the +cities of Flanders, did this; and the capital, which, when employed +at home, formerly maintained perhaps one hundred people in +affluence and industry, only supported one single family living in +indolence and splendid penury. {138}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +After being in possession of money for a considerable time, men +prefer a certain employment at a low interest to one attended with +risk, even where the interest is higher; and when great sums have +been got by trade, those who have got them retire and live on the +interest, which men, who have only gained a small capital cannot +do.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are many other circumstances, besides the abundance of +capital, that tend to carry it away from a wealthy country. +The depreciation of money that takes place, in every country that +grows</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{137} As the subject is here treated in +the general way, applicable to all nations, the employment found by +national debt, and the funds rising is not taken into account, as +it will be noticed in the case of England. When money is +plenty, all individuals in trade give longer credit; but this +employs little more capital, when they give it to each other it +employs no more, but when to consumers it does.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{138} The manner in which those families +live is peculiar to themselves; great shew with great economy, and +without the smallest spark of love, either for their +fellow-citizens or their country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #162]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>rich, falls nearly all on the lender at +interest, {139} who, as he cannot bring back things to their former +value, seeks enjoyment in another country, and obtains, by change +of place, what he lost by lapse of time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The weight of taxes is another cause that drives capital from +wealthy to poorer countries; and last of all, in case of anxiety, +or of mistrust, the capitalists are generally the first to +emigrate. [{140}] Anxiety and mistrust are periodical amongst +a wealthy people.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the burthens sustained by a people in prosperity are generally +great, in proportion to their capital and industry, it is clear, +that when capital and industry diminish, the burthens, (which do +not admit of being diminished in the same proportion,) fall more +heavily on those who remain; this increased cause produces, +naturally, an increased effect. Thus, like a falling column, +the weight increases, and the momentum becomes +irresistible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is then that necessity, the spur to industry in new and rising +nations, (that spur which taxes and rent continue to excite, for +the good of mankind, for a certain period,) begins to crush what it +had raised, and to stab where it formerly stimulated. Then it +is that the money-lenders, who, at first, sent off their capital, +having ceased to be engaged in trade, withdraw, by degrees, and +rather content themselves with a diminished income in another +country, than struggle with the difficulties they find they have to +encounter in their own.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{139} Money lent out at interest loses, +money laid out in purchases gains, in a country that is advancing +in riches.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If a man, who had 2000 L. thirty years ago, had laid out 1000 L. at +interest, and, with the other bought land, he would, indeed, have +got less rent for his land at first, but now it would be doubled, +he would get 60 L. a year, and if he wished to sell he would get +2000 L. whereas, the other 1000 L. would only produce 50 L. and, if +called in, the single thousand would be all he would +receive.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{140} [footnote not assigned a place in +the original text, intended location assumed to be as shown] This +was seen at the beginning of the French revolution, though the +assignats, by lowering the rate of exchange, frightened many from +transferring their money, at an apparent loss of twelve or fifteen +per cent. But those that overlooked this loss have rejoiced +in it ever since, as the others have repented bitterly the avarice +that made them risk all to save a little, and to become +beggars.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #163]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is difficult to say at what point this would stop, if the effect +produced did not affix the boundary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The prices of land, of rent, of houses, and of provisions, sink +low, and induce some people to remain; for, as those articles +cannot be transported, or carried off, and are always worth +possessing and enjoying, it is clear there must be a term set to +the decay and emigration, by the nature of things. +Unfortunately for countries that have been great, that term does +not seem to arrive till it is reduced far below the level of other +nations. {141}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are, however, some peculiar causes that operate in some +modern nations, in counteracting this effect, so far as it is +occasioned by a superabundance of capital; but, as this is not +general to all nations, the proper place for speaking of it will be +when we come to treat of the tendency of capital to quit this +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The effects, arising from that depreciation of money, which takes +place in every wealthy country, are great and numerous, and have +been always found where wealth abounded. The people in such +countries can easily command the labour of others that are not so +rich, but the others cannot afford to pay for theirs; this tends to +remove industry. On the other hand, if a supply of the +necessaries of life are wanted in a rich country, they may be +obtained from countries where the value of money is less, without +throwing prices out of their level; whereas, in the country where +money is of great value, that is not the case.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The price of bread, for instance, is, at Paris, one penny the +pound, and in London at eight-pence the quartern loaf, which weighs +just four French pounds, the price is exactly double. If +every thing was conducted in a fair way, corn, from all countries, +where it is equally as cheap as in France, might be brought and +sold in London, at the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{141} At Bruges, (in Flanders) at +Antwerp, Cologne, Ghent, or any of those decayed towns, house-rent +was fallen, before the French revolution, to little more than an +acknowledgement for occupation, where the houses were large and +retired. This induced people to live at those places, who +would not otherwise have done so. Small houses, lately built, +were more expensive than the large old ones, built in the time that +commerce flourished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #164]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>usual market price; but, before Paris +could get a supply from London, the bread would cost three times +its usual price. This circumstance, if properly managed, +might be turned to advantage; why it is not, is difficult to say, +and is a proof that there are either regulations, or practices +without regulation, that counteract the true nature of things; for +it would not cost a farthing a pound to bring the corn from Paris +to the London market.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Paris is only mentioned here for the sake of comparison, and +because the average prices have nearly the proportion of one to +two. The reasons why corn is not brought from thence are no +secret, but the same reasoning will apply to American corn, corn +from Barbary, or the Baltic, and from other places, where the value +of money is greater than in England. {142}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The principal of the other effects of the depreciation of money are +to be found in the chapter on the exterior Causes of the Decline of +Nations, as it is in its foreign transactions that the depreciation +of money is the most felt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the interior, that depreciation only acts when there is a +considerable lapse of time, during which the value has altered; it +has, in general, no effect on transactions that are begun and +finished within a short period, and in the interior of the country +itself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The depreciation of money, wherever it takes place, would cause an +increase of taxes, even if there were no other reason for it; but, +in so far it counteracts itself, by making them to be more easily +born. =sic= Whatever its particular effects may be, and +however complicated they are, the general tendency of the +depreciation of money is to depress industry in that country, and +to encourage it in others, where the value is greater than in +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{142} In America the value of money is +less than in England, compared with wages; but the usual +proportion, between the wages of labour and the price of corn, is +different in that country from every other with which we have any +connection.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #165]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IX.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Conclusion of the interior Causes.-- +Their Co-operation. -- Their general Effect on the Government and +on the People. -- The Danger arising from them does not appear till +the Progress in Decline is far advanced.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THOUGH these causes enumerated have all one general tendency, yet +their distinguishing characteristics deserve attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some begin their operation from the moment the wealth of a country +commences, others are only felt late in the progress of its +decline. The effects of some may be diminished greatly, +others may be prevented entirely; but, in all cases, the attention +of government is necessary, and that before the operation of +decline is actually commenced; for, prevention, and not remedy, is +what ought to be aimed at, besides which, when decline has once +begun, governments are too feeble to be capable of any effectual +regulations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To assist nature, in every case where her operations are favourable +to the enjoyment and happiness of men, and to counteract those that +are unfavourable, is the business of individuals and of +states. What the individual is unable to do, should be done +by those to whom the care of public affairs is given; by those who +act for the benefit of all, and in the name of all.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the first approaches of a state to wealth and greatness, we +find that there are a combination of causes that begin to operate +in promoting its decline. The first moving principle, +necessity, is gradually done away, and with it flies industry; so +that, from one generation to another, both the moral and physical +man becomes changed, till he is unable to sustain the weight that +he has raised; and, at last, he is crushed by the decent =sic= of +the ponderous mass.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While a gradual progress destroys that industry, from which all +wealth springs, other causes act to remove or misapply the labour +[end of page #166] that is left, while others again are putting +capital to flight, or leading to a misapplication of it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Last of all come discord and war, the most universal cause of all +those that tend to depopulate a country, and to diminish as well as +degrade the inhabitants, thus giving durability to misfortune, and +rendering hopeless the fate of a fallen nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst all the causes of decline, one alone is found that has a +double effect, and counteracts in one direction what it promotes in +another.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is taxation, a very certain cause of ruin if carried too far, +and always dangerous; but, for a length of time, having a very +powerful effect in repressing the progress of luxury, in continuing +the action of necessity, the mother of industry, and in preventing +that species of consumption that lays the foundation for the +depopulation of a country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From this it would seem to be almost as dangerous to take off the +burthens that have been laid upon a people, as to lay them on with +too heavy a hand. There is not any example worth noticing of +such a case, therefore, it must stand on its own ground: history +informs us nothing on the subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The supposed case would be thus. That a nation should rise to +a high pitch of wealth by industry, and support a heavy load of +taxes, still increasing in wealth, and superior to most other +nations. We are to suppose the load of taxes greatly +diminished, and then to investigate the consequences.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Perhaps this is an useless hyyothesis =sic=, the case never has +been, and perhaps never will be; but, still it is, at least, a +possible case; it is a matter of curiosity, at least, if it is not +one of utility, and I have a great example to plead as my +apology. Dr. Adam Smith amused himself in his inquiry into +the causes of the wealth of nations =sic= in a similar manner, by a +hypothesis concerning the taxation of the British +colonies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Supposing the pressure of necessity were to be suddenly taken away, +those whose income is regulated by their efforts would relax in +exertion; that is to say, the productive labourers of the country +would relax, while those whose incomes are fixed, that is +principally [end of page #167] the unproductive labourers, would +become comparatively more opulent, and their luxury would +increase.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is an effect very different from what the public +expects. The most useful class would gain little or nothing, +while the drones of society would find their wealth greatly +augmented, which would be one of the most unfortunate effects that +could well be conceived, and might very soon bring about a very +serious and disagreeable event.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the course of investigating the national debt of England, in the +Fourth Book =sic - there is none=, it will be necessary to examine +this at length, but, there it will be attended with another +circumstance, not one of general consideration; (as national debt +is not any general or necessary appendage to a government) namely, +the letting loose a great monied capital, which must either be +employed here, or it will seek employment in another country, which +may rise on the ruin of this.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In considering the reduction of taxes that have been long standing, +and have risen to a great amount, there is certainly reason to fear +evil consequences, though this is no argument in favour of +taxation; on the contrary, it is a reason for avoiding it, for, it +is in all cases dangerous to do what it will be attended with +danger to undo.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the precise case of taxes being done away may never come +before us, there is, at this time, an operation going on that is +nearly similar, and the result of which will soon be +known.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The French people were loaded with nearly twenty-five millions +sterling annually to the church, and they do not now pay +three. This, indeed, was partly in taxes, and part in +church-lands; they have also got rid of a great deal of rent, by +the sale of emigrant estates, the lands have got into the hands of +men, who mostly cultivate them themselves, and have no rent to +pay.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On the supposition that the new government is not more expensive +than the old, (and it ought not to be so, the debts having been +nearly all wiped off,) the burthens on industry will be much less +than formerly, it will then be curious to observe if agriculture +flourishes more, if prices are reduced, and if the taxes that still +remain are better paid. There are, indeed, many concomitant +circumstances that will tend to derange the experiment, or render +the conclusion uncertain; but, still it is an in- [end of page +#168] teresting and a great event, and will be worth attentive +observation. {143}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must, so far as this investigation goes, conclude, that, unless +the natural tendency of things to decline is powerfully +counteracted, every country that rises to wealth must have a fall; +and that, therefore, it merits investigation, whether it is or is +not possible to counteract the tendency to decline, without +interrupting the progress towards greater prosperity, and, to +manage matters so, that whether it is not possible, after having +attained the summit of wealth, we may remain there instead of +immediately descending, as most nations have hitherto +done.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From individuals, the exertion necessary is not to be expected; +but, it may be looked for from the government of a country, which, +though composed of individuals, the succession of persons is +differently carried on; it is not from age to age, and from an old +father to a young son, but from men in the vigour of life, to men +in the vigour of life, who, while they are occupied in public +affairs, may be considered, with respect to whatever is to be done +for the good of the nation, (for its prosperity, defence, or +protection,) as animated with the same spirit, without any +interruption.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With respect to the interior causes of decline, they may be +counteracted always with more or less effect, by a proper system of +govern-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{143} The burthens on the industry of old +France, were,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> Livres.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Rent of land + 700,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Revenues of +clergy 600,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Taxes, including the expense of +levying 800,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +____________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +2,100,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>In sterling money + +£87,500,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Half land now occupied by the +cultivators, + } </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>and the remainder let at lower rents + } +350,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Revenues of clergy, and the expenses + +50,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Taxes as before + +800,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> + +_____________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> + +1,200,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Or in sterling money + +£50,400,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This makes a diminution of £37,100,000; or something more +than a third of the whole expense, and more than all the taxes to +the state estimated at the highest rate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #169]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ment. In the latter portion of this +work we shall endeavour to shew how that may be attempted with +safety, if not accomplished with full success.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before, however, we conclude this subject, and rely on government, +it is necessary to mention that, in treating with other nations, a +kind of overbearing haughty pride is natural to those who govern a +powerful and wealthy people. In that case, they act as +individuals, and are not to be trusted; and the less so, that a +nation of proud pampered citizens is but too apt to applaud +insolence in those who govern them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This pride has been a very constant forerunner of the fall of +wealthy and great nations, and, in Rome excepted, it has never +failed. The emperors of Rome were much less haughty than the +ambassadors of the republic; a love of false splendour had +supplanted a ferocious affectation of dignity, yet, the former was +the less humiliating of the two to other nations. {144}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While the rulers of wealthy nations are apt to act haughtily to +others, they are liable to fall into another error, in mistaking +the strength of their own people, and loading them too heavily, +trusting too much both to their internal energy, and external +force.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the near observers of the inability of the people are generally +afraid to carry unwelcome tidings to their superior; and, if they +did, as he is seldom inclined to give credit to unwelcome news, the +ruin of a nation has probably made a very considerable progress +before he, whose business it is to put a stop to it, is aware of +the danger.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The continual clamour that is made about every new burthen that is +laid on, and the cry of ruin, which perpetually is sounded in the +ears of a minister, and of those who execute his orders, are some +ex-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{144} The appearance of virtue and +self-command, which the republican Romans preserved, added to the +bravery with which they maintained whatever claims they put in, +overawed a great part of their enemies; and those, who were not +absolutely overawed thought that defeat and submission were, at +least, robbed of their shame, when such was the character of the +conqueror; and the claim once allowed was no longer +questioned. Very different was the case, when the emperor was +a fidler, or a buffoon, the senators puppets, and the pro-consuls +themselves robbers.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #170]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>cuses for their not attending to them; +but the consequence is not the less fatal to the nation on that +account.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A nation that is feeble has, at least, the advantage of knowing it, +and is not insensible if she receives a wound; but the government +of a powerful nation is like the pilot of a ship, who navigates in +a sea, the depth of which he cannot sound, and who spreads all his +sails: if he strikes upon a rock, his ship is dashed to pieces in a +moment. The other, sailing amongst shallows and sands, proceeds +with caution, avoids them if possible, and, if she touches, it is +so gently, that even her feeble frame is scarcely +injured.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rulers of nations appear, in general, not to be aware of the +evil that arises from the government they have to manage becoming +too unwieldly =sic=, or too complicated; in either case, a check, +though but of short duration, is irretrievable. This is a +great oversight, and, at least, greatly augments the chances +against the durability of a government. In proportion as the +machine is unmanageable and complex, the embarrassment of those who +have the conduct of it will be great, and the enemies will be +proportionately bold and audacious. In all such conflicts, +much depends on the spirit of the combatants, and more still on +that of those who, at first, are lookers on, who act in consequence +of the opinion they have of the force or feebleness of either +party. {145}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The tendency that a nation has to decline is not, then, in general, +counteracted, by the government; but, on the contrary, is pushed on +by it, and precipitated into the gulf. No wonder, then, that +the career is rapid, and the fall irretrievable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is, nevertheless, to the government, and to it alone, that we +must look for that counteracting force that is to stay the general +current. Individuals can only look to their own conduct, and +they neither can</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{145} Not only when the French revolution +began, but a hundred times afterwards, did the party triumph that +appeared the strongest, merely because it appeared so. All +those who stand neutral at first, take a side the moment they have +fixed their opinion as to the strength of the contending parties, +and this decision is always in favour of the party they think the +strongest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #171]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>be expected to have time nor inclination +to study the public welfare, and, even if they had, they would want +the means.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Government can never be better employed than in counteracting this +tendency to decay. It has the means, and is but performing +its duty in doing so. The previous step to all this, however, +is a knowledge of what is to be done, a full sense of the necessity +of doing it, and a disposition to submit to the regimen +necessary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +For this purpose, both the government and the people must give up +something. The people must allow government to interfere in +the education of children, and, in that, give up a little of their +liberty; {146} and those who govern must attend to many things +which are generally neglected. To do the routine business of +the day is the occupation of most of the governments of Europe, +whether in war or at peace; they therefore habitually become agents +of necessity, and what can be procrastinated is never done; that is +to say, what is good is very seldom done, and what is necessary to +prevent immediate evil, is always the chief, and sometimes the +only, occupation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are some men in the world who prosper merely because they +look beforehand, and conduct their affairs. There are others +who, with equal industry, and much more trouble and care, are +always a little behind, and allow their affairs to conduct them; +such men never succeed, and, if they can keep off the extreme of +misfortune, it is all that is to be expected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Most governments, in wealthy nations, are like those latter species +of individuals,-- they do not conduct their affairs, but are +conducted by them, and think they succeed, when the necessary +business of the day is done. This listlessness must be done +away, and, though the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{146} From the impossibility of a nation, +once immersed in sloth and luxury, returning to the tone and energy +of a new people, we may judge of the impossibility of a nation +going on progressively towards wealth, not suffering from the +manner of educating children. The leading distinction between +a rising and a fallen people is the disposition to industry and +exertion, in the one, and to sloth and negligence, in the +other. It is while a nation is increasing in wealth that this +alteration gradually takes place; and, as this is the main point on +which all depends, the nation is safe when it is well attended to, +even if other things are, in some degree, neglected.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #172]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>governments of countries that are wealthy +have no occasion, like Peter the Great, or the founders of new +states, to create new institutions, and eternally try to +ameliorate, they ought to be very carefully and constantly employed +in preventing those good things that they enjoy from escaping their +grasp, so far as it depends upon interior arrangement. +Exterior causes are not within their power to regulate, therefore +they should be the more attentive to those that are; and, though +exterior causes are out of their dominion, yet, sometimes, by wise +interior regulations, the evil effects of exterior ones may be +prevented. Nothing of all this can be done, however, until +the government rises above the routine business of the day, and +until all the necessary and pressing business is got over. +The first thing, then, for a government is to extricate itself from +the situation of one who struggles with necessity, after which, but +not before, it may study what is beneficial, and of permanent +utility.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So far it would appear all nations are situated alike, with regard +to the general tendency to decay; {147} and so far all of them may +be guided by general rules, but as to the particular manner of +applying those rules, it must depend on the peculiar circumstances +of the nation to which they are meant to be applied.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In general, revenue has become the great object with modern +nations: and, as their rulers have not ventured to tax the +necessaries of the people to any high degree, but have laid their +vices, rather than their wants, under contribution, the +revenue-system, (as it may be called,) tends to make a government +encourage expensive vice, by which it profits, and check innocent +enjoyment, by which it has nothing to gain. This is a +terrible, but it is a very prevalent system; it is immoral, +inhuman, and impolitic.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So far as this goes, a government, instead of checking, accelerates +the decline of a people; but, as this is not a natural cause of +decline, as it is not universal or necessary, it is to be +considered with due</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{147} The Chinese, and, in general, the +nations of Asia have not been considered as included in this +inquiry. The Chinese, in particular, are a people in a +permanent situation: they do not increase in riches, and they seem +to have no tendency to decline. Their laws and mode of +education and living remain the same.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #173]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>regard to particular circumstances. +In general, we may say, that, in place of inviting the lower +classes to pass their time in drinking, by the innumerable +receptacles that there are for those who are addicted to that vice, +every impediment should be put in the way. Drinking is a +vice, the disposition to which grows with its gratification; most +other avocations (for drinking in moderation is only such) have no +tendency of the sort. Those enjoyments which have a tendency +to degenerate into vice should be kept under some check; those +which have no such tendency ought to be encouraged; for, where the +main and general mass of the population of a country is corrupted, +it is impossible to prevent its decline. If it remains +uncorrupted, the matter is very easy, or, more properly, it may be +said that prosperity is the natural consequence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manners will always be found of more consequence than laws, and +they depend, in a great measure, on the wise regulations of +government in every country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Not only do most governments profit by laying the vices of the +people under contribution; but, as revenue is, by a very false +rule, taken as a criterion from which the prosperity of a nation +may be estimated, the very evil that brings on decay serves to +disguise its approach. A nation may be irretrievably undone, +before it is perceived that it has any tendency to decline; it is, +therefore, unwise for governments to wait till they see the effects +of decay, and then to hope to counteract them; they must look +before-hand, and prevent, otherwise all their exertions will prove +ineffectual. [end of page #174]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. X.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the external Causes of +Decline.-- the Envy and Enmity of other Nations.--their +Efforts, both in Peace and War, to bring Wealthy Nations down to +their level.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THE external causes of the decline of nations are much more simple +in themselves than the internal ones, besides which, their action +is more visible; the way of operation is such as to excite +attention, and has made them thought more worthy of being +recorded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The origin of envy and enmity are the same. The possession of +what is desirable, in a superior degree, is the cause of +envy. That occasions injurious and unjust proceedings, and +enmity is the consequence, though both originated in the same +feeling at first, they assume distinct characteristics in the +course of time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The desire of possession, in order to enjoy, is the cause of enmity +and envy; and all the crimes of nations, and of individuals, have +the same common origin.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It follows, as a natural consequence, arising from this state of +things, that those nations which enjoyed a superior degree of +wealth, became the objects of the envy of others. If that +wealth was accompanied by sufficient power for its protection, then +the only way to endeavour to share it was by imitation; but if the +wealth was found unprotected, then conquest or violence was always +considered as the most ready way of obtaining +possession.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wandering Arabs, who are the only nations that profess robbery +at the present day, (by land,) follow still the same maxim with +regard to those whose wealth they mean to enjoy. If too +powerful to be compelled by force to give up what they have got, +they traffic and barter with the merchants of a caravan; but if +they find themselves able to take, they never give themselves the +trouble to adopt the legitimate but less expeditious method of +plunder and robbery =sic=. [end of page #175]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As it has been found that wealth operates, by degrees, in +destroying the bravery of a people, after a certain time, so it +happens that, in the common course of things, a moment arrives when +it is considered safe, by some one power or other, to attack the +wealthy nation, and partake of its riches; thus it was that the +cities of Tyre and of Babylon were attacked by Alexander; and thus +it was that his successors, in their turn, were attacked and +conquered by the Romans; and, again, the Romans themselves, by the +barbarous nations of the north.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Besides those great revolutions, of which the consequences were +permanent, there have been endless and innumerable struggles for +the possession of wealth, amongst different nations; but the real +and leading causes are so uniform, and so evident, that there is +not a shadow of a doubt left on that subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Mr. Burke had good reason to say that the external causes were much +easier traced, and more simple, than the internal ones; for, the +Romans excepted, the instances of rich nations attacking and +conquering poor ones are very rare indeed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Romans had erected their republic on a different plan from that +of any other; they had neither arts, industry, nor territory of +their own, and they conquered nations upon speculation, and for the +sake of civilizing the people, and making them contribute revenue; +how they were successful has been explained. But even the +Romans would not have attacked poor nations, if they had been, at +an earlier period, possessed of the means of attacking those that +were wealthy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Necessity obliged them to begin with Italy: their safety made them +defend themselves against the Gauls, and, till they had a navy, it +was impracticable to carry their conquests into Asia or Africa; +but, after they had conquered Carthage, they lost very little time +in attacking Egypt, and those countries occupied by the successors +of Alexander.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The taking of Constantinople was the last decided victory of this +sort, and in nothing but time and circumstance did it differ from +the others; in all the great outlines it was exactly the same. [end +of page #176]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The effeminacy and luxury of the rich, those interior causes, of +which we have already spoken, always give facility to those efforts +which envy and avarice excite.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rivalship, in time of peace, is a contest confined to modern +nations; or, at least, but little known to the ancients. +Indeed, it is only amongst commercial nations that it can +exist. There can be no competition in agriculture; and, +indeed, it is only in war, or in commerce, that nations can +interfere with each other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Phoenicians were the only commercial people of antiquity. +Carthage was the colony, and received the Indian produce at second +hand. It was in no way a rival.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When Solomon mounted on the throne of his father David, he applied +himself to commerce; but the wisdom and power he possessed were +such as bore down all opposition during his reign. Having +married the daughter of the King of Egypt, who assisted him in +several conquests, he founded the city of Palmyra, or Tadmore in +the Wilderness, for the greater conveniency of the Eastern +trade. The King of Tyre was his ally, but he was so, most +probably, from necessity, for the alliance was very unnatural; and, +soon after the death of Solomon, the Tyrians excited the King of +Babylon to destroy Jerusalem: so, that if there had been, in +ancient times, more people concerned in commerce, there is no doubt +there would likewise have been more envy and rivality. +=sic=</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The cities of Italy, the Dutch, the Flemish, the English, and the +French, have been incessantly struggling to supplant each other in +manufactures and commerce; and the war of custom-house duties and +drawbacks has become very active and formidable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This modern species of warfare is not only less bloody, but the +object is more legitimate, and the consequences neither so sudden +nor so fatal as open force; to which is to be added, that if a +nation will but determine to be industrious, it never can be +greatly injured. If it enjoyed any peculiarly great +advantages, those may, indeed, be wrested from it, but that is only +taking away what it has no right to possess, and what it may always +do without. [end of page #177]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The intention of this inquiry is not to discover a method by which +a nation may engross the trade that ought to belong to others, it +is only to enable it, by industry and other means, to guard against +the approaches of adversity, which tend to sink it far below its +level, thereby making way for the elevation of some other nation, +on the ruins of its greatness.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As, in the interior causes of decline, we have traced the most part +to the manners and habits of the people, so, in the exterior +causes, it will be found that much depends upon the conduct of the +government. [end of page #178]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. XI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Why the Intercourse between Nations is +ultimately in Favour of the poorer one, though not so at +first.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN all commercial intercourse with each other, (or competition in +selling to a third nation,) the poorer nation has the advantage in +its gain; but this advantage is generally prevented by the length +of credit which the wealthy nation is enabled to give, by which +manufacturers are sometimes ruined in their own country by +strangers, who can neither rival them in lowness of price nor +goodness in quality.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In countries that are poor, those who have the selling, but not the +manufacturing of goods, are so much greater gainers by selling +goods purchased on credit, of which they can keep a good stock and +assortment, than in selling from a shop or store scantily supplied +with ready money, that there is not almost any question about +either price or quality; there is not scarcely an +alternative. In one line, a man can begin who has scarcely +any capital, and do a great deal of business; he can even afford to +sell the articles he purchases on credit with very little profit, +because they procure him ready money; whereas, if he sells an +article upon which he has no credit, he must replace it with +another, by paying money immediately. The consequence is, +that while those who sell to the public are poor, the nation or +manufacturer that gives the longest credit will have the +preference; but this is daily diminishing, for even with the +capital of the rich nation itself, the manufactures of the poor one +are encouraged; the manner is as follows:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A, at New York, purchases goods for one thousand pounds from B, at +London, which he sells without any profit, and, perhaps, at a +considerable loss; because B gives him twelve months credit. +But A, who has, by this means, got hold of money, as if by a loan, +will not lay that out with B, nor let him touch it till the year's +end; and, having made no profit by the sale of B's goods, he must +turn to advantage the money he obtained for them. According +to the situation of mat- [end of page #179] ters in the country, +and the nature of A's concerns, he will make more or less, but what +he makes it is not the business to investigate; it is sufficient to +know, that he will lay his ready money out with those who will sell +cheap, in order to get by it; that is to say, he will lay it out +with some person in his own country. {148} Thus, though the +rich nation sells goods on credit at a price which cannot be +obtained for them by the purchaser, yet its capital serves to give +activity to the manufacturers in the poor country. It is +true, that this operation is slow, but it produces an effect in +time, and finishes by robbing the wealthy nation of its +superiority, obtained by giving credit. It is thus that in +all their intercourse, the first advantage is to the rich nation, +but terminates in favour of the poor; for whenever equality of +prices are the question, and both can give sufficient credit, the +poorer nation has the advantage in point of price.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With regard to rivalling each other, in a third place, the poor +nation has the advantage, if the merchants there have the means of +paying with ready money, because the price is lower than that of +the richer country. {149} If they have not that means, they cannot +deal with them, but must wait till they have, by perseverance; and, +in course of time, come to have the means when the poor nation is +certain to enter into competition with advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But this is not the only way in which the capital of a rich nation +is employed in fostering a rivalship in a poorer nation. Were +the manufacturers the only persons who sold goods, it would be +confined to this; but that is not the case, for merchants, who are +the sellers, study only where they can purchase the cheapest; thus +English merchants purchase cloths in Silesia, watches in +Switzerland, fire-arms at Liege,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{148} The Dutch used to give long credit, +and buy with ready money, by which means they had great advantage +for a long time; but, at last, the ready money they paid to some, +and the credit they gave to others, set their industry at work, and +they became rivals. Dutch capital was, at one period, of +great service to the English, as that of England now is to the +Americans.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{149} This is not meant to apply to any +particular sort of manufacture. In some, a nation may have a +permanent advantage over another; in others, only a temporary one, +and in the greater portion no other advantage than what arises from +superior capital.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #180]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>in preference to laying out the money in +England or Ireland; and they will give credit, as before explained, +to the nation that wants it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this manner it is, that the capital of a rich country supplies +the want of it in poorer ones, and that, by degrees, a nation saps +the foundation of its own wealth and greatness, and gives +encouragement to them in others.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is then that the weight of taxes, the high price of commodities, +and the various causes which encumber those who live in wealthy +nations, begin to produce a pernicious effect. The tendency +of industry is to remove its abode, and the capital of the +merchants, who know no country, but understand arithmetic, and the +profits of trade, gives the industry the means of doing it with +more ease and promptitude.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch, for the last century, employed their capital in this +manner, and, at one time, were the chief carriers, for they secured +custom by paying readily and giving credit largely. They +ruined many of their own manufactures in this manner, but it is +impossible to separate the calculation of gain from the mercantile +system and mercantile practice in individuals; therefore it is no +reproach to their patriotism, for patriotism cannot be the rule in +purchasing goods from an individual. A merchant can have no +other rule, but his own advantage, or, if he has, he will soon be +ruined.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are many manufactures in England that originally rose by +means of Dutch capital, not lent capital, but by ready money paid +for goods, which were carried to other nations, and sold here upon +credit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The English have, for a long time, been able to do this piece of +business for themselves; and, of course, the Dutch did not find the +same means of supporting their carrying trade; and as they had +ruined many of their own manufactures, they sunk both as a +commercial and manufacturing people.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the time should ever come that capital should be so abundant in +all nations, as that obtaining credit will not be an object, then +it will be seen that no nation will have so very great a share of +manufactures and commerce more than others, as has hitherto been +the case.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In countries where the common practice is to sell, chiefly, for +[end of page #181] ready money, great fortunes are seldom +gained. Even in wealthy countries, in branches of business +where no credit is given, great fortunes are very seldom got, and +for a very simple reason. The business is pretty equally +divided. But in a country that gives long credits, or in a +branch of trade on which long credits are given, we always see some +individuals gaining immense fortunes, by means of doing a great +deal more business than others, who, having less capital, are +enabled to do less.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is not any one thing in which a nation resembles an +individual so much, as in mercantile transactions; the rule of one +is the rule of all, and the rich individual acts like a rich +nation, and the poor one like a poor nation. The consequences +are the same in both cases. The rich carry on an extensive +trade, by means of great capital; the poor, a limited one, +dependant =sic= chiefly on industry; but wherever the poor +persevere in good conduct, they finish by getting the command of +the capital of the rich, and then becoming their rivals.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is one thing peculiar to the intercourse of rich and poor +nations, in which it differs from the intercourse between rich and +poor individuals in the same country. Money, which is the +common measure of value, has a different price in different +countries, and, indeed, in different parts of the same +country. If a man, from a poor country, carries a bushel of +corn with him into a rich, he can live as long upon it as if he had +remained where he was; but if he carry the money, that would have +bought a bushel of corn at home, he perhaps may not be able to live +upon it half so long. {150}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The effect that this produces, in the intercourse between two +countries, is, that in proportion as the difference becomes +greater, the rich country feels it can command more of the industry +of the poor, and the poor feels it can command less of the industry +of the rich; so that</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{150} In common life, this difference, +between carrying money and necessaries, is perfectly well +understood, but it is experience that is the teacher; and the rough +countryman, or woman, when they have the opportunity of judging +from fact, understand the motives as well as the most profound and +ingenius =sic= writer on political economy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #182]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>when their industry can be both applied, +with any degree of equality, to the same object, the poor supplies +the rich, and therefore increases its own wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is thus that great numbers of the people in London are fed with +butcher-meat from Scotland, and wear shoes from Yorkshire; but +there would be a very limited sale in either of those places for +meat from Smithfield, or shoes manufactured in London. +{151}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This diminution of the value of money, that takes place in all rich +countries, serves farther to increase the advantage of poorer ones +in manufacturing, and accelerates the natural effect of +competition, which is facilitated, as has been said, by the capital +of the rich country giving activity to the industry of the poorer +one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This last neither can be called an exterior nor an interior cause, +as it is derived entirely from the relative situations of the two +countries, and belongs to both, or originates in both; but, as it +raises the poor nation nearer the level of the rich one, its effect +gradually becomes less powerful. Though there is no means of +preventing the operation of two nations coming nearly to a level by +this means, yet it does not appear to be a necessary consequence +that the nation that was the richer should become the poorer. +As this, however, has been a general case, we must conclude it to +be a natural one, but there we stop, and make a distinction between +what is natural only, and what is a necessary effect. Their +coming to a level was a necessary effect; but, though the other may +be natural, it cannot be necessary, and therefore may be +counteracted; to find the means of doing this, is all that is +proposed by the present inquiry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{151} If it was not for taxes and rent, +that are chiefly spent in large towns, as well as law-expenses, and +the prices of luxuries, of dress, and furniture, the cities, like +London, would soon be reduced.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #183]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. XII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Conclusion of exteror Causes.-- Are +seldom of much Importance, unless favoured by interior ones.-- Rich +Nations, with care, capable, in most Cases, of prolonging their +Prosperity.-- Digression on the Importance of Public Revenue, +illustrated by a statistical Chart.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THE exterior causes of the decline of any nation, that has risen +above its level, though formidable, are nothing, in comparison to +the interior causes, and are of no great effect without their +co-operation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the government of a country has an influence over the interior +causes, so its alliances, and the laws of nations, though not very +well attended to, (yet seldom altogether forgot,) have a tendency +to stop the progress of the exterior causes, before they advance +too far; that is to say, before they absolutely depress a +nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +For several centuries, the stronger nations of Europe protected the +weaker, and the matter was carried so far, that the weak powers +generally gained the most. Prussia and Sardinia are two +examples of nations rising by political connections; and though the +system is lately changed, and Poland has been despoiled and divided +amongst nations, to each of which it was superior in power only two +centuries ago, and though Holland and Switzerland groan under the +yoke of France, yet, it is to be hoped, the old system is not +abandoned, otherwise there will be no end to the encroachments of +the great powers on the smaller.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The means of communicating, between nations, are now easy; they +have felt the advantage of preserving a sort of balance, {152} and +the ad-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{152} The expression, balance of power, +gives a false idea. It seems to imply, that alliances in +Europe were so nicely arranged, as to make the force of nations, in +opposite interests, equal; but this never was the case for half an +hour, nor was it ever intended. The whole [end of page #184] +that is meant, is to prevent the present order from being +overturned, by one nation annihilating or subduing another; and +then, by their united strength, swallowing up a third, as was the +case with the Romans.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>vantages are so great, that they probably +never will be entirely abandoned, though we have strong proofs, of +late years, that they are not always held very sacred.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The chart subjoined to this, giving a statistical representation of +the powers of Europe, shews nearly in what manner power is +distributed at this time; the population and extent are there +represented with accuracy: these are the foundation of power; and +the amount of the revenue may be said to shew the means, which a +nation has of exerting that power. (For the description and +explanation see the page opposite the chart). [Transcriber's note: +seemingly a reference to Chart No. 2; the explanation in fact +appears on page 190.]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The balance of power, however well attended to, could not prevent +the decline of a nation from interior causes. It may prevent +the operation of exterior causes from pushing a nation to the +extreme of humiliation, by taking advantage of its internal +situation. But the decline of almost every nation has +commenced within its own bosom, and has been completed by causes +acting from without.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The common termination of the interior causes of decline is revolt, +or a division into parties, when the party that has the +disadvantage generally calls in some neighbour to its aid. +This is the most miserable fate that can befal =sic= a country, and +no punishment is sufficiently severe for the men, who have so far +lost every sentiment of patriotism as to have recourse to such a +step.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The exterior causes of decline, namely, rivalship in peace and the +combined efforts of enemies in war may be considered as +irresistible, if the government, which has the direction of a +nation, does not act wisely; but, if it does, they may be put at +defiance. If a nation preserves its interior sources of +prosperity, and acts with moderation and firmness towards others, +their envy and efforts will be without effect, and need never be a +cause of much uneasiness.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In its relation to other nations, the government of a country acts +like an individual. The first thing is to regulate its +interior affairs, and, the next is, in treating with others, to +consider circumstances, and take justice and moderation for a rule +of conduct. [end of page #185]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The circuitous politics attributed to ambassadors, who represent +states, is a common theme of invective: as custom has established +it as a sort of rule, in all such transactions as they conduct, to +conceal a part of what is meant, to demand more than is expected to +be obtained, and offer less than is intended to be given, there is +no immediate remedy; but this is only in the mode and manner of +treating, and does not necessarily imply unfair intention. If +it has become a custom to ask three by way of obtaining two, and of +offering only two to prevent the necessity of giving four, (which +would be expected if three, the number intended to be given, were +offered at first) it is an abuse of language, in so far that what +is expressed is neither meant by one, nor understood by the other +to be meant; but, it is nothing more: neither is it a custom void +of meaning; it is founded on the nature of man.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If men were perfect, and capable of seeing at one view what was +fair, each might come prepared to ask exactly what he wanted, and +determined not to yield any thing; and it would result from their +being perfect, that each would just demand what was right, and the +other was disposed to give; but, as men are not perfect, and as it +is the inclination and even the duty of each to obtain the most +favourable terms he can, (and as he does not see exactly what is +right,) he naturally demands more than he has a right to expect, or +than the other is disposed to give. If ambassadors met +together with a determination to speak explicitly at first, and +with a determination not to recede, the consequence would probably +be, that they would not treat at all, so that the mode of receding +a little does not absolutely imply that more is asked than is +wished for, but that each party over-rates its own pretensions, in +order to obtain what is right.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One thing is certain, that the treaties that have been the best +observed have been those founded on equity, where the contracting +parties were neither of them under the influence of fear or +necessity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The exterior dangers of a country are not only more simple in their +nature than the interior ones, but, being less silent and gradual +in their progress have been more noticed by historians.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Even the ambitious rapacity of the Romans was first directed [end +of page #186] against Carthage, on account of its pride and +injustice in attacking other states; and, in the history of the +nations of the world, there is scarcely a single example of +national prosperity being unattended with some degree of pride, +arrogance, and injustice; nor can it easily be otherwise, for, +notwithstanding all the boasted law of nations, power seems amongst +them to be one of the principal claims on which right is founded, +though, in the moral nature of things, power and right have not the +most distant connection.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is then an object for those who govern nations, in the first +place, to counteract as much as possible the internal tendency to +decline, arising from the causes that have been enumerated; and, +after having done that, to regulate their conduct with regard to +other nations, so as to protect themselves from those external +causes of decline, on the existence of which they have no direct +influence, but which are not capable of producing any great effect, +unless favoured by the internal state of the country, and by the +unwise conduct of those by whom it is governed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>========</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Digression concerning the Importance +of Public Revenue.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No state, what ever its wealth may be, can possess power, unless a +certain portion of that wealth is applicable to public +purposes. As the want of revenue has not been a very common +cause of weakness, we shall give, as an example, the almost +solitary, but very strong, case of Poland. Its feebleness, in +repelling the attacks of its enemies, was occasioned, in a great +measure, by want of revenue. It was with far superior +population, with more fertile soil, and a people no way inferior in +bravery, greatly inferior in actual exertion to Prussia. +When, at last, the Poles, seeing their danger, united together, and +were willing to make every personal exertion and sacrifice, to +preserve their country, they had no means of executing their good +intentions. They had not kept up an army when it was not +wanted, and they could not, on the emergency, create one when it +was become necessary. [end of page #187]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The definition given of power makes it a relative thing, and, +therefore, the revenue necessary to maintain that power or force +must be relative also; it, therefore, depends on circumstances, +what is to be considered as a sufficient or insufficient +revenue.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the United States of America were accessible with ease to +European nations, or if they had powerful neighbours on their own +soil, they would find their present revenues quite unequal to +preserving their independence; but, as it is, perhaps they are the +most wealthy civilized nation in the world, if an excess of revenue +constitutes wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In Europe, whatever nations are unable to keep up forces sufficient +to make those exertions which, according to their alliances and +dangers, may be necessary, they are weak from want of revenue, and +ought to augment it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the course of making greater exertions than the revenues would +bear, some nations have contracted debts. It is not the +purpose here to enter into the complication such debts occasion, +and the alterations they make on the revenue, and the disposal of +the revenue of a country; but, so far as that subject is yet +understood, it appears that the clear revenue, after paying the +interest of the debt, ought to be as great as it would be +altogether, if there were no debt; that is to say, after paying +interest, there ought to remain a sufficient surplus to pay all the +expenses necessary for government and defence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The money that goes for the payment of interest has some tendency +to increase the influence of government at home, but is of no +manner of use with regard to enemies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the statistical chart here annexed, which shews the relative +proportion of the revenues of all the nations in Europe, as well as +their actual amount, it is perfectly clear, that, great and +extensive as the Russian empire is, it will not be very powerful +until its revenues are considerably increased.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great value of money, and the prices of provisions, and many +sorts of warlike stores, enable great armies to be maintained in +that country, even with small revenues; but the Russians can make +no great effort, at a distance from home, till their revenues are +augmented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The revenues of Spain are considerable; but the free revenue is +not, [end of page #188] and it has no credit to supply the +place. The same thing may be said of Portugal; and if England +had no credit, it would be in the same situation; but as it has +better credit than any nation ever had, so, likewise, it is the +only one whose efforts have never been in any way, or at any time, +either restricted or suspended, for want of money to carry them +into effect.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch were, at one time, situated nearly as England is now; +they had not sufficient free revenue, but they had good credit; of +which, however, they were not willing to make the necessary use, +and the French marched into Amsterdam with greater ease than the +Russians did into Warsaw.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest victories of the French, during the revolution, were +gained at a time when her regular revenues were inconsiderable, and +when she was in a state of absolute bankruptcy. This is +considered by some as a proof that force is independent of revenue, +and that Frederick the Great was mistaken in saying, that money was +the sinews of war; but this case has been misunderstood as well as +misrepresented.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though, in general, regular resources for money are necessary to +support war, and regular resources imply revenue, it never was +asserted, that, if irregular resources could be obtained, they +would not answer the same purpose, so long as they lasted. +During the first five years of the French revolution, a sum equal +to at least four hundred millions sterling was consumed, besides +what was pillaged from the enemy. So that at the time that France +was without regular revenue, she was actually expending +seventy-five millions sterling per annum: a sum greater than any +other nation ever had at its disposal.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The impossibility of such a resource continuing is of no importance +in the present argument, although it is luckily of very great +importance to the peace of mankind. France supported war, for +a certain time, by consuming capital, and without revenue, but not +without money; so that what his Prussian Majesty said, stands +uncontroverted, and the necessity of revenue, regular and durable, +for the maintenance of regular and durable force, is established +beyond the power of contradiction. [end of page #189]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPLANATION OF STATISTICAL CHART, NO. +2.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this chart, the different nations of Europe are represented by +circles, bearing the proportion of their relative extent. +This is done in order to give a better idea of the proportions than +a geographical map, where the dissimilar and irregular forms +prevent the eye from making a comparison.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The graduated scale of lines represents millions of pounds +sterling; and the red lines, that rise on the left of each circle, +express the number of inhabitants in millions, which may be known +by observing at what cross-line the red one stops.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The yellow lines, on the right of the circles, shew the amount of +revenue in pounds sterling.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nations stained green, are maritime powers; those stained pale +red, are only powerful by land.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The dotted lines, to connect the extremities of the lines of +population and revenue, serve, by their descent from right to left, +or from left to right, to shew how revenue and population are +proportioned to each other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The impression made by this chart is such, that it is impossible +not to see by what means Sweden and Denmark are of little +importance, as to wealth or power; for, though population and +territory are the original foundation of power, finances are the +means of exerting it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +What must the consequences be if the Russian empire should one day +become like other nations? If ever that should happen, it +either will be divided, or it will crush all Europe.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The prodigious territory of Russia, and the immense revenues of +England, are the most astonishing things represented in that chart; +they are out of all proportion to the rest. [end of page +#190]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>=========</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>BOOK III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>=========</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Result of the foregoing Inquiry +applied to Britain.-- Its present State, in what its Wealth +consists, illustrated by a Chart, shewing the Increase of Revenue +and Commerce.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +HAVING now taken a view, and inquired into the causes that have +ruined nations that have been great and wealthy, from the earliest +to the present time; having also inquired into the causes that +naturally will operate where those did not, and that would, at a +later period, have produced the same effect; it is now the business +to examine how far and in what way the result of the inquiry +applies to the British empire.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The power and wealth of Britain, according to the definition given +at the beginning of this work, are founded not on conquests, extent +of territory, superior population, or a more favourable soil or +climate, or even in bravery; for in those it is but on a par with +other nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The only natural advantages of Britain are, its insular situation +and the disposition of the people, and the excellent form of its +government.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the two first have arisen that good government, commerce, and +industry; and on those have arisen again a great naval power, and +an uncommon degree of wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In arms, it does not appear that England is so powerful by land, in +proportion as in former times: her power must then be considered as +a naval power, and that founded principally on commerce. +{153}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{153} Our last brilliant achievements by +land were under the Duke of Marlborough; but even then, with allies +to assist, we were but a balance to France. Before the +conquest, England seems to have been far below the level of most +other nations, as a power by land. Soon after [end of page +#191] she appears to have risen above France, and other nations, or +they probably rather sunk; but, ever since England became +formidable at sea, she has lost her superiority in the army; +although she has never sunk under the level, and never, in any +instance, were her armies beat when the numbers were equal to those +of the enemy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>{Here appears at page +192 the second chart, entitled</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>"Chart</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Representing +the</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Extent, Population +& Revenue</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>-of +the-</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>PRINCIPAL NATIONS in +EUROPE</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>- in 1804 - +by</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>W. +Playfair"}</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As such then we have only to examine the foundation on which she +stands, and find in what she is vulnerable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must first begin with the interior situation, to follow the same +order that has been attended to in the rest of the +work. </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Changes of manners, habits of education, and the natural effects of +luxury, are as likely to operate on the British empire, as on some +others which they have destroyed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the unequal division of property, there is perhaps less +danger, but from the employment of capital there is more than +almost in any other nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From the abuses of law and public institutions and <i>l'esprit du +corps</i>, we run a very great risk; more indeed than under an +arbitrary government or even a republic. These last are the +dangers that most seriously threaten a nation living under a mixed +government.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to the produce of the soil becoming unequal to the maintenance +of a people addicted to luxurious habits, we have much also to fear +from that: the operation is begun, and its effects will soon be +most serious: they are already felt, and very visible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From taxation, unproductive and idle people, we have more to fear +than most nations; and from an alteration in the manner of +thinking, and persons and property leaving the nation, we have as +much as any other nation, according to the degree of wealth that we +possess; so that, upon the whole, the interior causes of decline +are such as it is extremely necessary to guard against in the most +attentive manner.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In respect to the exterior causes, we are exempt entirely from +some, from others we are not; and, in one case, we have exterior +causes for hope that no nation ever yet had.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The advancement of other nations, their enmity and envy, are full +as likely to operate against this nation as against any other that +ever existed; but as we owe none of our superiority to geographical +situa- [end of page #192] tion like the Greek islands, the Delta of +Egypt, and borders of the Mediterranean Sea, we run no risk of any +discovery in geography, or in navigation, operating much to our +disadvantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We are not so far advanced before other nations in arts as to have +any great reason to dread that their advancement will be our ruin; +but still we must allow, that a number of external causes may +combine to bring us to their level, when the effects of our present +wealth may soon operate in reducing us under it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Since, then, commerce is the foundation of our wealth, and since +our power, which is naval, is built upon commerce, let us begin +with taking a view of its present situation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The increase of the trade of Britain to foreign parts, within these +last fifteen years, though a very natural effect of the causes that +have operated during that period, is not itself a natural increase, +because the causes that produced it are uncommon, temporary, and +unnatural.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The East and West India trades have been both lost to France and +Holland. The French, before the revolution, had a greater +share of the West India trade than ever we had, and they could +undersell us in foreign markets.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Dutch and French together had a very great share of the +commerce of the East; this partly accounts for the rapid increase +of English commerce since they lost theirs. Besides, the +French nation itself, which formerly consumed scarcely any English +manufactures, and supplied Germany, and many parts of Europe, with +its own, has been employed for several years in consuming its +manufactured stock, eating up its capital, and ruining its own +manufactories; so that France itself, Germany, and a great portion +of the continent, have been obliged to apply to Britain, both for +manufactures and colonial produce, as well as for the goods that +come from India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Add to this, that capital on the continent of Europe has suffered +an unexampled diminution, from a variety of causes. A great +part has been consumed in France, and in all the countries into +which her armies have penetrated, particularly in Holland; and that +confidence, [end of page #193] which serves in place of capital, +has been impaired in all countries, and ruined in many.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has already been shewn that the want of capital prevents a poor +nation from supplying itself, and furnishes a rich one with the +means of supplying it, and, as it were, extorting usury from it by +giving credit. The misfortunes of the continent had, by this +means, all of them a direct tendency to advance the commercial +prosperity of England; but still the matter does not rest even +here, for the real capital that fled from the continent of Europe +has, in part, taken refuge in England. We have risen, (for +the moment,) by their depression; and though the advantage will be +of some duration, yet we ought not to consider it as permanent. +{154}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those causes have operated, as indeed might be expected, in a most +powerful manner, but that operation has already begun to +cease. In such uncommon and unexampled circumstances as the +present, it is impossible to forsee =sic= what may happen, yet it +is scarcely possible to suppose things will remain as they +are. Terror and alarm are too painful to continue their +action long on the human mind; and even if the cause were not +diminished, the effect would become less violent with time and +custom. Again, we are not to suppose, that such times as +those of 1793 and 1794 are ever to return, therefore the alarm will +be diminished, new capital will rise up, and, as security of +private property is now understood to be the basis of all wealth +and prosperity, confidence will be restored by degrees.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The increase of trade is not then to be expected from the same +causes that have of late operated with so rapid and powerful an +effect: on the contrary, they may be expected so far to cease, as +to occasion a diminution of our exports.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This will, however, be counteracted by some circumstances, while +others will tend to augment the violence of its effects.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The trade with the American States and with Russia increase, +from</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{154} As one proof of capital taking +refuge in England, the sudden rise of stock, during the first three +years of the French revolution, may be adduced, without fear of +being contradicted as to the fact, or the assigned cause +controverted. [end of page #194]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>no temporary or fallacious cause. +In the former country, population very rapidly increases, and, in +the latter, wealth and civilization, which have a similar effect +{155} upon the wants of a nation. These are in favour of a +manufacturing country, like England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +These two are not only, then, permanent, but augmenting causes for +our commerce; {156} they are causes that augment rapidly, and may, +with proper care, be carried to a great extent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The superiority in the West India trade is so far of a permanent +nature, that France will never again be a formidable rival +there. St. Domingo is not only lost, but probably lost for +ever, while it is expected that Britain may retain her +islands. This trade, then, may be set down as permanent; that +is to say, that there does not seem to be any immediate cause for +its decline; {157} and the government of this country is +sufficiently aware of consequences not to neglect taking every +precaution possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The East India trade does not, indeed, appear equally secure. +There we are powerfully rivalled by the Americans, and the +merchants of other countries; but, on the other hand, the demand +for the produce of Asia is augmenting rapidly all over the +continent of Europe; so that perhaps we may be able to maintain our +ground, even though other nations regain part of the trade they +have lost.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To remain, then, in the situation in which we are, with respect +to</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{155} The great augmentation of fine +fertile territory, in America, will retard the progress of +manufactures and commerce in that country, by employing the capital +and attention of the inhabitants on agriculture. This may be +the case for half a century, and, if England improves, the +circumstances may continue to operate in favour of British +manufactures for many centuries to come.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{156} The ports in the Black Sea add a +new district to the commercial world, which, in course of time, +must greatly increase the demand for such articles, as a civilized +people consume. The fineness of the climate and of the +country will enable the inhabitants to gratify the taste which +civilization will bring along with it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{157} It would be quite foreign to the +end of this inquiry to examine into the interior state of the West +India islands, or as to their continuing subject to Great +Britain. This is entirely a political affair, unconnected +with commerce, though its effects on it would be prodigious. [end +of page #195]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>foreign trade, we must exert ourselves; +those external causes that have forced trade upon us, for these +last fifteen years, being but of a temporary nature.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In order to be more sensible of this necessity, let us consider a +few other circumstances.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wealth of England, which was the envy of Europe, even previous +to the American war, in which we stood single-handed and alone +(having the three most powerful maritime nations against us, and +none to take our part) has now become more conspicuous, and much +more likely to excite envy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Not only the situation of Britain is much more exalted, but the +other nations feel a comparison that is infinitely more +humiliating; add to this, that old attachments, and a regard to the +laws of nations, and to a balance of power in Europe, are much +enfeebled, or rather nearly done away.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Britain has alone, for some time, stood forward to resist the +innovations and power of France; and, after having at first +subsidized every nation that would fight in the common cause, it +has alone maintained the common right itself, thereby adding a +double humiliation to those who wanted means of assisting, or whose +courage had failed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +France, with all its acquisition of territory and alliance, with +all that influence over neutral nations, which terror of its arms +inspires, will never cease to combat the prosperity of +England. Some other nations, through envy or shame, +stimulated by a hope of partaking in the wealth that England loses, +will either sit passive or assist. {158}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The East India trade is that which excites the greatest portion of +envy, and it will be difficult to resist its effects. This +superior degree of envy is occasioned by three principal +causes:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The splendid establishments of the East India company, its +fleets,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{158} Gratitude, some will say, may +prevent this; but nations have no gratitude, they only know their +interest, and nothing retrospective is any motive for action. +We need not search into remote periods for proofs of this, see +Holland, Spain, Russia, &c. during the latter part of the last +war. [end of page #196]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>and the fact that it is the greatest +commercial company that does now, or ever did, exist, constitute +the first cause, not only for envy, but for a wish to participate +in the trade.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The second cause arises from the extent of our possessions, the +immensity of the territorial revenues, and the evident injustice of +a company of merchants becoming sovereigns, and holding the ancient +princes of the East, and the successors of the Great Mogul, as +tributary vassals. {159}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is in vain that we say the people are happier than they were +before we did them the honour to become their masters. +Whether this is true or not, there is no means of proving it, +besides there can be no right established by London merchants to +force the inhabitants of Hindostan to become happy, whether they +will or not.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The same pretence has been used by the French, in subduing Flanders +and Brabant, in governing Holland and Switzerland; but they have +not been able to obtain credit. The regular governments, who +partitioned Poland, have pretended the same thing; and our +slave-merchants and planters give very positive assurances that the +negroes toiling on the West India plantations are much happier than +they were in their own country; yet, in defiance of all this cloud +of witnesses, there is something in the human breast that resists +and rejects such evidence; evidence doubtful, on account of the +quarter from whence it comes, and the interests of the witnesses, +as well as con-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{159} However we may look upon this, +other nations certainly see the matter as iniquitous and unjust; +and it is well known with what feelings such a belief is +entertained.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the revolutions in Farther Asia have not made any part of +the basis of our inquiry, yet it is impossible, having mentioned +the Mogul empire, not to notice its rapid and terrible fall. +In 1707, only ninety-eight years ago, the Great Mogul ruled over a +country equal in extent, and little inferior in population, +to France, Spain, Germany, and England. His revenues amounted +to thirty-two millions sterling, which, at that time, was nearly +equal to the whole revenues of all the monarchs of Europe. He +is now circumscribed to a territory less than the smallest county +in England, and is the vassal at will of a company of English +merchants, who, with all their greatness, do not divide profits +equal to one week of his former revenues! [end of page +#197]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>trary to the natural feelings of beings +endowed with the power of reason; at variance, also, with an +opinion of a very ancient origin, "that coercion and force are +enemies to enjoyment."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In defiance, then, of our assertions, the other nations of Europe +will and do view this acquired territory with anger, as well as +envy; and, though it is true, that, out of the immense revenues +that arise to the company, they divide little profit, though their +debts are annually augmenting, yet individual Englishmen, it must +be admitted, bring home great fortunes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This fact is not to be denied, and is so much the worse, that +though a government even of merchants may be supposed to obtain +revenues fairly, individuals, who rapidly acquire great wealth are +always supposed to do it by extortion or unfair means. +{160}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The third cause for envy is of great antiquity. The commerce +of the East, from the earliest ages, has been that which has +enriched all the nations that ever possessed it; and, consequently, +has been a perpetual cause of envy and contention, as we have +already seen, in its proper place. For all those reasons, not +one of which we can remove entirely, the East India trade is a +particular object of envy; and, unless great care is taken, will +entail the same danger on this country, as it has on all +those that ever possessed it. Tyre and Sidon, in Syria, +Alexandria, in Egypt, Venice, Genoa, the Hans Towns, and Portugal, +have all been raised and ruined by this trade, which seems +to</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{160} So far back as 1793, Mr. Dundas +estimated the sums remitted by individuals at an annual million; +add to this, plunder arising from war, (which is become as natural +a state in India as peace,) and we shall see that now the revenues +and establishments are nearly doubled. The following will not +be an unfair estimate:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Private fortunes remitted in +1793 + +£1,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Average ditto arising from +years</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of war, the plunder of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Seringapatam, +&c +300,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Increase remitted home since,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>in proportion to revenue + +700,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> + + ____________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Remitted now by the same +description</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of men + +£2,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Besides what is remitted home, those +servants of the company expend immense sums in the country, living +there in the greatest luxury. [end of page #198]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>have been the cradle and the grave of +most of those nations that have become rich and powerful by the +means of commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Our West India wealth, though derived from a source still more, +or at least equally, impure, and though not inferior in +amount, is, for several reasons, not the cause of so much +envy. It is not confined to a company, and therefore the +splendour and ostentation that, in the case of the Asiatic trade, +occasion envy, do not exist in that to the American +islands.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Our monopoly is by no means so complete, which has a double effect +in our favour; for, besides preventing others from envying us so +much, it prevents them from condemning us so severely.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The same nations that see, in its full force, the injustice of +subjecting the inhabitants of the East, in their own country, in a +way that, at the worst, is not very rigorous, join cordially in +robbing Africa of its inhabitants, to make them slaves in America, +in a way, that, at the best, is very rigorous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Such are the baneful effects of sordid interest acting on the mind +of man! But our business is not here to investigate opinions, +but their result; and, in the present instance, we find that to +admit participation in criminality is the only way to avoid envy +and offence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The third cause for envy is likewise wanting. The commerce +with the West Indies is but of a recent date, and no nation has +ever owed its greatness or decline to that single source. {161} It +is not like the Asiatic trade, a sort of hereditary cause of +quarrel; a species of heirloom, entailing upon the possessor the +envy and enmity of all other nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The envy occasioned by the West India trade is farther diminished +by the circumstance that the plantations have been raised with the +money of the persons by whom they are possessed; and that if they +had no original right to the soil in its barren state, the +cultivation at least is owing to their capital and +industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The most solid and secure portion of our trade is that which +con-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{161} France was the nation that, before +the revolution, gained the most by this trade; indeed, no nation +has, to this date, gained so much as it did.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #199]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>sists of our manufactures at home. +In those, though we excite envy, we excite no other of the hateful +passions. Emulation is natural, and admiration is +unavoidable, on seeing the vast progress that arts and industry +have made in this country; so that England is absolutely considered +as the first country in the world for manufactures.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This cause of greatness and wealth operates in a more uniform and +durable manner; though, like others, it has its bounds, yet the +nature of them is not easily ascertained.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this there are two things essential,-- the procuring a market, +and the means of supplying it. We have always yet found the +means of supplying every market we have got; but we have not always +been able to extend our market so much as it might have been +wished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +America and Russia offer new markets, as has already been observed, +but, to extend our old markets, we must either reduce the price, +improve the quality, or extend the credit, and invention is the +only means by which these things can be done; and there is no +possibility of knowing where to set bounds to invention, aided by +capital and the division of labour. We are, however, not to +forget that priority in point of time being one of the causes of a +nation's rise, and being of a nature to be destroyed in the course +of years, the superiority we enjoy may leave us, as it did other +nations in former times.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a country produces the raw material, and labour is cheap, and +the art established, we might suppose the superiority secure; but +it is not. The cotton trade was first established in the East +Indies, where the material grows, where the labour is not a tenth +of the price that it is in England, and the quality of the +manufactured article is good; yet machinery and capital have +transplanted it to England. But the same machinery may give a +superiority, or at least an equality, to some other country; it is, +therefore, our business to persevere in encouraging invention, by +the means that have hitherto been found so successful. +{162}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{162} The law of patents, and the +premiums offered by the Society of Arts, suggest improvements, and +reward them when made. To those, to the security of property, +and nature of the government, we chiefly owe the great improvements +made in England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #200]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The most necessary thing for our commerce is the support of +mercantile credit, without which it is in vain to expect that trade +will be carried on to any great amount. In 1772, when a great +failure occasioned want of confidence, the exports of the country +fell off above three millions, but its imports fell off very +little. {163} In 1793, when the internal credit of the +mercantile people was staggered, precisely the same effect was +produced. These are the only two instances of individual +credit being staggered to such a degree, as to prevent mercantile +men from putting confidence in each other; and they are the only +two instances of any very great falling off in the exports in one +year, except during the American war, when the chief branches of +trade in the country were cut off or diminished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The falling off, in exports, in 1803, which was very great indeed, +(being no less than one-third of the whole,) was not occasioned by +the same cause, but appears to have been owing to three others of a +different nature.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +First, the French had actually shut us out from a great extent of +coast, and this occasioned a diminution of exports, which will, in +part, be done away, when new channels of conveyance are found +out. It will nevertheless operate in causing some diminution, +as circuitous channels render goods more difficult to be +introduced, and consequently dearer to the consumers.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The second cause appears to have been, the uncertainty of our +merchants where to send the goods, and who to trust, as the fear of +the extension of French power took away confidence, and produced a +sort of irresolution, which is always hurtful to +business.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The third cause of the diminution of trade, no doubt, arose from +the cessation of that alarm about property, that has been described +as having occasioned so much to be sent from the continent to +England. In other words, it is the return of the pendulum +which had vibrated, </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{163} This is a sort of paradox: when +money became scarce, the nation bought nearly as much as ever, but +sold less. This is not the case with individuals, and, at +first sight, does not appear natural.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #201]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>through a temporary impulse, beyond the +natural perpendicular. Had there been no revolution in +France, and had it not been conducted on the principles it was, our +trade could not have augmented so fast as it did; but a falling off +of fifteen millions in one year is too much to be ascribed to that +cause alone. An examination of the branches that did fall off +will elucidate this.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The commerce with the United States of America is one of those that +has fallen off, and is the only one that does not appear to be +directly connected with these causes. There are some reasons, +however, for thinking that it had an indirect connection with +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever interrupts our connection with the continent of Europe, or +renders it unsafe, has, in some degree, the same effect with a +stagnation of credit at home. This has taken place; and as it +of course affected every branch of trade, that with America felt +the blow amongst the rest, and, indeed, more than in proportion; +for, as there is no course of exchange with any town in America, +and as the credits there are long, the exportation to that country +suffers in a particular manner when there is any heaviness in the +money market here. Thus it was that, in 1772, the American +exports suffered a diminution of two millions from the stagnation; +and, in 1793, of rather more than half a million. In the +former case, the American trade seems alone almost to have +suffered, and, even in the latter case, it fell off more than in +its just proportion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been observed, that the improving our manufactures at home +is the most secure support of our foreign trade, which chiefly +depends on superior skill, industry, and invention, the wages of +labour being greatly against us. We shall consider by what +stability of tenure we hold that advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The nation or individual that proceeds first in improvement is +always uncertain how much farther it can be carried; those who +follow, on the contrary, know what can be done, and therefore act +with certainty and confidence. As to individuals, those who +are the foremost in improvement have great difficulties to +encounter; they seldom can procure the pecuniary aid necessary, and +always do so with great difficulty; whereas, those who copy, +without half their merit, or, [end of page #202] perhaps, without +any merit at all, meet with support from every quarter. +{164}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +From this it is very evident, that the nation the farthest advanced +in invention has only to remain stationary a few years, and it will +soon be overtaken, and perhaps surpassed. Holland, Flanders, +and France, were all originally superior, in the arts of +manufacturing most goods, to England; and, indeed, it is no great +length of time since we obtained the superiority over Holland in +several articles of importance, and in particular where machinery +was wanting. If it were necessary, it would not be difficult +to give examples, to shew with what eagerness those who imported +inventions were taken by the hand, on the bare probability of +success, while the inventors of machines, and of methods of +manufacturing entirely new, and of still more importance, were +left to grope their way, and, until crowned with success, +rather considered as objects of pity than of praise or admiration. +{165}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not then altogether by a sure or lasting tenure that we hold +this superiority of manufactures. We have examined several +other sources of wealth, and the general conclusion is, that, +without care and atten-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{164} Mr. Arkwright, who produced the +cotton-spinning machine, underwent great difficulties for many +years; as also did Mr. Watt, the ingenious and scientific improver +of the steam-engine; and, had not good fortune thrown him in the +way of Mr. Boulton, a man of fortune and resource, and himself a +man of genius, he probably must have languished in obscurity, and +the nation remained without his admirable invention. The +profits derived from the spinning-machine may, at first sight, +appear the greater national advantage of the two; but it is not so +in reality, for the spinning-machine only manufactures a raw +material, brought from another country, cheaper than before; +whereas, the steam-engine enables us to obtain raw materials from +our own soil cheaper; a thing more important, more permanent, and +of which we were more in want: besides this, the steam-engine is +extending the scope of its utility every day; whereas, the spinning +machines can go little farther. But to leave this digression, +which is not altogether foreign to the purpose, and return to the +facility with which inventors are followed, it is a fact, that in +almost every country in Europe, money can be got by any adventurer +who will propose to establish either a cotton spinning machine, or +a manufactory of steam-engines; and it is a fact, that immense sums +have been, and are still given, for those purposes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{165} Slitting-mills, saw-mills, the art +of imitating porcelain, and of making good earthen-ware, and paper, +together with a vast number of other inventions, were imported from +Holland; in every one of which we have gone beyond the Dutch, just +as they got the better of the Flemings in the art of curing +herrings. Priority of invention is not then a permanent +tenure.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #203]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>tion, this nation cannot be expected long +to maintain its superiority over others, in the degree it at +present enjoys.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The American market, {166} and the Russian (in a smaller degree,) +however, hold out a prospect of increased commerce to us, from +external causes, that we cannot flatter ourselves with in the +internal ones. It is to those we must look, and to those +only, for the extension of the sale of our manufactures; but, even +in this case, we must use efforts, for it is very seldom that a +good end is effected by accident, or without a view towards its +accomplishment.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Having now taken a view of the situation of this country, and seen +that, though it is not likely to be deprived of its commerce by +conquest, like Babylon, Tyre, or Alexandria, or by a new discovery +in geography and the art of navigation, like Venice and Genoa; +though, indeed, it has no great appearance of sharing the fate of +Spain, Portugal, or Holland, yet there are other causes that may +stop its career. If it is exempt from the dangers they +laboured under, it is subject to others from which they were +free.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We have already examined the effect of taxes and national debt on +the industry of a country, even whilst augmenting in wealth; but we +have not examined what that effect will be when a country comes to +be on a level with other nations that do not labour under the same +burthens.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no possibility of standing long still with a burthen on +the shoulders, it must either be thrown off or it will become a +cause of decline. Let us endeavour to point out methods by +which that may be averted, or at least procrastinated. In doing +this, we are either exposing our ignorance and presumption, or +doing a signal service to our country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{166} The American exports from this +country consist almost entirely in manufactures; we neither supply +that country with East or West India produce. The Russians +are aspiring at possessions in the West Indies, and, no doubt, will +succeed; they are advancing still more rapidly in power than the +Americans are in population. It was only in 1769, (not forty +years ago,) that the first Russian flag was seen in the +Mediterranean Sea, and now Russia stands fair to be sovereign of a +number of the Greek islands; and, at any rate, by the Dardanelles, +to carry on a great commerce. What may thirty years more not +effect with such a country, and such a race of +sovereigns?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #204]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The load must be taken off, or it will crush the bearer; but how +this is to be done is the difficulty. If our debt is paid +off, the capital will go to other nations, for it will not find +employment amongst ourselves; and this will reduce the nation, and +raise others. If it continues, we sink under it; and, if we +break faith with the creditors, it destroys confidence for ever; we +can no longer give law, by means of our capital, to the markets in +other nations, and we probably overturn the government of our +own.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst the <i>exterior</i> causes of decline that are general, +none applies so completely to Great Britain as that of the envy and +enmity, occasioned by the possession of colonies we have settled, +or countries we have conquered.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The wealth of Britain and its power arise from agriculture, +manufactures, commerce, colonies, and conquests. The envy +they excite is not, however, in proportion to the wealth that +arises from them, but rather to the right we have to possess them, +and the consequent right that others have to contest the +possession.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Improved agriculture has never been a source of enmity amongst +civilized nations, though it has been an object of conquest when an +opportunity presented itself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Manufactures, the great source of our wealth, are, in a certain +degree, beyond the reach of our enemies. Our greatest +consumption for them is amongst ourselves, and if we did not export +to any part of the world, except enough to procure materials, we +should enjoy nearly all that we now do. Our wealth would not +be very materially diminished, though our naval strength +would. The means of destroying our manufactures is not then +very easily to be found.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The commerce with other nations, our enemies, or rivals, have a +more effectual means of diminishing, by the laying on duties on our +manufactures, and augmenting those duties when the goods happen to +be carried in English vessels; but still the advantage we enjoy in +this competition is great.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Not so with our colonies and conquests. The whole imports +from the East Indies, from 1700 to the present day, have only +amounted [end of page #205] to 165,000,000 L. and our +exports, during the same period, to 83,000,000 L. while our total +exports have amounted to 1,486,000 L. during the same period. +{167}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There would be much affectation, and little accuracy, in attempting +to make any thing like a strict comparison between the relative +proportions of the wealth procured by general trade, and that +procured by trade with India. The exports amount to about +one-nineteenth part of the whole; and, perhaps, as they are +manufactured goods, to about one-tenth part of the whole +manufactures of the country exported: but the manufactures exported +are not equal to one-third part of those consumed at home, so that +not above one-thirtieth part of our manufacturers are maintained by +the trade to India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In 1793, when the charter of the company was renewed, the +India-budget stated the private fortunes acquired and brought home, +at one million annually: that has probably increased since then; +but it was at that time greater than it had been before: if, then, +we take the annual arrival, since the year 1765, at one million, it +will make forty millions, which, compared with the balance of trade +during that period, amounts to about one-sixth part of the balance +supposed to come into the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +How much of our national debt might be set down to the account of +India, is another question. By debt contracted, and interest +of debt paid, during the same period, we have disbursed the sum of +1,100,000,000 L. which is equal to more than twelve times the whole +of the property acquired by our India affairs, supposing the +45,000,000 L.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{167} Comparison between the total +foreign trade of the country, to that with the East Indies only, +for 104 years.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Total +Exports. +Total +Balance +Exports to India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +in our favour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>From 1700</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>to +1760, +£540,000,000 +£249,000,000 +£18,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>1760 to</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>1785, +£370,000,000 +£101,000,000 +£25,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>1785 to</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>1805, +£576,000,000 +£142,000,000 +£40,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +____________ +____________ +____________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +£1,486,000,000 +£492,000,000 +£80,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +____________ +____________ +____________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>This is about a nineteenth part of our +foreign trade, and the balance is greatly against us.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #206]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>remitted, to be all gain, together with +one-half of the 83,000,000 L. which surely is allowing the gain at +the highest rate for both. {168}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Supposing, then, that the wars that India has occasioned have cost +(or the proportion of the debt they have occasioned) one-sixth part +of the whole of our debt, and that the profits on goods to India, +and private fortunes, came into the public treasury, there would +still have been a great loss to the state; but this has not been +the case, the interest of the debt has been levied on the people, +and will continue to be so, till all is paid off; which, according +to the plan of the sinking fund, will be in thirty-five years, so +that we shall have about 750,000,000 L. more to pay, {169} +supposing we have peace all that time, and continue to possess +India.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is something very gloomy in this view of national affairs, +and yet there is no apparent method of making it more +pleasing.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is, on the contrary, very possible, that as Malta, on account of +its being supposed the key to India, has cost us 20,000,000 L. +within a few years, that, in less than thirty-five years, it may +cost us <i>something</i> more; and, it is not by any means +impossible, that, before that period, we may either lose India, or +give it away; on either of which suppositions, the arithmetical +balance of profit and loss will be greatly altered, to our farther +disadvantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On the possessions in India, and the complicated manner in which +our imports (again exported) affect the nation, a volume might be +written, but it would be to very little purpose, in a general +inquiry of this sort. It is sufficient to shew here that the +wealth obtained by that channel is not of great magnitude, in +comparison either of the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{168} The nearness of the balance of +trade, to the amount of debt contracted, will naturally excite +attention, but it appears merely accidental, and to have not any +real connection.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Debt +borrowed +£500,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Interest +paid +£590,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +______________</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> + + £1,090,000,000</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{169} Let the future profits and expenses +be set against each other, like the last.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #207]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>wealth acquired by foreign trade, or by +our industry at home; and that, at the same time, we see that it +excites more envy and jealousy than all the rest of the advantages +we enjoy put together.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Badly as men act in matters of interest, and much as envy blinds +them in cases of rivalship, yet still there is a certain degree of +justice predominant in the mind, that admits the claim of merit and +true desert. Every person, who has heard the conversation, or +read the opinions of people in other nations, on the wealth and +greatness of England, will allow, that, as commercial men, and as +manufacturers, we are the wonder of the world, and excite +admiration; but, concerning our dominion over India, and our +plantations in the American islands, foreigners speak very +differently.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In order to bring down a nation, that has risen above its level, +there is followed a system of enmity in war, and rivalship in +peace.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Portuguese seized on a lucky opportunity to undermine and +supplant the Venecians and the Genoese, who had long been the envy +of all nations, for the wealth they obtained, by the monopoly of +the trade to India. The Dutch soon rivalled the Portuguese in +trade, and the Flemings in manufactures; and, indeed, there is no +saying in how great a variety of ways the superiority of a nation +may not be pulled down.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +England, commencing later than any, has now obtained her full share +of the commerce of the East, and of manufactures; but the nations +that envy the wealth of others have always several great +advantages. The nation that is highest treads in discovery, +invention, &c. a new path, and is never certain how far she can +go, nor how to proceed. Those who follow have, in general, +but to copy, and, in doing that, it is generally pretty easy to +improve. At all events, a day must arrive when the nation +that is highest, ceasing to proceed, the others must overtake +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the nation that is farthest advanced is ignorant of the +improvements that may be made, it does not feel what it wants; and, +like a man in full health, will give no encouragement to the +physician. The countries that follow behind act differently; +and they generally, in order [end of page #208] to protect +their rising manufactures, impose duties on similar ones imported; +thus preventing a competition between old established manufactures, +and those recently begun.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So far as priority of settlement, or of invention, give a +superiority to a nation over others, the equalizing principle acts +with a very natural and evident force; but, when the manners and +modes of thinking of a people have once taken a settled turn, in +addition to their proficiency in manufactures, it does not appear +easily to be altered.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Germans excelled at working in metals, and possessed most of +the arts, in a superior degree to any other people in Europe, a few +centuries ago. In some arts they have been surpassed by the +French, in more by the Dutch, and in nearly all by the English. +{170}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Conquests and colonies are wrested from nations suddenly and by +force; arts and manufactures leave them in time of peace, silently +and by degrees, without noise or convulsion; but the consequences +are not the less fatal on that account; nor, indeed, is the effect +slower, though more silent. Though colonies or conquests pass +away at once, such changes only take place after a long chain of +causes have prepared the way for them; whereas, manufactures are +perpetually emigrating from one country to another: the operation, +though slow and silent, is incessant, and the ultimate effect great +beyond calculation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A good government, and wise laws, that protect industry and +property, and preserve, in purity, the manners of the people, are +the most difficult obstacles for a rival nation to overcome. +Prosperity, which is founded upon that basis, is of all others the +most secure. There are sometimes customs and habits that +favour industry, the operation of which is not perceptible to those +who wish to imitate and rival successful and wealthy +nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In general, it is not to be expected that the southern nations can +come in competition with those living in more northerly climates +in</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{170} The individual German workmen have +not been excelled by the workmen of any other nation, but the +German nation itself has been outdone.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #209]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>those manufactures, where continued or +hard labour is necessary. Nature has compensated the +inhabitants of such countries for this incapacity, by giving them a +fine climate, and, in general, a fertile soil; and, when they do +justice to it, they may live affluent and happy. But, since +industry and civilization have got into northern countries, it is +impossible for the southern ones to rival them in +manufactures.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would be impossible for any people living on the banks of the +Nile, where the finest linen was once manufactured, to rival the +cloths of Silesia, or of Ireland: as well might we think to bring +back the commerce with India to Alexandria by the Red +Sea.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The fine manufactures of India, notwithstanding the materials are +all found in the country, the lowness of labour, and the antiquity +of their establishment, are, in many cases, unable to keep their +ground against the invention and industry of Europeans. The +art of making porcelain-ware, from a want of some of the materials, +has not, in every respect, equalled that manufactured in China; but +in everything else, except material, it excels so much, that the +trade to that country in that article is entirely over.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Many of the finest stuffs are nearly sharing the same fate, and +they all probably will do so in time. Those whom we hope to +surpass are determined to remain as they are, while Europeans aim +at going as far in improvement as the nature of things will +allow.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the nations that follow others in arts are not always confined +to imitation, though we have seen that even there they have a great +advantage. It frequently happens that they get hold of some +invention which renders them superior, in a particular line, to +those whom they only intended to imitate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the superiority of a nation arises from the natural produce of +the earth, such as valuable minerals, then it is very difficult for +others to rival it with advantage; and it is very unwise of any +nation to employ its efforts in rivalling another in an article +where nature has given to the other a decided advantage; and it is +equally ill-judged of a nation to neglect cultivating the +advantages which she enjoys from nature, as they are the most +permanent and their possession the most certain of any she can +enjoy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #210]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If nations were to consider in what branches of manufacture they +are best fitted to excel, it would save much rivalship, +misunderstanding, and jealousy; at the same time that it would tend +greatly to increase the general aggregate wealth of mankind. +It is not to industry and effort alone that mankind owe wealth, but +to industry and effort well directed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This is well explained in the excellent Inquiry into the Causes of +the Wealth of Nations, and it is to be regretted that this truth is +not more generally understood; for it would contribute still more +to the peace and happiness of mankind, than to their commercial +wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is not, however, any subject on which nations are so apt to +err, and, indeed, the error is natural enough, if the ambition of a +rival is not checked by judgement and attention to +circumstances.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a nation is particularly successful in one branch of +manufacture more than in any other, it is generally because some +peculiar circumstances give it an advantage. This ought to +operate as a reason for doubting whether it might be prudent to +attempt to rival a nation in an object in which it had particular +advantages; but quite the contrary is the case; a rival nation aims +directly at the thing in which another excels the most, and +frequently fails when, in any other object, she might have proved +successful. {171}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The changes of the taste and manners of mankind, as well as +discoveries in arts and science, lay a foundation for political +changes; but it is an irregular foundation for change; its +operation is sometimes in favour of, and sometimes against the same +nation, and it never can be calculated beforehand.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the nations that have improved in manufactures the latest have +always carried them to the greatest perfection, it is natural to +inquire how this happens.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The exertion of the mind and body are both of them greatly +aug-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{171} How many ridiculous attempts have +been made, in the north, to rival the Italians in raising silk, and +by enlightened men too; but it is not sufficient to be enlightened, +it is necessary to follow a proper train of reasoning.-- Good +natural sense sometimes supplies the place of regular reasoning, +and, as if it were intuitively, arrives at a true +conclusion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #211]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>mented by success, and diminished by any +thing of a contrary description. The rising nation has always +an increased energy, and that which is about being rivalled a sort +of discouragement and dismay. This is one cause, but there +are others.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So far as methods of working and machinery are connected, the +imitating nation has the advantage; it copies the best sort of +machine, and the best manner of working at once. The workmen +have neither an attachment to the old inferior methods, nor do they +use old inferior machines, to avoid the expense of new ones. +{172} In short, they adopt all improvements without much +additional expense; and, as men's minds are always more occupied in +thinking about a new object than an old one, they are even more +likely to make improvements.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to difficulties in rivalling a nation in skill, in any +mechanical art, there are none. The only difficulties in +manufactures are in the inventions and improvements, and those have +been overcome by the leading nation, and are no difficulties to +that which follows. There are, indeed, some arts which +require particular talents, and a real exertion of genius; but +those are so few in number, and have so little connection with the +common affairs of mankind, or the wealth of nations, that they do +not deserve to be noticed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is nothing in the art of weaving, or working in metals, or in +any other material for common use, that is of such difficulty but +that any man, with a common capacity, may do it nearly as well as +any other man. The habits and manners of mankind, their +disposition to labour, and the nature of the government under which +they live, may encourage or discourage manufacturing; but both the +strength and capacity of any of the natives of Europe, taking them +on an average, are fully sufficient to enable them to excel in any +work.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{172} Where machines are very expensive, +new improvements, that require other machinery, are sometimes +crushed and rejected on that account. To adopt them, a man +must sometimes begin by sacrificing half his fortune, by destroying +his old machinery.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There have been several instances of this seen, particularly in the +making of iron, when it was proposed to convert the rough gueze +into good malleable iron bar, by rolling it at a welding heat, +instead of hammering it by a forge-mill.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #212]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>{Here appears at page +212 the third chart, entitled</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>"Chart</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Shewing the Amount of +the</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Exports and +Imports</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>-of-</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style= +'font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>ENGLAND</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>to and from all +parts</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>from 1800 to +1805"}</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The British nation has begun to seek for wealth from +agriculture. It had long been the mode to pay attention and +give the preference to manufactures; but the current is, for the +present, set in, in another direction. Calculation has, till +of late, been confined to mercantile men; but, after all, they have +not carried it to a very great length: and, as to their speculative +wisdom, it consists chiefly in taking a ready advantage of some +immediate object.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPLANATION OF PLATE NO. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The space from right to left is divided into years, each line +representing the year marked under and above. From the +beginning of the last century, till the year 1770, every tenth year +only is expressed, and the average amount of exports and imports +only is shewn; but, from 1770 to the present time, every year is +separately represented by a line going from the top to the +bottom.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The divisions from top to bottom are millions of pounds sterling, +each representing a million, measuring from the bottom, the number +of millions indicated is marked on the right margin.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As the exports, which are expressed by a red line, increased or +diminished, the red line rises or falls, crossing the division +representing the year at the line which indicates the number of +millions to which the exports amounted that year.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The yellow line is drawn on the same principle, and represents the +imports for the same years; the difference between the two, which +is stained green, being the balance for or against +England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus, for example, we see that, till the year 1775, the exports +rose very fast, and were far above the imports, but that then their +proportion begun =sic= to vary; insomuch that, in 1781, the yellow +line rose above the red, when the balance in favour of England +turned against it, to the amount of a million for one year. +In 1782, the balance again became favourable; but, though the trade +was increasing, the balance was once more, in 1785, against +England; ever since which it has been more or less in our +favour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The difference between the two lines is stained pale green, when +the balance was favourable, but of a pale red when against +England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #213]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The advantages proposed by this mode of representing matters are +the same that maps and plans have over descriptions, and dimensions +written in figures; and the same accuracy is in one case as the +other; for, whatever quantities can be expressed in numbers may be +represented by lines; and, where proportional progression is the +business, what the eye does in an instant, would otherwise require +much time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The impression is not only simple, but it is as lasting in +retaining as it is easy in receiving. Such are the advantages +claimed for the invention twenty years ago, when it first appeared; +the claim has been allowed by many, and not objected to, so far as +the inventor knows, either in this or in any other +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPLANATION OF PLATE NO. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Chart of revenue, from the time of Queen Elizabeth to the present +day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Till the accession of William III. in 1688, the materials for this +are not altogether accurate; but they are not far wrong, and +indeed, the low state of the revenue, previous to that period, is +such that it is a matter of little importance whether or not they +are very exact. It is represented here rather as a contrast +to the present high revenue, and a matter of curiosity, than as +being of much importance.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The pale red part expresses the free revenue, or what is over, +after paying the interest of our debt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This free revenue has not increased so fast as the value of money +has decreased, previous to the year 1793; and certainly, at that +time, the annual sum of 7,000,000 L. was no equal to 4,000,000 L. +in the reign of Queen Anne.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The green part shews the annual interest of the national debt, and +proves, beyond contradiction, that, under such a system, expenses +of war (for the whole debt has been contracted for wars) augment in +much more than a simple proportion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The yellow part, bounded by a curved line, shews the manner in +which the sinking fund will increase in its operation of paying off +the debt, on the supposition that the nation continues to borrow as +it has [end of page #214] done for the last twelve years; setting +apart one per cent. on every new loan, for its +liquidation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As comparative views are the great object of these charts, a yellow +dotted line is made, representing the amount of the revenue of +France during the same period, till 1789, when the revolution +stopped its progress; since which its amount has not been regularly +known. {173}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{173} The author published an Atlas, +containing twenty-seven charts of the different branches of +commerce, revenue, and finance, of England, which was translated +into French. The fifth edition, much improved, and brought to +the present time, is now printing, and will be published in +November.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #215]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III. [=sic= - error in +printer's copy, should read II.]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of Education, as conducted in +England.-- Amelioration proposed.-- Necessity of Government +interfering, without touching the Liberty of the +Subject.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +THE importance of education has been already mentioned, as it in +general regards all nations, and certainly when we have examples to +shew what are the lasting and terrible consequences of degradation +of national character and manners, it is impossible to pay too +strict an attention to that subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The natural tendency in a nation, while growing richer, to alter +its character, owing to the different manner in which the children +are educated and brought up, applies particularly to England, and +to every nation getting rich by trade or manufactures. In +another part, it has been observed, that where the wealth of a +country circulates amongst the labouring classes first, it alters +the manner of living more than when it originates with the higher; +it produces, also, a greater change on the education of +children.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No part of the general inquiry is so particularly applicable to +England, in an excessive degree, as that relative to +education. In proportion as ignorant people arrive at that +sort of affluence, which manufactures and trade produce, in that +same proportion do they ruin their children. The manners, the +nature of the government, and the way of thinking of the people, +all lead to this in England; and so far as it is possible to +observe the effect, it may be said to appear as if it operated with +rapidity at the present period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Many volumes have been written on education, by the ablest men; but +it has already been observed, that they have all treated the +subject in a manner much too intricate and complex. Fully +aware of the importance, they seem to have thought that it could +not be treated too much at length, or investigated too minutely; +and, by this means, what they have said is little applicable to +general purposes; for, if to educate a man for common life were a +difficult complicated operation, it would very seldom be performed. +[end of page #216]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>{Here appears at page +216 the fourth and final chart, entitled</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>"Chart</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Representing +the</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Increase of the +Annual Revenues</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>-of-</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>ENGLAND AND +FRANCE,</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>from the beginning of +the 17th Century to</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>the present +time"}</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The word education itself appears to be misapplied or +misunderstood, owing, probably, to its original construction and +use, and no other word having been substituted in its +place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +By education was meant, in former times, the teaching to read and +write; and these accomplishments, which, at that time, +distinguished a gentleman from the lower classes, and, by that +means, education is still considered as only applying to the +learning of what is taught at schools or universities. It is +principally in this light that those who have written on it have +viewed it, though in fact <i>well brought up</i> (<i>bien +eleve</i>) comes nearer to the meaning than being <i>well +learnt</i>, which is equivalent to well educated.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In this, as in every other thing, the end in view should never be +forgotten; but, as it happens with respect to the middling and +lower orders, it is forgotten so soon as affluence has made a +little progress in a country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The education of the higher classes is generally pretty well +conducted; and, indeed, human beings, when beyond the reach of +want, who do not inherit the necessity derived from Adam, of +gaining their bread by the sweat of their brows, require much more +teaching than others, whose conduct is regulated by necessity, and +who have not the means of giving way to the passions that beset +human nature.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With respect, however, to the higher classes, it is scarcely +possible for a government to interfere to much purpose. Those +who are possessed of fortune will act according to inclination; +and, in respect to this class of society, in England, it is already +in less need of reform or interference than any others, while the +lower and middling classes require it more.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no possibility for an ignorant man to become of any +importance in this country, even with the aid of wealth and +fortune. An immoral character, or a mean selfish one, has not +a much better chance, while, by talents and good conduct, every +thing desirable may be obtained: perhaps, nothing further can be +done to excite men of rank and fortune to emulation and +virtue.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With respect to the learned professions, the modes by which +students are brought up to them are by no means unexceptionable; +but that is not a point of very great national importance; at any +rate, [end of page #217] it is not the part in which England stands +the most in need of attention {174} and interference from the +government of the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The two classes to whom bringing up, as it is generally understood, +would apply better than the word education, are the middle rank of +society, and the lower order of people in trade.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The middle rank of society is, in all countries, the most important +in point of principles and manners. To keep it pure is always +of the highest importance, and it is the most difficult, for there +a baneful change is the most apt to take place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Gentlemen of rank, in all countries, resemble each other very +nearly; not, perhaps, in exterior, because that depends on fashion, +which is arbitrary, but in mind and manners there is less +difference than between men in a second rank of society.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The lower orders, so far as they are forced, by necessity, to +labour, resemble each other also; they are pressed by necessities +and passions on one side, and the desire of rest on the other; and +a fair allowance being made for variety of climate, of +circumstances, and of natural dispositions, there is nothing very +different amongst them. {175}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +What applies with respect to the higher and lower orders does +not</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{174} Our lawyers (barristers) are +probably superior to those of any other nation, and the clergy are, +at least, equal. This is not, indeed, saying a great deal; +but it is so difficult, in matters of religion, to temper zeal, and +draw a line between emulation and fanaticism, that, perhaps, it is +better that they should be a little remiss than righteous +overmuch. It is not in the education of churchmen, but in the +manner of paying and providing for them, that the error lies; +and that subject is treated elsewhere.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{175} Cervantes, in his admirable romance +of Don Quixote, paints the mind of a gentleman, which all countries +will acknowledge to be like the truth. The madness apart, the +manner of thinking and acting was that of the gentleman of Spain, +France, Germany, or England. Neither was he the gentleman of +the fifteenth or eighteenth century, but of any other +century. His dress was Spanish; his madness and manners +belonged to the ages of chivalry and romance, but the mind and +principles of the gentleman suited all ages and all +countries.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Sancho, again, barring likewise his +oddities, is the peasant of all countries; studying to live as well +as he can, and labour as little as he may. In short, a mind +continually occupied about personal wants, and alive to personal +interest. In the middle ranks of society there is no such +similarity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #218]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>apply at all to the middling classes, nor +even to the most wealthy class of labourers in a manufacturing +country: in those we can find no fixed character; it is as variable +as the circumstances in which the individuals are placed, and it is +there that a government should interfere. It should interfere +in guiding the richer classes of working people, and the middling +ranks, in the education of their children, and in assisting those +of the lower orders, who are too much pressed upon by +indigence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The end in view in all education is to make the persons, whether +men or women, fill their place well and properly in life; and this +is only to be done by setting a good example, instilling good +principles, accustoming them, when young, to good habits; and, +above all, by teaching them how to gain more than they are +habituated to spend.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It follows from this, that industry, and a trade, are the chief +parts of education, that reading and writing are not, being but of +a very doubtful utility to the labouring class of +society.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On this subject, it is absolutely necessary to advert to what Dr. +Smith says relative to apprenticeships; the opinion of so great a +writer is of too much importance not to be examined, and refuted, +if found wrong.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Apprenticeships, or teaching a trade, is the basis of the future +happiness and prosperity of the individual in the lower and middle +classes. On this subject, however, Mr. Smith says quite the +contrary. That the idleness of apprentices is well known, +that their inducement to industry is small, and that, as to what +they have to learn, a few weeks, or sometimes a few days, would, in +most cases, be sufficient. In short, he maintains, that they +would learn better, be more industrious and useful, if employed on +wages, than if bound for a term of years; and, finally, that there +were no apprentices amongst the ancients. As to there being +no apprentices in the ancient world, if that was the case, is no +argument with respect to the present state of things; for, while +most part of working men were slaves, there could not possibly be +much occasion for apprentices; but are we quite certain, that the +freed men, so often mentioned, were not people who had served +apprenticeships? Freed men are so often mentioned, that there +must have been probably something else to which they owed their +freedom, besides the goodwill or [end of page #219] caprice of +their masters, particularly as that goodwill must have been +exercised to deserving objects, and consequently the sacrifice made +in giving liberty was the greater. {176}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As men cultivated difficult arts; that is, as luxury increased, it +must have become difficult to get labour done by slaves, merely by +compulsive means; there must have been bargain and mutual interest +settled between the master and the slave, so as to accomplish the +end intended. {177} Amongst rewards to a slave, liberty, at a +certain period, is not only the greatest, but is the only one that +effectually serves the slave; for, while he remains the property of +a master, his rewards can consist of little else than good +treatment, as all property given is liable to be taken back +again.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Supposing, however, the point yielded, and that there were no +apprentices in the early ages; but that the practice originated in +the days of ignorance; in the dark ages, under the feudal system, +together with the invention of corporations and privileged bodies, +against whose existence the whole set of economists have leagued +together, as the Greeks did against Troy; still the obscurity of +the origin is no objection. A constitution like that of +Britain, for example, is not an invention of antiquity; it took its +rise in the dark ages and in times of ignorance, but it is not for +that the less an object of admiration. Many other examples +may be furnished of the admirable things that took rise in the dark +ages; and amongst them, not the least, is the abolition of slavery +itself. {178}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Let us, however, examine the effect of apprenticeships in those +places where they can be compared with persons brought up entirely +free.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{176} We may form some idea of the +difficulty of getting work done by people in no way interested in +the success, by the workhouses in this country. The smallest +quantity, and of the most simple nature, is all we get done, +because the overseers are ignorant, and the nation inattentive, and +the labour compulsive.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{177} In Egypt, and most other ancient +countries, the son followed, by law, the trade of his father: this +was equivalent to an apprenticeship.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{178} Whether it arose from the mixture +of a northern with the southern people, or from what other cause, +it is certain, that, during the ages of ignorance, the foundation +was laid for almost all that is great, at the present +time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #220]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If there are trades, where it is true, (as Mr. Smith affirms,) that +the art of working may be learnt in a few weeks, what are the +consequences? At the age of sixteen or seventeen, a boy can +get as much money as he will be able to earn at any future time in +his life; he will be able to get as much as a man, who has a wife +and five or six children to maintain. There will be required +a very great share of moderation and wisdom, indeed, under such +circumstances, to prevent such a boy from wasting his money in ways +that will incapacitate him from living easy when he shall become a +father of a family himself, or from idling away the spare time that +his gains afford him. He will, naturally, do part of both: +but the way that is generally done is this. Without controul +from a master, and totally independent of parents, who are quite +left behind in poverty, (not having more to maintain their whole +family than the youth himself earns,) he despises them, saves a +little money at first, and purchases finery. The novelty of +dress soon wears off, and the more immediate pleasures of eating, +drinking, and keeping company, as it is termed, take the +lead. The consequence of the same is idleness and rags. +Ashamed to shew himself amongst persons of better conduct, the +youth changes his place of residence and work; habit has got hold +of him, and labour becomes hateful; a soldier's life appears the +best for a youth of such a description; and, it is an undoubted +fact, that, at those places where trades are carried on, that can +be learnt in a short time, {179} there are more recruits obtained +for the army than in any other districts of equal population. +It is also an undoubted fact, that, in these same districts, the +most respectable people bind their sons apprentices; and, in doing +so, they are guided by experience, and affection for their +children, not by interested motives.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{179} This is not the case with many +trades, and Mr. Smith is under a mistake as to the fact; but, +granting it to be true, the places in question, Birmingham, +Sheffield, Manchester, and other towns where the division of labour +reduces every operation to great simplicity, are the best for +recruiting the army. In those places, all respectable people, +who can afford it, bind their sons apprentices, to prevent the +danger.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #221]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the other case, again, where a trade is not easily learnt, how +is skill to be obtained but by an apprenticeship. The +bringing the son up to his father's trade, a practice that prevails +in the eastern parts of Asia, is one way; parental authority needs +not the aid of a written indenture; but, where this is not the +case, who is to teach a youth, if he is not to be bound for a +certain number of years, but to go away as soon as he has learnt a +trade? The father, in some cases, may be able to pay for his +son learning the trade, and this experiment has sometimes been +tried, but generally with very imperfect success. The youth, +for the most part, in those cases, considers himself as independent +of the master, and gives himself very little trouble to learn his +business.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where the reward of the master, or rather the remuneration for his +pains and trouble, is to arise from the labour of the boy, the +master is interested in his learning; and the other feels an +obligation, as well as an interest in learning. Though the +apprentice is not absolutely paid for what he does, he finds his +ease, his importance, and comfort, all depend on his proficiency; +and, with young minds, such motives are much more powerful, and act +through a better channel than avarice.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The power that the legislature gives to a master over his +apprentice appears not only to be wise but necessary; and, if +rewards for earning a trade could be given, in addition to that +without infringing on liberty, or burthening the state, it would be +a great advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But learning a trade is not the only advantage of an +apprenticeship; a good moral conduct, fidelity, and attention to +his duties, are all acquired at the same time, or ought to be so; +whereas, the youth who, at an early age, is left without control, +is apt to learn just the contrary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Where people have fortune, circumstances give them a control over +their children by expectancies; but, where there is no fortune, and +children must provide for themselves, an apprenticeship is a +substitute for expectancies, which appears highly necessary; and it +is wonderful how so discriminating and profound a man as Dr. Smith +could overlook so material a circumstance. It shews how far +prejudice, and an [end of page #222] opinion once adopted, will +lead men of the first judgement and genius astray; {180} for it is +not to be supposed that any person will stand forward of himself to +maintain an opinion against which experience speaks so +decidedly.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To learn a trade, and be taught a good moral conduct, and attention +to one's duty, is certainly the essential part of education, both +in the lower and middling classes; and that portion of education, +which appears to have got an exclusive title to the name, reading +and writing, are, with the working classes, a very inferior +object.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One of the duties of government, then, is to watch over the +education of the children of the middling and lower orders, which +has a tendency to grow worse, as the nation advances in +wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In England, the pride of the middling classes is to have their +children educated at boarding-schools, where the business of +eating, sleeping, dressing, and exercise, is pretty well +understood; where the branches of education, pretended to be +taught, are little attended to, (writing, and some exterior +accomplishments, of which the father and mother can judge, +excepted,) where moral conduct, the duties in life, and the conduct +necessary to be followed, are scarcely once thought of.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is true, that, till a certain age, it is generally not known for +what particular line of life a young man is intended; but, there +are certain things necessary to every line of life, and those +should never be neglected. The habits contracted at schools +are very often of a sort never to be got the better of; and how can +good habits be contracted when no attention is bestowed on the +subject?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The consequence of this is, that, when the good sense of the father +or mother, or of the boy himself, does not correct the evil, he is +bred up to consider himself as born to be waited on, and provided +for, without any effort of his own; he is led to suppose that he is +to indulge</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{180} In the notes upon the Wealth of +Nations, this case is argued, but the matter is too important not +to be examined on every occasion and opportunity. The opinion +here alluded to is that general way of thinking, respecting +corporations, privileges, and regulations, or restraints of every +sort imposed on trade, which the writers on political economy, in +general, think ought all to be entirely done away.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #223]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>in a life similar to that his father +leads at home, where a few indulgencies =sic= are the natural +consequences of age, and the fair returns for a life employed in +care and industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In England, it would be absolutely necessary to make school-masters +undergo an examination; not only at first, and before the school +should be licensed, but the boys should be examined twice a year, +and the result enregistered, so that the business would really be +to learn something, and not merely to spend the time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The small proficiency made in the schools, in England, and around +London in particular, is incredible. It is even difficult to +conceive how the boys avoid learning a little more than they +generally do, during eight or ten years. {181} The masters +pretend, for the most part, to teach boys Latin, by way of teaching +them English, but without almost ever accomplishing it. In +arithmetic, the common rules are taught, but scarcely ever decimal +fractions, and almost never book-keeping, so useful and so easy an +art.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Writing and spelling are better taught, perhaps, than in any other +country, and, certainly, those are great advantages; but, according +to the time and money spent, it is the least that can be +expected. Here we may remark, that those are the only +acquirements with the proficiency in which the father and mother +are necessarily acquainted; it therefore gives reason for thinking, +that, if the same check were held in other branches of their +education, they would be excited to make equal progress.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the time comes that it is fixed on what line of life a young +man is to adopt, then there should be schools for different +branches, where</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{181} Without contesting the point, +whether dead languages are of any use, it will be allowed that the +study costs pretty dear. Three-quarters of the time, for +seven years employed on that is equal to five years employed +constantly, and twenty pounds a year, at least, is the +expense. Not above one in one hundred learns to read even +Latin decently well, that is one good reader for every 10,000 L. +expended. As to speaking Latin, perhaps, one out of one +thousand may learn that, so that there is a speaker for each sum of +100,000 L. spent on the language. It will, perhaps, be said, +that Latin is necessary to the understanding English, but the +Greeks, (particularly at Athens,) who learnt no language but their +own, understood and spoke it better than the people of any other +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #224]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>there should be knowledge taught, +analogous to the profession. For the mercantile line, for +agriculture, for every line of life, boys should be prepared; and, +above all, it should never be neglected to instil into them the +advantages of attention to industry, to doing their duty, and in +every case making themselves worthy of trust.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Public examinations, such honours and rewards as would be +gratifying, but not expensive, for those that excelled, would +produce emulation. Though, perhaps, it is not of very great +importance to excel in some of the studies to which a young man +applies at school, yet it is of great importance to be taught that +habit of application that produces excellence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With regard to the education of the lower classes, it would be no +great additional burthen to the nation if there were proper schools +established in every parish in the kingdom, at the expense of the +public, in order that there might be a proper control over those +who teach, and over what is taught. {182} Without going so far as +to compel people of the lower classes to send their children to +school, they might be induced to do it for a short time, and, at +all events, care should be taken that the teachers were fit for the +office they undertake.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In no country do the lower classes neglect the care of their +children more, or set them a worse example, than in England; they +are mostly brought up as if the business of eating and drinking +were the chief purpose of human existence; they are taught to be +difficult to please, and to consider as necessary what, in every +other nation in Europe, is considered, by the same rank of people, +as superfluous.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Although the lower orders have as good a right as the most affluent +to indulge in every enjoyment they can afford, yet to teach +this to children, without knowing what may be their lot, is doing +both them and society an injury. A great number of crimes +arise from early indul-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{182} As there are between nine and ten +thousand parishes, twenty pounds given in each, to which the +schoolmaster would be allowed to add what those who were able could +pay, might perhaps answer the purpose, and would not amount to a +great sum.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #225]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>gence of children, and from neglecting to +instil into them those principles which are necessary to make them +go through life with credit and contentment. {183}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Spartans used to shew their youth slaves or Helots in a state +of intoxication, in order to make them detest the vice of +drunkenness; but this was the exhibition of a contemptible and mean +person in a disgraceful situation. The effect is very +different when children see those they love and respect in this +state; it must have the effect of either rendering the parent +contemptible, or the vice less odious, it perhaps has some effect +both ways; but, at all events, it must operate as a bad example, +and, amongst the lower classes, it is a very common one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a nation becomes the slave of its revenue, and sacrifices very +=sic= thing to that object, abuses that favour revenue are +difficult to reform; but surely it would be well to take some mode +to prevent the facility with which people get drunk, and the +temptation that is laid to do so. The immense number of +public houses, and the way in which they give credit, are +undoubtedly, in part, causes of this evil. It would be easy +to lessen the number, without hurting liberty, and it would be no +injustice if publicans were prevented from legal recovery for beer +or spirits consumed in their houses, in the same manner that +payment cannot be enforced of any person under twenty-one years of +age, unless for necessaries. There could be no hardship in +this, and it would produce a great reform in the manners of the +lower orders.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are only three modes of teaching youth the way to well-doing, +-- by precept, by example, and by habit at an early age. +Precept, without example and habit, has but little weight, yet how +can a child have either of these, if the parents are encouraged and +assisted in living a vicious life? Nations and individuals +should guard</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{183} The French, before the revolution, +were not be =sic= considered as a more virtuous people than the +English, yet there were fewer crimes, and less dissipation amongst +the lower orders than in England, and more amongst the +higher. The French, particularly the mothers, have less +affection for their children, yet they brought them up better, both +in habits and in principles.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #226]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>against those vices to which they find +they have a natural disposition; and drinking and gluttony are the +vices to which the common people in this country are the most +addicted.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever other things may be taught, let this truth be instilled +into all children brought up to earn their bread, that in +proportion to their diligence will be their ease and enjoyment, and +that this world is a world of sorrow and grief to the idle and the +ignorant; that knowledge does not consist in being able to read +books, but in understanding one's business and duty in life, and +that industry consists in doing it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Female education, in England, requires as much reform as that of +the other sex; but, though the subject is not much less important, +it is perhaps still more difficult. It has been remarked, by +those who have travelled abroad, that, in other countries, women +are in general not better, but rather worse dressed than men of the +same rank: in England it is different; for, at an early age, the +women are dressed, both as to style and quality of clothes, far +above their rank. This might, perhaps, not be difficult to +account for, but it undoubtedly is a misfortune, and one that is +greatly increased by the mode of education and manner of thinking; +for the main and indispensable virtue of that amiable sex excepted, +(for which Englishwomen are highly distinguished,) perhaps no women +in the world are brought up in a more frivolous unmeaning +manner. The French women, with all their vivacity and giddy +airs, have more accomplishment; {184} and, as they speak their mind +pretty plainly, they have, on many occasions, testified surprise to +find English ladies, who had studied music for years, who could +scarcely play a tune, and who, after devoting years to the needle, +were incapable of embroidering a pin-cushion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Novels, a species of light, insipid, and dangerous reading, are the +bane of English female education. They teach a sort of false +romantic sentiment, and withdraw the mind from attention to the +duties of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{184} The emigrants have taught to ladies +of rank, fashions; and to those of an inferior class, arts and +industry. The English women did not know half what they could +do, till the French came amongst them, about twelve years +ago.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #227]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>life, at a time when it should be taught +to learn their high importance. In female education the +government should interfere; for the education of the mother will +always have an influence on the education of the son, as her +conduct in life must have on that of her husband.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As one general observation, relative to the education given at most +public schools, it may be observed, that, whilst much time is taken +up in teaching things that can never probably be of great utility, +that species of knowledge that does not belong to any particular +class, but which is of the utmost importance, is left to chance and +to accident. While a boy is tormented with learning a dead +language he is left to glean, as in a barren field, for all those +rules of conduct on which the prosperity and happiness of his +future life depends. {185}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A public education is, in many respects, better than a private one +for boys, but, in some things, it is inferior: consequently those +who can afford it, and wish to give their sons the most complete +education, try to unite the advantages of both, by sending them to +a public school, under the care of a private tutor. It is not +in the power of the middling classes to do this; but modes should +be adopted to give the boys, either by books or public lectures, +those instructions, relative to moral conduct, to prudence, +behaviour, &c. which a private tutor gives to those under his +particular charge.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to female education, it is a difficult subject: one great +improvement would, nevertheless, be not to allow above a certain +number in any one seminary; to have people of irreproachable +conduct over them, and, wherever the parents can, to bring them +home at the age of thirteen or fourteen. The public education +ought certainly to finish at an early age, and, in all cases, with +respect to females, a private is much preferable to a public +education. {186}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{185} The most virtuous of the Roman +emperors attributed to his preceptors every one of those excellent +qualities he possessed. The ancient education of Greece and +Rome was very different from that of the moderns.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{186} Since this was written, we +understand a book for this very purpose is about to be printed, +with the professed design of uniting the advantages of a public and +private education.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #228]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. III.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the Effects of Taxation in +England.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +WHAT has been said of the increase of taxes, their tendency to ruin +a nation, and bring on its decline, together with the counteraction +occasioned by the continuance of necessity, as being applicable to +all nations in general, applies, in every sense, to England, and +even more to England than to any other nation. Taxes are +carried to greater excess than in any other country; and, as +England flourishes by trade and manufactures, (the price of which +taxes enhance,) they gradually tend to shut foreign markets against +us. This has already been explained; we, however, still have +to inquire into the particular manner in which it operates upon +this country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That the system of taxation, though irregular in England, is less +so than in any other country, in proportion to the extent to which +it has been carried, is true; but still, however, if a number of +the most troublesome and ill-contrived taxes were done away, and +others established in their place, it would be a great +advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Greater danger arises from the augmentation of taxes in a wealthy +country than in a poor one, when they stretch beyond the proper +line, because the general prosperity hinders the effect from being +visible, till it has advanced beyond the power of remedy; whereas, +in a poor country, the injury is soon felt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The invention and industry of this country have been most +wonderfully increased by the necessity of exertion, under the +protection of good laws, which rendered property secure. But +we trust too much to our resources, and, like men in health and +vigour, are the most likely to injure our constitution.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The most part of the arts, in point of manufacturing, seem to have +come to nearly the last degree of perfection, so far as +abbreviation of labour can carry them. [end of page +#229]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The division of labour, and the modes of working in the iron and +metal branches, have not of late been in any material degree +improved in our towns, the most famous for them; and as to any +particular gift of bringing things to perfection, or reducing +prices, it does not appear to be confined to England. Watches +and fire-arms are two of the most ingenious and nice branches of +metal manufactures; yet, at Liege, the latter is carried to greater +perfection than at Birmingham, and London and Lancashire are +outdone by Switzerland, in the former. Those, indeed, are not +manufactures of which the taste or form is constantly altering; but +they are a proof of the ability to work with equal advantage, both +as to quality and price, with the manufacturers of this +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The next great branches are the weaving. For silks, France +has always had the advantage of us; and our fine woollen cloths +have never equalled those of Louvier and Sedan for quality, +although, in point of price, they have the advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In linens, we enjoy no particular pre-eminence; and, in the +American market, we are beginning to be undersold by those of +Silesia. For a second quality of woollen cloth, and for the +manufacture of cotton, in all its branches, we still have the +superiority; but our great advantage, the cause of the general +preference to our manufactures is the long credit we give, which, +if it should ever cease to be practicable, would ruin not one, but +all our manufactures, nearly at a stroke.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is very natural and very well for Englishmen, who have never +been out of their own country, to ascribe to superiority of +quality, (and inferiority of price is the same thing,) the great +success they have in selling their goods in foreign countries; but +such as have had an opportunity to see how it really is, know the +contrary; and those who have not, may know it by observing who are +the individuals in any branch of business at home that do the most, +and they will find it always to be those who have the power of +giving the longest credit. It is true that, in the course of +time, and by struggling hard, those who have little means of +extending their business at first, do it by degrees; but, until +they do, they never can, in point of quantity, rival those who give +long credit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #230]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the inability of other nations to give equal length of credit, +consists our principal advantage; but we have seen, by the +vicissitudes of ancient nations, that the wants of others, or their +being behindhand, are but a very insecure tenure for the prosperity +of any nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The exportation of Britain was but inconsiderable at the beginning +of last =sic= century, or about one-ninth of what it was two years +ago.{187} Previous to the American war, it gradually +increased to about three times what it was in the year 1700; that +is, in seventy-five years. The progression was pretty regular +till the year 1750, when it had risen to nearly double; but, in +twenty-five years after, it increased as much as it had in fifty +years before. The American war threw it back forty years, but +it soon got up again to where it probably would have been, had the +American war not intervened; it, however, rose beyond any thing +that had ever been seen. It doubled in less than ten years; +and, from this, we are led to conclude, that the taxes had not then +begun to hurt national industry. But we shall see the reason, +for the great increase was not owing so much to any cause inherent +in this nation, as to the absolute impossibility of other nations +continuing their commerce. We had got all the East and West +India trade of the French and Dutch, and America had again become +our greatest customer for British manufactures.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Capital that could be removed was, in a manner, banished from the +continent of Europe, and had taken refuge in England, and a great +extent of the continent had been desolated with war. We are +not, however, to expect this amazing export trade to continue; +indeed, it has already fallen, in one year, as much as it ever rose +in any three years; it fell fifteen millions in one year. The +taxes may have operated much against our prosperity, without our +knowing it, in a crisis of this sort, though they did not +absolutely counteract the favourable effect produced by other +causes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The commerce of the American states, which were, (like England,) +out of the vortex of danger, and secure, increased in fully as +rapid</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{187} In 1802, the exports amounted to +45,500,000 L. In 1702 to 5,500,000 L.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #231]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>a manner as ours, and fell off in the +same way. We must not then, consider as durable, or owing to +ourselves, circumstances that arose out of the general and +temporary situation of other nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been said in the general chapter on taxation, and again +repeated in that on national debt, that both the one and the other +operate, for a certain time, in augmenting the industry and wealth +of a country, but that there is some point at which they begin to +have a contrary effect; that point, however, being dependent on a +variety of circumstances, is not a fixed one, it cannot be +discovered by investigation before the time, but it may by symptoms +and signs that become visible soon after.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is a sign that a nation has passed the point at which taxes +cease to be a spur to industry, when the duties on consumption, or +optional duties, which one may avoid paying, by not using the +article taxed, become less productive than formerly, and when it is +found necessary to lay taxes on land, houses, and such sort of +property as can be made to pay, independent of the will of the +proprietor.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When taxes are laid upon property, not on consumption, it is to be +supposed the latter can bear no more. Taxes on property are forced +taxes; on consnmption =sic=, they are generally, to a certain +degree, voluntary, though not always so.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The augmentation of wealth has, in this country, been great, but it +has never been regular or uninterrupted; that of taxation has, on +the contrary, been uninterrupted, and this is better seen from the +chart than from any thing that can be said. There can be no +doubt that, though hitherto our increasing prosperity has been so +great as to counteract the effect of heavy taxation, yet that the +same thing cannot be expected to continue long. How long it +may continue, or whether it has not already ceased, or is on the +point of ceasing, is uncertain; but there is nothing more positive, +than that, if taxes increase, they must, in process of time, crush +industry, and, therefore, at all events, they should be kept as low +as possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The whole income of the country is estimated only at 150,000,000 +L. The taxes to the state amount to 40,000,000 L. and those +for the maintenance of the poor to 5,500,000 L. But this is +the mere money ac- [end of page #232] count, without estimating +loss of time, trouble, and inconvenience; so that it may fairly and +reasonably be put down at one-third of the whole revenue or income +of the individuals, yet the complaints are not so loud, and the +clamour is not so great, as when they did not amount to +one-twentieth of that revenue. This may, however, be +accounted for.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One-third part of revenue is derived from the state itself, so that +there are but two-thirds remain independent of it. The habit +of bearing burthens, and experience of the inutility of complaint, +are likewise reasons for acquiescence; besides these, we cannot but +all be sensible, that complaints were very violent when there was +little occasion for them. We cannot deny, that the nation has +been prospering for a hundred years, while the cry of ruin has been +resounding perpetually in every corner; it is therefore natural to +mistrust our fears, and sit in silence, waiting the +event.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The portion of our expense that consists in interest of money, on +which no economy can operate, is so great, that it prevents any +hope of much diminution from economy; and, indeed, in the time of +peace, no economy that could be practised, more than what has +commonly been done, would diminish our burthens one-fiftieth +part. Even that would be very difficult, perhaps +impracticable; for our free revenue, in time of peace, has not +augmented in proportion to the diminution of the value of money; so +that, in 1792, the expenses of the state were comparatively less +than in the reign of Queen Anne.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Economy, then, is not the mode in which we must seek relief in time +of peace. To carry on war in a less expensive manner in +future, and take a solid and effectual method of reducing our +debts, are the means, both of which are treated of in their proper +place.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The modes of relief then, are three:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>1. +Economy in war.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>2. +A solid and fair method of reducing the present +interest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>3. +Attention, to render the system of taxation as little troublesome, +and as fair and equal as possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #233]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. IV.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of the National Debt and Sinking +Fund.-- Advantages and Disadvantages of both.-- Errors committed in +calculating their Effects.--Causes of Error. -- Mode proposed for +preventing future Increase.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN no circumstance does the British empire differ so widely from +all nations recorded in history, or from any now in existence, as +with regard to the national debt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Not only the invention of contracting debt to carry on war is but +of recent origin, but no nation has ever carried it to near the +extent that it has arrived at in England. The Italian states, +in which this mode was first practised, never had the means of +carrying it very far. In Spain, France, and Holland, national +debt met with obstacles that arrested its progress long before it +arrived at the pitch to which it has now come in this +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The interest of the debt is above thrice the free revenue of the +country, in time of peace, as that revenue was, previous to +hostilities in 1793.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whenever any operation is begun, the result of which is not known, +owing to its being new, but which is in itself of great importance; +the anxiety it occasions must be great, and, generally, the alarm +is more than proportioned to the danger. If ever this truth +was exemplified in any thing, it has been with regard to the +national debt of England, which has been a continual object of +terror since its first creation; not a public terror, merely +amongst the ignorant, but the most profound and enlightened +statesmen. Calculators, and writers on political economy, +have served to augment the uneasiness by their predictions of a +fatal termination.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +While the debt has been augmenting with great rapidity, the wealth +and resources of the nation have, at least, augmented equally fast, +and the matter of fact has given the lie to all the forebodings of +those who [end of page #234] occasioned the alarm. This very +extraordinary circumstance merits an investigation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It unfortunately happens, that, where people are deeply interested +in a subject, they form their opinion before they begin to examine +and investigate, and consequently the mind commences with a bias, +and acts under its influence, the consequence of which is, that the +conclusion is not so accurate as it otherwise would be. Not +that, in calculating with figures, the disposition of the mind can +make an unit of difference, the question being once fairly stated; +but the previous impression on the mind tends to prevent the fair +statement of the question.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That an uninterrupted practice of borrowing must end in an +inability to pay is a self-evident axiom. It is not a matter +that admits of dispute; but to fix the point where the inability +will commence is a problem to resolve of a very difficult nature; +it is indeed a problem, the re-solution =sic= of which depends upon +some circumstances that cannot be ascertained. There are, it +is true, certain fixed principles; but there are some points also +that depend on events entirely unconnected with the debt, and, in +themselves, uncertain. Two great considerations, that operate +powerfully, have been omitted by most writers on this +subject. The first, is the increased energy of human +exertion, under an increased operation of necessity; the second, is +the effect that the depreciation of money has, on lessening the +apparent burthen occasioned by the interest of the debt. That +these two causes, which have not been taken into account, have +rendered the calculations erroneous, there is not a doubt; and how +far they may still continue to operate is, at this time, as +uncertain as ever; but they ought not to be considered as of +operation beyond a certain unknown point, else the practice of +contracting debt would be capable of infinite extension, which is +impossible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But the augmentation of the debt itself is not the only +circumstance that excites attention, as intimately connected with +the fate of this nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The increasing wealth and prosperity of the nation, under the heavy +load of taxes, of which the debt is the principal occasion, is as +much a matter of surprize as the ultimate result is an object of +anxiety.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +So long, however, as the nation is not actually born =sic= down by +the [end of page #235] weight of taxes, its wealth must increase; +and, what is considered as a very strange phenomenon, is only the +natural and necessary consequence of increased taxation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When men inhabit and cultivate land of their own, they are under no +necessity of creating any greater value than they consume; but, +when they pay RENT and TAXES, they are laid under a necessity of +producing enough to supply their own wants, and to pay the rent and +taxes to which they are subject. The same is the case with +regard to manufacturers in every line of business, for though they +do not, perhaps, consume any part of what they produce, (what comes +to the same thing is that,) they are obliged to produce as much as +will exchange, or sell, for all they want to consume, over and +above paying their rent and taxes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Without rent and taxes there are only three things that excite the +exertion of man:-- Necessity, arising from natural wants; a love of +pleasure; or, a love of accumulation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When a man labours no more than for his mere natural necessities, +he is a poor man, in the usual acceptation =sic= of the word, that +is, he has no wealth; {188} and a nation, peopled with such men, +would justly be called a poor nation. When a man labours for +nothing more than what he expends on pleasure, or to gratify his +taste and passions, it is still the same, he consumes what he +creates, and there is an end of the matter; and, whether he creates +much or little, as his consumption is regulated by it, no +difference is made to society; but, when rent and taxes constitute +a part of the price of every commodity, the consumption of every +man, whether he pays any taxes directly or not, himself, is +attended with an increase to the revenues of those who receive the +rent and taxes, and obliges him to create more than he +consumes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{188} Some philosophers call a man rich, +who wants little, and has that little; they are quite right, in +their way, but that does not apply here. Perhaps, according +to their definition, the Lazzaroni of Naples are richer than the +merchants of London; and, a man who is contented in a parish +work-house, is, beyond dispute, rich; to say that such a man is +wealthy would be absurd, because wealth, with writers on political +economy, implies being possessed of real tangible +property.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #236]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It arises from this, that the aggregate wealth of a people +increases with rent and taxes; for, where there are neither, the +desire of accumulation is the only thing that increases wealth. +{189}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is for this reason, that, by obliging a man to create more than +he himself consumes, taxation increases the wealth of a nation; so +that the flourishing state of England is a very natural effect of +heavy taxation. The misery and poverty of those people who +have little or nothing to pay, is equally natural, though it does +not astonish one quite so much.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As there is nothing in the world without a bound, and a limit, it +is clear, that, in laying it down as a principle, that rent and +taxes occasion wealth instead of poverty, it is only to be +understood, to a certain extent; that is to say, to the length to +which the nature of things will admit of the exertion of man +augmenting his industry, but not a step farther.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To ascertain this point would be to solve a most curious problem; +observing, that the solution would, in every case, depend on a +great variety of particular circumstances.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Something like a general investigation, however, is possible. +It will not be accurate, nor is that wanted, but it may lay the +foundation for understanding the matter better at a future +period.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In London, rent and taxes are heavier than in any other part of the +kingdom, and in Scotland they are less than in any other; yet, the +working people, from all parts of the kingdom, come to London, and +from the poorest places, in the greatest numbers. Ireland, +Scotland, and Wales, are the poor countries, <i>lightly taxed</i>, +and from them</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{189} Accumulation is sometimes not a +passion, but arises from necessity; by accumulation, is meant the +increasing the value of the stock you possess, whether it consists +of land, cattle, money, or merchandize.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Thus, for example, the Americans are increasing in wealth, from +necessity, because their country is becoming better, by being +cultivated, in order to produce what is necessary. They cannot have +what they want, in the way they wish, without increasing or +bettering the property of which they have taken +possession.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If they had no more rent and taxes than they have, and if this were +not the case, they would remain a poor people. Thus, the +inhabitants of Syria, of Egypt, of Arabia Felix, formerly the +finest countries in the world, having a property that does not +better in their possession, and having scarcely either rent or +taxes to pay, remain, from generation to generation, creating +little, and consuming what they create.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #237]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>people come, perpetually, to pay +<i>heavy taxes</i> in London. Yes, but it will be said, in +answer, these are poor countries. They are, however, richer +than England was in the days of Queen Elizabeth; and, if the nature +of things could have admitted of people <i>changing centuries</i>, +as they <i>change countries</i>, the people of the seventeenth +century, with light taxes, would have emigrated to the nineteenth +century, with all its heavy taxes, just as those Irish and Scotch +come to London.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This proves that, even in London, the excess of taxes is not yet +such as to create a retrograde effect, and it proves it in a very +striking manner. Though there may, at first sight, appear +something ludicrous in the idea of emigrating from the seventeenth +to the nineteenth, from the reign of Queen Elizabeth to that of his +present majesty, it is a perfectly fair comparison, and will hold +good, examine it as much as one will. The common expression, +(and a very significant one it is,) that one part of the country is +a century behind another, or twenty years, or fifty years, is +exactly the same idea, expressed in other words, for it is a +comparison between the changes which a lapse of time makes in one +case, and a removal of place in the other. The present times +are then better to live in than those of Elizabeth, as London is +better than any distant part of the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That the ability of the nation to sustain a given burthen, for a +certain number of years, is no proof of a permanent ability to +support it, must be admitted, even if the same annual resources +were to continue; but, that permanent ability becomes much +less certain, when we consider that the annual resources are +perpetually varying, that, therefore, they have so many uncertain +quantities, that it is impossible to resolve the +problem.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to the effect, with respect to the increasing the burthens of +the people, that has been treated under the general head of +taxation. Whether the money goes to pay for a ship of war, a +regiment of soldiers, or the interest of loans, makes no difference +to him who pays the tax; and, indeed, makes little to the general +system of national economy, as, in every case, what is paid to the +state is employed on unproductive labourers or idle people. +That is to say, it is consumed, and never appears +again. </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #238]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +National debt, then, so far as it increases the taxes of a country, +is like any other national expenditure; and, in maintaining +unproductive and idle people, it is also the same; but it has, in +another point of view, a different effect, and that effect is an +advantageous one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every nation, the greatest part of the capital is employed, or, +as it is called, sunk. Land, houses, machines, merchandize, +&c. are the principal employments of capital. As those +are transferred from one to another, or as the use or produce of +them is paid for, by one to another, money is wanted occasionally; +and, if there were no other employments, money must either be lying +idle in some persons =sic= hands, till an employment could be found +for it, or the possessor of it must begin some enterprise, and sink +it himself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +But, when money is thus employed, it is no longer in the power of +the proprietor; and, though money may be borrowed on such sort of +security, it is slowly, and with difficulty. The expense, the +inconveniency =sic=, and time necessary, prevent the lenders of +money from lending any for occasional purposes on such sort of +security; but when a nation borrows, and the stock is divisible and +transferable at will, money can always be realized when it is +wanted for any purpose that affords a greater advantage than the +stock affords. {190}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Without this had been one of the effects of national debt, how +could the facility of borrowing have increased, {191} as it has +done? or how could merchants and individuals raise the sums they +now do? {192}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{190} In 1793, 5,000,000 L. was lent to +merchants on exchequer-bills. The property, on which the +money was secured, was really merchandize, but the lenders would +have nothing to do with the goods; government stepped in, and took +the goods as a security, creating a stock transferrable, that +represented the same goods, and, as if by magic, the money was +found in a moment. I know of no operation so fit for +elucidating the advantage of national debt as this.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{191} Borrowing on life rents is bad, for +this reason; where there is no employment of this sort, all money +is constantly employed in some sort of trade or enterprise that +will produce profit, but cannot be realised. Example, Paris, +&c.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{192} When money was wanted, in Queen +Anne's time, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, (Mr. Montague,) +attended by the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs, went about, from shop to +shop, to borrow it, much in the way that is occasionally practised +by the beadles for a public charity!! Yet England's credit +was good, it owed little, the war was popular, and the country +rich.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #239]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>It must be allowed that one hundred +millions, or at least a much smaller sum than our debts amount to +now, would have produced this effect, and might answer every +purpose of this sort, but there is still a consideration arising +from the fluctuations in a stock, when it is small, and also from +the number of persons possessed of it. People buy in and sell +out with total indifference when the quantity is great, and the +fluctuations small; but, the moment the funds are agitated, whether +in rising or falling, money becomes scarce for those who want it +for other purposes.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That the number of persons ready to buy and sell must be +proportioned, in some degree, to the quantity of stock, is of +itself so evident, that it would be useless to enlarge upon it; but +it must be granted that the national debt has long ago passed the +sum that was necessary to produce this advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We find, then, that the evils attending the increase of debt are +greatly counteracted by the debt itself, and that, to a certain +amount, it is productive of a very considerable advantage to a +trading nation. As those who calculated its ill effects, and +foretold the ruin it would bring upon the state, did not take into +account those circumstances, the result of their enquiries was +necessarily wrong, in point of time, though the effect of which +they spoke is perfectly certain to take place, if the debt +continues to increase. Their reasoning may be compared to +that of an astronomer, who observed the position of a planet, but, +in his calculations, made no allowance for the refraction of the +atmosphere, who would therefore err as to the place of the star, +but not as to its existence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Let us now consider the natural consequence, supposing that future +increase is prevented by means of the sinking fund established for +that purpose. As to the probability of this, it depends on so +many circumstances that are concealed in the womb of time, that it +would be madness to give any other than a hypothetical solution of +the question.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the war continues, and expenses increase nearly as they have +hitherto done, great as is the operation of a sinking fund, it will +not have time to counteract the evil. If the war stops soon, +it will dim- [end of page #240] inish the debt with a most +prodigious rapidity, {193} if it continues; the question, whether +taxes can be found to pay the interest or not? can only be answered +as a matter of opinion, which is, in a case of this sort, +equivalent to no answer at all.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>With respect to the supposed case of the +debt augmenting, the observations that apply to that have been made +already; they now only remain to be made with respect to the debt +being paid off.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been observed already, in the chapter on Taxation, that the +case of taxes being taken off to a great amount would be a new one +of sudden and hurtful operation. Wages of labour would be +diminished, as well as the burthens on those who live on settled +income; it would therefore render people of fixed income more +affluent, without giving ease to those who want it; in short, as +the augmentation of taxes falls most on people with fixed incomes, +so the advantages of this would principally be felt by them; and, +as the baneful operation carries a sort of counteracting antidote +with it, so, likewise, this beneficial operation would be attended +with some drawback and inconveniency =sic=.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The diminution of taxes, though the ultimate is not, however, the +immediate consequence of the operation of the sinking fund, the +efficacy of which depends on the taxes being kept up to their full +extent for a considerable time. =sic= The first effect of the +fund is, that a large sum, annually expended, as revenue drawn from +the subject, is reimbursed to the stockholders, and becomes +capital.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This would immediately raise the funds, and thereby would +counteract the sinking fund itself in a very material degree. +Money would become abundant for all the purposes of trade, and it +would be difficult</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{193} A sort of ridicule has been thrown +on the operation of compound interest, because its effects are so +amazing as not to be capable of being realized; but, on this +subject, two things are to be said,-- first of all, it has never +been to the operation during the first hundred years that either +incredulity or ridicule have applied, and the sinking fund was +never meant to continue to operate so long. Secondly, though +there are many drawbacks on the employment of large sums laid out +at interest, that diminish, and would at last destroy, the result +of the calculation in accumulating; it is not so in paying off +debt, where the effect calculated is produced with the greatest +certainty.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #241]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>to find employment for it; and, if the +progress continued, part of it would most undoubtedly be sent to +other countries, and so be the means of impoverishing +this.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If, then, we could suppose fifty years of peace, and that the +national debt could be paid off, (as it might be in that time,) the +situation of productive labourers would be worse; of unproductive, +better; and, finally, capital would leave the country, which would +be deprived of that transferable stock, the beneficial effects of +which have been mentioned.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The necessity that creates industry would be diminished, so that +nothing could tend more effectually to bring on the decline of the +nation than if all the debt were to be paid off; an operation +which, though possible in calculation, never certainly would take +place; the evils attending it would be so manifest, so clear, and +so palpably felt before that was accomplished.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To let the national debt continue to increase is, then, certain +ruin, at some period unknown, but perhaps not very distant; to pay +it off would be equally dangerous: what then are we to +do?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must try to raise the resources necessary for war within the +year, by which means we may avoid augmenting the debt. That +is not, however, to be done while the present heavy interest +remains, and that cannot be got rid of, according to any method yet +publicly known, without bankruptcy, breaking faith with creditors, +or paying off the debt; a resource in itself dangerous, and one +that, after all, would bring relief at a very distant +day.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Since the debt has been contracted, let it be kept up; but let a +mode be taken of reducing the interest, without breaking faith with +the creditors of the state, so that we may never be obliged to +borrow any more.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At present, the sum that goes annually for interest, and for the +sinking fund, (that is for paying off capital,) amounts to +twenty-four millions, and the expenses of a year of war do not +exceed that sum. Twelve millions of this may be found by +war-taxes, and twelve millions diminution of the interest would +just leave a residue sufficient to pay for a constant state of war; +and, if peace came, the war-taxes would be taken off. The +enemies of England would then not be able to make notches [end of +page #242] in a stick, and say, "When we come to such a notch +England will be ruined."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If this could be done it would be a solid and permanent system of +revenue, arising out of an unsolid and transitory one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Any thing like want of faith with the creditors would, however, not +only be disgraceful and dishonourable, but would reduce such +numbers to beggary, and ruin credit so completely, that the nation +would be lost for ever; and, certainly, if we are to be ruined, +there is no balancing between ruin with honour and ruin with +disgrace.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is a mode that would be fair and practicable, and the present +is the most favourable moment for executing it; indeed, it is +perhaps the only one when it has been practicable or would be +just. By practicability and justice, two words very well +understood, we mean, in this instance, that it is a moment when +those who would have to pay the difference would be willing to do +it, would see their interest in doing it, and would feel that they +ought to do it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We mean not to propose any of those imaginary means, by which debts +will be paid off without burthens laid on. We have no talent +for schemes, where all is produced from nothing, and no faith in +their practicability.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The late and present wars, which have occasioned one-half of the +debt, and for which our exertions are to be continued, were +undertaken for the preservation of property; for, though the French +system is so completely bad that even the beggars in England would +be losers by adopting it, yet, it will be allowed, that the evil to +people of property would be much greater than to those who have no +property. Let us look to Flanders, Holland, and other +countries, and say no if we can.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was on this idea that an income-tax, afterwards termed a +property-tax, was laid on, by which the rich are made to pay, and +the poor are exempted. The justice and expediency of this was +universally admitted: there might be some difference of opinion as +to modes and rates, but there was none as to the general +principle.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We would, then, propose to RAISE LOANS, at a low rate of interest +to reimburse the present creditors, ON THE SAME PRINCIPLE ON WHICH +THE PROPERTY-TAX EXISTS, in the following manner:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are, by Mr. Pitt's calculation, (and his may be taken [end of +page #243] in order to prevent caviling) 2,400,000,000 L. of +capital in the kingdom. Let us then create a two and a half +per cent. stock, into which every person possessed of property +should be <i>compelled</i> to purchase at par, in proportion to +their capital, so as to redeem fifty millions every year, thereby +creating fifty millions of new debt at two and a half per cent. and +reimbursing an equal sum bearing an interest of five per +cent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A loan of two per cent. per annum, on each man's capital would do +this, and would never be an object for the safety of the whole, +particularly as it would only last for ten years. As he would +have interest at two and a half per cent. he would, in reality, +only lose half, that is, one per cent. a year during twelve years; +so that a man, with 10,000 L. would only have given 100 L. a year +for twelve years.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +At the end of ten years, the interest of the national debt would be +reduced to one-half its present amount, which, together with the +war-taxes, would be sufficient to prevent the necessity of creating +more debt. This, however, is not all, a more prompt effect +and advantage may be expected. It is more than probable, that +the moment our enemy found that the nation, could, without any +great exertion, put its finances on a permanent footing, the +present contest would finish. It is now only continued, in +hopes of ruining our finances, and it is on the accumulation of the +debt that the expectation of that is alone founded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We observed, in the beginning of this Chapter, that most people are +biased by hope or fear, in examining a question of great +importance; and that, therefore, they do not state it quite fairly, +without being sensible of their error. In the case of the +gloomy calculators of this country, fear and anxiety operated in +causing a misstatement; but, with regard to our enemies, hope is +the cause of their magnifying the effect of our national debt, and, +it must be allowed, that hope had seldom ever a more easy business +to perform. The general conclusion is certain, and all the +question that remains, is with respect to time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The only mode of putting an end to this hope of our enemy, and to +the war, at once, will be by shewing that enemy <i>that it is quite +out of his power to augment our debt</i>, but untill =sic= a method +shall be adopted by [end of page #244] us, that is PRACTICABLE AND +EASILY UNDERSTOOD, that will not be believed by our +enemy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The rapidity of the operation of a sinking fund is easily +calculated, but not so easily credited, particularly by people not +inclined to do so, and who would not themselves have the constancy +and self-denial to leave it time to operate. Besides, by this +operation, we shall not get free of debt till the taxes are raised +far above their present amount. Our enemies may be pardoned +for believing it impracticable, particularly as many of our friends +are of the same opinion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +France, which has always been the rival of this country, and hates +it now more than ever, (envy being now an ingredient of its +hatred,) knows well that it is fallen and degraded, that it has +less wealth and happiness than England; but then it considers, +that, however bad its finances may be, they are getting no worse; +that to continue the war for twenty years will bring no more ruin +on the nation, while half the term would probably ruin us. +Till we show the fallacy of this calculation, we cannot expect a +durable peace. Our ruin is become an object, not only of +ambition, but of necessity, as it were, to France; and nothing but +despair of being able to accomplish their object will make them +abandon the attempt.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We must be permitted here to ask a few questions:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Is not the time favourable for the plan here proposed?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Would it not be fair in its operation?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Would it not bring relief effectually and speedily?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Would it not reduce our burthens, without breaking faith with the +creditors of the state?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Would it not reduce the interest, without setting too much capital +afloat, that might leave the country?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Could our enemies then calculate on the national debt destroying +England?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The affairs of nations, it has been observed, become so +complicated, and the details so multiplied, that those who have the +management of them are scarcely equal to the business of the day; +and they have no leisure to inquire into the best modes of keeping +off evil when it is yet distant; of this we have had ample +experience.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #245]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Allowing all the credit possible to the sinking fund, (and a great +deal is due,) still during war its operation is a sort of paradox; +it does not obtain relief: it is liable to be questioned; but we +are come to a point, where the stability of our finances ought to +be put out of doubt, and beyond all question. The mode of +settling our affairs ought not only to be such as in the end may +succeed, but its efficacy and practicability ought to be such as +our enemies can understand and give credit to. Without this, +we shall have no end to the contest.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With respect to what our enemies will give credit to, a good deal +depends on their own natural disposition. A fickle and +arbitrary people, who are continually breaking their faith, can +have little belief in the constancy of a sinking fund, but they +will be perfectly well inclined to believe, that men of property +may be compelled, and will even be glad to pay one per cent. a +year, for ten years, to ensure the safety of that property. +Supposing then that the sinking fund were the better plan of the +two in reality, it would not be so in the present circumstances, +because it would not obtain credit, and the other will.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As to the rest, deprive the French of their hopes of ruining our +finances, and they will make peace on reasonable terms, whenever we +please; their object for continuing the war will then be at an end; +and, if they do continue it, we can go on as long as they can, +without any addition to our burthens.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever the cause of a war may be, the hope of success is the only +possible motive for persisting in it. The French have been +led into two errors; first, by the comparison of this country to +Carthage, and of their own to Rome, (an absurd comparison that does +not hold,) and, in the second place, by looking on our ruin, from +the increase of our debt, as certain. We ought to undeceive +them, and then they will have less inclination to persist in +war. No pains has hitherto been taken to set them right; nor, +indeed, with respect to the national debt, can it ever be done by +the present method, till they see the effect; for though the +progress of a sinking fund in peace is easily understood, in time +of war there is much appearance of deception; it looks like slight +=sic= of hand more than a real and solid transaction.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #246]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Of Taxes for the Maintenance of the +Poor.-- Their enormous Increase.-- The Cause.-- Comparison between +those of England and Scotland.--Simple, easy, and humane Mode of +reducing them.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +AMONGST the interior causes that threaten England with decline, +none is more alarming than the increasing expenses of the poor; +expenses evidently rising in a proportion beyond our prosperity, +and totally without example, either in the history of past times, +or in that of any modern nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The poor of England cost more to maintain than the free revenue of +the country amounted to thirty years ago, and to nearly three times +the amount of the whole revenues of the nation, at the time of the +revolution.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The proportion between the healthy and the sick cannot have changed +so much as to account for this augmentation; we must, therefore, +seek for the cause elsewhere.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It probably arises from several causes; the increasing luxury, +which leaves more persons in indigence when they come to an +advanced age, owing to their being unwilling or unable to undergo +the hardships to which nature subjects those who have been born to +labour, and outlive their vigour; being thereby deprived of those +indulgences which, in better days, they have experienced. In +England, menial servants are accustomed to consume more than people +of moderate fortune do in other countries, and they are the race of +people most likely to be left to penury in their old age. In +countries where there are, indeed, greater trains of menial +attendants than in England, they, in general, belong to the great, +who make some provision for them, or who, keeping them from +ostentation, can retain them to a more advanced age; and, at all +events, as they live a less luxurious life, they can make a better +stand against that penury which it is their hard destiny to +encounter. [end of page #247]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a commercial country there is less attachment between master and +servant, than in any other; and the instances of provision for them +are very rare.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In proportion as a nation gets wealthy, the human race shares the +same fate with other animals employed in labour; they are worked +hard, and well fed while they are able to work, but their services +are not regarded when they can do but little. {194}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Want of economy in the management of the funds destined for the +purpose of their maintenance is another cause of increase in the +expense of the poor. In a nation where every individual is +fully occupied with his affairs, and has little time to attend to +any thing else, those who manage the affairs of the poor find that +few are inclined to look close into matters, and fewer still have +the means of doing it if they would; so that abuses increase, as is +always the case when there is no counteracting check to keep them +within bounds.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Another cause, no doubt, is that, as the number of unproductive +labourers increase, greater numbers of children are left in +want.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To all those causes we must add the increase of towns, and the +decrease of hamlets and villages. Towns are the places where +indigence has the greatest consolation, and where the relief which +is held out is attended with the least degree of humiliation and +reproach.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When we compare the cases of England and Scotland, the causes +cannot be doubted; for, there, servants live harder, the working +class do not labour so hard, and are not so soon worn out, neither +have the towns increased so much, at the expense of the hamlets and +villages.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest of all the causes of the increase of poor, however, +arises from taxation and rent. It has been observed, in the +chapter on Taxation, that, for a certain length, taxes and rent are +productive of industry, and that, at last, they finish by crushing +it entirely.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{194} If it were the custom to keep +horses that were worn out till they died a natural death, the +maintenance of them would cost more in England than in any other +country; for their vigour is exhausted before the term of old age +arrives. The calculation is in this country, to pay well, and +be well served.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #248]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The manner that this happens, is, that long before a country is as +highly taxed as the majority of its inhabitants will bear, those +who are the least able to pay are crushed, and reduced to absolute +poverty.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are two causes which may render a person unable to support +the burthen of taxation: the one is, having a great family; the +other is, being able to gain but little from weakness, or some +other cause; and, where there are two causes that tend to produce +the same effect, though they operate separately, they must, of +course, sometimes act in conjunction.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The weakest part of society gives way first, in every country; and, +on account of the arbitrary and ignorant, though lavish method of +relieving that portion of society, in England, the evil is +increased to more than double. </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no relief at home in their own houses, no help, no aid, +for the indigent, which might produce so admirable an effect, by +counteracting the ruin brought on by heavy taxes and high prices; +no, the family must support itself, or go wholesale to the +workhouse. This is one of those clumsy rude modes of +proceeding that a wealthy people, not overburthened with knowledge, +naturally takes to overcome a difficulty, but without care or +tenderness for the feelings of those relieved, or that regard for +public interest, which ought to go hand in hand. For this it +would be well to search a remedy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A father and mother, and six children, will cost, at least, fifty +pounds a year in a workhouse; but, perhaps, the aid of twelve or +fifteen pounds would keep them from going there, and by that means +save the greatest part of the money, while the country, which loses +their industry, would be doubly a gainer.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is a sort of rough, vulgar, and unfeeling character, +prevalent amongst the parish-officers, that is a disgrace to the +country and to the character of Englishmen. It is highly +prejudicial to the nation; and, if there were no moral evil +attending it, if the feelings of the poor were no object, =sic= the +rich ought to attend to it for self-interest. If they will +not, the government of the country is interested, both in honour +and in interest, to do so.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Exemption from taxes will do little or nothing, the lower orders +[end of page #249] are nearly all exempt, but that general +dearness, that is the consequence of a general weight of taxes, is +severely felt by them, and from that they cannot be exempted. +They must get relief by assistance, and that assistance ought to be +given in a manner that will not throw them altogether a burthen on +the public. {195}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is impossible to tax the people of a nation so highly, as they +can all bear, because, before some will feel, others will be +crushed; before the bachelor feels the tax, the father of a large +family is obliged to starve his innocent offspring. Before he +who has only two children feels the hard pressure, the family of +twelve will be reduced to want; and so in proportion. The +mode, then, to raise the most money possible, would be to tax the +whole nearly as high as the bachelor can bear, and then to give a +drawback in favour of the man with the children, they would then be +on a perfect equality as to taxation, and the highest sum possible +might be raised without hurting any one portion of the people more +than another.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If the links of a chain are not all equally strong, before any +strain is felt by the strong links the weak ones give way, and the +chain is broken. The case is the same with the members of a +community. Now, when you lay on taxes, the general tendency +is to raise the price of food and labour; most labourers receive +the advantage of the price of labour, but many pay unequally for +the rise of food.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A tax on the wealthy, it will be said, is the thing proposed, but +no, that would do nothing, it must be a premium or drawback to men +with families who are poor, not merely to counteract the effect of +any one tax, but the total effect of taxation with respect to +maintaining their children. Wide, indeed, is the difference +between a tax on those who are well able to pay, and a premium or +drawback in favour of those who are not.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The manner of providing for the poor in England leads to a +degree</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{195} Probably, the reason that so small +a sum serves the purpose in Scotland is, that relief is +administered to the families, at their own houses, by the minister +and elders of the parish. It is a rare instance of an +administration, without emoluments and without controul. The +funds are distributed with clean hands, in all cases, and +impartially in most.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #250]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>of wastefulness and improvidence unknown +in any other country. Improvidence ought as much as possible +to be discouraged; for, with those who labour hard and are +indigent, the desire to gratify some pressing want, or present +appetite, is continually uppermost. This may be termed the +war between the belly and the back, in which the former is +generally the conqueror. It would be a small evil if this +victory were decided seldom, as in other countries, but in the +great towns of England there is as it were a continual state of +hostility. In London, the battle is fought, on an average, at +least, once a week; and idleness, and the profits of those sort of +petty usurers, called pawnbrokers, are greatly promoted by +it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some part of this evil cannot, perhaps, be remedied, but there are +certain articles that ought not to be taken in pledge, such as the +clothes of young children and working tools. {196}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is no doubt but, that, in a populous inhospitable trading +town, where there is no means of obtaining aid, from friendship, +where the want is sometimes extreme, the resource of pledging is a +necessary one. This is to be admitted in the degree, but by +no means without limitation; for the facility creates the want, +(even when it is a real want) for it brings on improvidence and +carelessness. The lower classes come to consider their +apparel as money, only that it requires changing before it is quite +current. {197}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If this matter were well looked into, together with the other +causes from which mendicity proceeds, which increases so rapidly, +we should</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{196} In Scripture it is forbidden to +pledge the upper or the nether mill-stone. This is a proof, +of very great antiquity, and indisputable authority, of the care +taken to prevent that sort of improvidence that hurts the general +interest of a people. It should be imitated in this country +with regard, to all portable implements of labour, such as +mill-stones were in those early times.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{197} In Scotland, twenty years ago, +there were not so many pawnbrokers as there are in Brentford, or +any little village round London. In Paris, as debauched a +town as London, and where charity was as little to be expected, +there was only one lending company, the profits of which, after +dividing six per cent., went to the Foundling Hospital. It +was, as in London, a resource in cases of necessity, but there was +too much trouble to run it on every trifling occasion, as is done +in London, and, indeed, in most towns in England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #251]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>soon perceive a diminution of the poors' +rates, and the wealthiest country of Europe would not exhibit the +greatest and most multiplied scenes of misery and +distress.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The numbers of children left in indigence, by their parents, would +be comparatively lower, and there would not be that waste in the +administration of the funds on which they are supported.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is, probably, no means of greatly diminishing the number of +helpless poor, but by an encouragement to lay up in the hour of +health an abundance to supply the wants of feebleness and age, but +this might go a great way to diminishing the evil. All +persons who have places under government, of whatever nature, ought +to be compelled to subscribe to such institutions; this would be +doing the individuals, as well as the community, a real service, +and would go a great way to the counteracting of the evil. +{198} Preventatives are first to be applied, and after those +have operated as far as may be, remedies.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The poor, &c. to whose maintenance 5,500,000 L. a year goes, (a +sum greater than the revenues of any second rate monarchy in +Europe,) may be divided into three classes:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +First, Those who by proper means might be prevented from wanting +aid.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Second, Those who, for various reasons, cannot get a living in the +regular way, but might, with a little aid, either maintain +themselves, or nearly so; and,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Third, Those who, from inability, extreme age, tender youth, or +bodily disease, are unable to do any thing, and must be supported +at the public expense. Nobody will dispute that there are of +all those descriptions maintained at pressnt =sic=; and, therefore, +all that can create a difference of opinion is about the +proportions between the three.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is probable that one-half, at least, could maintain, or +nearly</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{198} The widows scheme, as it is called +in Scotland, for the aid of the widows and children of clergymen, +is a most excellent institution; it has been attended with the best +effects, both on individual happiness and national prosperity so +far as it goes. The plan is such as might, with very little +variation, be applied to all the officers of the revenue, clerks in +office, &c. &c.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #252]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>maintain, themselves; one-quarter might +be prevented from ever requiring any aid at all; and the other +quarter would be assisted as at present.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This would reduce the expenses to less than one-third, and, +probably, to one-quarter of what they are now; that is, of +5,500,000 L. there would be a saving of 3,500,000 L. but that is +not all, for the national industry would be augmented by 2,000,000 +L. and more; that is to say, by the industry of the half that +maintained themselves, so that the nation would gain partly in +money saved, and partly in money got, 5,500,000 L.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +According to the true spirit of the English nation, in which there +is a great fund of generosity and goodness at the bottom, it may +perhaps be said, that the poor are not able to labour at all, and, +that the plan would not answer. This is but a rough manner of +answering a proposal, which neither is in reality, nor is meant to +be, void of humanity. There were, by last years =sic= +accounts, nearly 900,000 persons of one sort and another maintained +or relieved, which does not make above six pounds a year for each +person, now, where is there a person that can work at all, that +cannot earn above four-pence a day in England? {199}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The plan for remedying this abuse ought to be very simple, for it +will be administered by such ignorant and rough directors, that, if +it is not simple, it must fail entirely.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{199} It would be foreign to the plan of +this Inquiry to enter into the details of the poor persons, and +shew the absurdity of the management; but, it is very evident, from +those that are printed, that they get no work to do, the quantity +of materials delivered to them to work upon will not admit of +earning money to maintain themselves.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The following is a specimen of the attention given to this subject, +and the means taken to enable the poor to pay for their +maintenance, by their labour. In Middlesex, where the expense +amounted, in 1803, to 123,700 L. or about 340 L. a day, the sum +expended to buy materials amounted to no more than 4L.1s.11d. +!!! It is impossible to comprehend how this capital stock +could be distributed amongst above ten thousand labourers. It +is not very easy to conceive the impertinence of those who +presented this item, as a statement to the House of Commons, which +would have done well to have committed to the custody of the +sergeant-at-mace, the persons who so grossly insulted it. One +thing, however, is very easily understood and collected from all +this. The business altogether is conducted with ignorance, +and executed carelessly and negligently, and that to an extreme and +shameful degree.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #253]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To have a good surgeon or physician is essential; and those who +would not work, and who were able, should have the same allowance +that a prisoner has in a jail; but those who would work should be +paid a fair price, and allowed to lay out the money, to hoard it, +or do as they please, except drinking to excess. [{200}]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though many for want of vigour are refused employment in a +workshop, some for want of character, and others for various +reasons, become burthensome, yet there are not a few, who, from +mere laziness, throw themselves upon the parish, where they live a +careless life, free from hunger, cold, and labour. When +the mind is once reconciled to this situation, the temptation is +considerable, and there are many of those poor people, who will +boast that the have themselves been overseers, and paid their share +to the expenses.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever evil is found to have a tendency to increase with the +wealth of a nation ought, most carefully, to be kept under; and +this is one not of the least formidable, and, of all others, most +evidently arising from bad management and want of +attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would be necessary to have all sorts of employment, that the +persons in such places can, with advantage, be occupied in doing, +and a small allowance should be made to defray general expenses; +amongst which, ought to be that of surveyors of districts, who +should, like those employed by the excise-office, inspect into the +state of the different poor-houses, and the whole should be +reported, in a proper and regular manner, to the government of the +country, from time to time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Those little paltry parish democracies that tax one part of the +people, and maltreat the other, ought to be under some proper +con-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{200} [assumed location - footnote not +assigned a place in the text] The system, in England, of only +employing people in the vigour of life is a source of much +mischief, and is an increasing evil, which government, the East +India company, and all the public bodies, are encouraging. +Men are treated in this instance exactly like horses. They +are worked hard and well rewarded in their vigour; but, in so +wealthy a county =sic= as this, those occupied in commerce, and men +in power, will not be troubled with any but such as can do their +business with little trouble to the master. They do not +consider what mischief they are preparing for their country. +Shenstone, the poet, seems to have thought of this when he says, in +a case of woe:</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +"But power and wealth's unvarying cheek was dry."</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #254]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>troul; and the happiness and prosperity +of England should not be left at their mercy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a country where every thing is done with such admirable accuracy +in the revenue-department, as England, it would be useless to +attempt pointing out the manner of executing the plan; it is +sufficient to shew its practicability and the necessity of +attending to it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If, in the first instance, the advantage would be such as is here +mentioned, it would, in a few years, be much greater, particularly +in so far as fewer families would be left in a state of indigence; +for, it is clear, that such families are a continual encumbrance on +the rising generation, and tend to the diminution of the general +mass of useful citizens.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If it should so happen, that taxes augment, or that trade falls +off, (both of which may very likely happen,) then the interference +of government may become a matter of absolute necessity; but then, +perhaps, it may be too late. It would be much better if +government would interfere, before the evil is actually come to the +highest pitch. The parishes might, perhaps, look with +jealousy on an interference of this sort, as being an infringement +on their rights; for Englishmen are sometimes very tenacious of +privileges that are highly pernicious to themselves. This +difficulty, (for it probably would be one,) might be got over, by +previously establishing inspectors in the different bishop's sees, +who should be obliged to render an account to the bishop, to be +communicated to government, by which means, the evil would either +be removed, or its existence ascertained, so as to answer the +complaints that might be made, and thereby prevent all discontent +on the subject.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Without being able to say what might absolutely be the best remedy, +it is, at least, fair to ask the question, whether it is fit that +the administration of 5,500,000 L. a year should be intrusted to +the hands of ignorant men? It may likewise be asked, if the +feelings of the necessitous ranks of society (as keen in many +instances as those of their betters,) should be wounded by men, who +have not sufficient knowledge of any sort to act with the humanity +necessary. The candidates for popular favour, amongst the +lower housekeepers, are generally flattering, fauning =sic=, +cringing men, and such are almost without exception, cunning, +ignorant, and overbearing, wherever they have the least [end of +page #255] authority over others. Such, in general, are the +parish-officers, to whose care this important affair is +committed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though this is an institution almost on the purely democratic +principle of equal representation, it is a very bad specimen of +that mode of government. The shameful lawsuits between +parishes, about paupers, the disgraceful and barbarous treatment of +women, who have been betrayed and abandoned, admit of no +excuse. They are not productive even of gain or +economy. Amongst some tribes of savage Indians, the aged and +helpless are put to death, that they may not remain a burthen on +those who are able and in health; and it is equally true, that, in +England, the young innocents, who have not parents to protect them, +are considered as a burthen; and, if they are not absolutely sent +out of the world, the means necessary to preserve them in it are +very inadequate to the purpose. If criminality could be +engraved on a graduated scale, their deaths ought in general to be +written down at some intermediate point between accidental homicide +and wilful murder. The persecution of this unfortunate race +may be said to commence before they are born; and, though the +strength of a nation depends much on its population, less care is +taken to encourage it, than to produce mushrooms, or to preserve +hares and partridges.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #256]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VI.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Causes of Decline, peculiar to +England.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IN addition to the causes of decline which Britain, as a wealthy +country, has, in common with most other nations, it has some +peculiar to itself, (or of which the degree at least is peculiar to +it).</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The national debt, the high rate of taxation, the prodigious +expense of the poor, and the nature of the government, are peculiar +to this country. There are other circumstances in its favour, +of which we shall speak in the next chapter; but, in this, we shall +review those that are against it, and of an unfavourable nature and +operation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The high rate of taxation, for the very reason that it is the +highest ever known, inspires our enemies with hopes of our +downfall, and makes them persevere in continuing to put us to +expense.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The unprecedented commerce we enjoy, of which every other nation +would wish to have a share, (and of which each, most mistakenly, +thinks it would have a share, if Britain was undone,) is a cause of +attracting envy and enmity, and repelling friendship. Our +colonies in the West, and our possessions in the East, act like the +conductors that draw the electric fluid to a building, but they do +not, like those conductors, serve to protect it from +violence. We have seen, that the advantage arising from them +is more than doubtful, that they enrich individuals and impoverish +the state; but all this would be nothing new, were it not for the +vast scale on which those evils exist.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The poor's rate, which is in itself completely unexampled, though a +common thing to all nations, is so exorbitant in England, that it +may very properly be ranked amongst the dangers peculiar to this +country. Who would believe, that Frederick the Great of +Prussia carried on his brilliant and successful wars against the +most formidable enemies, expended more than one-eighth of his +revenues annually on the encouragement of industry, and left his +treasury well stored, yet all this with an income, less by +one-fourth than the sums that go to support [end of page #257] the +poor in England, notwithstanding all the miserable manoeuvres that +are practiced =sic= to avoid giving them assistance?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The form of government in England, though best for the liberty of +the subject, and for the security of persons and property, is +deficient in the means of repressing those infringements which +particular bodies of people make upon the community at large. +The representative system, when well understood, divides itself +into parties, having different interests. There are the +commercial, the landed, the East India, the West India, and the +law, all of which have great parliamentary influence, and can be +formidable to any minister; they therefore have a means of +defending their interests, and they are concerned so deeply as to +take a very active part whenever any questions are agitated +relative to them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The landed interest and the law are, indeed, the only ones that +have any great party in the House of Peers; but then the House of +Peers seldom interferes in matters that concern the interests of +the others. The Lords seem not to think it their province; +and, in general, more through diffidence than negligence, they +avoid meddling, though, to do that honourable house justice, to it +we owe much. Many bills, of a dangerous tendency, have been +thrown out by it, after they had passed the other house; and it has +been generally done with a wisdom, magnanimity, and moderation, +which is only to be accounted for by a true love of the country and +an upright intention. {201}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{201} It is wonderful to what a length +good intention, (zeal apart,) will go in leading men right, even +when they have not paid very particular attention to a +subject. There is a feeling of what is wise, as well as of +what is right, that partakes a little of instinct, perhaps, but is +more unerring than far fetched theory on many occasions. This +was seen in a most exemplary manner, at the time that the +principles of the French revolution were most approved of here. +Those principles were plausible, though flimsy, and founded on +sophisms, and a species of reasoning, that plain unlettered men +could not answer, and men who did give themselves the pains to +reason might have answered; yet, three times in four, it was the +man who could not answer it, who, guided by upright intentions, +rejected it as bad, without being able to tell why. The most +acute were, in this case, the most deceived; for it must now be +allowed, that all approbation of the theories, relative to the +rights of man, and the manner of asserting them were wrong. +Many of those who fell into the error had, no doubt, unblameable +intentions, but they did not consult common sense.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #258]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In every assembly, a small number, who completely understand their +own interest, can do a great deal, if they will act together; but, +this is not all, they can use arguments with a minister that pave +the way for obtaining the ends they have in view, while the general +interests of the country alarm no one but upon great +occasions.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Under arbitrary monarchs, all bodies with separate interests, are +kept in due order, they have no means of defending themselves but +by remonstrance, which, against power, is but a very inadequate +protection.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is nothing forced or chimerical in this statement of the +case, and the consequence is, that no country ever saw any bodies +rise to such a height, except the clergy in Roman Catholic +countries, and the barons during the feudal system, when they had +arms in their hands; who, if they could not absolutely resist their +sovereign, were at least able to refuse him aid, and could annoy +him greatly. But those examples will bear no comparison with +the separate interests in England at this time. The barons +have long lost their power, and the Roman Catholic clergy have lost +the greatest part of their power and revenue also. If they +had not, wealthy and powerful kingdoms would not have +existed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Under a free government, where people think that an opposition to a +minister in parliament is a most excellent thing, the energies of +the nation, as to war, are greatly lessened. This must, in +its connections with other nations, produce very hurtful effects; +but, where the evil is without a remedy, there is no advantage in +dwelling upon it; and it does not appear that there is any +possibility of separating from a free government, some sort of an +opposing power, that must hamper the executive, and lessen the +energies of the nation.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Under pure monarchies, kings can reward merit; they can encourage +talents, and act according to circumstances. In England, the +king, or his ministers, have no fund from which they can do +this. An application to parliament is expensive and +troublesome; and, in many cases, where the object would be fair, it +would be unattainable. But this is not all, for when, by act +of parliament, any thing of the sort is [end of page #259] once +done, it is left without proper controul, and the expense is +generally double what it ought to be.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On the whole, there is too little of discretional =sic= power in a +representative government; good cannot be done but by rules, which, +in many cases, it is impossible to comply with. This is a +disadvantage which we labour under, and is a sort of drawback on +our excellent form of government; but this is not like the +opposition in the senate, it may be got over, and merits +attention.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Such appear to be the disadvantages to which Britain is peculiarly +liable, either in toto, or in the degree; but, on the other hand, +she has many circumstances in her favour, if they are properly +taken hold of; and, indeed, some, of which the effect will be +favourable, whether any particular attention is paid to them or +not. To those we shall advert with peculiar pleasure, and +hope that they will not be neglected, but that they may afford a +means of continuing our career of prosperity on the increasing +scale, or that, at least, they may prevent us from sharing the fate +of those nations that have gone before.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #260]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Circumstances peculiar to England, and +favourable to it.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IT has been observed, that, in northern nations, where luxury is +not attended with such a degree of sloth and effeminacy as in warm +climates, the habits of industry can never so completely leave a +country. The feelings of cold and a keen appetite are enemies to +sloth and laziness; indeed they are totally incompatible with those +habits and that degradation of character, that are to be found in +southern climates. This advantage Britain shares with other nations +of the north; but she has some peculiar to herself.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Situated in an island, the people have a character peculiar to +themselves, that prevents foreigners and foreign influence from +producing those baneful effects that are so evident in many +nations, where they come and depart with more facility, and where a +greater similarity in manners and in character enable them to act a +conspicuous and a very dangerous part, in the cases of +misunderstanding and party dispute.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all the wars, bloody and long-contested as they were, between +the houses of York and Lancaster, foreign influence never produced +any effect such as that of Spain did in France, previous to the +accession of Henry IV. or as the influence of France and Spain have +produced in Italy, or that of France on Spain itself, or those of +Russia and Prussia in Poland, with numerous other examples on the +continent.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We know of no ideal boundaries in this country. In this country we +are all one people, and can distinguish ourselves from any other; +indeed, the national character is rather too averse to mixing with +people from the continent; but this, that seems now a fault, may +some day be considered as a very useful virtue.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Even in the times when an unfortunate jealousy and mistaken +interest kept England and Scotland at variance, and when the latter +kingdom was in the habit of adopting the politics of France, and +[end of page #261] embracing its interests, there seems to have +been some repelling principle that kept the little nation out of +the gripe of the great one.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The French never had any preponderating power there, and, indeed, +in latter times so little, as not to be able to defend Queen Mary +or the Romish religion against the reformers; to do both of which +there was no want of inclination. It appears, then, very +clearly, that though, on the best terms of friendship, the Scotch +had at the bottom that British mistrust of foreigners, that, ever +since it was civilized, has freed the island from foreign +influence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The form of government, the security of property, and the free +scope that is given to exertion in every line of business, will +continue to enable this country to hold itself high, even if some +of its present sources of wealth should be dried up; and, whatever +may be the feelings of the representatives of the people upon +ordinary occasions, the moment that any real danger occurs, they +will, we are certain, act like men, determined to stand by their +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +How feeble was the former French government when assailed with +difficulty? It was at once as if struck motionless, or, the little +animation that was left was just sufficient to enable it to go from +one blunder to another. How different has England been on +every emergency? In place of the arm of government seeming to +slacken in the day of danger, it has risen superior to it. We +have never seen the same scenes happen here, that have taken place +in Poland, Sweden, and so many other places. In the three +attempts to invasion, {202} (Monmouth's and the two other +rebellions,) where foreign influence was used, the event was the +most fatal possible to those who made them; they were contemptible +in the extreme; and, if it is considered in whose favour they were, +it is probable the support from a foreign power rather did injury +to the cause.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{202} Here we must not confound the case +of the Stuarts with that of the King of France. In England, it was +the government that was divided, the legislative being against the +executive; <i>one</i> part of the government was feeble, but the +other was not, and therefore we cannot say that the government was +feeble. In France, the king and ministers governed alone, +they were the whole government, and therefore as they were feeble, +the government may be taxed with weakness.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #262]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The form of government has this great advantage in it, that, as +abilities are the way to preferment, the higher classes (at least) +have a better education than the same rank of persons in any other +nation, so far as regards the interest of the public, and the +nature of the connection between the different orders of society; +ignorance of which, is the surest way to be destroyed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all new and rising states the higher orders, even under despotic +governments, and where all the distinctions of ranks are completely +established, have a proper regard for the importance and welfare of +the lower orders of people. As they increase in wealth and +have lost sight of its origin, which is industry, they change their +mode of thinking; and, by degrees, the lower classes are considered +as only made for the convenience of the rich. The degradation +into which the lower orders themselves fall, by vice and indolence, +widens the difference and increases the contempt in which they are +held. This is one of the invariable marks of the decline of +nations; but the nature of the English government prevents that, by +keeping up a connection and mutual dependence amongst the poor and +the rich, which is not found either under absolute monarchies or in +republics. In republics, the people become factious and idle, +when they become any way wealthy. In this country, besides +the insular situation, circumstances in general are such as to +prevent the lower classes from falling into that sort of idleness, +apathy, and contempt, that they do in other countries, even +supposing these burthens were done away, that at present +necessitate exertion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To those causes let another still be added, the religious worship +of the country, which, without any dispute or question, is greatly +in its favour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To speak nothing of the religious opinions or modes of worship in +ancient times, there are three at present that merit attention and +admit of comparison.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Christian religion is distinguished for raising men in +character, and the Mahomedan for sinking them low. Whenever +the Mahomedan faith has extended, the people are degraded in their +manners, and the governments despotic. The disposition of a +Mahomedan king [end of page #263] or emperor is more different in +its nature, from that of a Christian sovereign, than the form of a +hat is from that of a turban.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Under the most despotic Christian sovereigns, matters are governed +by law, there are no regular murders committed by the hand of +power, without the intervention of justice; and if plenitude of +power admits of the greatest excesses in the sovereign, in some +Christian countries, the opinion of his fellow men, the fear of his +God, or some sentiment or principle in his own breast, restrains +him in the exercise of it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not so with Mahomedan princes: with them, nothing is sacred +that they hate, nothing shameful that they do. Whatever their +conscience may be, whatever may be the nature of their moral rules, +rapine and murder are certainly not forbidden by them, or the law +is not obeyed. In proportion to the despotism and ferocity of the +sovereign, is the slavishness of the people, their brutality, and +vice, in all Mahomedan countries; their character and its great +inferiority is so well known, that it is impossible for any person +to be ignorant of it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +When the Mahomedan governments possess power, they are proud and +overbearing; the people luxurious, and given to every refinement in +vice. When they sink, that pride becomes ferocity, and the luxury +degenerates into brutality and sloth; but neither in the one nor in +the other case have they the proper value for science, for +literature, for liberty, or for any of the acquirements that either +make a man estimable or useful. They neither excel in arts, nor in +science; phisically =sic=, they are inferior in utility, and their +minds are less instructed. They are not equal to Christians either +in war or in peace, nor to be compared to them for any one good +quality.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest and the best portion of the old world is, however, in +their hands; but, in point of wealth or power, they are of little +importance, and every day they are sinking lower still.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Amongst those who profess Christianity it has been remarked, by all +who have travelled, and who have had an opportunity of observing +it, that agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, flourish most in +Protestant countries. Even where there are different sects of the +Christian religion in the same country, arts, manufactures, and +commerce, appear to have flourished most amongst the Protestants. +The [end of page #264] cruelties of the Duke of Alva, and the +absurd bigotry of Louis XIV. drove the most industrious inhabitants +from the Netherlands, and from France, merely because they happened +to be Protestants, which is a proof that there is a connection +between that branch of the Christian religion and industry. The +Protestants were the most industrious.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Protestants appear also to be the most attentive to preserving +a good form of government, and to set a greater value upon liberty +than people of any other religion. In this, England has an +advantage that is inappretiable. {203}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The reformation in religion, and the establishment of manufactures +in England, date from nearly the same period; it was about the same +time, also, that the spirit of liberty began to break out first in +Scotland, and then in England, which terminated in the +revolution. There are, therefore, many reasons, from +experience, for believing that the Protestant religion is +particularly favourable to industry and freedom. There are +other reasons, likewise, that arise from a consideration of the +subject, that would lead one to the same conclusion, even if there +were no experience of the fact.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Whatever frees the human mind from useless prejudice, and leads it +to pure morality, gives dignity to man, and increases his power of +becoming a good and useful member of society.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Christian religion not only contains the most pure moral code, +but the best, most useful, and simple rules for conduct in life +are</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{203} The great influence, founded on +attachment to her person, and the feeling of the long happiness +they had enjoyed, under Queen Elizabeth: her great authority, +supported by esteem, and confirmed by long habit, restrained the +spirit of freedom which so soon after tormented her +successors. James had had full experience of that spirit +before he left Scotland; and, when he mounted the English throne, +was known, frequently, to exclaim against presbytry, as the enemy +of monarchy. He, as was very natural, thought that the difference +of religion caused the superior love of freedom in Scotland, for he +was not sensible of the different effects produced by the calm, +steady, and dignified deportment of Elizabeth, and the unsteady +conduct of his unhappy mother, Mary. He also confounded +hatred for arbitrary prerogative in kings, with hatred for kings +themselves; and considered monarchy, and his own sort of monarchy, +as essentially the same. Had he lived in our days, he would +have experienced the difference, and not have considered the church +of Scotland as being a greater enemy to kingly power than that of +England, or as being more favourable to liberty.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #265]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>there promulgated. The Roman +Catholic faith was clogged, in the early days of the church, with a +great number, both of dogmatical and practical errors, that tend +not only to fetter the mind, but actually embarrass the business of +human life.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In a former chapter, we had occasion to speak of the encroachments +made by public bodies on the general mass of the people, but none +ever was so pernicious in its effects, so grasping, and so well +calculated to retain, as the Roman Catholic church.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Their celibacy took away from the clergy every disposition to +alienate even personal property, while the practice of auricular +confession, and the doctrine of the remission of sins, gave them an +opportunity of besieging the human mind in its weakest moment, and +the weakest place, in order to rob posterity, and enrich the +church. In the moment of weakness, when a man's mind is +occupied in reflecting on the errors, and perhaps the crimes, of a +long and variegated life; when his ties to this world are loosened, +and his interest in eternity becomes more lively, and near; a +religion that enables a zealous or interested priest (aided by the +casuistry and argument of centuries) to barter a promise of +everlasting bliss, for lands and tenements bequeathed to the +church, provides amply for the acquisition of earthly treasure, for +its ministers, and those devoted to a life of religious +pursuits. It is, indeed, wonderful, that, with such means, +the church, in Roman Catholic countries, did not become more +wealthy than it was. {204} With a continual means of acquiring, and +none of alienating, it appears well qualified for absorbing the +whole landed property of a nation. Such an encroachment on +the public wealth, and industry of a people, is a sufficient reason +for the Protestant countries (where the clergy have not the same +means) becoming more wealthy and industrious.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It would not be difficult to prove that there is an effect produced +on the minds of individuals in Protestant countries, that is +favourable to industry; but a discussion of this nature might seem +displaced in a book of this sort. It is sufficient that we +see, from experience and</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{204} In France, before the revolution, +the revenues of the clergy, in lands, tythes, &c. were reckoned +to amount to 25,000,000 L. sterling per annum. The number of +feasts and fasts was also a great drawback on industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #266]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>reason, that, of all religions, the +Christian is the most favourable to the prosperity of a people, and +that of its different branches, the Protestant, or what is termed +the Reformed Religion, is again the best. It is the religion +established in Britain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Another source of hope arises from a circumstance of very great +importance, and very peculiarly favourable to Great +Britain.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It has been observed, that the colonies in the West, and conquests +in the East, cost a great deal and produce little; that, in short, +their possession is of very doubtful advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The possession of the North American provinces, now the United +States, were a great burthen to England, from their first +settlement till about the year 1755, when their trade began to be +of advantage to this nation; but, in twenty years after, the revolt +took place, and cost England a prodigious sum.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To enter into a long detail on this subject it is not necessary; +but no sooner were the hostilities at an end, than the American +states bought more of our manufactures than ever. Their laws +and manners are similar to our own, the same language, and a +government evidently approaching as near to ours as a republican +well can to a monarchical form. There is not, at this time, +any branch of trade, either so great in its amount, or beneficial +in its nature, as that with the United States; with this farther +advantage, that it is every day augmenting, {205} and as no country +ever increased so fast in population and wealth, so none ever +promised to afford so extensive a market for our mannfactures =sic= +as the United States. This market is the more secure, that it +will not be the interest of the people who have got possession of +that immense tract of country to neglect agriculture and become +manufacturers, for a long period of time.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The greatest project, by which any nation ever endeavoured to +enrich itself, was certainly that of peopling America with a +civilized race of inhabitants. It was a fair and legitimate +mode of extending her means of acquiring riches; but Britain failed +in the manner of obtaining her object, though not in the object +itself, and</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{205} By this is not literally meant, +that the trade every year is greater than the preceding, but that +it continues to increase.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #267]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>the United States promise to support the +industry of England, now that it has humbled its ambition, far more +than both the Indies, which gratify it so much.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is highly probable, that America will increase more rapidly in +wealth and population than in manufactures, such as she at present +takes from great Britain; but if the ratio merely continues the +same that it is now, the purpose will be completely answered, and a +market for British manufactures insured for ages to come. In +1802, by the last census, the inhabitants of the United States +amounted to about eight millions; and, for several years together, +the exports of British goods have amounted to seven millions, so +that it is fair to reckon a consumption equal to sixteen shillings +a year to each person. It was about the same in 1774, +previous to the revolt; and, as the population doubles in about +fifteen years, in the course of thirty years more, the exports to +that country alone would amount to 24,000,000 L. provided we +continue to be able to sell at such rates as not to be undersold by +others =sic= nations in the American market.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is nothing great, nothing brilliant, in this commerce, all is +solid and good; it is a connection founded on mutual wants and +mutual conveniencey, not on monopoly, restriction, or coercion; for +that reason it will be the more durable, and ought to be the more +valued; but it is not. Governments, like individuals, are +most attached to what is dear to purchase and difficult to +keep. It is to be hoped, however, that this matter will be +seen in its true light.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One circumstance, that makes the matter still more favourable for +Britain is, that the western country of America, by far the most +fertile, as well as the most extensive, is now peopling very +rapidly. The labour and capital of the inhabitants are +entirely turned to agriculture and not to manufactures, and will be +so for a great number of years; for, when there are fifty millions +of inhabitants in the United States, their population will not +amount to one-half of what may naturally be expected, or sufficient +to occupy the lands. The fertility of the soil will enable +the Americans, with great ease to themselves, to make returns in +produce wanted in Europe, so that we may expect a durable, a great, +and an advantageous trade with them. In British [end of page +#268] manufactures our trade was not near so great before the +revolt, for we then supplied America with every article.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This, however, will depend partly on our circumstances; for, if +wages and the prices of our manufactures rise, as they lately have +done, our merchants will buy upon the continent of Europe, what +they otherwise would purchase in England, to supply the American +market.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +America is the only country in the world where, with respect to the +wages of labour, and the produce of industry, money is of less +value than in England. The Americans will then be able to +afford to purchase English goods, when other nations will not; but +then, they will only purchase such articles as cannot be had +elsewhere; for though they may and will continue able to purchase, +they will not do it if they can get goods that suit them elsewhere. +{206}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +No country, that we read of in history, ever enjoyed equal +advantages with the American states; they have good laws, a free +government, and are possessed of all the inventions and knowledge +of the old world. Arts are now conveyed across the Atlantic +with more ease than they formerly were from one village to +another. It is possible, that a new market of so great an +extent being opened may do away those jealousies of commerce, which +have, for these two or three last centuries, occasioned many +quarrels, and which are peculiarly dangerous to a nation that has +risen high above its level.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +All those things, with care and attention, will prove advantageous +to Britain in a superior degree. They afford us much reason for +hope and comfort, and do away one of the causes for fearing a +decline that has been stated, namely, the being supplanted by +poorer nations, or by not having a market for our increasing +manufactures.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There remains yet another consideration in favour of Britain, as a +manufacturing and a commercial country; for, as such, we must view +it, reckoning more on industry than on the ideal wealth of our +colonies in the West, and our conquests in the East. It is +this, we are the</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{206} England begins already to lose the +market for linen-cloth, window-glass, fire-arms, and a number of +other articles. It would have entirely lost that of books, if +any nation on the continent of Europe could print English +correctly. As, it is, they are printing in America, in place +of our keeping the trade, which we might have done with great +profit and advantage.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #269]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>latest of European nations that has risen +to wealth by commerce and manufactures. In looking over the +map, there does not seem to be any one to supplant us; all those, +who have great advantages, have already gone before, and, till we +see the example of a country renewing itself, we have a right to +disbelieve that it is possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Russia is the only country in Europe that is newer than England, +and many circumstances will prevent it from becoming a rival in +commerce. It does not, nor it ever can increase in +population, and carry civilization and manufactures to the same +point. Though, very new, as a powerful European nation, the +people are as ancient as most others in Europe; the territory is so +extensive, the climate so cold, and the Baltic Sea so much to the +north, and frozen so many months in the year, that it never will +either be a carrying or a manufacturing country. To cultivate +its soil, and export the produce of its mines, the skins, tallow, +hides, timber, &c. &c. will be more profitable, and suit +better the inhabitants than any competition in +manufactures.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is not in great extensive empires that manufactures thrive the +most, they are great objects for small countries, like England or +Holland; but, for such as Russia, Turkey, or France, they are a +less object than attention to soil and natural productions; and, +thus we see, that China, the greatest of all countries in extent, +encourages interior trade and manufactures, but despises foreign +commerce. {207}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +One peculiar advantage England enjoys favourable to manufactures, +deserves notice. The law of patents, if it does not make +people invent or seek after new inventions, it at least encourages +and enables them to improve their inventions. Invention is +the least part of the business in respect to public wealth and +utility. There has long been a collection of models, at +Paris, made by one of the most in-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{207} The smaller a district, or an +island is, the exports and imports will be the greater, when +compared with the number of inhabitants. Take the exports and +imports of all Europe, with the other quarters of the world; -- +considering Europe as one country, and it will not be found to +amount to one shilling a person per annum. Take the amount in +Britain, it will be found about forty shillings a person. +Consider what is bought and sold by a single village, and it will +be still greater than that; and, last of all, a single labouring +family buys all that it uses, and sells all that it produces. +And the meanest family, taken in this way, does proportionably +=sic= more buying and selling than the richest state, taken in a +body. Consider the whole earth as one state, and it neither +exports nor imports.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #270]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>genious mechanics of the last century, +(Mr. Vaucusson,) at the expense of that government, in which were +nearly all the curious inventions brought forth in England, +together with many not known in it. Some Englishmen, in going +through it, brought over new inventions here, for which they +obtained patents, and, by which, they, as well as the public, were +gainers, while the inventions lay useless and dormant in +France.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Invention is not a thing in a man's power, and great inventions are +generally more the effect of accident than of superior abilities; +at any rate, no encouragement is certain to produce invention, but +it always will produce improvement on invention. When a man +has a patent for fourteen years, he does every thing in his power +to make the object of that patent become as generally useful as +possible, and this is only to be done by carrying the improvements +as far as he is able. {208} Others, again, who have no +patent, but are of the same trade, endeavour to preserve their +business by improvement, and to this contest in excellence may be +attributed the great progress, made in England, in bringing +manufactures to a higher degree of perfection than in any other +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great inventions, from which others branch out and spring, are +not due, it has often been asserted, to natives of this +country. Probably this may be owing to the circumstance, that +they were known before the advancement of this country in any of +the arts; but let that be as it may, there are a vast number of +inventions carried to greater</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{208} This is sufficiently important to +deserve to be illustrated by some examples. The improvement +of the steam-engine, by Mr. Watt, was a matter of accident; an +accident, indeed, that could not have happened, had he been an +ignorant man; but the improvement of it was not accidental. +It was, in consequence of great encouragement given, and to the +prolongation of the patent, by an express act of parliament. +This patent has been the occasion of almost totally changing the +machine, and of extending its use to a vast variety of objects, to +which it probably might never have been extended, had it not been +the sole business of a very able man, aided by a number of other +ingenious persons, whom he was enabled to employ. It was the +cause of improving the mechanism of mills for grinding corn, and +others of different descriptions, far beyond what they had been, +although the most able engineer in that line (Mr. Smeaton) died +before the last and greatest improvements were made.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The same thing may be observed of the cotton-spinning-machines, and +with a little difference of all the inventions that have been +brought to perfection, under the influence of exclusive +privileges.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #271]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>perfection, and turned to more advantage +in this country than in any other.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This advantage, which England enjoys over other countries, is a +more solid one than it appears to be, for it is intimately +connected with the government and laws of the country, and with +that spirit which sees the law well administered, which, in the +case of patents, is a matter of no small difficulty, and prevents +others from becoming our rivals, or attaining the same degree of +perfection; {209} for, unless the law is well administered, there +can never be the great exertion that is necessary to create +excellence.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The fine arts and the mechanic arts are quite different in regard +to the manner in which they are brought to perfection. +Individual capacity and genius will make a man, even without much +teaching, excel in one of the fine arts; whereas, in the mechanic +arts, to know how an operation is performed is every thing, and all +men can do it nearly equally well. The consequence of this +is, that, as experience improves the manner of working, the +mechanic arts improve, from age to age, as long as they are +encouraged and practised. It is not so with the fine arts, or +only so in a very small degree, and from this it arises, that, in +sculpture, poetry, painting, and music, the ancients, perhaps, +excelled the moderns. In the mechanic arts they were quite +inferior. The best examples of this, (and better need not +be,) are an antique medal, boldly and finely executed, but ragged +on the edges, not on a flat ground, or of equal thickness, compared +with a new guinea, or a Birmingham button tamely engraved but +trimly executed. In the former, there is every mark of the +artist, none of the machine. In the latter, there are some +faint and flat traces of an artist, but great proof of mechanical +excellence. The skill of the artist, necessary to produce the +first, cannot be commanded, though it may, by encouragement, be +called forth; but the reunion of talents, such as are necessary for +the latter, is so certainly obtainable, that it, at all times, may +be procured at will, after it has once been possessed.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{209} In 1790 the French laid down the +law of patents, on the English plan, and rather, in some respects, +improved; but the people never understood it. The lawyers +never understood it; and, even before the anarchy came on, it was +evident it would never produce any very great effect, for want of +proper administration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #272]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Security, to reap the fruits of improvements, is all that is +wanted, and this the law of patents, as applied and enforced in +England, affords in a very superior degree. Although, by the +communication everywhere, the ground-work of every art whatever is +now no longer confinable to any one nation, though the contrary is +the case, and that the knowledge necessary circulates freely, and +is extended by a regular sort of system, in periodical publications +of various descriptions, yet the manner of turning that knowledge +to advantage does not, by any means, seem equally easy to +communicate.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The legislature of the United States of America has, indeed, in +this case, done full justice to the encouragement of arts and to +inventions; but circumstances, as has been already said, make other +objects more advantageous for the employment of labour and skill in +that country. For these reasons, therefore, we may look +forward with some confidence, to the flourishing of arts and +manufactures, for a long term of years, if the same attention that +has been paid to their encouragement still continues; but neither +this advantage alone, nor all the advantages united, that have been +enumerated, will be sufficient to preserve our superiority, if +those, who regulate the affairs of the country, do not favour +them.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is in consequence of great pains and care, that manufactures +have flourished in this country, and they cannot be preserved +without a continuation of the same care, although it is individual +effort that appears to be the principal cause. Thus, the +travellers, on a well-made highway, proceed with rapidity and ease, +at their individual expense, and by their individual energy; but, +if the road is not kept in repair, their progress must be impeded, +and their efforts will cease to produce the same effect, for they +cannot individually repair the road.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Such appear to be the peculiar circumstances that favour Great +Britain; and that under disadvantages that are also peculiarly +great, give hopes of prolonging the prosperity of the +country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is still, however, something wanting to increase our +advantage. Any person acquainted with the manufactures of +England will naturally have observed, that they are all such as +meet with a market in this country. We have no mannfactories +=sic= for goods, for the sole [end of page #273] purpose of our +foreign markets; so that, though we consider ourselves as so much +interested in foreign trade, yet we have adapted all our +manufacturies, expressly, as if it were to supply the home +market.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This observation will be found to apply very generally, though +there are a few exceptions, and though the quality of the goods +manufactured, and intended for exportation, is adapted to the +market for which they are destined. This last, indeed, is +very natural, nor could it well be otherwise, but that is not going +half the length necessary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Instead of carrying our goods into a strange country, and trying +whether the inhabitants will purchase, we should bring home +patterns of such articles as they use themselves, and try if we can +supply them with advantage. Nations vary, exceedingly, in +taste, and so they always will. The colour of the stuffs, the +figures on printed cottons, and even the forms of cutlery, and +articles of utility, are, in some sort, matters of taste. If +we are to manufacture for other nations, let us try to suit their +taste as we do to suit that of our own people at home. The +reasons why we do not do this are pretty evident. In the +first place, it would not answer the purpose of an individual to +procure the information necessary, and make a collection where the +advantage, in case of success, would be divided with all that chose +to imitate them; besides this, in many cases, the means are wanting +to procure what is necessary.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The study of botany has been greatly advanced, and kitchen gardens +greatly enriched, by the importation of exotic plants; and, +probably, our manufactures might be greatly extended, if the same +care were taken to collect foreign articles, the produce of +industry. {210} We do not find every foreign plant succeed in +this country, but if it seems pro-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{210} A collection of all sorts of +stuffs, with the prices in the country, where worn, and the same of +all sorts of hardware, toys, trinkets, &c., should be made, at +the public expense, and be open, on application, to the inspection +of every person who might apply in a proper manner; and even +specimens, or patterns, should be delivered out, on the value being +deposited. In Persia, and many places, if we would copy their +colours and patterns, we might sell great quantities of cotton +stuffs. Our hatchets, and some other of our tools, are not made of +a form liked by the Americans.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #274]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>bable, and worth trying, we never fail to +do that; we trust it would be so with foreign manufactures, if we +had proper patterns. A fair trial would be made, where +success seemed probable, and the event would determine the future +exertion.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Accidental circumstances, a few centuries ago, brought new plants +into this country, they now come into it in consequence of regular +exertions for that purpose. What was then true, with regard to +plants imported, is still true with respect to manufactures +exported. We manufacture for ourselves, and if any thing of +the same sort suits other nations, we send it, if not, there is no +trade to that part; now, this must be allowed to be an accidental +cause, for the promotion of foreign trade.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Wherever it is possible to prevent the debasing the quality of an +article, so as to hinder it answering the purpose, or gratifying +the expectations of the purchaser, that ought to be done, for it +has long been such a practice for English manufacturers to +undersell each other, that they stick at no means of being able to +do so.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +A variety of qualities, according to price, is necessary. All +persons cannot afford to buy the best sort of goods; but, when a +reduction of price is carried so far as to be obtained by making an +article that is useless, this is a means of losing the trade; and +it would be very easy to prove that such examples are very +numerous, and that various branches of trade have been lost by that +means.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With regard to the extent of sea coast, the advantage that may be +derived from the fisheries, and the benefit arising from that +circumstance to commerce, they are natural advantages, and already +perfectly understood. [end of page #275]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>CHAP. VIII.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<i><span style='color:black'>Conclusion.</span></i></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +AFTER having gone through the subject of the Inquiry, according to +the mode that appeared to be the best, in which there has been one +invariable rule, never to oppose theory and reasoning to facts, but +to take experience as the surest guide, a recapitulation can +scarcely be very necessary; but a conclusion, applicable to the +situation of this country, certainly may.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +This, however, ought to be short, as the reader has all the +materials for it in his own power, but it may save him +trouble.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The great end of all human effort is, to improve upon the means +which nature has furnished men with, for obtaining the objects of +their wants and wishes, and to obviate, to counteract, or do away +those inconveniencies =sic= and disadvantages which nature has +thrown in the way of their enjoyment. {211}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With the mind, the same course should be used as with material +bodies. It is impossible, in either case, to create; but we may +turn the good to as profitable an advantage as we are able, and +counteract the bad.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To attempt to hinder men from following their propensities, when in +power, is always arduous, generally ineffectual, and frequently +impracticable; besides, when it can be done coercively, it +infringes too much on the liberty and the enjoyment of +mankind. A controuling power should be employed as seldom as +possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{211} Thus, in building a house, you form +the stones, the clay, and other materials, which nature has +furnished, in order to counteract the effect of heat or cold, moist +or dry, as is most agreeable. Thus, men have learned to melt and +vitrify the sand on the sea-shore, to make glass, grind it into a +form, and make a microscope to view the most minute objects of +nature, or to bring the most distant nearer, by the telescope: +thus, rectifying the imperfection of human sight. Perhaps the +burning of <i>coals</i> to convert <i>water</i> into <i>steam</i>, +and, with that <i>steam</i>, raising <i>coals</i> and <i>water</i> +from the mine is the most complete triumph of human skill over +physical difficulties. How invention and discovery have improved +the state of man since the time that the uses of corn and fire were +unknown in Greece!!!</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #276]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To attempt to smother the passions is vain, to controul them +difficult; besides, it is from energy, arising from passions or +propensities, that all good, as well as all evil, arise. The +business, then, will neither be to curb nor to crush, but to give a +proper direction. This is to be done by good habits, when young, +and a proper education, which cannot be obtained by individual +exertion, without the assistance of government; an assistance that +it is therefore bound to give.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The general tendency of wealth and power are to enervate people, to +make them proud and indolent, and, after a certain time, they leave +a country. Individuals have no means to counteract this tendency, +unless the governing power of the country gives a general impulse +to them, in cases where they can act, and acts itself, with care +and attention, where individuals can do nothing.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In the case of education and manners, in the case of providing for +children, individuals may do much, but government must not only +give the means, but the impulse. In the case of the soil becoming +insufficient for the inhabitants, and of taxes and national debt +increasing, government may stop the progress; and in the cases of +individual bodies trenching on the general weal, as well as in the +tendency of inventions, capital, &c. to emigrate to other +countries, the government may counteract, and, perhaps, totally +prevent them all.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In all cases, individuals will and must follow their lawful +propensities, both in the means of employing capital and expending +revenue; that is, they must be left free, in a general way, and +only interrupted and regulated in particular cases; but, sometimes, +the means must be furnished them of going right, and in other cases +the inducements to do so augmented. We shall take the subjects in +the same order that they followed in the Second Book.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Though the manners of people, arrived at maturity, can only be +regulated by their education, when young, if that is properly +attended to, it will be sufficient; for though it will not prevent +the generation that has attained wealth, from enjoying it according +to the prevailing taste, it will prevent contamination being +communicated with increased force, as it now is, to the children. +The evils then will go on in a simple proportion; they now go on +with a compound one, and the evils arising from the [end of page +#277] luxury of each generation are doubled on that which follows +after. If that is prevented, it will be all that probably is +necessary; at all events it is probably all that is +possible.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In taxation, the government should study to do away what is +obnoxious in its mode of collection, for that does more injury to +the subject, in many cases, than an equal sum would do levied in +another manner; and when payments are to be made, the mode should +be rendered as easy as possible. Every unnecessary trouble should +be avoided in collecting a tax. In the tax on receipts and bills, +why should the sums to which they extend not be printed on them, so +as to prevent error, which is sometimes attended with great loss, +and always with inconvenience? If this had been done, how many +law-suits, how many nefarious tricks, would have been +prevented? But not to speak of those inconveniences only, how +much useless trouble, uneasiness, and uncertainty, would have been +saved in the common way of transacting business? In most cases, the +subject is treated as if neither his time, nor his conveniency, nor +his feelings, were worth attending to. This is equally impolitic +and unjust: there is, perhaps, no country where people are more +careful to keep within the pale of the law, than in England; but +when they are within it, and have power, no people use it with a +more insulting rigour; and for this there is no redress.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In many cases, this would be entirely prevented by proper attention +in first laying on the tax. There should be a board of taxation, to +receive, digest, and examine, the suggestions of others. In short, +pains should be taken to bring to perfection the system. At +present, it is left to chance; that is to say, it is left for those +to do who have not time to do it, and, of consequence, the blunders +committed are seen by all the world. {212}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{212} An act of parliament for a new tax +is seldom ever right till it has been evaded a number of times, and +even then in perfectioning =sic= it, an increase of revenue is the +only object attended to; the conveniency of the subject is scarcely +ever thought of. Taxes are laid on, that experience proves to be +unproductive and oppressive, and sometimes are, and oftener ought, +to be repealed; thousands of persons are sometimes ruined for a +mere experiment. As the public pays for it, they, at least, might +be indulged with a little attention; nothing costs less than +civility. If half the attention were paid to preventing unnecessary +trouble to the subject, [end of page #278] in cases of taxation, +that is paid to the preservation of partridges, we should have the +thing very differently managed. There should also be a public +office, to hear just complaints against those who give unnecessary +trouble, as there is for hackney coachmen. Men in all situations +require to be under some controul, where they have power. Most of +those who <i>drive</i> others, go wrong sometimes, unless held in +check by some authority.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The encroachments of separate bodies on the public, it is entirely +in the power of the state to prevent. It is owing to weakness or +carelessness, or ignorance, that governments admit of such +encroachments, and they are easily to be prevented, partly, as has +been shewn, by positive regulation, and partly by counteracting +them, whenever they appear to be proceeding in a direction any way +doubtful. When they do so, the conclusion may be, that they are +working for themselves; and, in that case, they ought to be very +minutely examined into; and, as all public bodies, and men +belonging to a class that has a particular interest generally +derive their means of trenching on the public from government, it +may very easily controul their action, or counteract the +effect.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As lawyers have the administration of justice amongst themselves; +as the executive part is in their hand, the law-makers should be +particularly careful to make them amenable by law for bad conduct; +it ought not to be left in the bosom of a court, to strike off, or +keep on, an improper man. It is not right, on the one hand, that +attorneys, or any set of men, should be subject to an arbitrary +exertion of power; and it is equally unfair for them to be +protected, by having those who are to judge between them and the +public, always belonging to their own body. In defence of this, it +is said, that attornies are servants of the court, and that the +business of the court being to do justice, their correction cannot +be in better hands. This is a tolerably ingenious assertion, if it +were strictly true; but the court consists both of judge and jury; +whereas, in this case, the judge assumes all the power; that is to +say, when a case is to be determined relative to the conduct of a +lawyer, a lawyer is to be the sole judge, and the jury, who +represent the public, are to have their power set aside; thus, when +their opinion is most wanted, it is not allowed to be given. Under +such regulation, what real redress can be expected? As for the +taxing costs by a master, it is [end of page #279] rarely that a +client, from prudential motives, dares appeal; and, when he does, +the remedy is frequently worse than the disease; and, even in this +case a lawyer judges a lawyer. Without saying any thing against the +judgments, it will be allowed, that in neither case is the +principle of Magna Carta adhered to, of a man being judged by his +peers; besides, in every other fraud there is punishment +proportioned to the crime. In this case there is no punishment, +unless the extortion is exorbitant, and then the punishment is too +great. It ought to be proportioned to the offence, as in cases of +usury, and then it would be effectual; but to let small +misdemeanors go free and to punish great ones beyond measure is the +way to elude punishment in all cases. A man ought to pay his bill; +let the attorney take the money at his peril, and let there be a +court to judge fairly, at little expense, and with promptitude, and +punish the extortion by a treble fine. This would answer; but all +regulations, relative to law, are left to the lawyers themselves; +and the fable of the Man, the Lion, and the Picture, was never so +well exemplified, Never, in any case, was redress more wanted; +perhaps, never was it less likely to be had.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The unequal division of property, as has been shewn, arises partly +from bad laws, and partly from neglect of regulation; it is, +indeed, one of the most delicate points to interfere in; +nevertheless, as it has been proved, that laws do already interfere +between a man and the use of his property, (and that it is, in some +cases, necessary that they should do so) the question is reduced to +one of circumstances and expediency, it is not one to be +determined, in the abstract, on principle. It is also of too nice a +nature to be touched roughly by general regulation; but, if large +estates in land, and large farms, were taxed higher in proportion +than small ones, it would counteract, to a certain degree, the +tendency of landed property to accumulate in any one person's hand; +and, except in land, property seldom remains long enough in one +family to accumulate to a dangerous degree. {213}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{213} Besides the above truth, of other +property being liable to be dissipated from its nature the law of +primogeniture does not attach on it, and the evil, if it did, would +not be any way considerable.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #280]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The increased consumption of a nation, which we have found one of +the causes of decline that increases with its wealth, may be more +effectually prevented than any other; not by interfering with the +mode in which individuals expend their wealth, but by managing it +so that vegetable food shall always be in abundance; and if so, the +high prices of animal food, and the low price of vegetables will +answer the purpose of counteracting the taste for the former, which +is the cause of the dearth, and brings on depopulation; and +therefore its hurtful effect will be prevented. {214}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To this, gentlemen of landed property may object, and no doubt will +object, but let them consider how rapidly ruin is coming on. At the +rate matters now go, it would not be a surprising, but a natural +effect, if most of the fields in Britain were converted into +pasture, and our chief supply of corn obtained from abroad. The +rent of land would, indeed, be doubled, the wages of labour would +rise more than in an equal proportion, and a very few years would +complete the ruin of this country. The landed proprietors surely +would not, for any momentary gain, risk the ruin of themselves and +of their country, for both may be the consequence of persisting in +this system. {215} Or, if they will persist in it, will the +government, which has other interests to consult and to protect, +allow that single one to swallow up all the rest?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is true, the freedom of trade will be invoked; but the freedom +of</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{214} Suppose that, of the waste lands, +eleven millions of acres were cultivated, and that as much as +possible (suppose five millions) were always in grain, those five +millions would be able to supply the nation nearly in an ordinary +year. A law might also be made, compelling all landlords and +farmers to have only three-fourths in grass; this could be no +hardship. There would then be always corn in plenty; monopoly would +be prevented, because anxiety would be avoided; for a real +deficiency to a small amount gives cause to great anxiety and +grievous monopoly. The waste lands, when disposed of, might have +whatever condition attached to them was thought fit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{215} We say persisting in this system, +for when bread fell to be at a moderate price, last summer, (1804,) +the outcry amongst the farmers was great and violent, and the +legislature altered the law about exports; the consequence of this +was, that the price of wheat rose regularly every week till it was +doubled. All this was the effect of opinion, for the price of corn +rose too quickly to allow any to be sent out of the kingdom, by the +new law.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #281]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>trade is a principle not to be adopted +without limitation, but with due regard to times and circumstances; +let it then never be invoked upon a general question, without +examination. Though this is the true way of arguing the question, +let freedom of trade be taken in another way; let it be considered +as a general principle, it will then be immutable, and cannot be +changed. {216} The present corn-laws must on that principle be done +away, and no bounty allowed for exportation or for importation, +which indeed would be the best way; but, at all events, let us have +one weight and one measure for both parties, and not invoke freedom +of trade to protect the corn-dealers when prices are high, and +enact laws to counteract the effects of plenty, which produces low +prices.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On this subject, government must set itself above every +consideration, but that of the welfare of the country: it is too +important to be trifled with, or to be bartered for any inferior +consideration.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The prices of our manufactures will soon become too high for other +nations. Our inventions, to abbreviate labour, cannot be perpetual, +and, in some cases, they can go no farther than they have already +gone; besides, the same inventions, copied by nations where labour +is cheaper, give them still a superiority over us.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If increased consumption was the leading cause of the destruction +of Rome, to which money was sent from tributary nations, and +employed to purchase corn, (so that its supply was independent of +its industry,) how much more forcible and rapid must be its effects +in this country, living by manufactures, and having no other means +to procure a supply from strangers, when that is necessary? +{217}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The burthens of our national taxes continuing the same, those +for</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{216} When corn was dear, and the public +cry was for regulation, it was announced, in the highest quarters, +that trade was free. Ministers acted as if they had been the +colleagues of of =sic= the economist Turgot; but, when prices fell, +the language was changed, and new regulations were made. Compare +the Duke of Portland's letter, in 1799, with the act for the +exportation of grain, in 1804.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{217} The money sent out of the country +for corn is a direct diminution of the balance due to us from other +nations, and it now amounts to near three millions a year on an +average. The balance in our favour is not much more than twice that +sum at the most, and was not equal to that till lately: the imports +of grain may soon turn the balance against us.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #282]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>the poor increasing, our means +diminishing; what could possibly produce a more rapid +decline?</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The danger is too great and too evident to require any thing +farther to be said; particularly as the last ten years have taught +us so much, by experience.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is unnecessary to repeat what was said about the mode of +reducing the interest of the national debt without setting too much +capital afloat; without breaking faith with the creditors of the +state, or burthening the industry of the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +On the increase of the poor and the means of diminishing their +numbers enough has been said. That must originate with +government in every case and in some cases exclusively belongs to +it. They must act of themselves entirely, with respect to the very +poor and to their children. With those who are not quite reduced to +poverty, they should grant aid, to enable them to struggle against +adversity, and prevent their offspring from becoming burthensome to +the public.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The other affairs well attended to, capital and industry will lose +their tendency to leave the country; and, if they should continue +to leave it, the case will be desperate; for, after the lands are +improved, and the best encouragement given to the employment of +capital, and to the greatest extent nothing more can be done. It +will find employment elsewhere.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The efficacy of a remedy, like every thing else in this world, has +a boundary, but the extent and compass of that depends, in a great +degree, on exertion and skill, and particularly so in the present +instance. It remains with the government to make that exertion, +either directly itself, or by putting individuals in the way to +make it.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The government of a country must then interfere, in an active +manner, in the prevention of the interior causes of decline. As to +the exterior ones, they do not depend on a country itself; but, so +far as they do, it is exclusively on the government, and in no +degree on the individual inhabitants.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The envy and enmity which superior wealth create, can only be +diminished by the moderation and justice with which a nation +conducts itself towards others; and if they are sufficiently +envious and [end of page #283] unfair to persist, a nation like +Britain has nothing to fear. But we must separate from envy and +enmity occasioned by the possession of wealth, that envy and enmity +that are excited by the unjust manner in which wealth is +acquired.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In respect to Britain, it has been shewn, that the envy and enmity +excited, are chiefly by her possessions in the East Indies; we have +seen, also, that the wealth obtained by those possessions is but +very inconsiderable, and that they have, at least, brought on +one-third of our national debt; it would then be well, +magnanimously to state the question, and examine whether we ought +not to abandon the possession of such unprofitable, such expensive, +and such a dangerous acquisition; till we do so, it is to be feared +that we shall never have a true friend, nor be without a bitter +enemy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +We have had experience from America, which is become precious to us +now, that we have lost it, and which was a mill-stone about our +neck, while we were in possession of it. Let us take a lesson from +experience, and apply its result to what is at this moment going +on, and we cannot mistake the conclusion to be formed. Let the +nation be above the little vanity of retaining a thing, merely +because it has possessed it. {218} Let the great general outline of +happiness, and of permanent happiness, be considered, and not that +ephemerical splendour and opulence, that gilded pomp that remains +but for a day, and leaves a nation in eternal poverty and want. +Britain can only be firm and just in its conduct towards other +nations, give up useless possessions, defend its true rights to the +last point, encourage industry at home, and take every step to +prevent the operation of those causes of decline that we have been +examining; let merit be encouraged, and</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{218} In this country, public opinion +would be against a minister, who proposed to give up any possession +abroad, however useless. This is owing to the pride occasioned by +wealth. The people are not rapacious for conquests, but once in +possession they are very unwilling to let them go.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>It is not necessary to quit the trade to +India, or abandon all our possessions, but to diminish our +establishments, circumscribe our conquests, and not aim at +possessing more than we had thirty years ago. That moderation would +conciliate all nations, and envy would find its occupation +gone.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #284]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>let it never be forgotten or lost sight +of, that wealth and greatness can only be supported, for a length +of time, by industry and abilities well directed, guided by justice +and fair intention. This is the truth of which we are never +to lose sight. We may keep sounding for the bottom, and +reconnoitring the shore, the better to direct our steps, but we +must never lose sight of the beacon, with the help of which alone +we can safely enter the wished-for harbour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is a great disposition in the human mind to give the law, +when there is the power of doing it. The abuse of power +appears to be natural and dangerous; yet, we have seen, that most +nations, both ancient and modern, have fallen into that +error. The hour of British insolence has also been mentioned, +and, certainly, with regard to America, we did not more materially +mistake our power than we did the rights of those with whom we had +to treat.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is much to be questioned, whether the undaunted and brave spirit +of our naval commanders does not, in some cases, lead them too far +in their rencontres with vessels of other nations on the high seas, +and we ought not to forget that, in this case, the match played is +that of England against all the world. As no other nation is +under the same circumstances with this, no one will be inclined to +take our part, or to wink at, or pardon, any error we may +commit.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Hans Towns, at one time, were paramount at sea; they could bid +defiance to all the world; and, at first, they did great actions, +and employed their power to a good purpose. They destroyed the +pirates, and humbled the Danes, after they had robbed both the +English and French, and burnt both London and Paris; but they also +had their hour of insolence. They began to be unjust, and to +be insolent, and the cities that had begged to be united to them, +in the times when their conduct was honourable and wise, withdrew +from the participation of their injustice, pride, and arrogance. +While they attended to protecting themselves, and to following +their own affairs, they did numberless good offices to the ships of +foreign nations; they had universal good will and commanded +admiration. But, when they became supercilious, and a terror +to others, their pride was soon humbled, never again to rise. [end +of page #285]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +In considering the whole, there is a considerable degree of +consolation arises to British subjects, to see the very mistaken +comparisons that have, in the first place, been made between Rome +and Carthage; and, in the second place, the still more unfair +comparison made between those two rival powers, and France and +England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As opinion and belief have a great power over the minds of men, +whether they act in conformity to their views and wishes, or in +opposition to them, it is of great importance to remove an error, +which was of very long standing, very general, and had the direct +tendency to make the people of both countries think the parallel +well drawn, and therefore conclude that this mercantile country +must, sooner or later, sink under the power of France. But, when it +appears that most authors have been inadvertently led into the same +mistake, with respect to those two ancient republics, and that, +even if there had not been the mistake, the parallel drawn would +not have been true, then France will probably cease to found her +hopes on that comparison, and we may, at least, cease to feel any +apprehension from so ill-grounded a cause.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +That a nation once gone on in the career of opulence can never go +back with impunity is as certain as its tendency to going back is. +The possession of riches is of a transitory nature, and their loss +attended with innumerable evils. Though nations in affluence, +like men in health, refuse to follow any regimen, and use great +freedom with themselves, yet they should consider there is a vast +difference. A man, well and in health, is in his natural +state; yet even that will not resist too much liberty taken with +his constitution; but a nation that has risen to more wealth than +others is always in an artificial state, insomuch as it owes its +superiority, not to nature, but either to peculiar circumstances, +our =sic - sc.: or = superior exertion and care; it is therefore +not to be supposed capable of being preserved, without some of that +attention and care, which are necessary to all nations under +similar circumstances, and which, in the history of the world, we +have not yet seen one nation able to resist.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There are sufficient circumstances, new and favourable in the [end +of page #286] case of Britain, to inspire us with the courage +necessary for making the effort.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There is one part of the application of this Inquiry, to the +British dominions, left intentionally incomplete. It has been left +so with a design to keep clear of those discussions that awaken a +spirit of party, which prevents candid attention. It is of little +use to enquire, unless those who read can do it without prevention +or prejudice. It is therefore, very necessary not to awaken those +feelings, by adding any thing that may rouse a spirit of party; and +it is difficult to touch matters that concern men, deeply +interested in an object, without that danger. What seems impartial +to an unconcerned man, seems partial to those who are concerned; +and sometimes the observer is blamed by both the parties, between +whom he thinks he is keeping in the middle way.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The advantages of the form of government adopted in Britain have +been fairly stated in account; but constitutions and forms of +government, however good, are only so in the degree; they are never +perfect, and have all a tendency to wear out, to get worse, and to +get encumbered. The French were the first, perhaps, that ever tried +the mad scheme of remedying this by making a constitution that +could be renewed at pleasure. But it was a violent remedy, to +implant, in the constitution itself, the power of its own +destruction, under the idea of renovation. The English constitution +has taken, perhaps, the best way that is possible for this purpose; +it has given to king, lords, and commons, the power of +counteracting each other, and so preserving its first principles. +Without going into that inquiry, it is sufficient to say, that the +advantages which may be derived from the British constitution can +only be expected by the three different powers having that will, +and exercising it; for, if they should act together on a system of +confidence, without an attention to preserving the balance, they +must overset, instead of navigating the vessel.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The individuals of whom a nation is composed, we have seen, never +can, by their efforts, prevent its decline, as their natural +propensities tend to bring it on. It is to the rulers of nations we +must look for the [end of page #287] prolongation of prosperity, +which they cannot accomplish, unless they look before them, and, in +place of seeking for remedies, seek for preventatives.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is very natural and very common for those who wield the power of +a great nation, to trust to the exertion of that power, when the +moment of necessity arrives; but that will seldom, if ever, be +found to answer. The time for the efficacy of remedy will be past +before the evil presents itself in the form of pressing necessity; +and that very power, which can so effectually be applied in other +cases, in this will be diminished, and found unequal to what it has +to perform.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #288]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +<i>Application of the present Inquiry to Nations in +general.</i></span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +IF there is a lesson taught by political economy that is of greater +importance than any other, it is, that industry, well directed, is +the way to obtain wealth; and that the modes by which nations +sought after it in the early and middle ages, by war and conquest, +are, in comparison, very ineffectual.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Notwithstanding that princes themselves are now convinced of the +truth of this, by a strange fatality, the possession of commercial +wealth has itself become the cause of wars, not less ruinous than +those that formerly were the chief occupation of +mankind.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It was discovered a few centuries ago, that small principalities, +and even single cities, acquired more wealth by industry, than all +the mighty monarchs of the middle ages did by war; but we are not +yet advanced to the ultimate end of the lessons that experience and +reason give in regard to the interests of nations, with regard to +wealth and power.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +To suppose that mankind will ever live entirely at peace is absurd, +and is to suppose them to change their nature. Such a reverie would +only suit one of the revolutionists of France; but let us hope that +there is still a possibility to lessen the causes of quarrels +amongst nations. The true principles of political economy lead to +that, and the object is sufficiently important.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +By <i>agriculture</i> and <i>manufactures</i>; that is, by +producing such things as are conducive to the happiness of man, the +<i>aggregate wealth of mankind</i> can alone be +increased.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +By <i>commerce</i>, which consists in conveying or selling the +produce of industry, the aggregate wealth of mankind is not +increased, but its <i>distribution is altered</i>. {219}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{219} Though the produce of soil is not +obtained without industry, yet, to make a distinction that is +simple and easily understood and retained, we suppose manufactured +produce to go by the name of the produce of industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #289]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +As individuals, and sometimes nations, have obtained great wealth, +not by producing, but by altering the distribution of wealth +produced; that is, by commerce, that seems, to those who aim at +wealth, to be the greatest object of ambition.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If every nation in the world were industrious, and contented with +consuming the articles it produced, they would all be wealthy and +happy without commerce; or, if each nation enjoyed a share of +commerce, in proportion to what it produced, there would be no +superiority to create envy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Variety of soil and climate, difference of taste, of manners, and +an infinity of other causes, have rendered commerce necessary, +though it does not increase the aggregate wealth of mankind: but +nations are in an error when they set a greater value on commerce +than on productive industry.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some nations are situated by nature so as to be commercial, just as +others are to raise grapes and fine fruits; therefore, though one +nation has more than what appears to be an equal share of commerce, +it ought not to be a reason for envy, much less for +enmity.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Some nations also find it their interest to attend chiefly to +agriculture, others may find it necessary to attend more to +manufactures; but that ought to be no cause of enmity or +rivalship.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +With a view, if possible, to diminish a little the envy and +rivalship that still subsists, let us take a view of this business +in its present state.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Britain, the wealthiest of nations, at this time, sells little of +the produce of her soil, and a great deal of the produce of her +industry; but she purchases a great deal of the produce of the soil +of other countries, though not much of their industry: in this +there is great mutual conveniency and no rivalship. In fact, her +wealth arises nearly altogether from internal industry, and, by no +means from that commerce that is the envy of other nations; for it +is clear, that whoever produces a great deal may consume a great +deal, without any exchange of commodities, and without +commerce.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The English, number for number, produce more, by one-half, than +[end of page #290] any other people; they can, therefore, consume +more; they are, therefore, richer.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If France would cultivate her soil with the same care that we +attend to manufactures, (at the same time manufacturing for herself +as much as she did before the revolution,) she would be a much +richer country than England, without having a single manufacture +for exportation. Her wines, brandies, fruits, &c. &c. +would procure her amply whatever she might want from other nations. +Let France make good laws to favour industry; and, above all, +render property secure, and she will have no occasion to envy +England.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Russia, part of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Portugal, are all in a +similar situation with France in this respect; they will each be as +rich as England the moment they are as industrious, and have as +many inventions for the abbreviation of labour.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and some parts of Germany, are, +more or less, in the same situation with England; they require to +pay attention to manufactures, for they have not the means of +raising produce enough to exchange for all they want.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If there is any occasion for rivalship, or ground for envy, it is +then but very small, and it happens that the rivalship which exists +is between those nations that, in reality, ought to be the least +envious of each other, the nations who have the fewest quarrels are +those who really might be rivals.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Rivalship is natural between those who are in similar situations. +France, Spain, and Portugal, might be rivals. England, Holland, +Prussia, and Denmark, might also be rivals; but there can be no +reason for France envying England her manufactures and commerce, +any more than for England envying France for her climate, soil, +extent, =sic= of territory and population.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The way to produce the most, being to give industry its best +direction. Nations, differently situated, ought never to be rivals +or enemies, on account of trade.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If those, who regulate the affairs of nations, were to consider +this in its true light, there would be less jealousy and more +industry. [end of page #291]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +There appears to be only one real cause for war, so far as it is +occasioned by a wish to obtain wealth; and that arises from +possessions in the East and West Indies, and in America.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +If there were no such possessions, or if they were more equally +divided, there would be very little cause for war amongst +nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It may, very possibly, at some distant time, be an object for a +general congress of nations, to settle this point; so that it shall +be no longer an object of jealousy. This can be done only by +abandoning entirely, or dividing more equally; but, at present, the +animosity and enmity occasioned is considerable, though not well +founded.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The Spaniards are not envied for the possession of Peru, nor the +Portuguese for the Brazils, though they draw more wealth from them +than ever England or Holland did from their foreign possessions; +yet, England is, and Holland was, an object of envy, on account of +possessions abroad. This is the more unreasonable, that the +Spaniards and Portuguese keep the trade strictly to themselves, +while England allows nations, at peace with her, the most liberal +conditions for trading with her Indian possessions: conditions, +indeed, that give them a superiority over ourselves. {220} This +conduct ought not to bring down upon England, envy or enmity, +(though it does); for the fact is, that if all nations were at +peace with England, they might, if they had capital and skill, (and +that they have not is no fault of England,) trade with India to +great advantage, while we should have the trouble of defending our +establishments, and of keeping the country.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +Before the revolution, France obtained more produce from Saint +Domingo alone, in one year, than Britain did from all her West +India Islands together, in three years, and much more than England +did from all her foreign possessions together; yet, France was +never obnoxious to other nations on that account.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{220} This may seem strange, but it is +literally true; the quarrels between the India Company, and the +free trade, as it is called, are an ample proof of the truth of it. +The free-trade-merchants chiefly act under the name of agents for +Swedish and Danish houses, so liberally has England acted with +regard to neutral nations.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #292]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It appears, then, very evident, that the envy and jealousy do not +arise from the <i>magnitude or value of foreign possessions</i>, +but from some other cause, though it is laid to that account. This +cause is worth inquiring into.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It appears that Holland and England have, alone, been causes of +jealousy to other nations, on account of foreign possessions; but, +that Spain, Portugal, and France, never have, though there was more +real reason for envy and jealousy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +The reason of this appears to be, that those nations, who excited +no envy, escaped it, because their indolence, or internal economy, +prevented them from becoming rich; but, that Holland and England, +which, in reality, owed their wealth chiefly to internal industry, +and very little of it to foreign possessions, have excited great +envy, and that England does so to the present hour. +{221}</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is, then, wealth arising from industry, that is the object to be +aimed at, and that cannot be obtained by war or conquest. The +purpose is not advanced, but retarded, by such contests; and if +those, who rule nations, would condescend to enter into the merits +of the case, they would find, not only that the happiness of the +people, and every purpose at which they aim, would be better +answered than by contesting about the means of wealth, which, +consisting in internal industry, does not admit of a transfer. One +nation may be ruined, and another may rise, (as, indeed, they are +continually doing,) but one nation does not rise merely by ruining +another; the wealth of a nation, like the happiness of an +individual, draws the source from its own</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>---</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>{221} From both the East and West Indies, +England never has, till within these last ten years, drawn three +millions a year, that could be termed profit or gain, and, even in +the last and most prosperous times, not eight millions, which is +not equal to more than one-twentieth part of the produce of +national industry at home. Even the foreign commerce of England, +except so far as it procures us things we want, in exchange for +things we have to spare, is not productive of much wealth. +Supposing the balance in our favour to be six millions a year, +which it has never uniformly been, it would only amount to +one-twenty-fourth of our internal productive industry. In short, we +gain five times as much by a wise division of labour, the use of +machinery, ready and expeditious methods of working, as by the +possession of both the Indies!!!</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>-=-</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #293]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>bosom. The possession of all the Indies +would never make an indolent people rich; and while a people are +industrious, and the industry is well directed, they never can be +poor.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'> +It is to be hoped, that the time is fast approaching, when nations +will cease to fight about an object that is not to be obtained by +fighting, and that they will seek for what they want, by such means +as are safe and practicable. [end of page #294]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>INDEX.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>=====</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>************************************************</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[Note that the original work itself omits +the page references</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>in the many instances where there is a +trailing comma.]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style= +'color:black'>*************************************************</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[=sic= - no section heading in +original]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ABSOLUTE monarchy, in some particular +instances, has an advantage over limited monarchy; particularly in +preventing the infringement made by corporate bodies or professions +on the public, 117, 118, 119.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AGES, middle, commerce made slow progress +during them, 3.-- What places flourished in them, 44 to +50.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AGE, golden, the tradition, if that +founded in any thing, must have been a very ignorant one, though +very happy, 214.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ALEXANDER, the Great, history confused +before his time, 20.-- His conquests had no permanent +consequences, 24.-- The only permanent consequence was +Alexandria supplanting Tyre, 52.-- His expedition to India +was on purpose to get possession of the fine countries that +produced aromatics and precious stones, 53.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ALEXANDRIA, rendered Egypt first a +commercial country, and brought on the decline of Carthage, +24.-- Loses its commerce in the 7th century by the conquests +of the Mahomedans, 54, 55.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ALFRED the Great, made many efforts to +render the people happy, 118.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AMBASSADOR. See +<i>Diplomacy</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AMBITION, sometimes renders labour an +enjoyment, 82.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AMERICA, its discovery forms a new epoch +in the history of commerce, 3.-- Little similarity +between it and other nations, 103.-- United States, of, their +revenues, ib.-- May take all the goods Britain can +manufacture, 195.-- British exports to, consist nearly +all of manufactured goods, 204.-- Probability of its +great increase and consumption of English manufactures, 268, 269.-- +Encourages arts and inventions, but agriculture a better object to +it, 273.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ANCIENT nations. See +<i>Nations</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ANIMAL food, much used in northern +nations and by manufacturing people, 138.-- Its effects on +population, 139 to 146.-- Price compared with bread, +147.-- In case of the demand becoming too great, a remedy +proposed, 155.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ANTWERP, at one time acted as a +sovereign, 47.-- Became, in the north, what Venice was in the +south of Europe, 57.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>APPRENTICES. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ARABIAN Gulf. See <i>Red +Sea</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, as an inventor +met with great difficulties, 203.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ARTS. See +<i>Manufactures</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ARTS, fine. See <i>Fine +Arts</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ARTISTS, not unfit for soldiers, 32.-- +Banished by luxury from a country, 113.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ASIA, passage to it by the Cape of Good +Hope a new aera in commerce, 3.-- Its mode of fighting with +elephants only disconcerted the Romans once, 31.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ASSIGNATS. See <i>France</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ATHENS. See <i>Greece</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>AUGUSTUS, his resolution to kill himself +when supplies of corn were likely to fail, 35.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[=sic= - no section heading in +original]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BABYLON. See <i>Syria</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BALANCE of trade, of England, has never +much exceeded five millions.-- To be seen on the chart 3, p.213, +during 105 years.-- Is not equal to more than one +-twenty-fourth of the produce of industry, 293.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BALANCE of power could not preserve a +nation from interior causes producing decline, 185.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BALTIC Sea, manufacturers early +established on its southern shores, 45 to 48.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BARTER, not an innate principle, as Dr. +Smith thinks, 5, 6.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BLACK Sea, a new market opened to +commerce,195.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BIRMINGHAM division of labour renders +business easy, 217.-- Apprenticeships not necessary to learn the +art, but for other reasons.-- Recruiting service succeeds there, +ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BOARDING Schools. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BODIES Corporate and Public, their +tendency to trench on the public, 117 to 124.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BOULTON, M. Esq. his spirited conduct in +bringing forward the improvements, invented by Mr. Watt, on the +steam-engine, 203.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BORROWING. See +<i>Money</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BRAZILS. See +<i>Portugal</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BREAD, proportion between the price of, +and butchers meat, 140.-- Prices in Paris and +London,164.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BRITAIN, in what its power and wealth +consist, 191.-- Its interior situation and exterior, 192, +193, 194, 195.-- Its conquests and colonies, 196 to 200.-- +Its great increase, 201.--</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #295] Farthest advanced in +manufacture, the consequence of that investigated, 203, 204, +205.-- Comparison between its general trade and that to +India, 206 to 211. -- Begins to encourage agriculture, +213.-- Its exports and imports represented in chart 3 +described, 213, 214.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BRUGES acted once as a sovereign, +47.-- Became a depot for India goods in the north, as Venice +was in the south, 157.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BURKE, Right Honourable Edmund, his +opinion relative to exterior causes of decline, 176.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>BUTCHERS meat. See <i>Animal +Food</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>C.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CAPE of Good Hope. Its passage a +new epoch in commercial history, 3.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CAPITAL, the result of past industry, +161.-- Commands trade, but supplies poor countries at the +expense of richer ones, 181.-- Tends to leave a country when +it becomes too abundant, 161, 162, 163.-- Would leave England +if the sinking fund were to operate long in time of peace, +242.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CARTHAGE, of wealthy places alone escaped +the conquests of Alexander, 24.-- Mistake relative to its +state, 32, 33.-- Its fall ruined the Roman manners, +ib.-- Comparison between it and Rome unfair, 36, 37, +38.-- Was never so degraded as Rome, ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CASPIAN Sea, goods brought by that route +from India, 56.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CHANGES, interior, take place by degrees, +89.-- Most rapid and observable amongst the Romans, +91.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CHARLEMAGNE, from the fall of the Roman +empire till his time, nothing like wealth or power, 44.-- +Paved the way for civilizing and enriching the north of Europe, +45.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CHARTS, description and explanation of, +illustrating the rise and fall of nations, 78, 79, 80.-- +Statistical explanation of, 190.-- Of commerce, exports and +imports, 213.-- Of revenue and debts, 214.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CHILDREN. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CHRISTIAN religion most favourable to +industry, 263, 264, 265, 267.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>COMMERCE, progress slow in feudal times, +3.-- Changed its abode when the magnet rendered navigating +the ocean practicable, 4.-- Commercial wealth degrades a +nation less than wealth obtained by conquests, 33.-- Commercial +spirit, its operation on national character, 37.-- Commerce +with India, the only one in the ancient world, 51.-- How +carried on, 52.-- Its vicissitudes, the envy it created, +quarrels and revolutions it occasioned, 53 to 59.-- Of +Britain during the last fifteen years; the increase great, but not +arising from any permanent cause, 193.-- Its dependence on +credit, 201.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CONSTANTINOPLE shares in the trade of +India, 56.-- Revolution occasioned partly by the contests +about that commerce, 57.-- Sunk before the discovery of +America, by the conquest of the eastern Empire by the Turks, +68.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CONSUMPTION of food regulates the +population of a country, 140.-- Its nature and tendency in +northern nations, 141, 142, 143.-- Requires attention from +government, 146.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CONQUEST first altered the natural state +of the world, 2.-- Its first effect to lessen taxes, 35.-- +Ultimately degrades a nation, ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CONDUCT in life. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CORN, donations of at Rome, 35.-- State +of crops in England, 145.-- Impossibility, if it fell much short, +to find ships to bring over the quantity wanted, ib.-- calculations +concerning, 146 to 154.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CREDIT necessary to carry on trade +extensively, 202, 203.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CRUSADES tended to extend civilization +and commerce, 45.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CUSTOMS, the first great branch of public +revenue, 106.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>CURING herrings, an improvement in the +mode of, raised Holland above Flanders, 47.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>D.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DEAD languages. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DECAY. See +<i>Decline</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DECLINE of nations. Though it +cannot be finally prevented, may be considered as if it never were +to come on in this Inquiry, 7.-- Are of two sorts, +10.-- Of the Carthaginians attended with less degradation +than that of the Romans, 36.-- Mistaken or misrepresented by +historians in the instances of Rome and Carthage, 37.-- Cause +of it amongst the Romans, 39, 40, 41, &c.-- Cause of in +Flanders, 47.-- General in all nations that had been wealthy +at the time of the discovery of the passage to India and of +America, 49.-- Of the Turkish government, 69.-- +Occasioned by taxation, 167.-- How to be prevented or +retarded, 169.-- Interior causes may be counteracted, ib.-- +In general hastened by the conduct of governments, 171.-- Might be +otherwise, ib.-- Certain causes of, common to all nations, +173.-- External causes of operating on a nation, envy, +enmity, &c. 176, 177, 178.-- Causes of peculiar to Great +Britain, 257, 258, 259, 260.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DENMARK. Example of comparative +power.-- Occasions the Hanseatic League by its piracies, and +is afterwards pillaged and nearly ruined by that confederacy, +48.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DEPRECIATION of money counteracts the +effect of taxation, 114, 115.-- Takes place where ever wealth is, +164.-- Its effects in dealing with poor nations, +165.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DIPLOMACY. The circuitous conduct +ascribed to ambassadors, partly necessary and not to be blamed, +186.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>[end of page #296]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DIVISION of land. See +<i>Property</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DIVISION of property. See +<i>Property</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>DUTCH. See +<i>Holland</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>E.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EAST INDIES. See +<i>India</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EASTERN Empire. See +<i>Constantinople</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EDUCATION of children in all countries +grows worse as a nation grows more wealthy, 90.-- Brings on a +change of manners, 91.-- Would be better managed if parents +were aided by govetnment, =sic= 94.-- Cannot be properly +taken care of without the aid of government, 95.-- In what it +consists generally, 96, 97, 98.-- Has been in general wrong +understood =sic= by writers on it, 98, 99.-- Female, its +importance, ib.-- Has been ill understood and conducted, 100, +101.-- Its importance, 216.-- Of the higher classes of +society is well enough, 217.-- Not so of the lower, +ib.-- Apprenticeships, their advantages, 218.-- To become a +good member of society, the end of all education, whatever the rank +or situation, 219.-- Dr. Smith's opinion about +apprenticeships examined, ib. and 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, +226.-- Of females in England badly conducted, 227, +228.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EGYPT, one of the first countries +settled, 20.-- Its fertility, &c. 21.-- Its surplus +industry appears to have belonged to the sovereign, 22.-- Shared in +the commerce to India at an early period, 51, 52.-- Became +the chief channel for the trade to India after the founding of +Alexandria, 54.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ELIZABETH, queen, Spanish armada in her +reign not equal to the privateers of our merchants now, 8.-- +Endeavoured to enrich the country, 118.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EMIGRANT ladies, astonishment shewn by +them at the little progress made in female education at public +schools in this country, 228.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ENERGY of those who attack greater than +that of they =sic= who defend, 17.-- Occasioned by poverty, +and necessity the cause of changes and revolution, 19.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ENGLAND began to see the advantages of +manufactures and commerce very late, 48, 74.-- Its form of +government a great advantage, 191.-- Manners likely to +change, 193.-- Increase of its trade since 1791, owing +to temporary causes, 195.-- The American and Russian markets +great and increasing, 204.-- Envy and enmity excited by its +conquests in India, 206.-- Effects of taxation on it, 229, +230, 231, 232, 233.-- Its national debt, 234 to 246.-- +Causes of decline peculiar to it, 257 to 260.-- Circumstances +peculiarly favourable to it, 261 to 270.-- Ought not to be +envied for its possessions in India 291.-- Owes its wealth +chiefly to internal industry, 293.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ENVY leads to rivalship in peace and +brings on war, 14.-- One of the external causes of the fall +of nations, 175.-- Occasioned the fall of Jerusalem after the +death of Solomon, 177.-- Excited by the wealth of England, +and particularly by its possessions in the east, 206.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ESPRIT DE CORPS. See <i>Bodies public and +corporate</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EUPHRATES. See <i>Syria</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EUROPE, wealth and power unequally +divided in it, 13.-- Division of states, with the population +and revenues, illustrated by a statistical chart,190.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EXCISE, established long after the +customs, 107.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPENDITURE of England consists chiefly +in interest of debt, 233.-- Cannot by any economy be much reduced +in time of peace. ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EXPORTS, chart shewing, 213.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>EXTERNAL causes of decline, cannot be +prevented altogether by internal arrangements, but their effect +greatly diminished, 173.-- More simple than the internal +causes, 175.-- Envy and enmity, ib.-- Opinion of Mr. Burke, +176, 177, 178.-- Causes arising from poor nations having the +advantage over rich in all dealings, 179.-- High value of +money in poorer nations, 182.-- Conclusion of exterior +causes, 184 to 187.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>F.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FALL. See +<i>Decline</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FINANCES. See +<i>Revenue</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FINE arts do not flourish in a very +wealthy country, 113.-- Very different as to their +improvement, from the mechanic arts.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FLANDERS enriched by manufactures, 3, +46.-- The discovery of a bettar =sic= method of curing +herrings by the Dutch is hurtful to it, 47.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FLORENCE served as a refuge for the +nobles of Rome, when the city was taken by the Goths, +44.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FOOD. See <i>Animal Food and +Corn</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FORCE, human, the superiority it gave +nearly done away by the invention of gun-powder, 4.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FORESTALLING. See +<i>MONOPOLY</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FRANCE has, since the revolution, +invented new modes of fighting, 31.-- Does not resemble Rome, +38.-- Its assignats the principal cause of the nature of the +revolution, 48.-- Its monied capital was sent away when the +revolution broke out,163.-- Its burthens before the +revolution, 169.-- It expended great sums in the last war, +189.-- It, before the revolution, gained more by the +west-India trade than any other nation, 193.-- Have now +nearly lost it, ib.-- Its capital greatly diminished, +ib.-- Will probably never possess great West-India trade +again, 195.-- Will never cease to be an enemy to England, +196.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FREED men. </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FREE revenue. See +<i>Revenue</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FUND, public. See <i>National +Debt</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>FUND, sinking. See <i>National +Debt</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>G.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GAMING, though attended with painful +sensations, is oftener followed from propensity, as a mode of +occupying the mind and interesting it, than from a love of gain, +83. [end of page #297]</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GENTLEMEN resemble each other +pretty nearly in all countries, 218.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GEOGRAPHICAL discovery so far as +connected with the rise and fall of nations nearly at an end, +12.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GENOA, why put with Venice in the chart +of commercial history, 56.-- Its greatness, ib.-- +Loses its superiority, 57.-- Its power in the Black-Sea, +ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GOLD. See <i>Money</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GOLDEN Age. See <i>Age</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GOVERNMENTS ought to aid in the education +of the lower and middling classes, 94, 95.-- Neglect +education in the useful arts, 98.-- Should counteract the +internal causes of decline, 172, 173, 187.-- Government of +Great Britain should take care of education, 225.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GRAIN. See <i>Corn</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GREEKS, their education peculiar to +themselves, 25.-- Studied Egyptian learning, 98, +99.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>GUN-POWDER changed the art of war, +4.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>H.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HANS Towns rose first to wealth in the +north of Europe, 3.-- Became formidable towards the end +twelfth century, 45.-- Arose from the circumstances of +the times and necessity.-- Became conquerors, +48.-- Began to decline through pride and luxury, +49.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HERRINGS, a new mode of curing them, +discovered by the Dutch, raised that country, and began to make +Flanders decline, 47.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HISTORY, an appeal to the best mode of +inquiry, 1.-- Dr. Robertson's complaint about the scarcity of +materials, ib.-- Is confused previous to the conquests of +Alexander the Great, 20.-- Commercial chart of, for 3005 +years, 78.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HOLLAND compared to the Phoenicians, +46.-- New method of curing herrings raised it above +Flanders. Great industry and economy, 48.-- Triumph +over Spain at home, and Portugal in India, 62, 63, 64, +65.-- Increase in wealth till the end of the +seventeenth century, 66.-- The best example of overcoming +difficulties, ib.-- How it began to fall, 67.-- +How it at last sunk before France, 68.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HORSES, there =sic= great consumption of +food, 147, 157.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HOUSE rent. See +<i>Rent</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>HUME, David, Esq. his errors respecting +national debt, though a man of great abilities, 114.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>I.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>JAMES I. did not understand the true +reason, why the Scotch were greater lovers of liberty in his time +than the English, 280.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>IDLENESS, incompatible with riches in a +nation, in every case, but not so with an individual, +82.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>IMPORTS of, England, chart of, +213.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INDIA. Its productions seem to have been +the first objects of commerce, 51.-- Digression concerning +this trade, 51 to 69.-- Its trade and possessions +excite envy, 193, 194, 195.-- Our possessions too +great, 197.-- Budget, its statement and calculation of +sums remitted home, 198.-- Has lost the cotton trade +notwithstanding the low rate of labour, 200.-- Its +trade compared with that of the country at large, 206, 207.-- +A peculiar cause of other nations envying England, 257.-- Ought not +to be so, as they produce very little wealth compared with what +springs from national industry, 291.-- The division of +labour, ready methods of working, and inventions produce more +wealth than both the Indies, 293.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INDIES, West, the trade of, lost to +France, 193.-- Trade of England to, of a permanent nature, +195.-- A cause of envy, 196, 197, 198, 199.-- Ought not to be +a cause of envy.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INDIVIDUALS, some may live without +labour, but all those of a country never can, 82.-- Can pay +for certain things, for which they cannot provide, 95.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INDUSTRY caused by poverty and necessity, +19.-- A more permanent source of wealth than any other, +42.-- Industry in youth, the great advantage of through life, +84.-- Diminishes as wealth increases, 90.-- Tends to leave a +wealthy nation after a certain time, 161.-- Industry of +England, the great support of its wealth, and if other nations were +as industrious, each in the way most advantageous, they would be as +rich as England, 292.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INTERIOR causes of decline enumerated and +examined as habits of life and manners, 81 to 93.-- Arising from +education, 94 to 101. The effects on the people and the +government, from 102 to 115.-- Arising from public bodies, from 116 +to 124.-- Arising from unequal division of property and +employment of capital, from 125 to 136.-- Arising from the +produce of the soil, becoming unequal to the consumption, from page +137 to 160.-- From the tendency of industry and capital to +leave a wealthy country, from 161 to 166.-- Conclusion +of interior causes, from 166 to 174.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INTEREST, compound, its progress, more +certain in paying off debts than in accumulating capital, +241.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>INVENTIONS, three great ones almost +totally changed the state of mankind, 4.-- Inventions render +more capital necessary to commerce, 126.-- Is one of +the things that renders our superiority in manufactures secure, +202.-- A nation that remains stationary will soon be +surpassed, 203.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>JOHNSON, Dr. would have been a greater +man if he had lived in a poorer nation, 113.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ITALY was unable to supply its +inhabitants with food in the splendour of the Roman empire, +43.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>L.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LABOUR, some individuals may, but a +nation never [end of page #28] can exist without it, 82.-- +Division of, produces great wealth.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LAND, price of, two centuries ago, and +comparison of the profit of purchasing, or lending on interest in a +nation increasing in wealth, 130.-- Its unequal division +discourages industry, 132, 133, 134.-- Total amount of rent +in England, 153, 154, 155.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LANGUAGES, dead. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LAWS better administered in England in +criminal than civil cases, 119.-- Tend to become more complicated, +123.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LAWYERS, their ESPRIT DE CORPS, 120, 121, +122.-- Individuals have no means to resist their +incroachments, 123.-- Government ought to do it, +124.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LIVERPOOL fitted out privateers last war, +equal in tonnage and men to the Spanish Armada, 8.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LOANS. See <i>National +Debt</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LOCAL situation, one of the causes of +wealth, 2.-- The discoveries in geography and navigation have +changed that with regard to particular nations,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>LONDON burnt by the Danes, 9.-- Rent and +taxes heavier than in any other place, 237.-- People +prefer living in London, where all is dear, to the cheaper parts of +England, 238, 239.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>M.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MISERS, never a race of them for three or +four generations, 83.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MOGUL, the prodigious and rapid decline +of his empire, 197.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MONEY corrupted every thing at Rome when +its decline begun, 46.-- Money to borrow, only to be found in +Italy and Flanders, 48.-- Let =sic= out at interest, loses; +laid out to buy land, gains in a country growing rich, 163.-- +Its value less in England than any country except America, +165.-- Though the best measure of value is not accurate, +being different in different countries, 182.-- Its +great value in poor countries serves to enrich them in dealing with +wealthy nations, 183.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MONARCHY. See <i>Absolute +Monarchy</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MONOPOLY not an imaginary evil, +49.-- Dr. Smith's opinion contradicted by experience, +150.-- Proof of its existence, 151, 152, 153, 154.-- Augments +rent, and labour, and prices, 153.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MONTESQUEU, his mistake relative to Rome +and Carthage, 32.-- His opinion of the affairs of Rome, +40.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MONTAGUE, chancellor of the exchequer, +attended by the lord mayor and sheriffs, went from shop to shop in +London to borrow money, 239.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MORALS. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MOTHERS. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MACHINERY. See +<i>Manufactures</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MAHOMEDAN RELIGION, its rapid +establishment, 54.-- Its effects on the commerce with India, +ib.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MANNERS greatly corrupted at Rome, +43.-- A change in them constantly going on, and tending to +bring decline,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MANUFACTURES settled early on the shores +of the Baltic, 3.-- Those who possess them first, lose them +by imitation of others, 14.-- India surpassed in them by England, +63.-- In ancient times, only, extended to luxuries for the +great and simple necessaries for the poor, 73.-- +Manufacturers less splendid than merchants, 143.-- The working men +consume more animal food than the same rank of people in any other +nation, 144.-- England considered as excelling all other +nations for manufacturers =sic=, 200.-- The effects of the +inventions of the steam engine and spinning machines, 203.-- +Scarcely any thing sold to the American states, except our own +manufactures, 204.-- Southern nations cannot rival +northerly ones, 210.-- Manufactures, and agriculture, +more conducive to wealth than commerce, are not the same thing, +209.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MEDITERRANEAN, its shores the first +abodes of commerce, 3 and 4, 20.-- Lost its importance by the +discovery of America, the magnet, and the passage to India by the +Cape,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>MERCHANTS less splendid than conquerors +and planters, 143.-- Can have no rule of conduct in +transactions but their own advantage, 181.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>N.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>NATIONS, none that ever submitted to pay +tribute, ever flourished long, 40.-- Enriched by commerce, +not so certain to decline as by conquests, 41.-- There =sic= +situation with respect to wealth and power previous to the +discovery of America, 49.-- Feeble nations have some +advantage in knowing their weakness, 171.-- Exterior causes of +their decline of less importance than interior ones, 184.-- +Should consider which is the best object on which to employ their +industry, 210, 211.-- Their comparative extent, revenues, and +population, illustrated by an engraved chart, 213, +214.-- Nations of Europe, application of the present +inquiry to them, 284.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>NECESSITY consisting of a desire to +supply wants, the cause of industry and wealth, 14.-- +Necessity ceases its operation on the nation that is risen highest, +15, 16.-- Operated very powerfully on the Dutch, 47.-- Habit +prolongs the action of it, 81.-- With young men that can, alone, +produce industry, 84.-- Less and less on each generation as +wealth increases, 85. The consequences of this, 87.-- +Its operation prolonged to a certain degree by taxation, +239.--</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>NORTHERN countries most favourable to +industry, 44.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>NILE. See <i>Egypt</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>P.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PALMYRA founded by Solomon, King of +Israol =sic=, for the purpose of trading with India,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PARIS burnt by the Danes soon after the +death of Charlemagne. Prices of bread at, compared with those +of London, 150.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PARISH-OFFICERS defend themselves against +the public at the expense of the public, 122.-- Bad +administrators, 123, 124.-- Rough, vulgar, and a disgrace to +the country, 249.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PATENTS, laws of, its utility, 200, +201.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PETER the Great endeavoured to improve +his country, and make his people happy, 118.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PITT, Right Hon. W. his estimate of +national property, 243, 244.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>POLAND, causes of its decline, and +subjugation, different from that of most other nations, +75.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>POOR, their wretched state at Rome, 43.-- +Of England cost six times as much, in proportion, as in Scotland, +and fifty times as much in reality, 88.-- Increase, as +capital becomes necessary for industry, 156.-- Causes of their +increase, &c. &c. 157, 158, 159, 160.-- Of England, +cost more to maintain, than the revenues of many kingdoms, +247.-- Causes, inquired into, and remedy, 248 to +256.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>POPULATION, 142.-- Connected with +wealth, and the manner of living, so that a nation may not require +to import ordinary food in great quantities 159.-- May be +considered as diminished in a double ratio as the poor increase, +249.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PORTUGAL, 65.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>POWER in nations, sometimes united with +wealth, sometimes not, 7.-- Definition of, 8, 9.-- +Sought after by the Romans, and most nations, too eagerly, +39.-- Quitted Rome when wealth was too great, 36.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PRICES of animal and vegetable food; +highness of price diminishes consumption, 161.-- Those of the +late dearth at Paris compared with London, ib.-- When known +to the corn-dealers, they can combine without any express +stipulation, 152, 153.-- Rises to that of monopoly as soon as +an article of necessity becomes scarce, 154, 155.-- Of rent +and wages have advanced more within these last twelve years, than +in half a century before, 155.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PRINCIPLES. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PRIORITY of possession of settlement, or +of invention, one of the causes of wealth and power,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PRODUCE, indulging in eating animal food +renders it unequal to maintaining the population of a country, 138, +139.-- Of Italy, inadequate to its population in the +time of Augustus, 3.-- Easier purchased than raised when a +nation is rich,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PROPERTY at Rome very unequally divided +before its fall, 43.-- Has a natural tendency to accumulate +in particular hands as a nation gets rich, 125, 126, 127.-- +Its accumulation and unequal division, one of the causes of +decline, 128.-- In land, the accumulation is the most +dangerous, 129 to 136.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>PROSPERITY. See <i>Wealth and +Power</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>R.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>REFORMATION favourable to manufactures +and industry,</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>RELIGION, Christian, more favourable than +any other to industry and good moral conduct, 264.-- +Protestant still more favourable than the Roman Catholic, 265, 266, +267.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>RENT. See <i>Prices</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>REVENUE of Rome wasted on soldiers and +public shews, 43.-- Want of, tended to ruin Poland, 75.-- +Digression concerning, 187, 188, 189, 190.-- When it becomes +the chief object of, to government, encourages vice, +226.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>REVOLUTIONS in ancient nations traced, +17, 18, 53, 54, 55.-- Of Poland, the account of, 75, 76, +77.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ROBINSON, Dr. his complaint about ancient +history, 1.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>ROME, her rise not accidental, but from +the most unremitting perseverance, 27.-- An account of her +conduct in war, and internal policy, 28 to 33.-- Lost her +purity of manners, neglected agriculture and the arts, when she +became rich by her conquests in Asia, and the fall of Carthage, 34, +35.-- Became more degraded than ever Carthage was, 36, +37.-- Her courts of justice became venal, property +divided in a very unequal way, taxes became oppressive, her +armies enervated, and she fell, 38, 39, 40.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>S.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SARACENS got possession of Egypt, &c. +44.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SCHOOLS. See <i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SINKING Fund, its progress shewn in a +stained chart, 215.-- Will not immediately diminish the +taxes, 241.-- When the capital was reimbursed to individuals, +part of it would leave the country, 242.-- If it completely +paid off the debt in time of peace, would be productive of much +mischief, ib.-- Plan proposed to be substituted for it, +243.-- If ever so effectual, its operation in time of war +will never obtain credit amongst ourselves, and much less with the +enemy, 244, 245, 246.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SMITH, Dr. Adam, did not make proper +allowance about national debt, 114.-- His opinions concerning +monopoly, examined, 149, 150.-- His opinion about +apprentices, 219.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SOLOMON, king of Israel, on terms of +friendship with the king of Tyre, 21.-- Founded Palmyra for +the purpose of trade to India, 25.-- After his death, +rivalship in trade, and the envy of the Tyrians, caused them to +excite the king of Babylon to besiege Jerusalem, 53.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>SPAIN, its grand armada not equal to the +privateers fitted out at Liverpool during the last war, 8.-- +Persecutes the Flemings, 47.-- The effects of wealth on it, +63.-- Its insolence and pride, 64.-- And sudden +decline, ib.-- Wealth made it neglect industry, 65.-- Gains +great sums by South America, yet is not an object of envy, +292.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>T.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>TAXES at Rome, in its decline, became +terrible, 40,- 41, 42.-- Taxes in France taken off while the +assignats were creating, 42.-- So great at Rome, that the +citizens envied the barbarians, 43.-- The power of laying on +depends on circumstances, 92.-- Always increasing, +102.-- Of the American States an exception, 103.-- Why +collected rigorously, 104.-- Those which fall on persons or +personal property, the most obnoxious, 105.-- Of England, +laid on better than in any other nation, 106.-- Prolong +the action of necessity, and augment industry to a certain point, +which, when they pass, they crush it, 107, 108.-- Their +produce expended on unproductive people, 109, 110, 111.-- Are +like a rent paid for living in a country, 112 to 115.-- In +England, their effects, 229 to 233.-- Taxes and rent augment +industry, 236, 237.-- In London, heavier than elsewhere, yet +people crowd to London, 238, 239.-- If taken off suddenly, would be +hurtful, 240 to 244.-- For the maintenance of poor, 247 to +256.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>TRADE--See <i>Commerce</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>TREATIES, the best observed, have been +those founded on equity add =sic= mutual interest, 186.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>TYRE, early commerce, 21, 23.-- Its +destruction one of the most permanent effects of Alexander's wars, +24.-- Excited the king of Babylon to take Jerusalem, +45.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>V.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>VENICE, its greatness, 56, 57.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>UNITED STATES. See <i>States of +America</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>W.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>WAGES. See +<i>Prices</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>WAR generally occasioned by envy or +rivalship, 14, 175, 219.-- Ought not to be followed to +procure wealth, as it is much more easily done by industry, +293.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>WATT, James Esq. his invention of the +steam engine, 203.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>WEALTH, its definition in +contra-distinction to power, 8, 9, 10.--Diminishes the necessity of +industry, 29, 30.-- Leaves richer to go into poorer +countries, 93.-- In England arises from industry, not from +foreign possessions, 293, 294.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>WEST Indies. See <i>Indies, +West</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>Y.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'>YOUTH. See +<i>Education</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='font-size:11.0pt; color:black'>---> <i>The reader +will observe, on one =sic= of the pages, reference to an Appendix, +but the design was altered, from the consideration that readers of +history do not require solitary facts, by way of illustration, +though such are very easy to be produced</i>.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>THE END.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style= +'color:black'>----------------------------------------------</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style='color:black'>W. Marchant, Printer, +Greville-street.</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm; margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align:center'> +<span style= +'color:black'>----------------------------------------------</span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<span style='color:black'> </span></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style= +'font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>*******************************************************</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>[(Transcriber's Note): In the original +work:</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'> </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>-- the footnotes are +designated by [*] but are here serially</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>numbered for ease of +reference;</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>-- in some cases the +same word is spelt differently in various</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>parts of the text, +e.g. controul/control; Hans/Hanse Towns,</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>shew/show (one +instance only of the latter) etc. These and</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>other vagaries are +reproduced largely without special note. </span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>Likewise treated are +the numerous examples of the number</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>of the subject not +agreeing with that of the verb.]</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style= +'font-size:8.0pt; color:black'>********************************************************</span></b></p> +<p class="MsoNormal" style= +'margin-top:0cm;margin-right:1.0cm;margin-bottom:0cm; margin-left:1.0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt'> +<b><span style='color:black'> </span></b></p> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Inquiry into the Permanent Causes +of the Decline and Fall of Powerful and Wealthy Nations., by William Playfair + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF NATIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 16575-h.htm or 16575-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/7/16575/ + +Produced by Robert W. 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