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diff --git a/16653-h/16653-h.htm b/16653-h/16653-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b84078b --- /dev/null +++ b/16653-h/16653-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,29567 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>MYTHS OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA</title> +<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> +<meta name="generator" content= +"DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.66.1" /> + + +<style type="text/css"> +span.sub{ + position: relative; + top: -0.4em; + font-size: 0.8em; + white-space:normal; + } + +a{text-decoration:none; color:blue;} +a:visited{color:blue;} + +table { + padding:0.0em; + border-spacing: 0.0em; +} + +div.literallayout{ + text-indent:-15px; +} + +div.pre_line{ + text-indent:-2.0em; + margin-left:2.0em; +} + +dt{ + text-indent:-2.0em; + margin-left:2.0em; +} + +div.footnote { + font-size:1.0em; + margin-top:1.0em; +} + +div.figure { + text-align:center; + margin-top:0.0em; + margin-left:0.0em; +} + +div.graphic { + text-align:center; + margin-bottom:2.5em; +} + +span.phonetic { + position: relative; + top: -0.4em; + font-size: 0.7em; + white-space:normal; + + +} + +div.titlepage{ + text-align:left; + margin-top:2.0em; + margin-left:0.0em; +} +div.author{ + margin-top:4.0em; + margin-left:1.0em; +} + + +body{ + font-family: "Century Schoolbook", serif; + + font-size:1.0em; + margin: 1em; + margin-top: 3em; + border: 0px; + padding: 0px; +} + + +div.abstract{ + font-family: "Century Schoolbook", serif; + + font-size:0.9em; + margin-top: 2.0em; + margin-bottom: 2.2em; +} +</style> + + +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, by Donald A. Mackenzie + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Myths of Babylonia and Assyria + +Author: Donald A. Mackenzie + +Release Date: September 5, 2005 [EBook #16653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA *** + + + + +Produced by Sami Sieranoja, Tapio Riikonen and PG +Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="book" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h1 class="title"><a id="id2407459" name="id2407459"></a>MYTHS OF +BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA</h1> +</div> +<div> +<div class="author"> +<h3 class="author"><span class="firstname">Donald</span> +<span class="othername">A.</span> <span class= +"surname">Mackenzie</span></h3> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<hr /></div> +<div class="toc"><b>Table of Contents</b> +<table class="toc"> +<tr class="preface"> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#id2452991">Preface</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="preface"> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#id2453309">Introduction</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>I</td> +<td><a href="#id2514776">The Races and Early Civilization of +Babylonia</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>II</td> +<td><a href="#id2516306">The Land of Rivers and the God of the +Deep</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>III</td> +<td><a href="#id2517500">Rival Pantheons and Representative +Deities</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>IV</td> +<td><a href="#id2519057">Demons, Fairies, and Ghosts</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>V</td> +<td><a href="#id2520821">Myths of Tammuz and Ishtar</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>VI</td> +<td><a href="#id2523463">Wars of the City States of Sumer and +Akkad</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>VII</td> +<td><a href="#id2524978">Creation Legend: Merodach the Dragon +Slayer</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>VIII</td> +<td><a href="#id2526908">Deified Heroes: Etana and +Gilgamesh</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>IX</td> +<td><a href="#id2529027">Deluge Legend, the Island of the +Blessed, and Hades</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>X</td> +<td><a href="#id2531105">Buildings and Laws and Customs of +Babylon</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XI</td> +<td><a href="#id2532489">The Golden Age of Babylonia</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XII</td> +<td><a href="#id2533567">Rise of the Hittites, Mitannians, +Kassites, Hyksos, and Assyrians</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XIII</td> +<td><a href="#id2535270">Astrology and Astronomy</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XIV</td> +<td><a href="#id2538332">Ashur the National God of +Assyria</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XV</td> +<td><a href="#id2540528">Conflicts for Trade and +Supremacy</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XVI</td> +<td><a href="#id2541617">Race Movements that Shattered +Empires</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XVII</td> +<td><a href="#id2543038">The Hebrews in Assyrian History</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XVIII</td> +<td><a href="#id2544669">The Age of Semiramis</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XIX</td> +<td><a href="#id2546714">Assyria's Age of Splendour</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="chapter"> +<td>XX</td> +<td><a href="#id2549065">The Last Days of Assyria and +Babylonia</a></td> +</tr> +<tr class="index"> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#id2550638">Index</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<div class="list-of-figures"> +<p><b>List of Figures</b></p> +<table class="list-of-figures"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2453292">TEMPTATION OF THE EA-BANI</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2514763">BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2514897">EXAMPLES OF RACIAL TYPES</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2514914">STATUE OF A ROYAL PERSONAGE OR OFFICIAL +OF NON-SEMITIC ORIGIN</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>III.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2518436">WORSHIP OF THE MOON GOD</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>III.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2518456">WINGED MAN-HEADED LION</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IV.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2520294">TWO FIGURES OF DEMONS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IV.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2520314">WINGED HUMAN-HEADED COW (?)</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2522188">ISHTAR IN HADES</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2523186">Female figure in adoration before a +goddess</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V.3.</td> +<td><a href="#id2523200">The winged Ishtar above the rising sun +god, the river god, and other deities</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V.4.</td> +<td><a href="#id2523214">Gilgamesh in conflict with bulls (see +page 176)</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V.5.</td> +<td><a href="#id2523350">PLAQUE OF UR-NINA</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VI.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2524106">SILVER VASE DEDICATED TO THE GOD +NIN-GIRSU BY ENTEMENA</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VI.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2524128">STELE OF NARAM SIN</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2525050">STATUE OF GUDEA</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VII.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2525068">"THE SEVEN TABLETS OF CREATION"</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VII.3.</td> +<td><a href="#id2525477">MERODACH SETS FORTH TO ATTACK +TIAMAT</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VIII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2527990">THE SLAYING OF THE BULL OF +ISHTAR</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IX.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2529196">THE BABYLONIAN DELUGE</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IX.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2530933">SLIPPER-SHAPED COFFIN MADE OF GLAZED +EARTHENWARE</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IX.3.</td> +<td><a href="#id2530951">STELE OF HAMMURABI, WITH "CODE OF +LAWS"</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>X.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2531547">THE BABYLONIAN MARRIAGE MARKET</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XI.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2532989">HAMMURABI RECEIVING THE "CODE OF LAWS" +FROM THE SUN GOD</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XI.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2533007">THE HORSE IN WARFARE</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2534935">LETTER FROM TUSHRATTA, KING OF MITANNI, +TO AMENHOTEP III, KING OF EGYPT</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XII.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2534970">THE GOD NINIP AND ANOTHER DEITY</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2536676">SYMBOLS OF DEITIES AS ASTRONOMICAL +SIGNS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIII.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2536696">ASHUR SYMBOLS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIV.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2539353">WINGED DEITIES KNEELING BESIDE A SACRED +TREE</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIV.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2539371">EAGLE-HEADED WINGED DEITY +(ASHUR)</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XVI.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2542429">ASSYRIAN KING HUNTING LIONS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XVI.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2542442">TYRIAN GALLEY PUTTING OUT TO +SEA</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XVII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2543231">STATUE OF ASHUR-NATSIR-PAL, WITH +INSCRIPTIONS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XVII.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2543249">DETAILS FROM SECOND SIDE OF BLACK +OBELISK OF SHALMANESER III</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XVIII.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2545156">THE SHEPHERD FINDS THE BABE +SEMIRAMIS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIX.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2546871">STATUE OF NEBO</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIX.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2546890">TIGLATH-PLESSER IV IN HIS +CHARIOT</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIX.3.</td> +<td><a href="#id2547724">COLOSSAL WINGED AND HUMAN-HEADED BULL +AND MYTHOLOGICAL BEING</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIX.4.</td> +<td><a href="#id2547743">ASSAULT ON THE CITY OF ALAMMU (? +JERUSALEM) BY THE ASSYRIANS UNDER SENNACHERIB</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XX.1.</td> +<td><a href="#id2549406">ASHUR-BANI-PAL RECLINING IN A +BOWER</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XX.2.</td> +<td><a href="#id2549424">PERSIANS BRINGING CHARIOTS, RINGS, AND +WREATHS</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<div class="preface" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2452991" name= +"id2452991"></a>Preface</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p>This volume deals with the myths and legends of Babylonia and +Assyria, and as these reflect the civilization in which they +developed, a historical narrative has been provided, beginning +with the early Sumerian Age and concluding with the periods of +the Persian and Grecian Empires. Over thirty centuries of human +progress are thus passed under review.</p> +<p>During this vast interval of time the cultural influences +emanating from the Tigro-Euphrates valley reached far-distant +shores along the intersecting avenues of trade, and in +consequence of the periodic and widespread migrations of peoples +who had acquired directly or indirectly the leavening elements of +Mesopotamian civilization. Even at the present day traces survive +in Europe of the early cultural impress of the East; our "Signs +of the Zodiac", for instance, as well as the system of measuring +time and space by using 60 as a basic numeral for calculation, +are inheritances from ancient Babylonia.</p> +<p>As in the Nile Valley, however, it is impossible to trace in +Mesopotamia the initiatory stages of prehistoric culture based on +the agricultural mode of life. What is generally called the "Dawn +of History" is really the beginning of a later age of progress; +it is necessary to account for the degree of civilization +attained at the earliest period of which we have knowledge by +postulating a remoter age of culture of much longer duration than +that which separates the "Dawn" from the age in which we now +live. Although Sumerian (early Babylonian) civilization presents +distinctively local features which justify the application of the +term "indigenous" in the broad sense, it is found, like that of +Egypt, to be possessed of certain elements which suggest +exceedingly remote influences and connections at present obscure. +Of special interest in this regard is Professor Budge's mature +and well-deliberated conclusion that "both the Sumerians and +early Egyptians derived their primeval gods from some common but +exceedingly ancient source". The prehistoric burial customs of +these separate peoples are also remarkably similar and they +resemble closely in turn those of the Neolithic Europeans. The +cumulative effect of such evidence forces us to regard as not +wholly satisfactory and conclusive the hypothesis of cultural +influence. A remote racial connection is possible, and is +certainly worthy of consideration when so high an authority as +Professor Frazer, author of <span class="emphasis"><em>The Golden +Bough</em></span>, is found prepared to admit that the widespread +"homogeneity of beliefs" may have been due to "homogeneity of +race". It is shown (Chapter 1) that certain ethnologists have +accumulated data which establish a racial kinship between the +Neolithic Europeans, the proto-Egyptians, the Sumerians, the +southern Persians, and the Aryo-Indians.</p> +<p>Throughout this volume comparative notes have been compiled in +dealing with Mesopotamian beliefs with purpose to assist the +reader towards the study of linking myths and legends. +Interesting parallels have been gleaned from various religious +literatures in Europe, Egypt, India, and elsewhere. It will be +found that certain relics of Babylonian intellectual life, which +have a distinctive geographical significance, were shared by +peoples in other cultural areas where they were similarly +overlaid with local colour. Modes of thought were the products of +modes of life and were influenced in their development by human +experiences. The influence of environment on the growth of +culture has long been recognized, but consideration must also be +given to the choice of environment by peoples who had adopted +distinctive habits of life. Racial units migrated from cultural +areas to districts suitable for colonization and carried with +them a heritage of immemorial beliefs and customs which were +regarded as being quite as indispensable for their welfare as +their implements and domesticated animals.</p> +<p>When consideration is given in this connection to the +conservative element in primitive religion, it is not surprising +to find that the growth of religious myths was not so spontaneous +in early civilizations of the highest order as has hitherto been +assumed. It seems clear that in each great local mythology we +have to deal, in the first place, not with symbolized ideas so +much as symbolized folk beliefs of remote antiquity and, to a +certain degree, of common inheritance. It may not be found +possible to arrive at a conclusive solution of the most +widespread, and therefore the most ancient folk myths, such as, +for instance, the Dragon Myth, or the myth of the culture hero. +Nor, perhaps, is it necessary that we should concern ourselves +greatly regarding the origin of the idea of the dragon, which in +one country symbolized fiery drought and in another overwhelming +river floods.</p> +<p>The student will find footing on surer ground by following the +process which exalts the dragon of the folk tale into the symbol +of evil and primordial chaos. The Babylonian Creation Myth, for +instance, can be shown to be a localized and glorified legend in +which the hero and his tribe are displaced by the war god and his +fellow deities whose welfare depends on his prowess. Merodach +kills the dragon, Tiamat, as the heroes of Eur-Asian folk stories +kill grisly hags, by casting his weapon down her throat.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He severed her inward parts, he pierced +her heart,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He overcame her and cut off her +life;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He cast down her body and stood upon it +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And with merciless club he smashed her +skull.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He cut through the channels of her +blood,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And he made the north wind to bear it +away into secret places.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Afterwards</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He divided the flesh of the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ku-pu</em></span> and devised a +cunning plan.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Mr. L.W. King, from whose scholarly <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Seven Tablets of Creation</em></span> these lines +are quoted, notes that "Ku-pu" is a word of uncertain meaning. +Jensen suggests "trunk, body". Apparently Merodach obtained +special knowledge after dividing, and perhaps eating, the +"Ku-pu". His "cunning plan" is set forth in detail: he cut up the +dragon's body:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He split her up like a flat fish into +two halves.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>He formed the heavens with one half and the earth with the +other, and then set the universe in order. His power and wisdom +as the Demiurge were derived from the fierce and powerful Great +Mother, Tiamat.</p> +<p>In other dragon stories the heroes devise their plans after +eating the dragon's heart. According to Philostratus,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex11" href="#ftn.fnrex11" id= +"fnrex11">1</a>]</span> Apollonius of Tyana was worthy of being +remembered for two things--his bravery in travelling among fierce +robber tribes, not then subject to Rome, and his wisdom in +learning the language of birds and other animals as the Arabs do. +This accomplishment the Arabs acquired, Philostratus explains, by +eating the hearts of dragons. The "animals" who utter magic words +are, of course, the Fates. Siegfried of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nibelungenlied</em></span>, after slaying the +Regin dragon, makes himself invulnerable by bathing in its blood. +He obtains wisdom by eating the heart: as soon as he tastes it he +can understand the language of birds, and the birds reveal to him +that Mimer is waiting to slay him. Sigurd similarly makes his +plans after eating the heart of the Fafner dragon. In Scottish +legend Finn-mac-Coul obtains the power to divine secrets by +partaking of a small portion of the seventh salmon associated +with the "well dragon", and Michael Scott and other folk heroes +become great physicians after tasting the juices of the middle +part of the body of the white snake. The hero of an Egyptian folk +tale slays a "deathless snake" by cutting it in two parts and +putting sand between the parts. He then obtains from the box, of +which it is the guardian, the book of spells; when he reads a +page of the spells he knows what the birds of the sky, the fish +of the deep, and the beasts of the hill say; the book gives him +power to enchant "the heaven and the earth, the abyss, the +mountains and the sea".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex12" href= +"#ftn.fnrex12" id="fnrex12">2</a>]</span></p> +<p>Magic and religion were never separated in Babylonia; not only +the priests but also the gods performed magical ceremonies. Ea, +Merodach's father, overcame Apsu, the husband of the dragon +Tiamat, by means of spells: he was "the great magician of the +gods". Merodach's division of the "Ku-pu" was evidently an act of +contagious magic; by eating or otherwise disposing of the vital +part of the fierce and wise mother dragon, he became endowed with +her attributes, and was able to proceed with the work of +creation. Primitive peoples in our own day, like the Abipones of +Paraguay, eat the flesh of fierce and cunning animals so that +their strength, courage, and wisdom may be increased.</p> +<p>The direct influence exercised by cultural contact, on the +other hand, may be traced when myths with an alien geographical +setting are found among peoples whose experiences could never +have given them origin. In India, where the dragon symbolizes +drought and the western river deities are female, the Manu fish +and flood legend resembles closely the Babylonian, and seems to +throw light upon it. Indeed, the Manu myth appears to have been +derived from the lost flood story in which Ea figured prominently +in fish form as the Preserver. The Babylonian Ea cult and the +Indian Varuna cult had apparently much in common, as is +shown.</p> +<p>Throughout this volume special attention has been paid to the +various peoples who were in immediate contact with, and were +influenced by, Mesopotamian civilization. The histories are +traced in outline of the Kingdoms of Elam, Urartu (Ancient +Armenia), Mitanni, and the Hittites, while the story of the rise +and decline of the Hebrew civilization, as narrated in the Bible +and referred to in Mesopotamian inscriptions, is related from the +earliest times until the captivity in the Neo-Babylonian period +and the restoration during the age of the Persian Empire. The +struggles waged between the great Powers for the control of trade +routes, and the periodic migrations of pastoral warrior folks who +determined the fate of empires, are also dealt with, so that +light may be thrown on the various processes and influences +associated with the developments of local religions and +mythologies. Special chapters, with comparative notes, are +devoted to the Ishtar-Tammuz myths, the Semiramis legends, Ashur +and his symbols, and the origin and growth of astrology and +astronomy.</p> +<p>The ethnic disturbances which occurred at various well-defined +periods in the Tigro-Euphrates valley were not always favourable +to the advancement of knowledge and the growth of culture. The +invaders who absorbed Sumerian civilization may have secured more +settled conditions by welding together political units, but seem +to have exercised a retrogressive influence on the growth of +local culture. "Babylonian religion", writes Dr. Langdon, +"appears to have reached its highest level in the Sumerian +period, or at least not later than 2000 B.C. From that period +onward to the first century B.C. popular religion maintained with +great difficulty the sacred standards of the past." Although it +has been customary to characterize Mesopotamian civilization as +Semitic, modern research tends to show that the indigenous +inhabitants, who were non-Semitic, were its originators. Like the +proto-Egyptians, the early Cretans, and the Pelasgians in +southern Europe and Asia Minor, they invariably achieved the +intellectual conquest of their conquerors, as in the earliest +times they had won victories over the antagonistic forces of +nature. If the modern view is accepted that these ancient +agriculturists of the goddess cult were of common racial origin, +it is to the most representative communities of the widespread +Mediterranean race that the credit belongs of laying the +foundations of the brilliant civilizations of the ancient world +in southern Europe, and Egypt, and the valley of the Tigris and +Euphrates.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2453292" name="id2453292"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure 1. TEMPTATION OF THE EA-BANI</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/0.jpg" /></div> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex11" href="#fnrex11" id="ftn.fnrex11">1</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Life of Apollonius of +Tyana</em></span>, i, 20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex12" href="#fnrex12" id="ftn.fnrex12">2</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Egyptian Tales</em></span> (Second +Series), W.M. Flinders Petrie, pp. 98 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="preface" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2453309" name= +"id2453309"></a>Introduction</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.xvii" name="page.anchor.xvii"></a>Ancient +Babylonia has made stronger appeal to the imagination of +Christendom than even Ancient Egypt, because of its association +with the captivity of the Hebrews, whose sorrows are enshrined in +the familiar psalm:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat +down;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Yea, we wept, when we remembered +Zion.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>We hanged our harps upon the +willows....</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In sacred literature proud Babylon became the city of the +anti-Christ, the symbol of wickedness and cruelty and human +vanity. Early Christians who suffered persecution compared their +worldly state to that of the oppressed and disconsolate Hebrews, +and, like them, they sighed for Jerusalem--the new Jerusalem. +When St. John the Divine had visions of the ultimate triumph of +Christianity, he referred to its enemies--the unbelievers and +persecutors--as the citizens of the earthly Babylon, the doom of +which he pronounced in stately and memorable phrases:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Babylon the great is fallen, is +fallen,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And is become the habitation of +devils,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the hold of every foul +spirit,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And a cage of every unclean and hateful +bird....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.xviii" name= +"page.anchor.xviii"></a>For her sins have reached unto +heaven</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And God hath remembered her +iniquities....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The merchants of the earth shall weep +and mourn over her,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> For no man buyeth their merchandise +any more.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>"At the noise of the taking of Babylon", cried Jeremiah, +referring to the original Babylon, "the earth is moved, and the +cry is heard among the nations.... It shall be no more inhabited +forever; neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to +generation." The Christian Saint rendered more profound the +brooding silence of the desolated city of his vision by voicing +memories of its beauty and gaiety and bustling trade:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The voice of harpers, and musicians, +and of pipers and trumpeters shall be heard no more at all in +thee;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And no craftsman, of whatsoever craft +he be, shall be found any more in thee;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the light of a candle shall shine +no more at all in thee;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the voice of the bridegroom and of +the bride shall be heard no more at all in thee:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For thy merchants were the great men of +the earth;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For by thy sorceries were all nations +deceived.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><span class="emphasis"><em>And in her +was found the blood of prophets, and of +saints,</em></span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><span class="emphasis"><em>And of all +that were slain upon the earth</em></span>.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex13" href="#ftn.fnrex13" id= +"fnrex13">3</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>So for nearly two thousand years has the haunting memory of +the once-powerful city pervaded Christian literature, while its +broken walls and ruined temples and palaces lay buried deep in +desert sand. The history of the ancient land of which it was the +capital survived in but meagre and fragmentary form, mingled with +accumulated myths and legends. A slim volume contained all that +could be derived from references in the Old Testament and the +compilations of classical writers.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.xix" name="page.anchor.xix"></a>It is only +within the past half-century that the wonderful story of early +Eastern civilization has been gradually pieced together by +excavators and linguists, who have thrust open the door of the +past and probed the hidden secrets of long ages. We now know more +about "the land of Babel" than did not only the Greeks and +Romans, but even the Hebrew writers who foretold its destruction. +Glimpses are being afforded us of its life and manners and +customs for some thirty centuries before the captives of Judah +uttered lamentations on the banks of its reedy canals. The sites +of some of the ancient cities of Babylonia and Assyria were +identified by European officials and travellers in the East early +in the nineteenth century, and a few relics found their way to +Europe. But before Sir A.H. Layard set to work as an excavator in +the "forties", "a case scarcely three feet square", as he himself +wrote, "enclosed all that remained not only of the great city of +Nineveh, but of Babylon itself".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex14" href="#ftn.fnrex14" id="fnrex14">4</a>]</span></p> +<p>Layard, the distinguished pioneer Assyriologist, was an +Englishman of Huguenot descent, who was born in Paris. Through +his mother he inherited a strain of Spanish blood. During his +early boyhood he resided in Italy, and his education, which began +there, was continued in schools in France, Switzerland, and +England. He was a man of scholarly habits and fearless and +independent character, a charming writer, and an accomplished +fine-art critic; withal he was a great traveller, a strenuous +politician, and an able diplomatist. In 1845, while sojourning in +the East, he undertook the exploration of ancient Assyrian +cities. He first set to work at Kalkhi, the Biblical Calah. Three +years previously M.P.C. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, had +begun to investigate the Nineveh mounds; but these he abandoned +<a id="page.anchor.xx" name="page.anchor.xx"></a>for a mound near +Khorsabad which proved to be the site of the city erected by +"Sargon the Later", who is referred to by Isaiah. The relics +discovered by Botta and his successor, Victor Place, are +preserved in the Louvre.</p> +<p>At Kalkhi and Nineveh Layard uncovered the palaces of some of +the most famous Assyrian Emperors, including the Biblical +Shalmaneser and Esarhaddon, and obtained the colossi, bas +reliefs, and other treasures of antiquity which formed the +nucleus of the British Museum's unrivalled Assyrian collection. +He also conducted diggings at Babylon and Niffer (Nippur). His +work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam, a native +Christian of Mosul, near Nineveh. Rassam studied for a time at +Oxford.</p> +<p>The discoveries made by Layard and Botta stimulated others to +follow their example. In the "fifties" Mr. W.K. Loftus engaged in +excavations at Larsa and Erech, where important discoveries were +made of ancient buildings, ornaments, tablets, sarcophagus +graves, and pot burials, while Mr. J.E. Taylor operated at Ur, +the seat of the moon cult and the birthplace of Abraham, and at +Eridu, which is generally regarded as the cradle of early +Babylonian (Sumerian) civilization.</p> +<p>In 1854 Sir Henry Rawlinson superintended diggings at Birs +Nimrud (Borsippa, near Babylon), and excavated relics of the +Biblical Nebuchadrezzar. This notable archaeologist began his +career in the East as an officer in the Bombay army. He +distinguished himself as a political agent and diplomatist. While +resident at Baghdad, he devoted his leisure time to cuneiform +studies. One of his remarkable feats was the copying of the +famous trilingual rock inscription of Darius the Great on a +mountain cliff at Behistun, in Persian Kurdistan. This work was +carried out at great personal risk, for the cliff <a id= +"page.anchor.xxi" name="page.anchor.xxi"></a>is 1700 feet high +and the sculptures and inscriptions are situated about 300 feet +from the ground.</p> +<p>Darius was the first monarch of his line to make use of the +Persian cuneiform script, which in this case he utilized in +conjunction with the older and more complicated Assyro-Babylonian +alphabetic and syllabic characters to record a portion of the +history of his reign. Rawlinson's translation of the famous +inscription was an important contribution towards the +decipherment of the cuneiform writings of Assyria and +Babylonia.</p> +<p>Twelve years of brilliant Mesopotamian discovery concluded in +1854, and further excavations had to be suspended until the +"seventies" on account of the unsettled political conditions of +the ancient land and the difficulties experienced in dealing with +Turkish officials. During the interval, however, archaeologists +and philologists were kept fully engaged studying the large +amount of material which had been accumulated. Sir Henry +Rawlinson began the issue of his monumental work <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western +Asia</em></span> on behalf of the British Museum.</p> +<p>Goodspeed refers to the early archaeological work as the +"Heroic Period" of research, and says that the "Modern Scientific +Period" began with Mr. George Smith's expedition to Nineveh in +1873.</p> +<p>George Smith, like Henry Schliemann, the pioneer investigator +of pre-Hellenic culture, was a self-educated man of humble +origin. He was born at Chelsea in 1840. At fourteen he was +apprenticed to an engraver. He was a youth of studious habits and +great originality, and interested himself intensely in the +discoveries which had been made by Layard and other explorers. At +the British Museum, which he visited regularly to pore over the +Assyrian inscriptions, he attracted the attention of Sir <a id= +"page.anchor.xxii" name="page.anchor.xxii"></a>Henry Rawlinson. +So greatly impressed was Sir Henry by the young man's enthusiasm +and remarkable intelligence that he allowed him the use of his +private room and provided casts and squeezes of inscriptions to +assist him in his studies. Smith made rapid progress. His +earliest discovery was the date of the payment of tribute by +Jehu, King of Israel, to the Assyrian Emperor Shalmaneser. Sir +Henry availed himself of the young investigator's assistance in +producing the third volume of <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Cuneiform Inscriptions</em></span>.</p> +<p>In 1867 Smith received an appointment in the Assyriology +Department of the British Museum, and a few years later became +famous throughout Christendom as the translator of fragments of +the Babylonian Deluge Legend from tablets sent to London by +Rassam. Sir Edwin Arnold, the poet and Orientalist, was at the +time editor of the <span class="emphasis"><em>Daily +Telegraph</em></span>, and performed a memorable service to +modern scholarship by dispatching Smith, on behalf of his paper, +to Nineveh to search for other fragments of the Ancient +Babylonian epic. Rassam had obtained the tablets from the great +library of the cultured Emperor Ashur-bani-pal, "the great and +noble Asnapper" of the Bible,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex15" +href="#ftn.fnrex15" id="fnrex15">5</a>]</span> who took delight, +as he himself recorded, in</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The wisdom of Ea,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex16" href= +"#ftn.fnrex16" id="fnrex16">6</a>]</span> the art of song, the +treasures of science.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>This royal patron of learning included in his library +collection, copies and translations of tablets from Babylonia. +Some of these were then over 2000 years old. The Babylonian +literary relics were, indeed, of as great antiquity to +Ashur-bani-pal as that monarch's relics are to us.</p> +<p>The Emperor invoked Nebo, god of wisdom and learning, to bless +his "books", praying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.xxiii" name= +"page.anchor.xxiii"></a>Forever, O Nebo, King of all heaven and +earth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Look gladly upon this +Library</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of Ashur-bani-pal, his (thy) shepherd, +reverencer of thy divinity.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex17" +href="#ftn.fnrex17" id="fnrex17">7</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Mr. George Smith's expedition to Nineveh in 1873 was +exceedingly fruitful of results. More tablets were discovered and +translated. In the following year he returned to the ancient +Assyrian city on behalf of the British Museum, and added further +by his scholarly achievements to his own reputation and the +world's knowledge of antiquity. His last expedition was made +early in 1876; on his homeward journey he was stricken down with +fever, and on 19th August he died at Aleppo in his thirty-sixth +year. So was a brilliant career brought to an untimely end.</p> +<p>Rassam was engaged to continue Smith's great work, and between +1877 and 1882 made many notable discoveries in Assyria and +Babylonia, including the bronze doors of a Shalmaneser temple, +the sun temple at Sippar; the palace of the Biblical +Nebuchadrezzar, which was famous for its "hanging gardens"; a +cylinder of Nabonidus, King of Babylon; and about fifty thousand +tablets.</p> +<p>M. de Sarzec, the French consul at Bassorah, began in 1877 +excavations at the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash (Shirpula), +and continued them until 1900. He found thousands of tablets, +many has reliefs, votive statuettes, which worshippers apparently +pinned on sacred shrines, the famous silver vase of King +Entemena, statues of King Gudea, and various other treasures +which are now in the Louvre.</p> +<p>The pioneer work achieved by British and French excavators +stimulated interest all over the world. An <a id= +"page.anchor.xxiv" name="page.anchor.xxiv"></a>expedition was +sent out from the United States by the University of +Pennsylvania, and began to operate at Nippur in 1888. The +Germans, who have displayed great activity in the domain of +philological research, are at present represented by an exploring +party which is conducting the systematic exploration of the ruins +of Babylon. Even the Turkish Government has encouraged research +work, and its excavators have accumulated a fine collection of +antiquities at Constantinople. Among the archaeologists and +linguists of various nationalities who are devoting themselves to +the study of ancient Assyrian and Babylonian records and +literature, and gradually unfolding the story of ancient Eastern +civilization, those of our own country occupy a prominent +position. One of the most interesting discoveries of recent years +has been new fragments of the Creation Legend by L.W. King of the +British Museum, whose scholarly work, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Seven Tablets of Creation</em></span>, is the +standard work on the subject.</p> +<p>The archaeological work conducted in Persia, Asia Minor, +Palestine, Cyprus, Crete, the Aegean, and Egypt has thrown, and +is throwing, much light on the relations between the various +civilizations of antiquity. In addition to the Hittite +discoveries, with which the name of Professor Sayce will ever be +associated as a pioneer, we now hear much of the hitherto unknown +civilizations of Mitanni and Urartu (ancient Armenia), which +contributed to the shaping of ancient history. The Biblical +narratives of the rise and decline of the Hebrew kingdoms have +also been greatly elucidated.</p> +<p>In this volume, which deals mainly with the intellectual life +of the Mesopotamian peoples, a historical narrative has been +provided as an appropriate setting for the myths and legends. In +this connection the reader must be reminded that the chronology +of the early <a id="page.anchor.xxv" name= +"page.anchor.xxv"></a>period is still uncertain. The approximate +dates which are given, however, are those now generally adopted +by most European and American authorities. Early Babylonian +history of the Sumerian period begins some time prior to 3000 +B.C; Sargon of Akkad flourished about 2650 B.C., and Hammurabi +not long before or after 2000 B.C. The inflated system of dating +which places Mena of Egypt as far back as 5500 B.C. and Sargon at +about 3800 B.C. has been abandoned by the majority of prominent +archaeologists, the exceptions including Professor Flinders +Petrie. Recent discoveries appear to support the new +chronological system. "There is a growing conviction", writes Mr. +Hawes, "that Cretan evidence, especially in the eastern part of +the island, favours the minimum (Berlin) system of Egyptian +chronology, according to which the Sixth (Egyptian) Dynasty began +at <span class="emphasis"><em>c</em></span>. 2540 B.C. and the +Twelfth at <span class="emphasis"><em>c</em></span>. 2000 +B.C.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex18" href="#ftn.fnrex18" id= +"fnrex18">8</a>]</span> Petrie dates the beginning of the Twelfth +Dynasty at <span class="emphasis"><em>c</em></span>. 3400 +B.C.</p> +<p>To students of comparative folklore and mythology the myths +and legends of Babylonia present many features of engrossing +interest. They are of great antiquity, yet not a few seem +curiously familiar. We must not conclude, however, that because a +European legend may bear resemblances to one translated from a +cuneiform tablet it is necessarily of Babylonian origin. Certain +beliefs, and the myths which were based upon them, are older than +even the civilization of the Tigro-Euphrates valley. They belong, +it would appear, to a stock of common inheritance from an +uncertain cultural centre of immense antiquity. The problem +involved has been referred to by Professor Frazer in the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Golden Bough</em></span>. Commenting +on the similarities presented by certain ancient festivals in +various countries, he suggests that <a id="page.anchor.xxvi" +name="page.anchor.xxvi"></a>they may be due to "a remarkable +homogeneity of civilization throughout Southern Europe and +Western Asia in prehistoric times. How far", he adds, "such +homogeneity of civilization may be taken as evidence of +homogeneity of race is a question for the +ethnologist."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex19" href= +"#ftn.fnrex19" id="fnrex19">9</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Chapter I the reader is introduced to the ethnological +problem, and it is shown that the results of modern research tend +to establish a remote racial connection between the Sumerians of +Babylonia, the prehistoric Egyptians, and the Neolithic (Late +Stone Age) inhabitants of Europe, as well as the southern +Persians and the "Aryans" of India.</p> +<p>Comparative notes are provided in dealing with the customs, +religious beliefs, and myths and legends of the Mesopotamian +peoples to assist the student towards the elucidation and partial +restoration of certain literary fragments from the cuneiform +tablets. Of special interest in this connection are the +resemblances between some of the Indian and Babylonian myths. The +writer has drawn upon that "great storehouse" of ancient legends, +the voluminous Indian epic, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, and it is shown that +there are undoubted links between the Garuda eagle myths and +those of the Sumerian Zu bird and the Etana eagle, while similar +stories remain attached to the memories of "Sargon of Akkad" and +the Indian hero Karna, and of Semiramis (who was Queen +Sammu-ramat of Assyria) and Shakuntala. The Indian god Varuna and +the Sumerian Ea are also found to have much in common, and it +seems undoubted that the Manu fish and flood myth is a direct +Babylonian inheritance, like the Yuga (Ages of the Universe) +doctrine and the system of calculation associated with it. It is +of interest to note, too, that a portion of the Gilgamesh epic +survives in the <a id="page.anchor.xxvii" name= +"page.anchor.xxvii"></a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ramayana</em></span> story of the monkey god +Hanuman's search for the lost princess Sita; other relics of +similar character suggest that both the Gilgamesh and Hanuman +narratives are derived in part from a very ancient myth. +Gilgamesh also figures in Indian mythology as Yama, the first +man, who explored the way to the Paradise called "The Land of +Ancestors", and over which he subsequently presided as a god. +Other Babylonian myths link with those found in Egypt, Greece, +Scandinavia, Iceland, and the British Isles and Ireland. The +Sargon myth, for instance, resembles closely the myth of Scyld +(Sceaf), the patriarch, in the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> epic, and both appear to be +variations of the Tammuz-Adonis story. Tammuz also resembles in +one of his phases the Celtic hero Diarmid, who was slain by the +"green boar" of the Earth Mother, as was Adonis by the boar form +of Ares, the Greek war god.</p> +<p>In approaching the study of these linking myths it would be as +rash to conclude that all resemblances are due to homogeneity of +race as to assume that folklore and mythology are devoid of +ethnological elements. Due consideration must be given to the +widespread influence exercised by cultural contact. We must +recognize also that the human mind has ever shown a tendency to +arrive quite independently at similar conclusions, when +confronted by similar problems, in various parts of the +world.</p> +<p>But while many remarkable resemblances may be detected between +the beliefs and myths and customs of widely separated peoples, it +cannot be overlooked that pronounced and striking differences +remain to be accounted for. Human experiences varied in +localities because all sections of humanity were not confronted +in ancient times by the same problems in their everyday lives. +Some peoples, for instance, experienced no great difficulties +regarding the food supply, which might be <a id= +"page.anchor.xxviii" name="page.anchor.xxviii"></a>provided for +them by nature in lavish abundance; others were compelled to wage +a fierce and constant conflict against hostile forces in +inhospitable environments with purpose to secure adequate +sustenance and their meed of enjoyment. Various habits of life +had to be adopted in various parts of the world, and these +produced various habits of thought. Consequently, we find that +behind all systems of primitive religion lies the formative +background of natural phenomena. A mythology reflects the +geography, the fauna and flora, and the climatic conditions of +the area in which it took definite and permanent shape.</p> +<p>In Babylonia, as elsewhere, we expect, therefore, to find a +mythology which has strictly local characteristics--one which +mirrors river and valley scenery, the habits of life of the +people, and also the various stages of progress in the +civilization from its earliest beginnings. Traces of primitive +thought--survivals from remotest antiquity--should also remain in +evidence. As a matter of fact Babylonian mythology fulfils our +expectations in this regard to the highest degree.</p> +<p>Herodotus said that Egypt was the gift of the Nile: similarly +Babylonia may be regarded as the gift of the Tigris and +Euphrates--those great shifting and flooding rivers which for +long ages had been carrying down from the Armenian Highlands vast +quantities of mud to thrust back the waters of the Persian Gulf +and form a country capable of being utilized for human +habitation. The most typical Babylonian deity was Ea, the god of +the fertilizing and creative waters.</p> +<p>He was depicted clad in the skin of a fish, as gods in other +geographical areas were depicted wearing the skins of animals +which were regarded as ancestors, or hostile demons that had to +be propitiated. Originally Ea appears to have been a fish--the +incarnation of the spirit of, or <a id="page.anchor.xxix" name= +"page.anchor.xxix"></a>life principle in, the Euphrates River. +His centre of worship was at Eridu, an ancient seaport, where +apparently the prehistoric Babylonians (the Sumerians) first +began to utilize the dried-up beds of shifting streams to +irrigate the soil. One of the several creation myths is +reminiscent of those early experiences which produced early local +beliefs:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O thou River, who didst create all +things,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When the great gods dug thee +out,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They set prosperity upon thy +banks,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Within thee Ea, the king of the Deep, +created his dwelling.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex110" href= +"#ftn.fnrex110" id="fnrex110">10</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The Sumerians observed that the land was brought into +existence by means of the obstructing reeds, which caused mud to +accumulate. When their minds began to be exercised regarding the +origin of life, they conceived that the first human beings were +created by a similar process:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Marduk (son of Ea) laid a reed upon the +face of the waters,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He formed dust and poured it out beside +the reed ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He formed mankind.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex111" href="#ftn.fnrex111" id= +"fnrex111">11</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Ea acquired in time, as the divine artisan, various attributes +which reflected the gradual growth of civilization: he was +reputed to have taught the people how to form canals, control the +rivers, cultivate the fields, build their houses, and so on.</p> +<p>But although Ea became a beneficent deity, as a result of the +growth of civilization, he had also a demoniac form, and had to +be propitiated. The worshippers of the fish god retained ancient +modes of thought and perpetuated ancient superstitious +practices.</p> +<p>The earliest settlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley were +agriculturists, like their congeners, the proto-Egyptians <a id= +"page.anchor.xxx" name="page.anchor.xxx"></a>and the Neolithic +Europeans. Before they broke away from the parent stock in its +area of characterization they had acquired the elements of +culture, and adopted habits of thought which were based on the +agricultural mode of life. Like other agricultural communities +they were worshippers of the "World Mother", the Creatrix, who +was the giver of all good things, the "Preserver" and also the +"Destroyer"--the goddess whose moods were reflected by natural +phenomena, and whose lovers were the spirits of the seasons.</p> +<p>In the alluvial valley which they rendered fit for habitation +the Sumerians came into contact with peoples of different habits +of life and different habits of thought. These were the nomadic +pastoralists from the northern steppe lands, who had developed in +isolation theories regarding the origin of the Universe which +reflected their particular experiences and the natural phenomena +of their area of characterization. The most representative people +of this class were the "Hatti" of Asia Minor, who were of Alpine +or Armenoid stock. In early times the nomads were broken up into +small tribal units, like Abraham and his followers, and depended +for their food supply on the prowess of the males. Their chief +deity was the sky and mountain god, who was the "World Father", +the creator, and the wielder of the thunder hammer, who waged war +against the demons of storm or drought, and ensured the food +supply of his worshippers.</p> +<p>The fusion in Babylonia of the peoples of the god and goddess +cults was in progress before the dawn of history, as was the case +in Egypt and also in southern Europe. In consequence independent +Pantheons came into existence in the various city States in the +Tigro-Euphrates valley. These were mainly a reflection of city +politics: the deities of each influential section had to <a id= +"page.anchor.xxxi" name="page.anchor.xxxi"></a>receive +recognition. But among the great masses of the people ancient +customs associated with agriculture continued in practice, and, +as Babylonia depended for its prosperity on its harvests, the +force of public opinion tended, it would appear, to perpetuate +the religious beliefs of the earliest settlers, despite the +efforts made by conquerors to exalt the deities they +introduced.</p> +<p>Babylonian religion was of twofold character. It embraced +temple worship and private worship. The religion of the temple +was the religion of the ruling class, and especially of the king, +who was the guardian of the people. Domestic religion was +conducted in homes, in reed huts, or in public places, and +conserved the crudest superstitions surviving from the earliest +times. The great "burnings" and the human sacrifices in +Babylonia, referred to in the Bible, were, no doubt, connected +with agricultural religion of the private order, as was also the +ceremony of baking and offering cakes to the Queen of Heaven, +condemned by Jeremiah, which obtained in the streets of Jerusalem +and other cities. Domestic religion required no temples. There +were no temples in Crete: the world was the "house" of the deity, +who had seasonal haunts on hilltops, in groves, in caves, &c. +In Egypt Herodotus witnessed festivals and processions which are +not referred to in official inscriptions, although they were +evidently practised from the earliest times.</p> +<p>Agricultural religion in Egypt was concentrated in the cult of +Osiris and Isis, and influenced all local theologies. In +Babylonia these deities were represented by Tammuz and Ishtar. +Ishtar, like Isis, absorbed many other local goddesses.</p> +<p>According to the beliefs of the ancient agriculturists the +goddess was eternal and undecaying. She was the Great Mother of +the Universe and the source of the food <a id="page.anchor.xxxii" +name="page.anchor.xxxii"></a>supply. Her son, the corn god, +became, as the Egyptians put it, "Husband of his Mother". Each +year he was born anew and rapidly attained to manhood; then he +was slain by a fierce rival who symbolized the season of +pestilence-bringing and parching sun heat, or the rainy season, +or wild beasts of prey. Or it might be that he was slain by his +son, as Cronos was by Zeus and Dyaus by Indra. The new year slew +the old year.</p> +<p>The social customs of the people, which had a religious basis, +were formed in accordance with the doings of the deities; they +sorrowed or made glad in sympathy with the spirits of nature. +Worshippers also suggested by their ceremonies how the deities +should act at various seasons, and thus exercised, as they +believed, a magical control over them.</p> +<p>In Babylonia the agricultural myth regarding the Mother +goddess and the young god had many variations. In one form +Tammuz, like Adonis, was loved by two goddesses--the twin phases +of nature--the Queen of Heaven and the Queen of Hades. It was +decreed that Tammuz should spend part of the year with one +goddess and part of the year with the other. Tammuz was also a +Patriarch, who reigned for a long period over the land and had +human offspring. After death his spirit appeared at certain times +and seasons as a planet, star, or constellation. He was the ghost +of the elder god, and he was also the younger god who was born +each year.</p> +<p>In the Gilgamesh epic we appear to have a form of the +patriarch legend--the story of the "culture hero" and teacher who +discovered the path which led to the land of ancestral spirits. +The heroic Patriarch in Egypt was Apuatu, "the opener of the +ways", the earliest form of Osiris; in India he was Yama, the +first man, "who searched and found out the path for many".</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.xxxiii" name="page.anchor.xxxiii"></a>The +King as Patriarch was regarded during life as an incarnation of +the culture god: after death he merged in the god. "Sargon of +Akkad" posed as an incarnation of the ancient agricultural +Patriarch: he professed to be a man of miraculous birth who was +loved by the goddess Ishtar, and was supposed to have inaugurated +a New Age of the Universe.</p> +<p>The myth regarding the father who was superseded by his son +may account for the existence in Babylonian city pantheons of +elder and younger gods who symbolized the passive and active +forces of nature.</p> +<p>Considering the persistent and cumulative influence exercised +by agricultural religion it is not surprising to find, as has +been indicated, that most of the Babylonian gods had Tammuz +traits, as most of the Egyptian gods had Osirian traits. Although +local or imported deities were developed and conventionalized in +rival Babylonian cities, they still retained traces of primitive +conceptions. They existed in all their forms--as the younger god +who displaced the elder god and became the elder god, and as the +elder god who conciliated the younger god and made him his active +agent; and as the god who was identified at various seasons with +different heavenly bodies and natural phenomena. Merodach, the +god of Babylon, who was exalted as chief of the National pantheon +in the Hammurabi Age, was, like Tammuz, a son, and therefore a +form of Ea, a demon slayer, a war god, a god of fertility, a corn +spirit, a Patriarch, and world ruler and guardian, and, like +Tammuz, he had solar, lunar, astral, and atmospheric attributes. +The complex characters of Merodach and Tammuz were not due solely +to the monotheistic tendency: the oldest deities were of mystical +character, they represented the "Self Power" of Naturalism as +well as the spirit groups of Animism.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.xxxiv" name="page.anchor.xxxiv"></a>The +theorizing priests, who speculated regarding the mysteries of +life and death and the origin of all things, had to address the +people through the medium of popular beliefs. They utilized +floating myths for this purpose. As there were in early times +various centres of culture which had rival pantheons, the adapted +myths varied greatly. In the different forms in which they +survive to us they reflect, not only aspects of local beliefs, +but also grades of culture at different periods. We must not +expect, however, to find that the latest form of a myth was the +highest and most profound. The history of Babylonian religion is +divided into periods of growth and periods of decadence. The +influence of domestic religion was invariably opposed to the new +and high doctrines which emanated from the priesthood, and in +times of political upheaval tended to submerge them in the debris +of immemorial beliefs and customs. The retrogressive tendencies +of the masses were invariably reinforced by the periodic +invasions of aliens who had no respect for official deities and +temple creeds.</p> +<p>We must avoid insisting too strongly on the application of the +evolution theory to the religious phenomena of a country like +Babylonia.</p> +<p>The epochs in the intellectual life of an ancient people are +not comparable to geological epochs, for instance, because the +forces at work were directed by human wills, whether in the +interests of progress or otherwise. The battle of creeds has ever +been a battle of minds. It should be recognized, therefore, that +the human element bulks as prominently in the drama of Babylon's +religious history as does the prince of Denmark in the play of +<span class="emphasis"><em>Hamlet</em></span>. We are not +concerned with the plot alone. The characters must also receive +attention. Their aspirations and triumphs, their prejudices and +blunders, were the <a id="page.anchor.xxxv" name= +"page.anchor.xxxv"></a>billowy forces which shaped the shoreland +of the story and made history.</p> +<p>Various aspects of Babylonian life and culture are dealt with +throughout this volume, and it is shown that the growth of +science and art was stimulated by unwholesome and crude +superstitions. Many rank weeds flourished beside the brightest +blossoms of the human intellect that wooed the sun in that +fertile valley of rivers. As in Egypt, civilization made progress +when wealth was accumulated in sufficient abundance to permit of +a leisured class devoting time to study and research. The endowed +priests, who performed temple ceremonies, were the teachers of +the people and the patrons of culture. We may think little of +their religious beliefs, regarding which after all we have only a +superficial knowledge, for we have yet discovered little more +than the fragments of the shell which held the pearl, the faded +petals that were once a rose, but we must recognize that they +provided inspiration for the artists and sculptors whose +achievements compel our wonder and admiration, moved statesmen to +inaugurate and administer humanitarian laws, and exalted Right +above Might.</p> +<p>These civilizations of the old world, among which the +Mesopotamian and the Nilotic were the earliest, were built on no +unsound foundations. They made possible "the glory that was +Greece and the grandeur that was Rome", and it is only within +recent years that we have begun to realize how incalculable is +the debt which the modern world owes to them.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2514763" name="id2514763"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure 2. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/1.jpg" /></div> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex13" href="#fnrex13" id="ftn.fnrex13">3</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Revelation</em></span>, xviii. The +Babylon of the Apocalypse is generally believed to symbolize or +be a mystic designation of Rome.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex14" href="#fnrex14" id="ftn.fnrex14">4</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Nineveh and Its Remains</em></span>, +vol. i, p. 17.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex15" href="#fnrex15" id="ftn.fnrex15">5</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ezra</em></span>, iv, 10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex16" href="#fnrex16" id="ftn.fnrex16">6</a>]</span> The +culture god.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex17" href="#fnrex17" id="ftn.fnrex17">7</a>]</span> +Langdon's <span class="emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian +Psalms</em></span>, p. 179.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex18" href="#fnrex18" id="ftn.fnrex18">8</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Crete the Forerunner of +Greece</em></span>, p. 18.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex19" href="#fnrex19" id="ftn.fnrex19">9</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Scapegoat vol</em></span>., p. 409 +(3rd edition).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex110" href="#fnrex110" id="ftn.fnrex110">10</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Seven Tablets of +Creation</em></span>, L. W. King, p. 129.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex111" href="#fnrex111" id="ftn.fnrex111">11</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>, pp. 133-4.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2514776" name= +"id2514776"></a>Chapter I. The Races and Early Civilization of +Babylonia</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Prehistoric Babylonia--The Confederacies of Sumer and +Akkad--Sumerian Racial Affinities--Theories of Mongolian and +Ural-Altaic Origins--Evidence of Russian Turkestan--Beginnings of +Agriculture--Remarkable Proofs from Prehistoric Egyptian +Graves--Sumerians and the Mediterranean Race--Present-day Types +in Western Asia--The Evidence of Crania--Origin of the +Akkadians--The Semitic Blend--Races in Ancient +Palestine--Southward Drift of Armenoid Peoples--The Rephaims of +the Bible--Akkadians attain Political Supremacy in Northern +Babylonia--Influence of Sumerian Culture--Beginnings of +Civilization--Progress in the Neolithic Age--Position of Women in +Early Communities--Their Legal Status in Ancient +Babylonia--Influence in Social and Religious Life--The "Woman's +Language"--Goddess who inspired Poets.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.1" name="page.anchor.1"></a> Before the +dawn of the historical period Ancient Babylonia was divided into +a number of independent city states similar to those which +existed in pre-Dynastic Egypt. Ultimately these were grouped into +loose confederacies. The northern cities were embraced in the +territory known as Akkad, and the southern in the land of Sumer, +or Shumer. This division had a racial as well as a geographical +significance. The Akkadians were<a id="page.anchor.2" name= +"page.anchor.2"></a> "late comers" who had achieved political +ascendency in the north when the area they occupied was called +Uri, or Kiuri, and Sumer was known as Kengi. They were a people +of Semitic speech with pronounced Semitic affinities. From the +earliest times the sculptors depicted them with abundant locks, +long full beards, and the prominent distinctive noses and full +lips, which we usually associate with the characteristic Jewish +type, and also attired in long, flounced robes, suspended from +their left shoulders, and reaching down to their ankles. In +contrast, the Sumerians had clean-shaven faces and scalps, and +noses of Egyptian and Grecian rather than Semitic type, while +they wore short, pleated kilts, and went about with the upper +part of their bodies quite bare like the Egyptian noblemen of the +Old Kingdom period. They spoke a non-Semitic language, and were +the oldest inhabitants of Babylonia of whom we have any +knowledge. Sumerian civilization was rooted in the agricultural +mode of life, and appears to have been well developed before the +Semites became numerous and influential in the land. Cities had +been built chiefly of sun-dried and fire-baked bricks; +distinctive pottery was manufactured with much skill; the people +were governed by humanitarian laws, which formed the nucleus of +the Hammurabi code, and had in use a system of cuneiform writing +which was still in process of development from earlier pictorial +characters. The distinctive feature of their agricultural methods +was the engineering skill which was displayed in extending the +cultivatable area by the construction of irrigating canals and +ditches. There are also indications that they possessed some +knowledge of navigation and traded on the Persian Gulf. According +to one of their own traditions Eridu, originally a seaport, was +their racial cradle. The Semitic Akkadians adopted the +distinctive culture of <a id="page.anchor.3" name= +"page.anchor.3"></a>these Sumerians after settlement, and +exercised an influence on its subsequent growth.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2514897" name="id2514897"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure I.1. EXAMPLES OF RACIAL TYPES</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From a drawing by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/2.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2514914" name="id2514914"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure I.2. STATUE OF A ROYAL PERSONAGE OR +OFFICIAL OF NON-SEMITIC ORIGIN</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/3.jpg" /></div> +<p>Much controversy has been waged regarding the original home of +the Sumerians and the particular racial type which they +represented. One theory connects them with the lank-haired and +beardless Mongolians, and it is asserted on the evidence afforded +by early sculptural reliefs that they were similarly +oblique-eyed. As they also spoke an agglutinative language, it is +suggested that they were descended from the same parent stock as +the Chinese in an ancient Parthian homeland. If, however, the +oblique eye was not the result of faulty and primitive art, it is +evident that the Mongolian type, which is invariably found to be +remarkably persistent in racial blends, did not survive in the +Tigris and Euphrates valleys, for in the finer and more exact +sculpture work of the later Sumerian period the eyes of the +ruling classes are found to be similar to those of the Ancient +Egyptians and southern Europeans. Other facial characteristics +suggest that a Mongolian racial connection is highly improbable; +the prominent Sumerian nose, for instance, is quite unlike the +Chinese, which is diminutive. Nor can far-reaching conclusions be +drawn from the scanty linguistic evidence at our disposal. +Although the languages of the Sumerians and long-headed Chinese +are of the agglutinative variety, so are those also which are +spoken by the broad-headed Turks and Magyars of Hungary, the +broad-headed and long-headed, dark and fair Finns, and the brunet +and short-statured Basques with pear-shaped faces, who are +regarded as a variation of the Mediterranean race with +distinctive characteristics developed in isolation. Languages +afford no sure indication of racial origins or affinities.</p> +<p>Another theory connects the Sumerians with the<a id= +"page.anchor.4" name="page.anchor.4"></a> broad-headed peoples of +the Western Asian plains and plateaus, who are vaguely grouped as +Ural-Altaic stock and are represented by the present-day Turks +and the dark variety of Finns. It is assumed that they migrated +southward in remote times in consequence of tribal pressure +caused by changing climatic conditions, and abandoned a purely +pastoral for an agricultural life. The late Sumerian sculpture +work again presents difficulties in this connection, for the +faces and bulging occiputs suggest rather a long-headed than a +broad-headed type, and the theory no longer obtains that new +habits of life alter skull forms which are usually associated +with other distinctive traits in the structure of skeletons. +These broad-headed nomadic peoples of the Steppes are allied to +Tatar stock, and distinguished from the pure Mongols by their +abundance of wavy hair and beard. The fact that the Sumerians +shaved their scalps and faces is highly suggestive in this +connection. From the earliest times it has been the habit of most +peoples to emphasize their racial characteristics so as to be +able, one may suggest, to distinguish readily a friend from a +foeman. At any rate this fact is generally recognized by +ethnologists. The Basques, for instance, shave their pointed +chins and sometimes grow short side whiskers to increase the +distinctive pear-shape which is given to their faces by their +prominent temples. In contrast, their neighbours, the +Andalusians, grow chin whiskers to broaden their already rounded +chins, and to distinguish them markedly from the +Basques.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex112" href= +"#ftn.fnrex112" id="fnrex112">12</a>]</span> Another example of +similar character is afforded in Asia Minor, where the skulls of +the children of long-headed Kurds are narrowed, and those of the +children of broad-headed Armenians made flatter behind as a +result of systematic pressure applied by using cradle<a id= +"page.anchor.5" name="page.anchor.5"></a> boards. In this way +these rival peoples accentuate their contrasting head forms, +which at times may, no doubt, show a tendency towards variation +as a result of the crossment of types. When it is found, +therefore, that the Sumerians, like the Ancient Egyptians, were +in the habit of shaving, their ethnic affinities should be looked +for among a naturally glabrous rather than a heavily-bearded +people.</p> +<p>A Central Asiatic source for Sumerian culture has also been +urged of late with much circumstantial detail. It breaks quite +fresh and interesting ground. Recent scientific expeditions in +Russian and Chinese Turkestan have accumulated important +archaeological data which clearly establish that vast areas of +desert country were at a remote period most verdurous and +fruitful, and thickly populated by organized and apparently +progressive communities. From these ancient centres of +civilization wholesale migrations must have been impelled from +time to time in consequence of the gradual encroachment of +wind-distributed sand and the increasing shortage of water. At +Anau in Russian Turkestan, where excavations were conducted by +the Pumpelly expedition, abundant traces were found of an archaic +and forgotten civilization reaching back to the Late Stone Age. +The pottery is decorated with geometric designs, and resembles +somewhat other Neolithic specimens found as far apart as Susa, +the capital of ancient Elam, on the borders of Babylonia, Boghaz +Köi in Asia Minor, the seat of Hittite administration, round +the Black Sea to the north, and at points in the southern regions +of the Balkan Peninsula. It is suggested that these various finds +are scattered evidences of early racial drifts from the Central +Asian areas which were gradually being rendered uninhabitable. +Among the Copper Age artifacts at Anau are clay votive<a id= +"page.anchor.6" name="page.anchor.6"></a> statuettes resembling +those which were used in Sumeria for religious purposes. These, +however, cannot be held to prove a racial connection, but they +are important in so far as they afford evidence of early trade +relations in a hitherto unsuspected direction, and the long +distances over which cultural influence extended before the dawn +of history. Further we cannot go. No inscriptions have yet been +discovered to render articulate this mysterious Central Asian +civilization, or to suggest the original source of early Sumerian +picture writing. Nor is it possible to confirm Mr. Pumpelly's +view that from the Anau district the Sumerians and Egyptians +first obtained barley and wheat, and some of their domesticated +animals. If, as Professor Elliot Smith believes, copper was first +used by the Ancient Egyptians, it may be, on the other hand, that +a knowledge of this metal reached Anau through Sumeria, and that +the elements of the earlier culture were derived from the same +quarter by an indirect route. The evidence obtainable in Egypt is +of interest in this connection. Large quantities of food have +been taken from the stomachs and intestines of sun-dried bodies +which have lain in their pre-Dynastic graves for over sixty +centuries. This material has been carefully examined, and has +yielded, among other things, husks of barley and millet, and +fragments of mammalian bones, including those, no doubt, of the +domesticated sheep and goats and cattle painted on the +pottery.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex113" href= +"#ftn.fnrex113" id="fnrex113">13</a>]</span> It is therefore +apparent that at an extremely remote period a knowledge of +agriculture extended throughout Egypt, and we have no reason for +supposing that it was not shared by the contemporary inhabitants +of Sumer.</p> +<p>The various theories which have been propounded regarding the +outside source of Sumerian culture are<a id="page.anchor.7" name= +"page.anchor.7"></a> based on the assumption that it commenced +abruptly and full grown. Its rude beginnings cannot be traced on +the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, but although no specimens +of the earliest form of picture writing have been recovered from +the ruins of Sumerian and Akkadian cities, neither have any been +found elsewhere. The possibility remains, therefore, that early +Babylonian culture was indigenous. "A great deal of ingenuity has +been displayed by many scholars", says Professor Elliot Smith, +"with the object of bringing these Sumerians from somewhere else +as immigrants into Sumer; but no reasons have been advanced to +show that they had not been settled at the head of the Persian +Gulf for long generations before they first appeared on the stage +of history. The argument that no early remains have been found is +futile, not only because such a country as Sumer is no more +favourable to the preservation of such evidence than is the Delta +of the Nile, but also upon the more general grounds that negative +statements of this sort cannot be assigned a positive evidence +for an immigration."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex114" href= +"#ftn.fnrex114" id="fnrex114">14</a>]</span> This distinguished +ethnologist is frankly of opinion that the Sumerians were the +congeners of the pre-Dynastic Egyptians of the Mediterranean or +Brown race, the eastern branch of which reaches to India and the +western to the British Isles and Ireland. In the same ancient +family are included the Arabs, whose physical characteristics +distinguish them from the Semites of Jewish type.</p> +<p>Some light may be thrown on the Sumerian problem by giving +consideration to the present-day racial complexion of Western +Asia. The importance of evidence of this character has been +emphasized elsewhere. In Egypt, for instance, Dr. C.S. Myers has +ascertained that the modern peasants have skull forms which are +identical<a id="page.anchor.8" name="page.anchor.8"></a> with +those of their pre-Dynastic ancestors. Mr. Hawes has also +demonstrated that the ancient inhabitants of Crete are still +represented on that famous island. But even more remarkable is +the fact that the distinctive racial type which occupied the +Palaeolithic caves of the Dordogne valley in France continues to +survive in their vicinity after an interval of over twenty +thousand years.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex115" href= +"#ftn.fnrex115" id="fnrex115">15</a>]</span> It is noteworthy, +therefore, to find that in south-western Asia at the present day +one particular racial type predominates over all others. +Professor Ripley, who summarizes a considerable mass of data in +this connection, refers to it as the "Iranian", and says: "It +includes the Persians and Kurds, possibly the Ossetes in the +Caucasus, and farther to the east a large number of Asiatic +tribes, from the Afghans to the Hindus. These peoples are all +primarily long-headed and dark brunets. They incline to +slenderness of habit, although varying in stature according to +circumstances. In them we recognize at once undoubted congeners +of our Mediterranean race in Europe. The area of their extension +runs off into Africa, through the Egyptians, who are clearly of +the same race. Not only the modern peoples, but the Ancient +Egyptians and the Phoenicians also have been traced to the same +source. By far the largest portion of this part of Western Asia +is inhabited by this eastern branch of the Mediterranean race." +The broad-headed type "occurs sporadically among a few ethnic +remnants in Syria and Mesopotamia".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex116" href="#ftn.fnrex116" id="fnrex116">16</a>]</span> The +exhaustive study of thousands of ancient crania in London and +Cambridge collections has shown that Mediterranean peoples, +having alien traits, the result of early admixture, were +distributed between Egypt and the Punjab.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex117" href="#ftn.fnrex117" id= +"fnrex117">17</a>]</span> Where blending took place, the early +type,<a id="page.anchor.9" name="page.anchor.9"></a> apparently, +continued to predominate; and it appears to be reasserting itself +in our own time in Western Asia, as elsewhere. It seems doubtful, +therefore, that the ancient Sumerians differed racially from the +pre-Dynastic inhabitants of Egypt and the Pelasgians and Iberians +of Europe. Indeed, the statuettes from Tello, the site of the +Sumerian city of Lagash, display distinctively Mediterranean +skull forms and faces. Some of the plump figures of the later +period suggest, however, "the particular alien strain" which in +Egypt and elsewhere "is always associated with a tendency to the +development of fat", in contrast to "the lean and sinewy +appearance of most representatives of the Brown +race".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex118" href="#ftn.fnrex118" +id="fnrex118">18</a>]</span> This change may be accounted for by +the presence of the Semites in northern Babylonia.</p> +<p>Whence, then, came these invading Semitic Akkadians of Jewish +type? It is generally agreed that they were closely associated +with one of the early outpourings of nomadic peoples from Arabia, +a country which is favourable for the production of a larger +population than it is able to maintain permanently, especially +when its natural resources are restricted by a succession of +abnormally dry years. In tracing the Akkadians from Arabia, +however, we are confronted at the outset with the difficulty that +its prehistoric, and many of its present-day, inhabitants are not +of the characteristic Semitic type. On the Ancient Egyptian +pottery and monuments the Arabs are depicted as men who closely +resembled the representatives of the Mediterranean race in the +Nile valley and elsewhere. They shaved neither scalps nor faces +as did the historic Sumerians and Egyptians, but grew the slight +moustache and chin-tuft beard like the Libyans on the north and +the majority of the men whose bodies<a id="page.anchor.10" name= +"page.anchor.10"></a> have been preserved in pre-Dynastic graves +in the Nile valley. "If", writes Professor Elliot Smith, "the +generally accepted view is true, that Arabia was the original +home of the Semites, the Arab must have undergone a profound +change in his physical characters after he left his homeland and +before he reached Babylonia." This authority is of opinion that +the Arabians first migrated into Palestine and northern Syria, +where they mingled with the southward-migrating Armenoid peoples +from Asia Minor. "This blend of Arabs, kinsmen of the +proto-Egyptians and Armenoids, would then form the big-nosed, +long-bearded Semites, so familiar not only on the ancient +Babylonian and Egyptian monuments, but also in the modern +Jews."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex119" href="#ftn.fnrex119" +id="fnrex119">19</a>]</span> Such a view is in accord with Dr. +Hugo Winckler's contention that the flow of Arabian migrations +was northwards towards Syria ere it swept through Mesopotamia. It +can scarcely be supposed that these invasions of settled +districts did not result in the fusion and crossment of racial +types and the production of a sub-variety with medium skull form +and marked facial characteristics.</p> +<p>Of special interest in this connection is the evidence +afforded by Palestine and Egypt. The former country has ever been +subject to periodic ethnic disturbances and changes. Its racial +history has a remote beginning in the Pleistocene Age. +Palaeolithic flints of Chellean and other primitive types have +been found in large numbers, and a valuable collection of these +is being preserved in a French museum at Jerusalem. In a northern +cave fragments of rude pottery, belonging to an early period in +the Late Stone Age, have been discovered in association with the +bones of the woolly rhinoceros. To a later period belong the +series of Gezer cave dwellings, which, according to Professor +Macalister, the well-known Palestinian<a id="page.anchor.11" +name="page.anchor.11"></a> authority, "were occupied by a +non-Semitic people of low stature, with thick skulls and showing +evidence of the great muscular strength that is essential to +savage life".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex120" href= +"#ftn.fnrex120" id="fnrex120">20</a>]</span> These people are +generally supposed to be representatives of the Mediterranean +race, which Sergi has found to have been widely distributed +throughout Syria and a part of Asia Minor.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex121" href="#ftn.fnrex121" id= +"fnrex121">21</a>]</span> An interesting problem, however, is +raised by the fact that, in one of the caves, there are evidences +that the dead were cremated. This was not a Mediterranean custom, +nor does it appear to have prevailed outside the Gezer area. If, +however, it does not indicate that the kinsmen of the Ancient +Egyptians came into contact with the remnants of an earlier +people, it may be that the dead of a later people were burned +there. The possibility that unidentified types may have +contributed to the Semitic blend, however, remains. The +Mediterraneans mingled in Northern Syria and Asia Minor with the +broad-headed Armenoid peoples who are represented in Europe by +the Alpine race. With them they ultimately formed the great +Hittite confederacy. These Armenoids were moving southwards at +the very dawn of Egyptian history, and nothing is known of their +conquests and settlements. Their pioneers, who were probably +traders, appear to have begun to enter the Delta region before +the close of the Late Stone Age.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex122" href="#ftn.fnrex122" id="fnrex122">22</a>]</span> The +earliest outpourings of migrating Arabians may have been in +progress about the same time. This early southward drift of +Armenoids might account for the presence in southern Palestine, +early in the Copper Age, of the tall race referred to in the +Bible as the Rephaim or Anakim, "whose power was broken only by +the Hebrew<a id="page.anchor.12" name="page.anchor.12"></a> +invaders".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex123" href= +"#ftn.fnrex123" id="fnrex123">23</a>]</span> Joshua drove them +out of Hebron,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex124" href= +"#ftn.fnrex124" id="fnrex124">24</a>]</span> in the neighbourhood +of which Abraham had purchased a burial cave from Ephron, the +Hittite.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex125" href= +"#ftn.fnrex125" id="fnrex125">25</a>]</span> Apparently a system +of land laws prevailed in Palestine at this early period. It is +of special interest for us to note that in Abraham's day and +afterwards, the landed proprietors in the country of the Rephaim +were identified with the aliens from Asia Minor--the tall variety +in the Hittite confederacy.</p> +<p>Little doubt need remain that the Arabians during their +sojourn in Palestine and Syria met with distinctive types, and if +not with pure Armenoids, at any rate with peoples having Armenoid +traits. The consequent multiplication of tribes, and the gradual +pressure exercised by the constant stream of immigrants from +Arabia and Asia Minor, must have kept this part of Western Asia +in a constant state of unrest. Fresh migrations of the surplus +stock were evidently propelled towards Egypt in one direction, +and the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates in another. The +Semites of Akkad were probably the conquerors of the more highly +civilized Sumerians, who must have previously occupied that area. +It is possible that they owed their success to the possession of +superior weapons. Professor Elliot Smith suggests in this +connection that the Arabians had become familiar with the use of +copper as a result of contact with the Egyptians in Sinai. There +is no evidence, however, that the Sumerians were attacked before +they had begun to make metal weapons. It is more probable that +the invading nomads had superior military organization and +considerable experience in waging war against detached tribal +units. They may have also found some of the northern Sumerian +city states at war with one another and taken<a id= +"page.anchor.13" name="page.anchor.13"></a> advantage of their +unpreparedness to resist a common enemy. The rough Dorians who +overran Greece and the fierce Goths who shattered the power of +Rome were similarly in a lower state of civilization than the +peoples whom they subdued.</p> +<p>The Sumerians, however, ultimately achieved an intellectual +conquest of their conquerors. Although the leaders of invasion +may have formed military aristocracies in the cities which they +occupied, it was necessary for the great majority of the nomads +to engage their activities in new directions after settlement. +The Semitic Akkadians, therefore, adopted Sumerian habits of life +which were best suited for the needs of the country, and they +consequently came under the spell of Sumerian modes of thought. +This is shown by the fact that the native speech of ancient Sumer +continued long after the dawn of history to be the language of +Babylonian religion and culture, like Latin in Europe during the +Middle Ages. For centuries the mingling peoples must have been +bilingual, as are many of the inhabitants of Ireland, Wales, and +the Scottish Highlands in the present age, but ultimately the +language of the Semites became the prevailing speech in Sumer and +Akkad. This change was the direct result of the conquests and the +political supremacy achieved by the northern people. A +considerable period elapsed, however, ere this consummation was +reached and Ancient Babylonia became completely Semitized. No +doubt its brilliant historical civilization owed much of its +vigour and stability to the organizing genius of the Semites, but +the basis on which it was established had been laid by the +ingenious and imaginative Sumerians who first made the desert to +blossom like the rose.</p> +<p>The culture of Sumer was a product of the Late Stone Age, +which should not be regarded as necessarily<a id="page.anchor.14" +name="page.anchor.14"></a> an age of barbarism. During its vast +periods there were great discoveries and great inventions in +various parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. The Neoliths made +pottery and bricks; we know that they invented the art of +spinning, for spindle-whorls are found even in the Gezer caves to +which we have referred, while in Egypt the pre-Dynastic dead were +sometimes wrapped in finely woven linen: their deftly chipped +flint implements are eloquent of artistic and mechanical skill, +and undoubted mathematical ability must be credited to the makers +of smoothly polished stone hammers which are so perfectly +balanced that they revolve on a centre of gravity. In Egypt and +Babylonia the soil was tilled and its fertility increased by +irrigation. Wherever man waged a struggle with Nature he made +rapid progress, and consequently we find that the earliest great +civilizations were rooted in the little fields of the Neolithic +farmers. Their mode of life necessitated a knowledge of Nature's +laws; they had to take note of the seasons and measure time. So +Egypt gave us the Calendar, and Babylonia the system of dividing +the week into seven days, and the day into twelve double +hours.</p> +<p>The agricultural life permitted large communities to live in +river valleys, and these had to be governed by codes of laws; +settled communities required peace and order for their progress +and prosperity. All great civilizations have evolved from the +habits and experiences of settled communities. Law and religion +were closely associated, and the evidence afforded by the remains +of stone circles and temples suggests that in the organization +and division of labour the influence of religious teachers was +pre-eminent. Early rulers, indeed, were priest-kings +--incarnations of the deity who owned the land and measured out +the span of human life.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.15" name="page.anchor.15"></a>We need not +assume that Neolithic man led an idyllic existence; his triumphs +were achieved by slow and gradual steps; his legal codes were, no +doubt, written in blood and his institutions welded in the fires +of adversity. But, disciplined by laws, which fostered +humanitarian ideals, Neolithic man, especially of the +Mediterranean race, had reached a comparatively high state of +civilization long ages before the earliest traces of his +activities can be obtained. When this type of mankind is +portrayed in Ancient Sumeria, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Crete we +find that the faces are refined and intellectual and often quite +modern in aspect. The skulls show that in the Late Stone Age the +human brain was fully developed and that the racial types were +fixed. In every country in Europe we still find the direct +descendants of the ancient Mediterranean race, as well as the +descendants of the less highly cultured conquerors who swept +westward out of Asia at the dawn of the Bronze Age; and +everywhere there are evidences of crossment of types in varying +degrees. Even the influence of Neolithic intellectual life still +remains. The comparative study of mythology and folk beliefs +reveals that we have inherited certain modes of thought from our +remote ancestors, who were the congeners of the Ancient Sumerians +and the Ancient Egyptians. In this connection it is of interest, +therefore, to refer to the social ideals of the early peoples who +met and mingled on the southern plains of the Tigris and +Euphrates, and especially the position occupied by women, which +is engaging so much attention at the present day.</p> +<p>It would appear that among the Semites and other nomadic +peoples woman was regarded as the helpmate rather than the +companion and equal of man. The birth of a son was hailed with +joy; it was "miserable to have<a id="page.anchor.16" name= +"page.anchor.16"></a> a daughter", as a Hindu sage reflected; in +various countries it was the custom to expose female children +after birth and leave them to die. A wife had no rights other +than those accorded to her by her husband, who exercised over her +the power of life and death. Sons inherited family possessions; +the daughters had no share allotted to them, and could be sold by +fathers and brothers. Among the peoples who observed "male +right", social life was reflected in the conception of +controlling male deities, accompanied by shadowy goddesses who +were often little else than figures of speech.</p> +<p>The Ancient Sumerians, on the other hand, like the +Mediterranean peoples of Egypt and Crete, reverenced and exalted +motherhood in social and religious life. Women were accorded a +legal status and marriage laws were promulgated by the State. +Wives could possess private property in their own right, as did +the Babylonian Sarah, wife of Abraham, who owned the Egyptian +slave Hagar.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex126" href= +"#ftn.fnrex126" id="fnrex126">26</a>]</span> A woman received +from her parents a marriage dowry, and in the event of separation +from her husband she could claim its full value. Some spinsters, +or wives, were accustomed to enter into business partnerships +with men or members of their own sex, and could sue and be sued +in courts of law. Brothers and sisters were joint heirs of the +family estate. Daughters might possess property over which their +fathers exercised no control: they could also enter into legal +agreements with their parents in business matters, when they had +attained to years of discretion. Young women who took vows of +celibacy and lived in religious institutions could yet make +business investments, as surviving records show. There is only +one instance of a Sumerian woman ascending the throne, like Queen +Hatshepsut of Egypt. Women, therefore,<a id="page.anchor.17" +name="page.anchor.17"></a> were not rigidly excluded from +official life. Dungi II, an early Sumerian king, appointed two of +his daughters as rulers of conquered cities in Syria and Elam. +Similarly Shishak, the Egyptian Pharaoh, handed over the city of +Gezer, which he had subdued, to his daughter, Solomon's +wife.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex127" href="#ftn.fnrex127" +id="fnrex127">27</a>]</span> In the religious life of ancient +Sumeria the female population exercised an undoubted influence, +and in certain temples there were priestesses. The oldest hymns +give indication of the respect shown to women by making reference +to mixed assemblies as "females and males", just as present-day +orators address themselves to "ladies and gentlemen". In the +later Semitic adaptations of these productions, it is significant +to note, this conventional reference was altered to "male and +female". If influences, however, were at work to restrict the +position of women they did not meet with much success, because +when Hammurabi codified existing laws, the ancient rights of +women received marked recognition.</p> +<p>There were two dialects in ancient Sumeria, and the invocatory +hymns were composed in what was known as "the women's language". +It must not be inferred, however, that the ladies of Sumeria had +established a speech which differed from that used by men. The +reference would appear to be to a softer and homelier dialect, +perhaps the oldest of the two, in which poetic emotion found +fullest and most beautiful expression. In these ancient days, as +in our own, the ideal of womanhood was the poet's chief source of +inspiration, and among the hymns the highest reach of poetic art +was attained in the invocation of Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus. +The following hymn is addressed to that deity in her +Valkyrie-like character as a goddess of war, but her more +feminine traits are not obscured:--<a id="page.anchor.18" name= +"page.anchor.18"></a></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>HYMN TO ISHTAR</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To thee I cry, O lady of the +gods,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lady of ladies, goddess without +peer,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ishtar who shapes the lives of all +mankind,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou stately world queen, sovran of the +sky,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And lady ruler of the host of +heaven--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Illustrious is thy name.... O light +divine,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Gleaming in lofty splendour o'er the +earth--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Heroic daughter of the moon, oh! +hear;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou dost control our weapons and +award</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In battles fierce the victory at +will--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>crown'd majestic Fate. Ishtar most +high,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Who art exalted over all the +gods,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou bringest lamentation; thou dost +urge</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With hostile hearts our brethren to the +fray;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The gift of strength is thine for thou +art strong;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy will is urgent, brooking no +delay;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy hand is violent, thou queen of +war</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Girded with battle and enrobed with +fear...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou sovran wielder of the wand of +Doom,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The heavens and earth are under thy +control.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Adored art thou in every sacred +place,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In temples, holy dwellings, and in +shrines,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Where is thy name not lauded? where thy +will</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Unheeded, and thine images not +made?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Where are thy temples not upreared? O, +where</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Art thou not mighty, peerless, and +supreme?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Anu and Bel and Ea have thee +raised</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To rank supreme, in majesty and +pow'r,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They have established thee above the +gods</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And all the host of heaven... O stately +queen,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>At thought of thee the world is filled +with fear,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The gods in heaven quake, and on the +earth</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All spirits pause, and all mankind bow +down</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With reverence for thy name.... O Lady +Judge,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy ways are just and holy; thou dost +gaze<a id="page.anchor.19" name="page.anchor.19"></a></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>On sinners with compassion, and each +morn</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Leadest the wayward to the rightful +path.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Now linger not, but come! O goddess +fair,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O shepherdess of all, thou drawest +nigh</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With feet unwearied... Thou dost break +the bonds</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of these thy handmaids... When thou +stoopest o'er</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The dying with compassion, lo! they +live;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And when the sick behold thee they are +healed.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Hear me, thy servant! hearken to my +pray'r,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For I am full of sorrow and I +sigh</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In sore distress; weeping, on thee I +wait.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Be merciful, my lady, pity +take</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And answer, "'Tis enough and be +appeased".</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>How long must my heart sorrow and make +moan</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And restless be? How long must my dark +home</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Be filled with mourning and my soul +with grief?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O lioness of heaven, bring me +peace</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And rest and comfort. Hearken to my +pray'r!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Is anger pity? May thine eyes look +down</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With tenderness and blessings, and +behold</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy servant. Oh! have mercy; hear my +cry</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And unbewitch me from the evil +spells,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That I may see thy glory... Oh! how +long</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Shall these my foes pursue me, working +ill,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And robbing me of joy?... Oh! how +long</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Shall demons compass me about and +cause</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Affliction without end?... I thee +adore--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The gift of strength is thine and thou +art strong--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The weakly are made strong, yet I am +weak...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O hear me! I am glutted with my +grief--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>This flood of grief by evil winds +distressed;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>My heart hath fled me like a bird on +wings,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And like the dove I moan. Tears from +mine eyes</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Are falling as the rain from heaven +falls,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And I am destitute and full of +woe.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"> +<tt> * * * * *<a id= +"page.anchor.20" name="page.anchor.20"></a></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>What have I done that thou hast turned +from me?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Have I neglected homage to my +god</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And thee my goddess? O deliver +me</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And all my sins forgive, that I may +share</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy love and be watched over in thy +fold;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And may thy fold be wide, thy pen +secure.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"> +<tt> * * * * *</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>How long wilt thou be angry? Hear my +cry,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And turn again to prosper all my +ways--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O may thy wrath be crumbled and +withdrawn</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As by a crumbling stream. Then smite my +foes,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And take away their power to work me +ill,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That I may crush them. Hearken to my +pray'r!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And bless me so that all who me +behold</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May laud thee and may magnify thy +name,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>While I exalt thy power over +all--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ishtar is highest! Ishtar is the +queen!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ishtar the peerless daughter of the +moon!</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex112" href="#fnrex112" id="ftn.fnrex112">12</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Races of Europe</em></span>, W.Z. +Ripley, p. 203.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex113" href="#fnrex113" id="ftn.fnrex113">13</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, by +Elliot Smith, p. 41 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex114" href="#fnrex114" id="ftn.fnrex114">14</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, p. +140.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex115" href="#fnrex115" id="ftn.fnrex115">15</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Crete the Forerunner of +Greece</em></span>, C. H. and H. B. Hawes, 1911, p. 23 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex116" href="#fnrex116" id="ftn.fnrex116">16</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Races of Europe</em></span>, W. Z. +Ripley, p. 443 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex117" href="#fnrex117" id="ftn.fnrex117">17</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, pp. +144-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex118" href="#fnrex118" id="ftn.fnrex118">18</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, p. +114.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex119" href="#fnrex119" id="ftn.fnrex119">19</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, p. +136.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex120" href="#fnrex120" id="ftn.fnrex120">20</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>A History of Palestine</em></span>, +R.A.S. Macalister, pp. 8-16.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex121" href="#fnrex121" id="ftn.fnrex121">21</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Mediterranean Race</em></span> +(1901 trans.), G. Sergi, p. 146 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex122" href="#fnrex122" id="ftn.fnrex122">22</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, p. +130.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex123" href="#fnrex123" id="ftn.fnrex123">23</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>A History of Civilization in +Palestine, p. 20 et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex124" href="#fnrex124" id="ftn.fnrex124">24</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Joshua</em></span>, xi. 21.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex125" href="#fnrex125" id="ftn.fnrex125">25</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxiii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex126" href="#fnrex126" id="ftn.fnrex126">26</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xvi. 8, 9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex127" href="#fnrex127" id="ftn.fnrex127">27</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>1 Kings</em></span>, xvi. 16.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2516306" name= +"id2516306"></a>Chapter II. The Land of Rivers and the God of the +Deep</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Fertility of Ancient Babylonia--Rivers, Canals, Seasons, and +Climate--Early Trade and Foreign Influences--Local Religious +Cults--Ea, God of the Deep, identical with Oannes of +Berosus--Origin as a Sacred Fish--Compared with Brahma and +Vishnu--Flood Legends in Babylonia and India--Fish Deities in +Babylonia and Egypt--Fish God as a Corn God--The River as +Creator--Ea an Artisan God, and links with Egypt and India--Ea as +the Hebrew Jah--Ea and Varuna are Water and Sky Gods--The +Babylonian Dagan and Dagon of the Philistines--Deities of Water +and Harvest in Phoenicia, Greece, Rome, Scotland, Scandinavia, +Ireland, and Egypt--Ea's Spouse Damkina--Demons of Ocean in +Babylonia and India--Anu, God of the Sky--Enlil, Storm and War +God of Nippur, like Adad, Odin, &c.--Early Gods of Babylonia +and Egypt of common origin--Ea's City as Cradle of Sumerian +Civilization.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.21" name="page.anchor.21"></a> Ancient +Babylonia was for over four thousand years the garden of Western +Asia. In the days of Hezekiah and Isaiah, when it had come under +the sway of the younger civilization of Assyria on the north, it +was "a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a +land of oil olive and of honey<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex128" href="#ftn.fnrex128" id="fnrex128">28</a>]</span>". +Herodotus found it still flourishing and extremely fertile. "This +territory", he wrote, "is of all that we know the best by far for +producing grain; it is so good that it returns as much as two +hundredfold for the average, and, when it bears at its best, it +produces three hundredfold. The blades of the wheat and barley +there grow to be full four fingers broad;<a id="page.anchor.22" +name="page.anchor.22"></a> and from millet and sesame seed, how +large a tree grows, I know myself, but shall not record, being +well aware that even what has already been said relating to the +crops produced has been enough to cause disbelief in those who +have not visited Babylonia<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex129" +href="#ftn.fnrex129" id="fnrex129">29</a>]</span>." To-day great +tracts of undulating moorland, which aforetime yielded two and +three crops a year, are in summer partly barren wastes and partly +jungle and reedy swamp. Bedouins camp beside sandy heaps which +were once populous and thriving cities, and here and there the +shrunken remnants of a people once great and influential eke out +precarious livings under the oppression of Turkish tax-gatherers +who are scarcely less considerate than the plundering nomads of +the desert.</p> +<p>This historic country is bounded on the east by Persia and on +the west by the Arabian desert. In shape somewhat resembling a +fish, it lies between the two great rivers, the Tigris and the +Euphrates, 100 miles wide at its broadest part, and narrowing to +35 miles towards the "tail" in the latitude of Baghdad; the +"head" converges to a point above Basra, where the rivers meet +and form the Shatt-el-Arab, which pours into the Persian Gulf +after meeting the Karun and drawing away the main volume of that +double-mouthed river. The distance from Baghdad to Basra is about +300 miles, and the area traversed by the Shatt-el-Arab is slowly +extending at the rate of a mile every thirty years or so, as a +result of the steady accumulation of silt and mud carried down by +the Tigris and Euphrates. When Sumeria was beginning to flourish, +these two rivers had separate outlets, and Eridu, the seat of the +cult of the sea god Ea, which now lies 125 miles inland, was a +seaport at the head of the Persian Gulf. A day's journey +separated the river mouths when<a id="page.anchor.23" name= +"page.anchor.23"></a> Alexander the Great broke the power of the +Persian Empire.</p> +<p>In the days of Babylonia's prosperity the Euphrates was hailed +as "the soul of the land" and the Tigris as "the bestower of +blessings". Skilful engineers had solved the problem of water +distribution by irrigating sun-parched areas and preventing the +excessive flooding of those districts which are now rendered +impassable swamps when the rivers overflow. A network of canals +was constructed throughout the country, which restricted the +destructive tendencies of the Tigris and Euphrates and developed +to a high degree their potentialities as fertilizing agencies. +The greatest of these canals appear to have been anciently river +beds. One, which is called Shatt en Nil to the north, and Shatt +el Kar to the south, curved eastward from Babylon, and sweeping +past Nippur, flowed like the letter <b class="b">S</b> towards +Larsa and then rejoined the river. It is believed to mark the +course followed in the early Sumerian period by the Euphrates +river, which has moved steadily westward many miles beyond the +sites of ancient cities that were erected on its banks. Another +important canal, the Shatt el Hai, crossed the plain from the +Tigris to its sister river, which lies lower at this point, and +does not run so fast. Where the artificial canals were +constructed on higher levels than the streams which fed them, the +water was raised by contrivances known as "shaddufs"; the buckets +or skin bags were roped to a weighted beam, with the aid of which +they were swung up by workmen and emptied into the canals. It is +possible that this toilsome mode of irrigation was substituted in +favourable parts by the primitive water wheels which are used in +our own day by the inhabitants of the country who cultivate +strips of land along the river banks.</p> +<p>In Babylonia there are two seasons--the rainy and<a id= +"page.anchor.24" name="page.anchor.24"></a> the dry. Rain falls +from November till March, and the plain is carpeted in spring by +patches of vivid green verdure and brilliant wild flowers. Then +the period of drought ensues; the sun rapidly burns up all +vegetation, and everywhere the eye is wearied by long stretches +of brown and yellow desert. Occasional sandstorms darken the +heavens, sweeping over sterile wastes and piling up the shapeless +mounds which mark the sites of ancient cities. Meanwhile the +rivers are increasing in volume, being fed by the melting snows +at their mountain sources far to the north. The swift Tigris, +which is 1146 miles long, begins to rise early in March and +reaches its highest level in May; before the end of June it again +subsides. More sluggish in movement, the Euphrates, which is 1780 +miles long, shows signs of rising a fortnight later than the +Tigris, and is in flood for a more extended period; it does not +shrink to its lowest level until early in September. By +controlling the flow of these mighty rivers, preventing +disastrous floods, and storing and distributing surplus water, +the ancient Babylonians developed to the full the natural +resources of their country, and made it--what it may once again +become--one of the fairest and most habitable areas in the world. +Nature conferred upon them bountiful rewards for their labour; +trade and industries flourished, and the cities increased in +splendour and strength. Then as now the heat was great during the +long summer, but remarkably dry and unvarying, while the air was +ever wonderfully transparent under cloudless skies of vivid blue. +The nights were cool and of great beauty, whether in brilliant +moonlight or when ponds and canals were jewelled by the lustrous +displays of clear and numerous stars which glorified that +homeland of the earliest astronomers.</p> +<p>Babylonia is a treeless country, and timber had to be<a id= +"page.anchor.25" name="page.anchor.25"></a> imported from the +earliest times. The date palm was probably introduced by man, as +were certainly the vine and the fig tree, which were widely +cultivated, especially in the north. Stone, suitable for +building, was very scarce, and limestone, alabaster, marble, and +basalt had to be taken from northern Mesopotamia, where the +mountains also yield copper and lead and iron. Except Eridu, +where ancient workers quarried sandstone from its sea-shaped +ridge, all the cities were built of brick, an excellent clay +being found in abundance. When brick walls were cemented with +bitumen they were given great stability. This resinous substance +is found in the north and south. It bubbles up through crevices +of rocks on river banks and forms small ponds. Two famous springs +at modern Hit, on the Euphrates, have been drawn upon from time +immemorial. "From one", writes a traveller, "flows hot water +black with bitumen, while the other discharges intermittently +bitumen, or, after a rainstorm, bitumen and cold water.... Where +rocks crop out in the plain above Hit, they are full of seams of +bitumen."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex130" href= +"#ftn.fnrex130" id="fnrex130">30</a>]</span> Present-day Arabs +call it "kiyara", and export it for coating boats and roofs; they +also use it as an antiseptic, and apply it to cure the skin +diseases from which camels suffer.</p> +<p>Sumeria had many surplus products, including corn and figs, +pottery, fine wool and woven garments, to offer in exchange for +what it most required from other countries. It must, therefore, +have had a brisk and flourishing foreign trade at an exceedingly +remote period. No doubt numerous alien merchants were attracted +to its cities, and it may be that they induced or encouraged +Semitic and other raiders to overthrow governments and form +military aristocracies, so that they themselves might obtain +necessary concessions and achieve a degree of<a id= +"page.anchor.26" name="page.anchor.26"></a> political ascendancy. +It does not follow, however, that the peasant class was greatly +affected by periodic revolutions of this kind, which brought +little more to them than a change of rulers. The needs of the +country necessitated the continuance of agricultural methods and +the rigid observance of existing land laws; indeed, these +constituted the basis of Sumerian prosperity. Conquerors have +ever sought reward not merely in spoil, but also the services of +the conquered. In northern Babylonia the invaders apparently +found it necessary to conciliate and secure the continued +allegiance of the tillers of the soil. Law and religion being +closely associated, they had to adapt their gods to suit the +requirements of existing social and political organizations. A +deity of pastoral nomads had to receive attributes which would +give him an agricultural significance; one of rural character had +to be changed to respond to the various calls of city life. +Besides, local gods could not be ignored on account of their +popularity. As a result, imported beliefs and religious customs +must have been fused and absorbed according to their bearing on +modes of life in various localities. It is probable that the +complex character of certain deities was due to the process of +adjustment to which they were subjected in new environments.</p> +<p>The petty kingdoms of Sumeria appear to have been tribal in +origin. Each city was presided over by a deity who was the +nominal owner of the surrounding arable land, farms were rented +or purchased from the priesthood, and pasture was held in common. +As in Egypt, where we find, for instance, the artisan god Ptah +supreme at Memphis, the sun god Ra at Heliopolis, and the cat +goddess Bast at Bubastis, the various local Sumerian and Akkadian +deities had distinctive characteristics, and similarly showed a +tendency to absorb the attributes of their<a id="page.anchor.27" +name="page.anchor.27"></a> rivals. The chief deity of a state was +the central figure in a pantheon, which had its political aspect +and influenced the growth of local theology. Cities, however, did +not, as a rule, bear the names of deities, which suggests that +several were founded when Sumerian religion was in its early +animistic stages, and gods and goddesses were not sharply defined +from the various spirit groups.</p> +<p>A distinctive and characteristic Sumerian god was Ea, who was +supreme at the ancient sea-deserted port of Eridu. He is +identified with the Oannes of Berosus,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex131" href="#ftn.fnrex131" id="fnrex131">31</a>]</span> who +referred to the deity as "a creature endowed with reason, with a +body like that of a fish, with feet below like those of a man, +with a fish's tail". This description recalls the familiar +figures of Egyptian gods and priests attired in the skins of the +sacred animals from whom their powers were derived, and the fairy +lore about swan maids and men, and the seals and other animals +who could divest themselves of their "skin coverings" and appear +in human shape. Originally Ea may have been a sacred fish. The +Indian creative gods Brahma and Vishnu had fish forms. In +Sanskrit literature Manu, the eponymous "first man", is +instructed by the fish to build a ship in which to save himself +when the world would be purged by the rising waters. Ea +befriended in similar manner the Babylonian Noah, called +Pir-napishtim, advising him to build a vessel so as to be +prepared for the approaching Deluge. Indeed the Indian legend +appears to throw light on the original Sumerian conception of Ea. +It relates that when the fish was small and in danger of being +swallowed by other fish in a stream it appealed to Manu for +protection. The<a id="page.anchor.28" name="page.anchor.28"></a> +sage at once lifted up the fish and placed it in a jar of water. +It gradually increased in bulk, and he transferred it next to a +tank and then to the river Ganges. In time the fish complained to +Manu that the river was too small for it, so he carried it to the +sea. For these services the god in fish form instructed Manu +regarding the approaching flood, and afterwards piloted his ship +through the weltering waters until it rested on a mountain +top.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex132" href="#ftn.fnrex132" +id="fnrex132">32</a>]</span></p> +<p>If this Indian myth is of Babylonian origin, as appears +probable, it may be that the spirit of the river Euphrates, "the +soul of the land", was identified with a migrating fish. The +growth of the fish suggests the growth of the river rising in +flood. In Celtic folk tales high tides and valley floods are +accounted for by the presence of a "great beast" in sea, loch, or +river. In a class of legends, "specially connected with the +worship of Atargatis", wrote Professor Robertson Smith, "the +divine life of the waters resides in the sacred fish that inhabit +them. Atargatis and her son, according to a legend common to +Hierapolis and Ascalon, plunged into the waters--in the first +case the Euphrates, in the second the sacred pool at the temple +near the town--and were changed into fishes". The idea is that +"where a god dies, that is, ceases to exist in human form, his +life passes into the waters where he is buried; and this again is +merely a theory to bring the divine water or the divine fish into +harmony with anthropomorphic ideas. The same thing was sometimes +effected in another way by saying that the anthropomorphic deity +was born from the water, as Aphrodite sprang from sea foam, or as +Atargatis, in another form of the Euphrates legend, ... was born +of an egg which the sacred fishes found in the Euphrates and +pushed ashore."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex133" href= +"#ftn.fnrex133" id="fnrex133">33</a>]</span></p> +<p>As "Shar Apsi", Ea was the "King of the Watery<a id= +"page.anchor.29" name="page.anchor.29"></a> Deep". The reference, +however, according to Jastrow, "is not to the salt ocean, but the +sweet waters flowing under the earth which feed the streams, and +through streams and canals irrigate the fields".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex134" href="#ftn.fnrex134" id= +"fnrex134">34</a>]</span> As Babylonia was fertilized by its +rivers, Ea, the fish god, was a fertilizing deity. In Egypt the +"Mother of Mendes" is depicted carrying a fish upon her head; she +links with Isis and Hathor; her husband is Ba-neb-Tettu, a form +of Ptah, Osiris, and Ra, and as a god of fertility he is +symbolized by the ram. Another Egyptian fish deity was the god +Rem, whose name signifies "to weep"; he wept fertilizing tears, +and corn was sown and reaped amidst lamentations. He may be +identical with Remi, who was a phase of Sebek, the crocodile god, +a developed attribute of Nu, the vague primitive Egyptian deity +who symbolized the primordial deep. The connection between a fish +god and a corn god is not necessarily remote when we consider +that in Babylonia and Egypt the harvest was the gift of the +rivers.</p> +<p>The Euphrates, indeed, was hailed as a creator of all that +grew on its banks.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O thou River who didst create all +things,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When the great gods dug thee +out,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They set prosperity upon thy +banks,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Within thee Ea, the King of the Deep, +created his dwelling...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou judgest the cause of +mankind!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O River, thou art mighty! O River, thou +art supreme!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O River, thou art +righteous!<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex135" href= +"#ftn.fnrex135" id="fnrex135">35</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In serving Ea, the embodiment or the water spirit, by leading +him, as the Indian Manu led the Creator and "Preserver" in fish +form, from river to water pot, water pot to pond or canal, and +then again to river and ocean,<a id="page.anchor.30" name= +"page.anchor.30"></a> the Babylonians became expert engineers and +experienced agriculturists, the makers of bricks, the builders of +cities, the framers of laws. Indeed, their civilization was a +growth of Ea worship. Ea was their instructor. Berosus states +that, as Oannes, he lived in the Persian Gulf, and every day came +ashore to instruct the inhabitants of Eridu how to make canals, +to grow crops, to work metals, to make pottery and bricks, and to +build temples; he was the artisan god--Nun-ura, "god of the +potter"; Kuski-banda, "god of goldsmiths", &c.--the divine +patron of the arts and crafts. "Ea knoweth everything", chanted +the hymn maker. He taught the people how to form and use +alphabetic signs and instructed them in mathematics: he gave them +their code of laws. Like the Egyptian artisan god Ptah, and the +linking deity Khnumu, Ea was the "potter or moulder of gods and +man". Ptah moulded the first man on his potter's wheel: he also +moulded the sun and moon; he shaped the universe and hammered out +the copper sky. Ea built the world "as an architect builds a +house".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex136" href="#ftn.fnrex136" +id="fnrex136">36</a>]</span> Similarly the Vedic Indra, who +wielded a hammer like Ptah, fashioned the universe after the +simple manner in which the Aryans made their wooden +dwellings.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex137" href= +"#ftn.fnrex137" id="fnrex137">37</a>]</span></p> +<p>Like Ptah, Ea also developed from an artisan god into a +sublime Creator in the highest sense, not merely as a producer of +crops. His word became the creative force; he named those things +he desired to be, and they came into existence. "Who but Ea +creates things", exclaimed a priestly poet. This change from +artisan god to creator (Nudimmud) may have been due to the +tendency of early religious cults to attach to their chief god +the attributes of rivals exalted at other centres.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.31" name="page.anchor.31"></a>Ea, whose +name is also rendered Aa, was identified with Ya, Ya'u, or Au, +the Jah of the Hebrews. "In Ya-Daganu, 'Jah is Dagon'", writes +Professor Pinches, "we have the elements reversed, showing a wish +to identify Jah with Dagon, rather than Dagon with Jah; whilst +another interesting name, Au-Aa, shows an identification of Jah +with Aa, two names which have every appearance of being +etymologically connected." Jah's name "is one of the words for +'god' in the Assyro-Babylonian language".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex138" href="#ftn.fnrex138" id= +"fnrex138">38</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ea was "Enki", "lord of the world", or "lord of what is +beneath"; Amma-ana-ki, "lord of heaven and earth"; Sa-kalama, +"ruler of the land", as well as Engur, "god of the abyss", Naqbu, +"the deep", and Lugal-ida, "king of the river". As rain fell from +"the waters above the firmament", the god of waters was also a +sky and earth god.</p> +<p>The Indian Varuna was similarly a sky as well as an ocean god +before the theorizing and systematizing Brahmanic teachers +relegated him to a permanent abode at the bottom of the sea. It +may be that Ea-Oannes and Varuna were of common origin.</p> +<p>Another Babylonian deity, named Dagan, is believed to be +identical with Ea. His worship was certainly of great antiquity. +"Hammurabi", writes Professor Pinches, "seems to speak of the +Euphrates as being 'the boundary of Dagan', whom he calls his +creator. In later inscriptions the form Daguna, which approaches +nearer to the West Semitic form (Dagon of the Philistines), is +found in a few personal names.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex139" href="#ftn.fnrex139" id="fnrex139">39</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is possible that the Philistine deity Dagon was a<a id= +"page.anchor.32" name="page.anchor.32"></a> specialized form of +ancient Ea, who was either imported from Babylonia or was a sea +god of more than one branch of the Mediterranean race. The +authorities are at variance regarding the form and attributes of +Dagan. Our knowledge regarding him is derived mainly from the +Bible. He was a national rather than a city god. There are +references to a Beth-dagon<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex140" +href="#ftn.fnrex140" id="fnrex140">40</a>]</span>, "house or city +of Dagon"; he had also a temple at Gaza, and Samson destroyed it +by pulling down the two middle pillars which were its main +support.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex141" href= +"#ftn.fnrex141" id="fnrex141">41</a>]</span> A third temple was +situated in Ashdod. When the captured ark of the Israelites was +placed in it the image of Dagon "fell on his face", with the +result that "the head of Dagon and both the palms of his hands +were cut off upon the threshold; only the stump of Dagon was +left".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex142" href="#ftn.fnrex142" +id="fnrex142">42</a>]</span> A further reference to "the +threshold of Dagon" suggests that the god had feet like +Ea-Oannes. Those who hold that Dagon had a fish form derive his +name from the Semitic "dag = a fish", and suggest that after the +idol fell only the fishy part (dāgo) was left. On the other +hand, it was argued that Dagon was a corn god, and that the +resemblance between the words Dagan and Dagon are accidental. +Professor Sayce makes reference in this connection to a crystal +seal from Phoenicia in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, bearing an +inscription which he reads as Baal-dagon. Near the name is an ear +of corn, and other symbols, such as the winged solar disc, a +gazelle, and several stars, but there is no fish. It may be, of +course, that Baal-dagon represents a fusion of deities. As we +have seen in the case of Ea-Oannes and the deities of Mendes, a +fish god may also be a corn god, a land animal god and a god of +ocean and the sky. The offering of golden mice representing "your +mice that mar the<a id="page.anchor.33" name= +"page.anchor.33"></a> land",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex143" +href="#ftn.fnrex143" id="fnrex143">43</a>]</span> made by the +Philistines, suggests that Dagon was the fertilizing harvest god, +among other things, whose usefulness had been impaired, as they +believed, by the mistake committed of placing the ark of Israel +in the temple at Ashdod. The Philistines came from Crete, and if +their Dagon was imported from that island, he may have had some +connection with Poseidon, whose worship extended throughout +Greece. This god of the sea, who is somewhat like the Roman +Neptune, carried a lightning trident and caused earthquakes. He +was a brother of Zeus, the sky and atmosphere deity, and had bull +and horse forms. As a horse he pursued Demeter, the earth and +corn goddess, and, like Ea, he instructed mankind, but especially +in the art of training horses. In his train were the Tritons, +half men, half fishes, and the water fairies, the Nereids. Bulls, +boars, and rams were offered to this sea god of fertility. +Amphitrite was his spouse.</p> +<p>An obscure god Shony, the Oannes of the Scottish Hebrides, +received oblations from those who depended for their agricultural +prosperity on his gifts of fertilizing seaweed. He is referred to +in Martin's <span class="emphasis"><em>Western Isles</em></span>, +and is not yet forgotten. The Eddic sea god Njord of Noatun was +the father of Frey, the harvest god. Dagda, the Irish corn god, +had for wife Boann, the goddess of the river Boyne. Osiris and +Isis of Egypt were associated with the Nile. The connection +between agriculture and the water supply was too obvious to +escape the early symbolists, and many other proofs of this than +those referred to could be given.</p> +<p>Ea's "faithful spouse" was the goddess Damkina, who was also +called Nin-ki, "lady of the earth". "May Ea make thee glad", +chanted the priests. "May Damkina, queen of the deep, illumine +thee with her countenance;<a id="page.anchor.34" name= +"page.anchor.34"></a> may Merodach (Marduk), the mighty overseer +of the Igigi (heavenly spirits), exalt thy head." Merodach was +their son: in time he became the Bel, or "Lord", of the +Babylonian pantheon.</p> +<p>Like the Indian Varuna, the sea god, Ea-Oannes had control +over the spirits and demons of the deep. The "ferryman" who kept +watch over the river of death was called Arad-Ea, "servant of +Ea". There are also references to sea maidens, the Babylonian +mermaids, or Nereids. We have a glimpse of sea giants, which +resemble the Indian Danavas and Daityas of ocean, in the +chant:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Seven are they, seven are +they,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the ocean deep seven are +they,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Battening in heaven seven are +they,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Bred in the depths of +ocean....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of these seven the first is the south +wind,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The second a dragon with mouth +agape....<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex144" href= +"#ftn.fnrex144" id="fnrex144">44</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>A suggestion of the Vedic Vritra and his horde of +monsters.</p> +<p>These seven demons were also "the messengers of Anu", who, +although specialized as a sky god in more than one pantheon, +appears to have been closely associated with Ea in the earliest +Sumerian period. His name, signifying "the high one", is derived +from "ana", "heaven"; he was the city god of Erech (Uruk). It is +possible that he was developed as an atmospheric god with solar +and lunar attributes. The seven demons, who were his messengers, +recall the stormy Maruts, the followers of Indra. They are +referred to as</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Forcing their way with baneful +windstorms,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Mighty destroyers, the deluge of the +storm god,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Stalking at the right hand of the storm +god.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex145" href="#ftn.fnrex145" +id="fnrex145">45</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.35" name="page.anchor.35"></a>When we deal +with a deity in his most archaic form it is difficult to +distinguish him from a demon. Even the beneficent Ea is +associated with monsters and furies. "Evil spirits", according to +a Babylonian chant, were "the bitter venom of the gods". Those +attached to a deity as "attendants" appear to represent the +original animistic group from which he evolved. In each district +the character of the deity was shaped to accord with local +conditions.</p> +<p>At Nippur, which was situated on the vague and shifting +boundary line between Sumer and Akkad, the chief god was Enlil, +whose name is translated "lord of mist", "lord of might", and +"lord of demons" by various authorities. He was a storm god and a +war god, and "lord of heaven and earth", like Ea and Anu. An +atmospheric deity, he shares the attributes of the Indian Indra, +the thunder and rain god, and Vayu, the wind god; he also +resembles the Semitic Adad or Rimman, who links with the Hittite +Tarku. All these are deities of tempest and the mountains--Wild +Huntsmen in the Raging Host. The name of Enlil's temple at Nippur +has been translated as "mountain house", or "like a mountain", +and the theory obtained for a time that the god must therefore +have been imported by a people from the hills. But as the +ideogram for "mountain" and "land" was used in the earliest +times, as King shows, with reference to foreign +countries,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex146" href= +"#ftn.fnrex146" id="fnrex146">46</a>]</span> it is more probable +that Enlil was exalted as a world god who had dominion over not +only Sumer and Akkad, but also the territories occupied by the +rivals and enemies of the early Babylonians.</p> +<p>Enlil is known as the "older Bel" (lord), to distinguish him +from Bel Merodach of Babylon. He was<a id="page.anchor.36" name= +"page.anchor.36"></a> the chief figure in a triad in which he +figured as earth god, with Anu as god of the sky and Ea as god of +the deep. This classification suggests that Nippur had either +risen in political importance and dominated the cities of Erech +and Eridu, or that its priests were influential at the court of a +ruler who was the overlord of several city states.</p> +<p>Associated with Bel Enlil was Beltis, later known as +"Beltu--the lady". She appears to be identical with the other +great goddesses, Ishtar, Nana, Zerpanitu<span class= +'phonetic'>m</span>, &c., a "Great Mother", or consort of an +early god with whom she was equal in power and dignity.</p> +<p>In the later systematized theology of the Babylonians we seem +to trace the fragments of a primitive mythology which was vague +in outline, for the deities were not sharply defined, and existed +in groups. Enneads were formed in Egypt by placing a local god at +the head of a group of eight elder deities. The sun god Ra was +the chief figure of the earliest pantheon of this character at +Heliopolis, while at Hermopolis the leader was the lunar god +Thoth. Professor Budge is of opinion that "both the Sumerians and +the early Egyptians derived their primeval gods from some common +but exceedingly ancient source", for he finds in the Babylonian +and Nile valleys that there is a resemblance between two early +groups which "seems to be too close to be +accidental".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex147" href= +"#ftn.fnrex147" id="fnrex147">47</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Egyptian group comprises four pairs of vague gods and +goddesses--Nu and his consort Nut, Hehu and his consort Hehut, +Kekui and his consort Kekuit, and Kerh and his consort Kerhet. +"Man always has fashioned", he says, "and probably always will +fashion, his god or gods in his own image, and he has always, +having reached a certain stage in development, given to his gods +wives<a id="page.anchor.37" name="page.anchor.37"></a> and +offspring; but the nature of the position taken by the wives of +the gods depends upon the nature of the position of women in the +households of those who write the legends and the traditions of +the gods. The gods of the oldest company in Egypt were, the +writer believes, invented by people in whose households women +held a high position, and among whom they possessed more power +than is usually the case with Oriental peoples."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex148" href="#ftn.fnrex148" id= +"fnrex148">48</a>]</span></p> +<p>We cannot say definitely what these various deities represent. +Nu was the spirit of the primordial deep, and Nut of the waters +above the heavens, the mother of moon and sun and the stars. The +others were phases of light and darkness and the forces of nature +in activity and repose.</p> +<p>Nu is represented in Babylonian mythology by Apsu-Rishtu, and +Nut by Mummu-Tiamat or Tiawath; the next pair is Lachmu and +Lachamu, and the third, Anshar and Kishar. The fourth pair is +missing, but the names of Anu and Ea (as Nudimmud) are mentioned +in the first tablet of the Creation series, and the name of a +third is lost. Professor Budge thinks that the Assyrian editors +substituted the ancient triad of Anu, Ea, and Enlil for the pair +which would correspond to those found in Egypt. Originally the +wives of Anu and Ea may have made up the group of eight primitive +deities.</p> +<p>There can be little doubt but that Ea, as he survives to us, +is of later characterization than the first pair of primitive +deities who symbolized the deep. The attributes of this +beneficent god reflect the progress, and the social and moral +ideals of a people well advanced in civilization. He rewarded +mankind for the services they rendered to him; he was their +leader and instructor; he achieved for them the victories over +the destructive forces<a id="page.anchor.38" name= +"page.anchor.38"></a> of nature. In brief, he was the dragon +slayer, a distinction, by the way, which was attached in later +times to his son Merodach, the Babylonian god, although Ea was +still credited with the victory over the dragon's husband.</p> +<p>When Ea was one of the pre-Babylonian group--the triad of +Bel-Enlil, Anu, and Ea--he resembled the Indian Vishnu, the +Preserver, while Bel-Enlil resembled Shiva, the Destroyer, and +Anu, the father, supreme Brahma, the Creator and Father of All, +the difference in exact adjustment being due, perhaps, to +Sumerian political conditions.</p> +<p>Ea, as we have seen, symbolized the beneficence of the waters; +their destructive force was represented by Tiamat or Tiawath, the +dragon, and Apsu, her husband, the arch-enemy of the gods. We +shall find these elder demons figuring in the Babylonian Creation +myth, which receives treatment in a later chapter.</p> +<p>The ancient Sumerian city of Eridu, which means "on the +seashore", was invested with great sanctity from the earliest +times, and Ea, the "great magician of the gods", was invoked by +workers of spells, the priestly magicians of historic Babylonia. +Excavations have shown that Eridu was protected by a retaining +wall of sandstone, of which material many of its houses were +made. In its temple tower, built of brick, was a marble stairway, +and evidences have been forthcoming that in the later Sumerian +period the structure was lavishly adorned. It is referred to in +the fragments of early literature which have survived as "the +splendid house, shady as the forest", that "none may enter". The +mythological spell exercised by Eridu in later times suggests +that the civilization of Sumeria owed much to the worshippers of +Ea. At the sacred city the first man was created: there the +souls<a id="page.anchor.39" name="page.anchor.39"></a> of the +dead passed towards the great Deep. Its proximity to the sea--Ea +was Nin-bubu, "god of the sailor"--may have brought it into +contact with other peoples and other early civilizations. Like +the early Egyptians, the early Sumerians may have been in touch +with Punt (Somaliland), which some regard as the cradle of the +Mediterranean race. The Egyptians obtained from that sacred land +incense-bearing trees which had magical potency. In a fragmentary +Babylonian charm there is a reference to a sacred tree or bush at +Eridu. Professor Sayce has suggested that it is the Biblical +"Tree of Life" in the Garden of Eden. His translations of certain +vital words, however, is sharply questioned by Mr. R. Campbell +Thompson of the British Museum, who does not accept the +theory.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex149" href="#ftn.fnrex149" +id="fnrex149">49</a>]</span> It may be that Ea's sacred bush or +tree is a survival of tree and water worship.</p> +<p>If Eridu was not the "cradle" of the Sumerian race, it was +possibly the cradle of Sumerian civilization. Here, amidst the +shifting rivers in early times, the agriculturists may have +learned to control and distribute the water supply by utilizing +dried-up beds of streams to irrigate the land. Whatever successes +they achieved were credited to Ea, their instructor and patron; +he was Nadimmud, "god of everything".</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex128" href="#fnrex128" id="ftn.fnrex128">28</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>2 Kings</em></span>, xviii, 32.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex129" href="#fnrex129" id="ftn.fnrex129">29</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, i, 193.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex130" href="#fnrex130" id="ftn.fnrex130">30</a>]</span> +Peter's <span class="emphasis"><em>Nippur</em></span>, i, p. +160.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex131" href="#fnrex131" id="ftn.fnrex131">31</a>]</span> +A Babylonian priest of Bel Merodach. In the third century a.c. he +composed in Greek a history of his native land, which has +perished. Extracts from it are given by Eusebius, Josephus, +Apollodorus, and others.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex132" href="#fnrex132" id="ftn.fnrex132">32</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +pp. 140, 141.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex133" href="#fnrex133" id="ftn.fnrex133">33</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of the +Semites</em></span>, pp. 159, 160.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex134" href="#fnrex134" id="ftn.fnrex134">34</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Religion of Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, M. Jastrow, p. 88.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex135" href="#fnrex135" id="ftn.fnrex135">35</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Seven Tablets of +Creation</em></span>, L.W. King, vol. i, p. 129.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex136" href="#fnrex136" id="ftn.fnrex136">36</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Religious Belief in Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, M. Jastrow, p. 88.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex137" href="#fnrex137" id="ftn.fnrex137">37</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Cosmology of the Rigveda,</em></span> +Wallis, and <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and +Legend</em></span>, p. 10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex138" href="#fnrex138" id="ftn.fnrex138">38</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Old Testament in the Light of the +Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and +Babylonia</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, pp. 59-61.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex139" href="#fnrex139" id="ftn.fnrex139">39</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, pp. 91, 92.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex140" href="#fnrex140" id="ftn.fnrex140">40</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Joshua</em></span>, xv, 41; xix, +27.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex141" href="#fnrex141" id="ftn.fnrex141">41</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Judges</em></span>, xvi, 14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex142" href="#fnrex142" id="ftn.fnrex142">42</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>I Sam</em></span>., v, 1-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex143" href="#fnrex143" id="ftn.fnrex143">43</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>I Sam</em></span>., vi, 5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex144" href="#fnrex144" id="ftn.fnrex144">44</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</em></span>, R. Campbell Thompson, London, 1903, vol. +i, p. xlii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex145" href="#fnrex145" id="ftn.fnrex145">45</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</em></span>, R. C. Thompson, vol. i, p. xliii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex146" href="#fnrex146" id="ftn.fnrex146">46</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>A History of Sumer and +Akkad</em></span>, L. W. King, p. 54.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex147" href="#fnrex147" id="ftn.fnrex147">47</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Gods of the Egyptians</em></span>, +E. Wallis Budge, vol. i, p. 290.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex148" href="#fnrex148" id="ftn.fnrex148">48</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Gods of the Egyptians</em></span>, +vol. i, p. 287.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex149" href="#fnrex149" id="ftn.fnrex149">49</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</em></span>, vol. i, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Intro</em></span>. See also Sayce's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Religion of Ancient Egypt and +Babylonia</em></span> (Gifford Lectures, 1902), p. 385, and +Pinches' <span class="emphasis"><em>The Old Testament in the +Light of Historical Records</em></span>, &c., p. 71.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2517500" name= +"id2517500"></a>Chapter III. Rival Pantheons and Representative +Deities</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Why Different Gods were Supreme at Different Centres--Theories +regarding Origin of Life--Vital Principle in Water--Creative +Tears of Weeping Deities--Significance of widespread Spitting +Customs--Divine Water in Blood and Divine Blood in Water--Liver +as the Seat of Life--Inspiration derived by Drinking Mead, Blood, +&c.--Life Principle in Breath--Babylonian Ghosts as "Evil +Wind Gusts"--Fire Deities--Fire and Water in Magical +Ceremonies--Moon Gods of Ur and Harran--Moon Goddess and +Babylonian "Jack and Jill"--Antiquity of Sun Worship--Tammuz and +Ishtar--Solar Gods of War, Pestilence, and Death--Shamash as the +"Great Judge"--His Mitra Name--Aryan Mitra or Mithra and linking +Babylonian Deities--Varuna and Shamash Hymns compared--The Female +Origin of Life--Goddesses of Maternity--The Babylonian +Thor--Deities of Good and Evil.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.40" name="page.anchor.40"></a> In dealing +with the city cults of Sumer and Akkad, consideration must be +given to the problems involved by the rival mythological systems. +Pantheons not only varied in detail, but were presided over by +different supreme gods. One city's chief deity might be regarded +as a secondary deity at another centre. Although Ea, for +instance, was given first place at Eridu, and was so pronouncedly +Sumerian in character, the moon god Nannar remained supreme at +Ur, while the sun god, whose Semitic name was Shamash, presided +at Larsa and Sippar. Other deities were similarly exalted in +other states.</p> +<p>As has been indicated, a mythological system must have been +strongly influenced by city politics. To hold<a id= +"page.anchor.41" name="page.anchor.41"></a> a community in sway, +it was necessary to recognize officially the various gods +worshipped by different sections, so as to secure the constant +allegiance of all classes to their rulers. Alien deities were +therefore associated with local and tribal deities, those of the +nomads with those of the agriculturists, those of the unlettered +folks with those of the learned people. Reference has been made +to the introduction of strange deities by conquerors. But these +were not always imposed upon a community by violent means. +Indications are not awanting that the worshippers of alien gods +were sometimes welcomed and encouraged to settle in certain +states. When they came as military allies to assist a city folk +against a fierce enemy, they were naturally much admired and +praised, honoured by the women and the bards, and rewarded by the +rulers.</p> +<p>In the epic of Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, we meet +with Ea-bani, a Goliath of the wilds, who is entreated to come to +the aid of the besieged city of Erech when it seemed that its +deities were unable to help the people against their enemies.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The gods of walled-round +Erech</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To flies had turned and buzzed in the +streets;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The winged bulls of walled-round +Erech</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Were turned to mice and departed +through the holes.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Ea-bani was attracted to Erech by the gift of a fair woman for +wife. The poet who lauded him no doubt mirrored public opinion. +We can see the slim, shaven Sumerians gazing with wonder and +admiration on their rough heroic ally.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All his body was covered with +hair,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His locks were like a +woman's,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thick as corn grew his abundant +hair.<a id="page.anchor.42" name="page.anchor.42"></a></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He was a stranger to the people and in +that land.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Clad in a garment like Gira, the +god,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He had eaten grass with the +gazelles,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He had drunk water with savage +beasts.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His delight was to be among water +dwellers.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Like the giant Alban, the eponymous ancestor of a people who +invaded prehistoric Britain, Ea-bani appears to have represented +in Babylonian folk legends a certain type of foreign settlers in +the land. No doubt the city dwellers, who were impressed by the +prowess of the hairy and powerful warriors, were also ready to +acknowledge the greatness of their war gods, and to admit them +into the pantheon. The fusion of beliefs which followed must have +stimulated thought and been productive of speculative ideas. +"Nowhere", remarks Professor Jastrow, "does a high form of +culture arise without the commingling of diverse ethnic +elements."</p> +<p>We must also take into account the influence exercised by +leaders of thought like En-we-dur-an-ki, the famous high priest +of Sippar, whose piety did much to increase the reputation of the +cult of Shamesh, the sun god. The teachings and example of +Buddha, for instance, revolutionized Brahmanic religion in +India.</p> +<p>A mythology was an attempt to solve the riddle of the +Universe, and to adjust the relations of mankind with the various +forces represented by the deities. The priests systematized +existing folk beliefs and established an official religion. To +secure the prosperity of the State, it was considered necessary +to render homage unto whom homage was due at various seasons and +under various circumstances.</p> +<p>The religious attitude of a particular community, therefore, +must have been largely dependent on its needs and experiences. +The food supply was a first consideration.<a id="page.anchor.43" +name="page.anchor.43"></a> At Eridu, as we have seen, it was +assured by devotion to Ea and obedience to his commands as an +instructor. Elsewhere it might happen, however, that Ea's gifts +were restricted or withheld by an obstructing force--the raging +storm god, or the parching, pestilence-bringing deity of the sun. +It was necessary, therefore, for the people to win the favour of +the god or goddess who seemed most powerful, and was accordingly +considered to be the greatest in a particular district. A rain +god presided over the destinies of one community, and a god of +disease and death over another; a third exalted the war god, no +doubt because raids were frequent and the city owed its strength +and prosperity to its battles and conquests. The reputation won +by a particular god throughout Babylonia would depend greatly on +the achievements of his worshippers and the progress of the city +civilization over which he presided. Bel-Enlil's fame as a war +deity was probably due to the political supremacy of his city of +Nippur; and there was probably good reason for attributing to the +sun god a pronounced administrative and legal character; he may +have controlled the destinies of exceedingly well organized +communities in which law and order and authority were held in +high esteem.</p> +<p>In accounting for the rise of distinctive and rival city +deities, we should also consider the influence of divergent +conceptions regarding the origin of life in mingled communities. +Each foreign element in a community had its own intellectual life +and immemorial tribal traditions, which reflected ancient habits +of life and perpetuated the doctrines of eponymous ancestors. +Among the agricultural classes, the folk religion which entered +so intimately into their customs and labours must have remained +essentially Babylonish in character. In cities,<a id= +"page.anchor.44" name="page.anchor.44"></a> however, where +official religions were formulated, foreign ideas were more apt +to be imposed, especially when embraced by influential teachers. +It is not surprising, therefore, to find that in Babylonia, as in +Egypt, there were differences of opinion regarding the origin of +life and the particular natural element which represented the +vital principle.</p> +<p>One section of the people, who were represented by the +worshippers of Ea, appear to have believed that the essence of +life was contained in water. The god of Eridu was the source of +the "water of life". He fertilized parched and sunburnt wastes +through rivers and irrigating canals, and conferred upon man the +sustaining "food of life". When life came to an end--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Food of death will be offered +thee...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Water of death will be offered +thee...</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Offerings of water and food were made to the dead so that the +ghosts might be nourished and prevented from troubling the +living. Even the gods required water and food; they were immortal +because they had drunk ambrosia and eaten from the plant of life. +When the goddess Ishtar was in the Underworld, the land of the +dead, the servant of Ea exclaimed--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Hail! lady, may the well give me of +its waters, so that I may drink."</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The goddess of the dead commanded her servant to "sprinkle the +lady Ishtar with the water of life and bid her depart". The +sacred water might also be found at a confluence of rivers. Ea +bade his son, Merodach, to "draw water from the mouth of two +streams", and "on this water to put his pure spell".</p> +<p>The worship of rivers and wells which prevailed in<a id= +"page.anchor.45" name="page.anchor.45"></a> many countries was +connected with the belief that the principle of life was in +moisture. In India, water was vitalized by the intoxicating juice +of the Soma plant, which inspired priests to utter prophecies and +filled their hearts with religious fervour. Drinking customs had +originally a religious significance. It was believed in India +that the sap of plants was influenced by the moon, the source of +vitalizing moisture and the hiding-place of the mead of the gods. +The Teutonic gods also drank this mead, and poets were inspired +by it. Similar beliefs obtained among various peoples. Moon and +water worship were therefore closely associated; the blood of +animals and the sap of plants were vitalized by the water of life +and under control of the moon.</p> +<p>The body moisture of gods and demons had vitalizing +properties. When the Indian creator, Prajápati, wept at +the beginning, "that (the tears) which fell into the water became +the air. That which he wiped away, upwards, became the +sky."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex150" href="#ftn.fnrex150" +id="fnrex150">50</a>]</span> The ancient Egyptians believed that +all men were born from the eyes of Horus except negroes, who came +from other parts of his body.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex151" href="#ftn.fnrex151" id="fnrex151">51</a>]</span> The +creative tears of Ra, the sun god, fell as shining rays upon the +earth. When this god grew old saliva dripped from his mouth, and +Isis mixed the vitalizing moisture with dust, and thus made the +serpent which bit and paralysed the great solar +deity.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex152" href="#ftn.fnrex152" +id="fnrex152">52</a>]</span></p> +<p>Other Egyptian deities, including Osiris and Isis, wept +creative tears. Those which fell from the eyes of the evil gods +produced poisonous plants and various baneful animals. Orion, the +Greek giant, sprang from the body moisture of deities. The +weeping ceremonies in connection<a id="page.anchor.46" name= +"page.anchor.46"></a> with agricultural rites were no doubt +believed to be of magical potency; they encouraged the god to +weep creative tears.</p> +<p>Ea, the god of the deep, was also "lord of life" (Enti), "king +of the river" (Lugal-ida), and god of creation (Nudimmud). His +aid was invoked by means ot magical formulae. As the "great +magician of the gods" he uttered charms himself, and was the +patron of all magicians. One spell runs as follows:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I am the sorcerer priest of +Ea...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To revive the ... sick man</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The great lord Ea hath sent +me;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He hath added his pure spell to +mine,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He hath added his pure voice to +mine,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He hath added his pure spittle to +mine.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class="emphasis"><em>R.C. +Thompson's Translation.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Saliva, like tears, had creative and therefore curative +qualities; it also expelled and injured demons and brought good +luck. Spitting ceremonies are referred to in the religious +literature of Ancient Egypt. When the Eye of Ra was blinded by +Set, Thoth spat in it to restore vision. The sun god Tum, who was +linked with Ra as Ra-Tum, spat on the ground, and his saliva +became the gods Shu and Tefnut. In the Underworld the devil +serpent Apep was spat upon to curse it, as was also its waxen +image which the priests fashioned.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex153" href="#ftn.fnrex153" id="fnrex153">53</a>]</span></p> +<p>Several African tribes spit to make compacts, declare +friendship, and to curse.</p> +<p>Park, the explorer, refers in his <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Travels</em></span> to his carriers spitting on a +flat stone to ensure a good journey. Arabian holy men and +descendants of Mohammed spit to cure diseases. Mohammed spat in +the mouth of his grandson Hasen soon after birth. Theocritus, +Sophocles,<a id="page.anchor.47" name="page.anchor.47"></a> and +Plutarch testify to the ancient Grecian customs of spitting to +cure and to curse, and also to bless when children were named. +Pliny has expressed belief in the efficacy of the fasting spittle +for curing disease, and referred to the custom of spitting to +avert witchcraft. In England, Scotland, and Ireland spitting +customs are not yet obsolete. North of England boys used to talk +of "spitting their sauls" (souls). When the Newcastle colliers +held their earliest strikes they made compacts by spitting on a +stone. There are still "spitting stones" in the north of +Scotland. When bargains are made in rural districts, hands are +spat upon before they are shaken. The first money taken each day +by fishwives and other dealers is spat upon to ensure increased +drawings. Brand, who refers to various spitting customs, quotes +<span class="emphasis"><em>Scot's Discovery of +Witchcraft</em></span> regarding the saliva cure for king's evil, +which is still, by the way, practised in the Hebrides. Like +Pliny, Scot recommended ceremonial spitting as a charm against +witchcraft.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex154" href= +"#ftn.fnrex154" id="fnrex154">54</a>]</span> In China spitting to +expel demons is a common practice. We still call a hasty person a +"spitfire", and a calumniator a "spit-poison".</p> +<p>The life principle in trees, &c., as we have seen, was +believed to have been derived from the tears of deities. In India +sap was called the "blood of trees", and references to "bleeding +trees" are still widespread and common. "Among the ancients", +wrote Professor Robertson Smith, "blood is generally conceived as +the principle or vehicle of life, and so the account often given +of sacred waters is that the blood of the deity flows in them. +Thus as Milton writes:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Smooth Adonis from his native +rock</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ran purple to the sea, supposed with +blood</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of Thammuz yearly wounded.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Paradise Lost</em></span>, i, 450.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.48" name="page.anchor.48"></a>The ruddy +colour which the swollen river derived from the soil at a certain +season was ascribed to the blood of the god, who received his +death wound in Lebanon at that time of the year, and lay buried +beside the sacred source."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex155" +href="#ftn.fnrex155" id="fnrex155">55</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Babylonia the river was regarded as the source of the life +blood and the seat of the soul. No doubt this theory was based on +the fact that the human liver contains about a sixth of the blood +in the body, the largest proportion required by any single organ. +Jeremiah makes "Mother Jerusalem" exclaim: "My liver is poured +upon the earth for the destruction of the daughter of my people", +meaning that her life is spent with grief.</p> +<p>Inspiration was derived by drinking blood as well as by +drinking intoxicating liquors--the mead of the gods. Indian +magicians who drink the blood of the goat sacrificed to the +goddess Kali, are believed to be temporarily possessed by her +spirit, and thus enabled to prophesy.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex156" href="#ftn.fnrex156" id="fnrex156">56</a>]</span> +Malayan exorcists still expel demons while they suck the blood +from a decapitated fowl.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex157" +href="#ftn.fnrex157" id="fnrex157">57</a>]</span></p> +<p>Similar customs were prevalent in Ancient Greece. A woman who +drank the blood of a sacrificed lamb or bull uttered prophetic +sayings.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex158" href= +"#ftn.fnrex158" id="fnrex158">58</a>]</span></p> +<p>But while most Babylonians appear to have believed that the +life principle was in blood, some were apparently of opinion that +it was in breath--the air of life. A man died when he ceased to +breathe; his spirit, therefore, it was argued, was identical with +the atmosphere--the moving wind--and was accordingly derived from +the atmospheric or wind god. When, in the Gilgamesh epic, the +hero invokes the dead Ea-bani, the ghost rises<a id= +"page.anchor.49" name="page.anchor.49"></a> up like a "breath of +wind". A Babylonian charm runs:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The gods which seize on men</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Came forth from the grave;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The evil wind gusts</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Have come forth from the +grave,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To demand payment of rites and the +pouring out of libations</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> They have come forth from the +grave;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All that is evil in their hosts, like a +whirlwind,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Hath come forth from the +grave.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex159" href="#ftn.fnrex159" +id="fnrex159">59</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The Hebrew "nephesh ruach" and "neshamah" (in Arabic "ruh" and +"nefs") pass from meaning "breath" to "spirit".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex160" href="#ftn.fnrex160" id= +"fnrex160">60</a>]</span> In Egypt the god Khnumu was "Kneph" in +his character as an atmospheric deity. The ascendancy of storm +and wind gods in some Babylonian cities may have been due to the +belief that they were the source of the "air of life". It is +possible that this conception was popularized by the Semites. +Inspiration was perhaps derived from these deities by burning +incense, which, if we follow evidence obtained elsewhere, induced +a prophetic trance. The gods were also invoked by incense. In the +Flood legend the Babylonian Noah burned incense. "The gods +smelled a sweet savour and gathered like flies over the +sacrificer." In Egypt devotees who inhaled the breath of the Apis +bull were enabled to prophesy.</p> +<p>In addition to water and atmospheric deities Babylonia had +also its fire gods, Girru, Gish Bar, Gibil, and Nusku. Their +origin is obscure. It is doubtful if their worshippers, like +those of the Indian Agni, believed that fire, the "vital spark", +was the principle of life which was manifested by bodily heat. +The Aryan fire worshippers cremated their dead so that the +spirits might be<a id="page.anchor.50" name="page.anchor.50"></a> +transferred by fire to Paradise. This practice, however, did not +obtain among the fire worshippers of Persia, nor, as was once +believed, in Sumer or Akkad either. Fire was, however, used in +Babylonia for magical purposes. It destroyed demons, and put to +flight the spirits of disease. Possibly the fire-purification +ceremonies resembled those which were practised by the +Canaanites, and are referred to in the Bible. Ahaz "made his son +to pass through the fire, according to the abominations of the +heathen".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex161" href= +"#ftn.fnrex161" id="fnrex161">61</a>]</span> Ezekiel declared +that "when ye offer your gifts, when ye make your sons to pass +through the fire, ye pollute yourselves with all your +idols".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex162" href="#ftn.fnrex162" +id="fnrex162">62</a>]</span> In <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Leviticus</em></span> it is laid down: "Thou shalt +not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to +Moloch".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex163" href= +"#ftn.fnrex163" id="fnrex163">63</a>]</span> It may be that in +Babylonia the fire-cleansing ceremony resembled that which +obtained at Beltane (May Day) in Scotland, Germany, and other +countries. Human sacrifices might also have been offered up as +burnt offerings. Abraham, who came from the Sumerian city of Ur, +was prepared to sacrifice Isaac, Sarah's first-born. The fire +gods of Babylonia never achieved the ascendancy of the Indian +Agni; they appear to have resembled him mainly in so far as he +was connected with the sun. Nusku, like Agni, was also the +"messenger of the gods". When Merodach or Babylon was exalted as +chief god of the pantheon his messages were carried to Ea by +Nusku. He may have therefore symbolized the sun rays, for +Merodach had solar attributes. It is possible that the belief +obtained among even the water worshippers of Eridu that the sun +and moon, which rose from the primordial deep, had their origin +in the everlasting fire in Ea's domain at the bottom of the sea. +In the Indian god Varuna's ocean home an "Asura fire" (demon +fire) <a id="page.anchor.51" name="page.anchor.51"></a>burned +constantly; it was "bound and confined", but could not be +extinguished. Fed by water, this fire, it was believed, would +burst forth at the last day and consume the universe.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex164" href="#ftn.fnrex164" id= +"fnrex164">64</a>]</span> A similar belief can be traced in +Teutonic mythology. The Babylonian incantation cult appealed to +many gods, but "the most important share in the rites", says +Jastrow, "are taken by fire and water--suggesting, therefore, +that the god of water--more particularly Ea--and the god of fire +... are the chief deities on which the ritual itself hinges". In +some temples there was a <span class="emphasis"><em>bit +rimki</em></span>, a "house of washing", and a <span class= +"emphasis"><em>bit nuri</em></span>, a "house of +light".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex165" href="#ftn.fnrex165" +id="fnrex165">65</a>]</span></p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2518436" name="id2518436"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure III.1. WORSHIP OF THE MOON GOD</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Cylinder-Seal ol Khashkhamer, Patesi of Ishkun-Sin (in North +Babylonia), and vassal of Ur-Engur, King of Ur. (c. 2400 B.C.) +(<span class="emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/4.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2518456" name="id2518456"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure III.2. WINGED MAN-HEADED LION</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>In Marble. From N.W. Palace of +Nimroud: now in the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/5.jpg" /></div> +<p>It is possible, of course, that fire was regarded as the vital +principle by some city cults, which were influenced by imported +ideas. If so, the belief never became prevalent. The most +enduring influence in Babylonian religion was the early Sumerian; +and as Sumerian modes of thought were the outcome of habits of +life necessitated by the character of the country, they were +bound, sooner or later, to leave a deep impress on the minds of +foreign peoples who settled in the Garden of Western Asia. It is +not surprising, therefore, to find that imported deities assumed +Babylonian characteristics, and were identified or associated +with Babylonian gods in the later imperial pantheon.</p> +<p>Moon worship appears to have been as ancient as water worship, +with which, as we have seen, it was closely associated. It was +widely prevalent throughout Babylonia. The chief seat of the +lunar deity, Nannar or Sin, was the ancient city of Ur, from +which Abraham migrated to Harran, where the "Baal" (the lord) was +also a moon god. Ur was situated in Sumer, in the south, +between<a id="page.anchor.52" name="page.anchor.52"></a> the west +bank of the Euphrates and the low hills bordering the Arabian +desert, and not far distant from sea-washed Eridu. No doubt, like +that city, it had its origin at an exceedingly remote period. At +any rate, the excavations conducted there have afforded proof +that it flourished in the prehistoric period.</p> +<p>As in Arabia, Egypt, and throughout ancient Europe and +elsewhere, the moon god of Sumeria was regarded as the "friend of +man". He controlled nature as a fertilizing agency; he caused +grass, trees, and crops to grow; he increased flocks and herds, +and gave human offspring. At Ur he was exalted above Ea as "the +lord and prince of the gods, supreme in heaven, the Father of +all"; he was also called "great Anu", an indication that Anu, the +sky god, had at one time a lunar character. The moon god was +believed to be the father of the sun god: he was the "great steer +with mighty horns and perfect limbs".</p> +<p>His name Sin is believed to be a corruption of "Zu-ena", which +signifies "knowledge lord".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex166" +href="#ftn.fnrex166" id="fnrex166">66</a>]</span> Like the lunar +Osiris of Egypt, he was apparently an instructor of mankind; the +moon measured time and controlled the seasons; seeds were sown at +a certain phase of the moon, and crops were ripened by the +harvest moon. The mountains of Sinai and the desert of Sin are +called after this deity.</p> +<p>As Nannar, which Jastrow considers to be a variation of +"Narnar", the "light producer", the moon god scattered darkness +and reduced the terrors of night. His spirit inhabited the lunar +stone, so that moon and stone worship were closely associated; it +also entered trees and crops, so that moon worship linked with +earth worship, as both linked with water worship.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.53" name="page.anchor.53"></a>The consort +of Nannar was Nin-Uruwa, "the lady of Ur", who was also called +Nin-gala. She links with Ishtar as Nin, as Isis of Egypt linked +with other mother deities. The twin children of the moon were +Mashu and Mashtu, a brother and sister, like the lunar girl and +boy of Teutonic mythology immortalized in nursery rhymes as Jack +and Jill.</p> +<p>Sun worship was of great antiquity in Babylonia, but appears +to have been seasonal in its earliest phases. No doubt the sky +god Anu had his solar as well as his lunar attributes, which he +shared with Ea. The spring sun was personified as Tammuz, the +youthful shepherd, who was loved by the earth goddess Ishtar and +her rival Eresh-ki-gal, goddess of death, the Babylonian +Persephone. During the winter Tammuz dwelt in Hades, and at the +beginning of spring Ishtar descended to search for him among the +shades.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex167" href="#ftn.fnrex167" +id="fnrex167">67</a>]</span> But the burning summer sun was +symbolized as a destroyer, a slayer of men, and therefore a war +god. As Ninip or Nirig, the son of Enlil, who was made in the +likeness of Anu, he waged war against the earth spirits, and was +furiously hostile towards the deities of alien peoples, as +befitted a god of battle. Even his father feared him, and when he +was advancing towards Nippur, sent out Nusku, messenger of the +gods, to soothe the raging deity with soft words. Ninip was +symbolized as a wild bull, was connected with stone worship, like +the Indian destroying god Shiva, and was similarly a deity of +Fate. He had much in common with Nin-Girsu, a god of Lagash, who +was in turn regarded as a form of Tammuz.</p> +<p>Nergal, another solar deity, brought disease and pestilence, +and, according to Jensen, all misfortunes due to excessive heat. +He was the king of death, husband of<a id="page.anchor.54" name= +"page.anchor.54"></a> Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades. As a war god +he thirsted for human blood, and was depicted as a mighty lion. +He was the chief deity of the city of Cuthah, which, Jastrow +suggests, was situated beside a burial place of great repute, +like the Egyptian Abydos.</p> +<p>The two great cities of the sun in ancient Babylonia were the +Akkadian Sippar and the Sumerian Larsa. In these the sun god, +Shamash or Babbar, was the patron deity. He was a god of Destiny, +the lord of the living and the dead, and was exalted as the great +Judge, the lawgiver, who upheld justice; he was the enemy of +wrong, he loved righteousness and hated sin, he inspired his +worshippers with rectitude and punished evildoers. The sun god +also illumined the world, and his rays penetrated every quarter: +he saw all things, and read the thoughts of men; nothing could be +concealed from Shamash. One of his names was Mitra, like the god +who was linked with Varuna in the Indian <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>. These twin deities, Mitra and +Varuna, measured out the span of human life. They were the source +of all heavenly gifts: they regulated sun and moon, the winds and +waters, and the seasons.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex168" +href="#ftn.fnrex168" id="fnrex168">68</a>]</span></p> +<p>These did the gods establish in royal power over themselves, +because they were wise and the children of wisdom, and because +they excelled in power.--<span class="emphasis"><em>Prof. +Arnold's trans. of Rigvedic Hymn</em></span>.</p> +<p>Mitra and Varuna were protectors of hearth and home, and they +chastised sinners. "In a striking passage of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>" says Professor Moulton, +"one in which Indian thought comes nearest to the conception of +conscience, a kingly wrongdoer is reminded that the sun sees +secret sin."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex169" href= +"#ftn.fnrex169" id="fnrex169">69</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Persian mythology Mitra, as Mithra, is the patron<a id= +"page.anchor.55" name="page.anchor.55"></a> of Truth, and "the +Mediator" between heaven and earth<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex170" href="#ftn.fnrex170" id="fnrex170">70</a>]</span>. +This god was also worshipped by the military aristocracy of +Mitanni, which held sway for a period over Assyria. In Roman +times the worship of Mithra spread into Europe from Persia. +Mithraic sculptures depict the deity as a corn god slaying the +harvest bull; on one of the monuments "cornstalks instead of +blood are seen issuing from the wound inflicted with the +knife<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex171" href="#ftn.fnrex171" +id="fnrex171">71</a>]</span>". The Assyrian word "metru" +signifies rain<span class="sub">[<a href= +"#ftn.fnrex170">70</a>]</span>. As a sky god Mitra may have been +associated, like Varuna, with the waters above the firmament. +Rain would therefore be gifted by him as a fertilizing deity. In +the Babylonian Flood legend it is the sun god Shamash who +"appointed the time" when the heavens were to "rain destruction" +in the night, and commanded Pir-napishtim, "Enter into the midst +of thy ship and shut thy door". The solar deity thus appears as a +form of Anu, god of the sky and upper atmosphere, who controls +the seasons and the various forces of nature. Other rival chiefs +of city pantheons, whether lunar, atmospheric, earth, or water +deities, were similarly regarded as the supreme deities who ruled +the Universe, and decreed when man should receive benefits or +suffer from their acts of vengeance.</p> +<p>It is possible that the close resemblances between Mithra and +Mitra of the Aryan-speaking peoples of India and the Iranian +plateau, and the sun god of the Babylonians--the Semitic Shamash, +the Sumerian Utu--were due to early contact and cultural +influence through the medium of Elam. As a solar and corn god, +the Persian Mithra links with Tammuz, as a sky and atmospheric +deity with Anu, and as a god of truth, righteousness, and law +with Shamash. We seem to trace in the<a id="page.anchor.56" name= +"page.anchor.56"></a> sublime Vedic hymns addressed by the Indian +Aryans to Mitra and Varuna the impress of Babylonian religious +thought:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Whate'er exists within this earth, and +all within the sky,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Yea, all that is beyond, King Varuna +perceives....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>, iv, 16.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex172" href="#ftn.fnrex172" id= +"fnrex172">72</a>]</span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O Varuna, whatever the offence may +be</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That we as men commit against the +heavenly folk,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When through our want of thought we +violate thy laws,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Chastise us not, O god, for that +iniquity.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>, vii, 89.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex173" href="#ftn.fnrex173" id= +"fnrex173">73</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Shamash was similarly exalted in Babylonian hymns:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The progeny of those who deal unjustly +will not prosper.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>What their mouth utters in thy +presence</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou wilt destroy, what issues from +their mouth thou wilt dissipate.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou knowest their transgressions, the +plan of the wicked thou rejectest.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All, whoever they be, are in thy +care....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He who takes no bribe, who cares for +the oppressed,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Is favoured by Shamash,--his life shall +be prolonged.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex174" href= +"#ftn.fnrex174" id="fnrex174">74</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The worshippers of Varuna and Mitra in the Punjab did not +cremate their dead like those who exalted the rival fire god +Agni. The grave was the "house of clay", as in Babylonia. Mitra, +who was identical with Yama, ruled over departed souls in the +"Land of the Pitris" (Fathers), which was reached by crossing the +mountains and the rushing stream of death.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex175" href="#ftn.fnrex175" id= +"fnrex175">75</a>]</span> As we have seen, the Babylonian solar +god Nergal was also the lord of the dead.</p> +<p>As Ma-banda-anna, "the boat of the sky", Shamash links with +the Egyptian sun god Ra, whose barque sailed<a id= +"page.anchor.57" name="page.anchor.57"></a> over the heavens by +day and through the underworld of darkness and death during the +night. The consort of Shamash was Aa, and his attendants were +Kittu and Mesharu, "Truth" and "Righteousness".</p> +<p>Like the Hittites, the Babylonians had also a sun goddess: her +name was Nin-sun, which Jastrow renders "the annihilating lady". +At Erech she had a shrine in the temple of the sky god Anu.</p> +<p>We can trace in Babylonia, as in Egypt, the early belief that +life in the Universe had a female origin. Nin-sun links with +Ishtar, whose Sumerian name is Nana. Ishtar appears to be +identical with the Egyptian Hathor, who, as Sekhet, slaughtered +the enemies of the sun god Ra. She was similarly the goddess of +maternity, and is depicted in this character, like Isis and other +goddesses of similar character, suckling a babe. Another +Babylonian lady of the gods was Ama, Mama, or Mami, "the +creatress of the seed of mankind", and was "probably so called as +the 'mother' of all things".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex176" +href="#ftn.fnrex176" id="fnrex176">76</a>]</span></p> +<p>A characteristic atmospheric deity was Ramman, the Rimmon of +the Bible, the Semitic Addu, Adad, Hadad, or Dadu. He was not a +presiding deity in any pantheon, but was identified with Enlil at +Nippur. As a hammer god, he was imported by the Semites from the +hills. He was a wind and thunder deity, a rain bringer, a corn +god, and a god of battle like Thor, Jupiter, Tarku, Indra, and +others, who were all sons of the sky.</p> +<p>In this brief review of the representative deities of early +Babylonia, it will be seen that most gods link with Anu, Ea, and +Enlil, whose attributes they symbolized in various forms. The +prominence accorded to an individual deity depended on local +conditions, experiences, and influences. Ceremonial practices no +doubt varied<a id="page.anchor.58" name="page.anchor.58"></a> +here and there, but although one section might exalt Ea and +another Shamash, the religious faith of the people as a whole did +not differ to any marked extent; they served the gods according +to their lights, so that life might be prolonged and made +prosperous, for the land of death and "no return" was regarded as +a place of gloom and misery.</p> +<p>When the Babylonians appear before us in the early stages of +the historical period they had reached that stage of development +set forth so vividly in the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Orations</em></span> of Isocrates: "Those of the +gods who are the source to us of good things have the title of +Olympians; those whose department is that of calamities and +punishments have harsher titles: to the first class both private +persons and states erect altars and temples; the second is not +worshipped either with prayers or burnt sacrifices, but in their +case we perform ceremonies of riddance".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex177" href="#ftn.fnrex177" id= +"fnrex177">77</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Sumerians, like the Ancient Egyptians, developed their +deities, who reflected the growth of culture, from vague spirit +groups, which, like ghosts, were hostile to mankind. Those +spirits who could be propitiated were exalted as benevolent +deities; those who could not be bargained with were regarded as +evil gods and goddesses. A better understanding of the character +of Babylonian deities will therefore be obtained by passing the +demons and evil spirits under review.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex150" href="#fnrex150" id="ftn.fnrex150">50</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. +100.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex151" href="#fnrex151" id="ftn.fnrex151">51</a>]</span> +Maspero's <span class="emphasis"><em>Dawn of +Civilization</em></span>, p. 156 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex152" href="#fnrex152" id="ftn.fnrex152">52</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +p. I <span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>. The saliva of +the frail and elderly was injurious.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex153" href="#fnrex153" id="ftn.fnrex153">53</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</em></span>, E. Wallis Budge, vol. ii, p. 203 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex154" href="#fnrex154" id="ftn.fnrex154">54</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Brana's Popular +Antiquities</em></span>, vol. iii, pp. 259-263 (1889 ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex155" href="#fnrex155" id="ftn.fnrex155">55</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of the +Semites</em></span>, pp. 158, 159.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex156" href="#fnrex156" id="ftn.fnrex156">56</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Castes and Tribes of Southern +India</em></span>, E. Thurston, iv, 187.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex157" href="#fnrex157" id="ftn.fnrex157">57</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Omens and Superstitions of Southern +India</em></span>, E. Thurston (1912), pp. 245, 246.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex158" href="#fnrex158" id="ftn.fnrex158">58</a>]</span> +Pausanias, ii, 24, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex159" href="#fnrex159" id="ftn.fnrex159">59</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</em></span>, R.C. Thompson, vol. ii, tablet Y.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex160" href="#fnrex160" id="ftn.fnrex160">60</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Animism</em></span>, E. Clodd, p. +37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex161" href="#fnrex161" id="ftn.fnrex161">61</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>2 Kings</em></span>, xvi, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex162" href="#fnrex162" id="ftn.fnrex162">62</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xx, 31.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex163" href="#fnrex163" id="ftn.fnrex163">63</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Leviticus</em></span>, xviii, +21.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex164" href="#fnrex164" id="ftn.fnrex164">64</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. +65.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex165" href="#fnrex165" id="ftn.fnrex165">65</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Religious Belief in Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, M. Jastrow, pp. 312, 313.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex166" href="#fnrex166" id="ftn.fnrex166">66</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, p. 81.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex167" href="#fnrex167" id="ftn.fnrex167">67</a>]</span> +In early times two goddesses searched for Tammuz at different +periods.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex168" href="#fnrex168" id="ftn.fnrex168">68</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. +30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex169" href="#fnrex169" id="ftn.fnrex169">69</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Early Religious Poetry of +Persia</em></span>, p. 35.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex170" href="#fnrex170" id="ftn.fnrex170">70</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Early Religious Poetry of +Persia</em></span>, p. 37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex171" href="#fnrex171" id="ftn.fnrex171">71</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Golden Bough</em></span> (Spirits +of the Corn and Wild, vol. ii, p. 10), 3rd edition.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex172" href="#fnrex172" id="ftn.fnrex172">72</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Wisdom</em></span>, Sir Monier +Monier-Williams.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex173" href="#fnrex173" id="ftn.fnrex173">73</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>A History of Sanskrit +Literature</em></span>, Professor Macdonell.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex174" href="#fnrex174" id="ftn.fnrex174">74</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, M. Jastrow, pp. 111, +112.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex175" href="#fnrex175" id="ftn.fnrex175">75</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +pp. xxxii, and 38 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex176" href="#fnrex176" id="ftn.fnrex176">76</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, p. 94.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex177" href="#fnrex177" id="ftn.fnrex177">77</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of Ancient +Greece</em></span>, J.E. Harrison, p. 46, and Isoc. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Orat.</em></span>, v, 117</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2519057" name= +"id2519057"></a>Chapter IV. Demons, Fairies, and Ghosts</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Spirits in Everything and Everywhere--The Bringers of Luck and +Misfortune--Germ Theory Anticipated--Early Gods indistinguishable +from Demons--Repulsive form of Ea--Spirit Groups as Attendants of +Deities--Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Germanic parallels--Elder +Gods as Evil Gods--Animal Demons--The Babylonian +"Will-o'-the-Wisp"--"Foreign Devils"--Elves and Fairies--Demon +Lovers--"Adam's first wife, Lilith"--Children Charmed against +Evil Spirits--The Demon of Nightmare--Ghosts as Enemies of the +Living--The Vengeful Dead Mother in Babylonia, India, Europe, and +Mexico--Burial Contrast--Calling Back the Dead--Fate of Childless +Ghosts--Religious Need for Offspring--Hags and Giants and +Composite Monsters--Tempest Fiends--Legend of Adapa and the Storm +Demon--Wind Hags of Ancient Britain--Tyrolese Storm Maidens--Zu +Bird Legend and Indian Garuda Myth--Legend of the Eagle and the +Serpent--The Snake Mother Goddess--Demons and the Moon +God--Plague Deities--Classification of Spirits, and Egyptian, +Arabian, and Scottish parallels--Traces of Progress from Animism +to Monotheism.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.59" name="page.anchor.59"></a> The +memorable sermon preached by Paul to the Athenians when he stood +"in the midst of Mars' hill", could have been addressed with +equal appropriateness to the ancient Sumerians and Akkadians. "I +perceive", he declared, "that in all things ye are too +superstitious.... God that made the world and all things therein, +seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in +temples made with hands; neither is worshipped with men's hands +as though he needed any thing, seeing he giveth to all life, and +breath, and all things ... for in him we live, and move, and have +our being; as certain also of your own poets have said, For we +are also his offspring. Forasmuch then as we are the offspring +of<a id="page.anchor.60" name="page.anchor.60"></a> God, we ought +not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or +stone, graven by art and man's device."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex178" href="#ftn.fnrex178" id= +"fnrex178">78</a>]</span></p> +<p>Babylonian temples were houses of the gods in the literal +sense; the gods were supposed to dwell in them, their spirits +having entered into the graven images or blocks of stone. It is +probable that like the Ancient Egyptians they believed a god had +as many spirits as he had attributes. The gods, as we have said, +appear to have evolved from early spirit groups. All the world +swarmed with spirits, which inhabited stones and trees, mountains +and deserts, rivers and ocean, the air, the sky, the stars, and +the sun and moon. The spirits controlled Nature: they brought +light and darkness, sunshine and storm, summer and winter; they +were manifested in the thunderstorm, the sandstorm, the glare of +sunset, and the wraiths of mist rising from the steaming marshes. +They controlled also the lives of men and women. The good spirits +were the source of luck. The bad spirits caused misfortunes, and +were ever seeking to work evil against the Babylonian. Darkness +was peopled by demons and ghosts of the dead. The spirits of +disease were ever lying in wait to clutch him with cruel +invisible hands.</p> +<p>Some modern writers, who are too prone to regard ancient +peoples from a twentieth-century point of view, express grave +doubts as to whether "intelligent Babylonians" really believed +that spirits came down in the rain and entered the soil to rise +up before men's eyes as stalks of barley or wheat. There is no +reason for supposing that they thought otherwise. The early folks +based their theories on the accumulated knowledge of their age. +They knew nothing regarding the composition<a id="page.anchor.61" +name="page.anchor.61"></a> of water or the atmosphere, of the +cause of thunder and lightning, or of the chemical changes +effected in soils by the action of bacteria. They attributed all +natural phenomena to the operations of spirits or gods. In +believing that certain demons caused certain diseases, they may +be said to have achieved distinct progress, for they anticipated +the germ theory. They made discoveries, too, which have been +approved and elaborated in later times when they lit sacred +fires, bathed in sacred waters, and used oils and herbs to charm +away spirits of pestilence. Indeed, many folk cures, which were +originally associated with magical ceremonies, are still +practised in our own day. They were found to be effective by +early observers, although they were unable to explain why and how +cures were accomplished, like modern scientific +investigators.</p> +<p>In peopling the Universe with spirits, the Babylonians, like +other ancient folks, betrayed that tendency to symbolize +everything which has ever appealed to the human mind. Our +painters and poets and sculptors are greatest when they symbolize +their ideals and ideas and impressions, and by so doing make us +respond to their moods. Their "beauty and their terror are +sublime". But what may seem poetic to us, was invariably a grim +reality to the Babylonians. The statue or picture was not merely +a work of art but a manifestation of the god or demon. As has +been said, they believed that the spirit of the god inhabited the +idol; the frown of the brazen image was the frown of the wicked +demon. They entertained as much dread of the winged and +human-headed bulls guarding the entrance to the royal palace as +do some of the Arab workmen who, in our own day, assist +excavators to rescue them from sandy mounds in which they have +been hidden for long centuries.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.62" name="page.anchor.62"></a>When an idol +was carried away from a city by an invading army, it was believed +that the god himself had been taken prisoner, and was therefore +unable any longer to help his people.</p> +<p>In the early stages of Sumerian culture, the gods and +goddesses who formed groups were indistinguishable from demons. +They were vaguely defined, and had changing shapes. When attempts +were made to depict them they were represented in many varying +forms. Some were winged bulls or lions with human heads; others +had even more remarkable composite forms. The "dragon of +Babylon", for instance, which was portrayed on walls of temples, +had a serpent's head, a body covered with scales, the fore legs +of a lion, hind legs of an eagle, and a long wriggling serpentine +tail. Ea had several monster forms. The following description of +one of these is repulsive enough:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The head is the head of a +serpent,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From his nostrils mucus +trickles,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His mouth is beslavered with +water;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The ears are like those of a +basilisk,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His horns are twisted into three +curls,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He wears a veil in his head +band,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The body is a suh-fish full of +stars,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The base of his feet are +claws,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The sole of his foot has no +heel,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His name is Sassu-wunnu,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>A sea monster, a form of Ea.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class="emphasis"><em>R.C. +Thompson's Translation.</em></span><span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex179" href="#ftn.fnrex179" id= +"fnrex179">79</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Even after the gods were given beneficent attributes to +reflect the growth of culture, and were humanized, they still +retained many of their savage characteristics. Bel Enlil and his +fierce son, Nergal, were destroyers<a id="page.anchor.63" name= +"page.anchor.63"></a> of mankind; the storm god desolated the +land; the sky god deluged it with rain; the sea raged furiously, +ever hungering for human victims; the burning sun struck down its +victims; and the floods played havoc with the dykes and houses of +human beings. In Egypt the sun god Ra was similarly a "producer +of calamity", the composite monster god Sokar was "the lord of +fear".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex180" href="#ftn.fnrex180" +id="fnrex180">80</a>]</span> Osiris in prehistoric times had been +"a dangerous god", and some of the Pharaohs sought protection +against him in the charms inscribed in their tombs.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex181" href="#ftn.fnrex181" id= +"fnrex181">81</a>]</span> The Indian Shiva, "the Destroyer", in +the old religious poems has also primitive attributes of like +character.</p> +<p>The Sumerian gods never lost their connection with the early +spirit groups. These continued to be represented by their +attendants, who executed a deity's stern and vengeful decrees. In +one of the Babylonian charms the demons are referred to as "the +spleen of the gods"--the symbols of their wrathful emotions and +vengeful desires. Bel Enlil, the air and earth god, was served by +the demons of disease, "the beloved sons of Bel", which issued +from the Underworld to attack mankind. Nergal, the sulky and +ill-tempered lord of death and destruction, who never lost his +demoniac character, swept over the land, followed by the spirits +of pestilence, sunstroke, weariness, and destruction. Anu, the +sky god, had "spawned" at creation the demons of cold and rain +and darkness. Even Ea and his consort, Damkina, were served by +groups of devils and giants, which preyed upon mankind in bleak +and desolate places when night fell. In the ocean home of Ea were +bred the "seven evil spirits" of tempest--the gaping dragon, the +leopard which preyed upon children, the great Beast, the terrible +serpent, &c.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.64" name="page.anchor.64"></a>In Indian +mythology Indra was similarly followed by the stormy Maruts, and +fierce Rudra by the tempestuous Rudras. In Teutonic mythology +Odin is the "Wild Huntsman in the Raging Host". In Greek +mythology the ocean furies attend upon fickle Poseidon. Other +examples of this kind could be multiplied.</p> +<p>As we have seen (Chapter II) the earliest group of Babylonian +deities consisted probably of four pairs of gods and goddesses as +in Egypt. The first pair was Apsu-Rishtu and Tiamat, who +personified the primordial deep. Now the elder deities in most +mythologies--the "grandsires" and "grandmothers" and "fathers" +and "mothers"--are ever the most powerful and most vengeful. They +appear to represent primitive "layers" of savage thought. The +Greek Cronos devours even his own children, and, as the late +Andrew Lang has shown, there are many parallels to this myth +among primitive peoples in various parts of the world.</p> +<p>Lang regarded the Greek survival as an example of "the +conservatism of the religious instinct".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex182" href="#ftn.fnrex182" id= +"fnrex182">82</a>]</span> The grandmother of the Teutonic deity +Tyr was a fierce giantess with nine hundred heads; his father was +an enemy of the gods. In Scotland the hag-mother of winter and +storm and darkness is the enemy of growth and all life, and she +raises storms to stop the grass growing, to slay young animals, +and prevent the union of her son with his fair bride. Similarly +the Babylonian chaos spirits, Apsu and Tiamat, the father and +mother of the gods, resolve to destroy their offspring, because +they begin to set the Universe in order. Tiamat, the female +dragon, is more powerful than her husband Apsu, who is slain by +his son Ea. She summons to her aid the gods of evil, and creates +also a brood of monsters--serpents,<a id="page.anchor.65" name= +"page.anchor.65"></a> dragons, vipers, fish men, raging hounds, +&c.--so as to bring about universal and enduring confusion +and evil. Not until she is destroyed can the beneficent gods +establish law and order and make the earth habitable and +beautiful.</p> +<p>But although Tiamat was slain, the everlasting battle between +the forces of good and evil was ever waged in the Babylonian +world. Certain evil spirits were let loose at certain periods, +and they strove to accomplish the destruction of mankind and his +works. These invisible enemies were either charmed away by +performing magical ceremonies, or by invoking the gods to thwart +them and bind them.</p> +<p>Other spirits inhabited the bodies of animals and were ever +hovering near. The ghosts of the dead and male and female demons +were birds, like the birds of Fate which sang to Siegfried. When +the owl raised its melancholy voice in the darkness the listener +heard the spirit of a departed mother crying for her child. +Ghosts and evil spirits wandered through the streets in darkness; +they haunted empty houses; they fluttered through the evening air +as bats; they hastened, moaning dismally, across barren wastes +searching for food or lay in wait for travellers; they came as +roaring lions and howling jackals, hungering for human flesh. The +"shedu" was a destructive bull which might slay man wantonly or +as a protector of temples. Of like character was the "lamassu", +depicted as a winged bull with human head, the protector of +palaces; the "alu" was a bull-like demon of tempest, and there +were also many composite, distorted, or formless monsters which +were vaguely termed "seizers" or "overthrowers", the Semitic +"labashu" and "ach-chazu", the Sumerian "dimmea" and "dimme-kur". +A dialectic form of "gallu" or devil<a id="page.anchor.66" name= +"page.anchor.66"></a> was "mulla". Professor Pinches thinks it +not improbable that "mulla" may be connected with the word +"mula", meaning "star", and suggests that it referred to a +"will-o'-the-wisp".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex183" href= +"#ftn.fnrex183" id="fnrex183">83</a>]</span> In these islands, +according to an old rhyme,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Some call him Robin +Good-fellow,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Hob-goblin, or mad Crisp,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And some againe doe tearme him +oft</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> By name of Will the Wisp.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Other names are "Kitty", "Peg", and "Jack with a lantern". +"Poor Robin" sang:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I should indeed as soon +expect</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That Peg-a-lantern would +direct</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Me straightway home on misty +night</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As wand'ring stars, quite out of +sight.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In Shakespeare's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Tempest</em></span><span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex184" href="#ftn.fnrex184" id="fnrex184">84</a>]</span> a +sailor exclaims: "Your fairy, which, you say, is a harmless +fairy, has done little better than played the Jack with us". Dr. +Johnson commented that the reference was to "Jack with a +lantern". Milton wrote also of the "wandering fire",</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Which oft, they say, some evil spirit +attends,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Hovering and blazing with delusive +light,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Misleads th' amaz'd night wand'rer from +his way</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To bogs and mires, and oft through pond +or pool;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>There swallowed up and lost from +succour far.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex185" href= +"#ftn.fnrex185" id="fnrex185">85</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>"When we stick in the mire", sang Drayton, "he doth with +laughter leave us." These fires were also "fallen stars", "death +fires", and "fire drakes":</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>So have I seen a fire drake glide +along</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Before a dying man, to point his +grave,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And in it stick and hide.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex186" href="#ftn.fnrex186" id= +"fnrex186">86</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.67" name="page.anchor.67"></a>Pliny +referred to the wandering lights as stars.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex187" href="#ftn.fnrex187" id= +"fnrex187">87</a>]</span> The Sumerian "mulla" was undoubtedly an +evil spirit. In some countries the "fire drake" is a bird with +gleaming breast: in Babylonia it assumed the form of a bull, and +may have had some connection with the bull of lshtar. Like the +Indian "Dasyu" and "Dasa",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex188" +href="#ftn.fnrex188" id="fnrex188">88</a>]</span> Gallu was +applied in the sense of "foreign devil" to human and superhuman +adversaries of certain monarchs. Some of the supernatural beings +resemble our elves and fairies and the Indian Rakshasas. +Occasionally they appear in comely human guise; at other times +they are vaguely monstrous. The best known of this class is +Lilith, who, according to Hebrew tradition, preserved in the +Talmud, was the demon lover of Adam. She has been immortalized by +Dante Gabriel Rossetti:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of Adam's first wife Lilith, it is +told</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>(The witch he loved before the gift of +Eve)</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That, ere the snake's, her sweet tongue +could deceive,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And her enchanted hair was the first +gold.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And still she sits, young while the +earth is old,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And, subtly of herself +contemplative,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Draws men to watch the bright web she +can weave,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Till heart and body and life are in its +hold.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The rose and poppy are her flowers; for +where</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Is he not found, O Lilith, whom shed +scent</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And soft shed kisses and soft sleep +shall snare?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lo! as that youth's eyes burned at +thine, so went</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy spell through him, and left his +straight neck bent</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And round his heart one strangling +golden hair.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Lilith is the Babylonian Lilithu, a feminine form of Lilu, the +Sumerian Lila. She resembles Surpanakha of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ramayana</em></span>, who made love to Rama and +Lakshmana, and the sister of the demon Hidimva, who became<a id= +"page.anchor.68" name="page.anchor.68"></a> enamoured of Bhima, +one of the heroes of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex189" href="#ftn.fnrex189" id= +"fnrex189">89</a>]</span> and the various fairy lovers of Europe +who lured men to eternal imprisonment inside mountains, or +vanished for ever when they were completely under their +influence, leaving them demented. The elfin Lilu similarly wooed +young women, like the Germanic Laurin of the "Wonderful Rose +Garden",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex190" href= +"#ftn.fnrex190" id="fnrex190">90</a>]</span> who carried away the +fair lady Kunhild to his underground dwelling amidst the Tyrolese +mountains, or left them haunting the place of their meetings, +searching for him in vain:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>A savage place! as holy and +enchanted</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As ere beneath the waning moon was +haunted</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>By woman wailing for her demon +lover...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His flashing eyes, his floating +hair!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Weave a circle round him +thrice,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And close your eyes with holy +dread,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For he on honey dew hath fed</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And drunk the milk of +Paradise.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Coleridge's Kubla Khan.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Another materializing spirit of this class was Ardat Lili, who +appears to have wedded human beings like the swan maidens, the +mermaids, and Nereids of the European folk tales, and the goddess +Ganga, who for a time was the wife of King Shantanu of the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex191" href="#ftn.fnrex191" id= +"fnrex191">91</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Labartu, to whom we have referred, was a female who +haunted mountains and marshes; like the fairies and hags of +Europe, she stole or afflicted children, who accordingly had to +wear charms round their necks for protection. Seven of these +supernatural beings were reputed to be daughters of Anu, the sky +god.</p> +<p>The Alu, a storm deity, was also a spirit which caused +nightmare. It endeavoured to smother sleepers like the<a id= +"page.anchor.69" name="page.anchor.69"></a> Scandinavian hag +Mara, and similarly deprived them of power to move. In Babylonia +this evil spirit might also cause sleeplessness or death by +hovering near a bed. In shape it might be as horrible and +repulsive as the Egyptian ghosts which caused children to die +from fright or by sucking out the breath of life.</p> +<p>As most representatives of the spirit world were enemies of +the living, so were the ghosts of dead men and women. Death +chilled all human affections; it turned love to hate; the deeper +the love had been, the deeper became the enmity fostered by the +ghost. Certain ghosts might also be regarded as particularly +virulent and hostile if they happened to have left the body of +one who was ceremonially impure. The most terrible ghost in +Babylonia was that of a woman who had died in childbed. She was +pitied and dreaded; her grief had demented her; she was doomed to +wail in the darkness; her impurity clung to her like poison. No +spirit was more prone to work evil against mankind, and her +hostility was accompanied by the most tragic sorrow. In Northern +India the Hindus, like the ancient Babylonians, regard as a +fearsome demon the ghost of a woman who died while pregnant, or +on the day of the child's birth.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex192" href="#ftn.fnrex192" id="fnrex192">92</a>]</span> A +similar belief prevailed in Mexico. In Europe there are many folk +tales of dead mothers who return to avenge themselves on the +cruel fathers of neglected children.</p> +<p>A sharp contrast is presented by the Mongolian Buriats, whose +outlook on the spirit world is less gloomy than was that of the +ancient Babylonians. According to Mr. Jeremiah Curtin, this +interesting people are wont to perform a ceremony with purpose to +entice the ghost to return to the dead body--a proceeding which +is<a id="page.anchor.70" name="page.anchor.70"></a> dreaded in +the Scottish Highlands.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex193" +href="#ftn.fnrex193" id="fnrex193">93</a>]</span> The Buriats +address the ghost, saying: "You shall sleep well. Come back to +your natural ashes. Take pity on your friends. It is necessary to +live a real life. Do not wander along the mountains. Do not be +like bad spirits. Return to your peaceful home.... Come back and +work for your children. How can you leave the little ones?" If it +is a mother, these words have great effect; sometimes the spirit +moans and sobs, and the Buriats tell that there have been +instances of it returning to the body.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex194" href="#ftn.fnrex194" id="fnrex194">94</a>]</span> In +his <span class="emphasis"><em>Arabia +Deserta</em></span><span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex195" href= +"#ftn.fnrex195" id="fnrex195">95</a>]</span> Doughty relates that +Arab women and children mock the cries of the owl. One explained +to him: "It is a wailful woman seeking her lost child; she has +become this forlorn bird". So do immemorial beliefs survive to +our own day.</p> +<p>The Babylonian ghosts of unmarried men and women and of those +without offspring were also disconsolate night wanderers. Others +who suffered similar fates were the ghosts of men who died in +battle far from home and were left unburied, the ghosts of +travellers who perished in the desert and were not covered over, +the ghosts of drowned men which rose from the water, the ghosts +of prisoners starved to death or executed, the ghosts of people +who died violent deaths before their appointed time. The dead +required to be cared for, to have libations poured out, to be +fed, so that they might not prowl<a id="page.anchor.71" name= +"page.anchor.71"></a> through the streets or enter houses +searching for scraps of food and pure water. The duty of giving +offerings to the dead was imposed apparently on near relatives. +As in India, it would appear that the eldest son performed the +funeral ceremony: a dreadful fate therefore awaited the spirit of +the dead Babylonian man or woman without offspring. In Sanskrit +literature there is a reference to a priest who was not allowed +to enter Paradise, although he had performed rigid penances, +because he had no children.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex196" +href="#ftn.fnrex196" id="fnrex196">96</a>]</span></p> +<p>There were hags and giants of mountain and desert, of river +and ocean. Demons might possess the pig, the goat, the horse, the +lion, or the ibis, the raven, or the hawk. The seven spirits of +tempest, fire, and destruction rose from the depths of ocean, and +there were hosts of demons which could not be overcome or baffled +by man without the assistance of the gods to whom they were +hostile. Many were sexless; having no offspring, they were devoid +of mercy and compassion. They penetrated everywhere:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The high enclosures, the broad +enclosures, like a flood</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> they pass through,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From house to house they dash +along.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>No door can shut them out;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>No bolt can turn them back.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Through the door, like a snake, they +glide,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Through the hinge, like the wind, they +storm,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Tearing the wife from the embrace of +the man,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Driving the freedman from his family +home.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex197" href="#ftn.fnrex197" +id="fnrex197">97</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>These furies did not confine their unwelcomed attentions to +mankind alone:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They hunt the doves from their +cotes,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And drive the birds from their +nests,<a id="page.anchor.72" name= +"page.anchor.72"></a></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And chase the marten from its +hole....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Through the gloomy street by night they +roam,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Smiting sheepfold and cattle +pen,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Shutting up the land as with door and +bolt.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class="emphasis"><em>R.C. +Thompson's Translation.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The Babylonian poet, like Burns, was filled with pity for the +animals which suffered in the storm:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>List'ning the doors an' winnocks +rattle,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I thought me o' the ourie +cattle,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Or silly sheep, wha bide this +brattle</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> O' winter war....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ilk happing bird, wee, helpless +thing!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That in the merry months o' +spring</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Delighted me to hear thee +sing,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> What comes o' thee?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Whare wilt thou cow'r thy chittering +wing,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And close thy e'e?</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>According to Babylonian belief, "the great storms directed +from heaven" were caused by demons. Mankind heard them "loudly +roaring above, gibbering below".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex198" href="#ftn.fnrex198" id="fnrex198">98</a>]</span> The +south wind was raised by Shutu, a plumed storm demon resembling +Hraesvelgur of the Icelandic Eddas:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Corpse-swallower sits at the end of +heaven,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> A Jötun in eagle +form;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From his wings, they say, comes the +wind which fares</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Over all the dwellers of +earth.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex199" href="#ftn.fnrex199" +id="fnrex199">99</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The northern story of Thor's fishing, when he hooked and +wounded the Midgard serpent, is recalled by the Babylonian legend +of Adapa, son of the god Ea. This hero was engaged catching fish, +when Shutu, the south wind, upset his boat. In his wrath Adapa +immediately attacked the storm demon and shattered her pinions. +Anu, the sky god, was moved to anger against Ea's son <a id= +"page.anchor.73" name="page.anchor.73"></a>and summoned him to +the Celestial Court. Adapa, however, appeared in garments of +mourning and was forgiven. Anu offered him the water of life and +the bread of life which would have made him immortal, but Ea's +son refused to eat or drink, believing, as his father had warned +him, that the sky god desired him to partake of the bread of +death and to drink of the water of death.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2520294" name="id2520294"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure IV.1. TWO FIGURES OF DEMONS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The upper head is that of Shutu, the demon of the south-west +wind, whose wings were broken by Adapa, son of Ea (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/6.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2520314" name="id2520314"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure IV.2. WINGED HUMAN-HEADED COW +(?)</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From Kouyunjik (Nineveh): now in +the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/7.jpg" /></div> +<p>Another terrible atmospheric demon was the south-west wind, +which caused destructive storms and floods, and claimed many +human victims like the Icelandic "corpse swallower". She was +depicted with lidless staring eyes, broad flat nose, mouth gaping +horribly, and showing tusk-like teeth, and with high cheek bones, +heavy eyebrows, and low bulging forehead.</p> +<p>In Scotland the hag of the south-west wind is similarly a +bloodthirsty and fearsome demon. She is most virulent in the +springtime. At Cromarty she is quaintly called "Gentle Annie" by +the fisher folks, who repeat the saying: "When Gentle Annie is +skyawlan (yelling) roond the heel of Ness (a promontory) wi' a +white feather on her hat (the foam of big billows) they (the +spirits) will be harrying (robbing) the crook"--that is, the pot +which hangs from the crook is empty during the spring storms, +which prevent fishermen going to sea. In England the wind hag is +Black Annis, who dwells in a Leicestershire hill cave. She may be +identical with the Irish hag Anu, associated with the "Paps of +Anu". According to Gaelic lore, this wind demon of spring is the +"Cailleach" (old wife). She gives her name in the Highland +calendar to the stormy period of late spring; she raises gale +after gale to prevent the coming of summer. Angerboda, the +Icelandic hag, is also a storm demon, but represents the east +wind. A Tyrolese folk<a id="page.anchor.74" name= +"page.anchor.74"></a> tale tells of three magic maidens who dwelt +on Jochgrimm mountain, where they "brewed the winds". Their demon +lovers were Ecke, "he who causes fear"; Vasolt, "he who causes +dismay"; and the scornful Dietrich in his mythical character of +Donar or Thunor (Thor), the thunderer.</p> +<p>Another Sumerian storm demon was the Zu bird, which is +represented among the stars by Pegasus and Taurus. A legend +relates that this "worker of evil, who raised the head of evil", +once aspired to rule the gods, and stole from Bel, "the lord" of +deities, the Tablets of Destiny, which gave him his power over +the Universe as controller of the fates of all. The Zu bird +escaped with the Tablets and found shelter on its mountain top in +Arabia. Anu called on Ramman, the thunderer, to attack the Zu +bird, but he was afraid; other gods appear to have shrunk from +the conflict. How the rebel was overcome is not certain, because +the legend survives in fragmentary form. There is a reference, +however, to the moon god setting out towards the mountain in +Arabia with purpose to outwit the Zu bird and recover the lost +Tablets. How he fared it is impossible to ascertain. In another +legend--that of Etana--the mother serpent, addressing the sun +god, Shamash, says:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy net is like unto the broad +earth;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy snare is like unto the distant +heaven!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Who hath ever escaped from thy +net?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Even Zu, the worker of evil, who raised +the head</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> of evil [did not +escape]!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class="emphasis"><em>L.W. +King's Translation.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In Indian mythology, Garuda, half giant, half eagle, robs the +Amrita (ambrosia) of the gods which gives them their power and +renders them immortal. It had assumed a golden body, bright as +the sun. Indra, the thunderer,<a id="page.anchor.75" name= +"page.anchor.75"></a> flung his bolt in vain; he could not wound +Garuda, and only displaced a single feather. Afterwards, however, +he stole the moon goblet containing the Amrita, which Garuda had +delivered to his enemies, the serpents, to free his mother from +bondage. This Indian eagle giant became the vehicle of the god +Vishnu, and, according to the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, "mocked the wind with his +fleetness".</p> +<p>It would appear that the Babylonian Zu bird symbolized the +summer sandstorms from the Arabian desert. Thunder is associated +with the rainy season, and it may have been assumed, therefore, +that the thunder god was powerless against the sandstorm demon, +who was chased, however, by the moon, and finally overcome by the +triumphant sun when it broke through the darkening sand drift and +brightened heaven and earth, "netting" the rebellious demon who +desired to establish the rule of evil over gods and mankind.</p> +<p>In the "Legend of Etana" the Eagle, another demon which links +with the Indian Garuda, slayer of serpents, devours the brood of +the Mother Serpent. For this offence against divine law, Shamash, +the sun god, pronounces the Eagle's doom. He instructs the Mother +Serpent to slay a wild ox and conceal herself in its entrails. +The Eagle comes to feed on the carcass, unheeding the warning of +one of his children, who says, "The serpent lies in this wild +ox":</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He swooped down and stood upon the wild +ox,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The Eagle ... examined the +flesh;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He looked about carefully before and +behind him;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He again examined the flesh;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He looked about carefully before and +behind him,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Then, moving swiftly, he made for the +hidden parts.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When he entered into the +midst,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The serpent seized him by his +wing.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.76" name="page.anchor.76"></a>In vain the +Eagle appealed for mercy to the Mother Serpent, who was compelled +to execute the decree of Shamash; she tore off the Eagle's +pinions, wings, and claws, and threw him into a pit where he +perished from hunger and thirst.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1100" href="#ftn.fnrex1100" id="fnrex1100">100</a>]</span> +This myth may refer to the ravages of a winged demon of disease +who was thwarted by the sacrifice of an ox. The Mother Serpent +appears to be identical with an ancient goddess of maternity +resembling the Egyptian Bast, the serpent mother of Bubastis. +According to Sumerian belief, Nintu, "a form of the goddess Ma", +was half a serpent. On her head there is a horn; she is "girt +about the loins"; her left arm holds "a babe suckling her +breast":</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From her head to her loins</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The body is that of a naked +woman;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From the loins to the sole of the +foot</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Scales like those of a snake are +visible.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class="emphasis"><em>R.C. +Thompson's Translation.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The close association of gods and demons is illustrated in an +obscure myth which may refer to an eclipse of the moon or a night +storm at the beginning of the rainy season. The demons go to war +against the high gods, and are assisted by Adad (Ramman) the +thunderer, Shamash the sun, and Ishtar. They desire to wreck the +heavens, the home of Anu:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They clustered angrily round the +crescent of the moon god,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And won over to their aid Shamash, the +mighty, and Adad, the warrior,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And Ishtar, who with Anu, the +King,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Hath founded a shining +dwelling.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The moon god Sin, "the seed of mankind", was darkened by the +demons who raged, "rushing loose over<a id="page.anchor.77" name= +"page.anchor.77"></a> the land" like to the wind. Bel called upon +his messenger, whom he sent to Ea in the ocean depths, saying: +"My son Sin ... hath been grievously bedimmed". Ea lamented, and +dispatched his son Merodach to net the demons by magic, using "a +two-coloured cord from the hair of a virgin kid and from the wool +of a virgin lamb".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1101" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1101" id="fnrex1101">101</a>]</span></p> +<p>As in India, where Shitala, the Bengali goddess of smallpox, +for instance, is worshipped when the dreaded disease she controls +becomes epidemic, so in Babylonia the people sought to secure +immunity from attack by worshipping spirits of disease. A tablet +relates that Ura, a plague demon, once resolved to destroy all +life, but ultimately consented to spare those who praised his +name and exalted him in recognition of his bravery and power. +This could be accomplished by reciting a formula. Indian serpent +worshippers believe that their devotions "destroy all danger +proceeding from snakes".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1102" +href="#ftn.fnrex1102" id="fnrex1102">102</a>]</span></p> +<p>Like the Ancient Egyptians, the Babylonians also had their +kindly spirits who brought luck and the various enjoyments of +life. A good "labartu" might attend on a human being like a +household fairy of India or Europe: a friendly "shedu" could +protect a household against the attacks of fierce demons and +human enemies. Even the spirits of Fate who served Anu, god of +the sky, and that "Norn" of the Underworld, Eresh-ki-gal, queen +of Hades, might sometimes be propitious: if the deities were +successfully invoked they could cause the Fates to smite spirits +of disease and bringers of ill luck. Damu, a friendly fairy +goddess, was well loved, because she inspired pleasant dreams, +relieved the sufferings of the<a id="page.anchor.78" name= +"page.anchor.78"></a> afflicted, and restored to good health +those patients whom she selected to favour.</p> +<p>In the Egyptian <span class="emphasis"><em>Book of the +Dead</em></span> the kindly spirits are overshadowed by the evil +ones, because the various magical spells which were put on record +were directed against those supernatural beings who were enemies +of mankind. Similarly in Babylonia the fragments of this class of +literature which survive deal mainly with wicked and vengeful +demons. It appears probable, however, that the highly emotional +Sumerians and Akkadians were on occasion quite as cheerful a +people as the inhabitants of ancient Egypt. Although they were +surrounded by bloodthirsty furies who desired to shorten their +days, and their nights were filled with vague lowering phantoms +which inspired fear, they no doubt shared, in their +charm-protected houses, a comfortable feeling of security after +performing magical ceremonies, and were happy enough when they +gathered round flickering lights to listen to ancient song and +story and gossip about crops and traders, the members of the +royal house, and the family affairs of their acquaintances.</p> +<p>The Babylonian spirit world, it will be seen, was of complex +character. Its inhabitants were numberless, but often vaguely +defined, and one class of demons linked with another. Like the +European fairies of folk belief, the Babylonian spirits were +extremely hostile and irresistible at certain seasonal periods; +and they were fickle and perverse and difficult to please even +when inclined to be friendly. They were also similarly manifested +from time to time in various forms. Sometimes they were comely +and beautiful; at other times they were apparitions of horror. +The Jinn of present-day Arabians are of like character; these may +be giants, cloudy shapes, comely women, serpents or cats, goats +or pigs.<a id="page.anchor.79" name="page.anchor.79"></a></p> +<p>Some of the composite monsters of Babylonia may suggest the +vague and exaggerated recollections of terror-stricken people who +have had glimpses of unfamiliar wild beasts in the dusk or amidst +reedy marshes. But they cannot be wholly accounted for in this +way. While animals were often identified with supernatural +beings, and foreigners were called "devils", it would be +misleading to assert that the spirit world reflects confused folk +memories of human and bestial enemies. Even when a demon was +given concrete human form it remained essentially non-human: no +ordinary weapon could inflict an injury, and it was never +controlled by natural laws. The spirits of disease and tempest +and darkness were creations of fancy: they symbolized moods; they +were the causes which explained effects. A sculptor or +storyteller who desired to convey an impression of a spirit of +storm or pestilence created monstrous forms to inspire terror. +Sudden and unexpected visits of fierce and devastating demons +were accounted for by asserting that they had wings like eagles, +were nimble-footed as gazelles, cunning and watchful as serpents; +that they had claws to clutch, horns to gore, and powerful fore +legs like a lion to smite down victims. Withal they drank blood +like ravens and devoured corpses like hyaenas. Monsters were all +the more repulsive when they were partly human. The human-headed +snake or the snake-headed man and the man with the horns of a +wild bull and the legs of a goat were horrible in the extreme. +Evil spirits might sometimes achieve success by practising +deception. They might appear as beautiful girls or handsome men +and seize unsuspecting victims in deathly embrace or leave them +demented and full of grief, or come as birds and suddenly assume +awesome shapes.</p> +<p>Fairies and elves, and other half-human demons, are<a id= +"page.anchor.80" name="page.anchor.80"></a> sometimes regarded as +degenerate gods. It will be seen, however, that while certain +spirits developed into deities, others remained something between +these two classes of supernatural beings: they might attend upon +gods and goddesses, or operate independently now against mankind +and now against deities even. The "namtaru", for instance, was a +spirit of fate, the son of Bel-Enlil and Eresh-ki-gal, queen of +Hades. "Apparently", writes Professor Pinches, "he executed the +instructions given him concerning the fate of men, and could also +have power over certain of the gods."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1103" href="#ftn.fnrex1103" id="fnrex1103">103</a>]</span> +To this middle class belong the evil gods who rebelled against +the beneficent deities. According to Hebridean folk belief, the +fallen angels are divided into three classes--the fairies, the +"nimble men" (aurora borealis), and the "blue men of the Minch". +In <span class="emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> the "brood of +Cain" includes "monsters and elves and sea-devils--giants also, +who long time fought with God, for which he gave them their +reward".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1104" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1104" id="fnrex1104">104</a>]</span> Similarly the +Babylonian spirit groups are liable to division and subdivision. +The various classes may be regarded as relics of the various +stages of development from crude animism to sublime monotheism: +in the fragmentary legends we trace the floating material from +which great mythologies have been framed.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex178" href="#fnrex178" id="ftn.fnrex178">78</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Acts</em></span>, xvii, +22-31.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex179" href="#fnrex179" id="ftn.fnrex179">79</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Devils and Evil Spirits of +Babylonia</em></span>, vol. ii, p. 149 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex180" href="#fnrex180" id="ftn.fnrex180">80</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +xxxix, <span class="emphasis"><em>n.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex181" href="#fnrex181" id="ftn.fnrex181">81</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Development of Religion and Thought in +Ancient Egypt</em></span>, J.H. Breasted, pp. 38, 74.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex182" href="#fnrex182" id="ftn.fnrex182">82</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Custom and Myth</em></span>, p. 45 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex183" href="#fnrex183" id="ftn.fnrex183">83</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Religion of Babylonia and +Assyria</em></span>, p. 108.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex184" href="#fnrex184" id="ftn.fnrex184">84</a>]</span> +Act iv, scene 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex185" href="#fnrex185" id="ftn.fnrex185">85</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Paradise Lost</em></span>, book +ix.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex186" href="#fnrex186" id="ftn.fnrex186">86</a>]</span> +Chapman's <span class="emphasis"><em>Caesar and +Pompey</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex187" href="#fnrex187" id="ftn.fnrex187">87</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Natural History</em></span>, 2nd +book.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex188" href="#fnrex188" id="ftn.fnrex188">88</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +70, n.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex189" href="#fnrex189" id="ftn.fnrex189">89</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, +pp. 202-5, 400, 401.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex190" href="#fnrex190" id="ftn.fnrex190">90</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Teutonic Myth and Legend</em></span>, +p. 424 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex191" href="#fnrex191" id="ftn.fnrex191">91</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. +164 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex192" href="#fnrex192" id="ftn.fnrex192">92</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Popular Religion and Folk Lore of +Northern India</em></span>, W. Crooke, vol. i, p. 254.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex193" href="#fnrex193" id="ftn.fnrex193">93</a>]</span> +When a person, young or old, is dying, near relatives must not +call out their names in case the soul may come back from the +spirit world. A similar belief still lingers, especially among +women, in the Lowlands. The writer was once present in a room +when a child was supposed to be dying. Suddenly the mother called +out the child's name in agonized voice. It revived soon +afterwards. Two old women who had attempted to prevent "the +calling" shook their heads and remarked: "She has done it! The +child will never do any good in this world after being called +back." In England and Ireland, as well as in Scotland, the belief +also prevails in certain localities that if a dying person is +"called back" the soul will tarry for another twenty-four hours, +during which the individual will suffer great agony.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex194" href="#fnrex194" id="ftn.fnrex194">94</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>A Journey in Southern +Siberia</em></span>, Jeremiah Curtin, pp. 103, 104.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex195" href="#fnrex195" id="ftn.fnrex195">95</a>]</span> +Vol. i, p. 305.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex196" href="#fnrex196" id="ftn.fnrex196">96</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>Adi Parva</em></span> section of +<span class="emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span>, +Roy's trans., p. 635.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex197" href="#fnrex197" id="ftn.fnrex197">97</a>]</span> +Jastrow's <span class="emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief +in Babylonia</em></span>, &c., p. 312.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex198" href="#fnrex198" id="ftn.fnrex198">98</a>]</span> +R.C. Thompson's trans.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex199" href="#fnrex199" id="ftn.fnrex199">99</a>]</span> +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Elder or Poetic Edda</em></span>, +Olive Bray, part i, p. 53.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1100" href="#fnrex1100" id= +"ftn.fnrex1100">100</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian Religion</em></span>, L.W. King, pp. +186-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1101" href="#fnrex1101" id= +"ftn.fnrex1101">101</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia</em></span>, R. Campbell +Thompson, vol. i, p. 53 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1102" href="#fnrex1102" id= +"ftn.fnrex1102">102</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Omens +and Superstitions of Southern India</em></span>, E. Thurston, p. +124.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1103" href="#fnrex1103" id= +"ftn.fnrex1103">103</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 110.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1104" href="#fnrex1104" id= +"ftn.fnrex1104">104</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>, Clark Hall, p. 14.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2520821" name= +"id2520821"></a>Chapter V. Myths of Tammuz and Ishtar</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Forms of Tammuz--The Weeping Ceremony--Tammuz the Patriarch +and the Dying God--Common Origin of Tammuz and other Deities from +an Archaic God--The Mediterranean Racial Myth--Animal Forms of +Gods of Fertility--Two Legends of the Death of Tammuz--Attis, +Adonis, and Diarmid Slain by a Boar--Laments for Tammuz--His Soul +in Underworld and the Deep--Myth of the Child God of +Ocean--Sargon Myth Version--The Germanic Scyld of the +Sheaf--Tammuz Links with Frey, Heimdal, Agni, &c.--Assyrian +Legend of "Descent of Ishtar"--Sumerian Version--The Sister +Belit-sheri and the Mother Ishtar--The Egyptian Isis and +Nepthys--Goddesses as Mothers, Sisters, and Wives--Great Mothers +of Babylonia--Immortal Goddesses and Dying Gods--The Various +Indras--Celtic Goddess with Seven Periods of Youth--Lovers of +Germanic and Classic Goddesses--The Lovers of Ishtar--Racial +Significance of Goddess Cult--The Great Fathers and their +Worshippers--Process of Racial and Religious Fusion--Ishtar and +Tiamat--Mother Worship in Palestine--Women among Goddess +Worshippers.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.81" name="page.anchor.81"></a> Among the +gods of Babylonia none achieved wider and more enduring fame than +Tammuz, who was loved by Ishtar, the amorous Queen of Heaven--the +beautiful youth who died and was mourned for and came to life +again. He does not figure by his popular name in any of the city +pantheons, but from the earliest times of which we have knowledge +until the passing of Babylonian civilization, he played a +prominent part in the religious life of the people.</p> +<p>Tammuz, like Osiris of Egypt, was an agricultural deity, and +as the Babylonian harvest was the gift of the rivers, it is +probable that one of his several forms was Dumu-zi-abzu, "Tammuz +of the Abyss". He was also<a id="page.anchor.82" name= +"page.anchor.82"></a> "the child", "the heroic lord", "the +sentinel", "the healer", and the patriarch who reigned over the +early Babylonians for a considerable period. "Tammuz of the +Abyss" was one of the members of the family of Ea, god of the +Deep, whose other sons, in addition to Merodach, were Nira, an +obscure deity; Ki-gulla, "world destroyer", Burnunta-sa, "broad +ear", and Bara and Baragulla, probably "revealers" or "oracles". +In addition there was a daughter, Khi-dimme-azaga, "child of the +renowned spirit". She may have been identical with Belit-sheri, +who is referred to in the Sumerian hymns as the sister of Tammuz. +This family group was probably formed by symbolizing the +attributes of Ea and his spouse Damkina. Tammuz, in his character +as a patriarch, may have been regarded as a hostage from the +gods: the human form of Ea, who instructed mankind, like King +Osiris, how to grow corn and cultivate fruit trees. As the youth +who perished annually, he was the corn spirit. He is referred to +in the Bible by his Babylonian name.</p> +<p>When Ezekiel detailed the various idolatrous practices of the +Israelites, which included the worship of the sun and "every form +of creeping things and abominable beasts"--a suggestion of the +composite monsters of Babylonia --he was brought "to the door of +the gate of the Lord's house, which was towards the north; and, +behold, there sat women weeping for Tammuz".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1105" href="#ftn.fnrex1105" id= +"fnrex1105">105</a>]</span></p> +<p>The weeping ceremony was connected with agricultural rites. +Corn deities were weeping deities, they shed fertilizing tears; +and the sowers simulated the sorrow of divine mourners when they +cast seed in the soil "to die", so that it might spring up as +corn. This ancient custom, like many others, contributed to the +poetic<a id="page.anchor.83" name="page.anchor.83"></a> imagery +of the Bible. "They that sow in tears", David sang, "shall reap +in joy. He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, +shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves +with him."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1106" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1106" id="fnrex1106">106</a>]</span> In Egypt the +priestesses who acted the parts of Isis and Nepthys, mourned for +the slain corn god Osiris.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Gods and men before the face of the +gods are weeping for</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> thee at the same time, when they +behold me!...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All thy sister goddesses are at thy +side and behind thy couch,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Calling upon thee with weeping--yet +thou are prostrate upon</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> thy bed!...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Live before us, desiring to behold +thee.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1107" href="#ftn.fnrex1107" +id="fnrex1107">107</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>It was believed to be essential that human beings should share +the universal sorrow caused by the death of a god. If they +remained unsympathetic, the deities would punish them as enemies. +Worshippers of nature gods, therefore, based their ceremonial +practices on natural phenomena. "The dread of the worshippers +that the neglect of the usual ritual would be followed by +disaster, is particularly intelligible", writes Professor +Robertson Smith, "if they regarded the necessary operations of +agriculture as involving the violent extinction of a particle of +divine life."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1108" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1108" id="fnrex1108">108</a>]</span> By observing +their ritual, the worshippers won the sympathy and co-operation +of deities, or exercised a magical control over nature.</p> +<p>The Babylonian myth of Tammuz, the dying god, bears a close +resemblance to the Greek myth of Adonis. It also links with the +myth of Osiris. According to Professor Sayce, Tammuz is identical +with "Daonus or Daos, the shepherd of Pantibibla", referred to by +Berosus as the ruler of one of the mythical ages of Babylonia. +We<a id="page.anchor.84" name="page.anchor.84"></a> have +therefore to deal with Tammuz in his twofold character as a +patriarch and a god of fertility.</p> +<p>The Adonis version of the myth may be summarized briefly. Ere +the god was born, his mother, who was pursued by her angry sire, +as the river goddesses of the folk tales are pursued by the well +demons, transformed herself into a tree. Adonis sprang from the +trunk of this tree, and Aphrodite, having placed the child in a +chest, committed him to the care of Persephone, queen of Hades, +who resembles the Babylonian Eresh-ki-gal. Persephone desired to +retain the young god, and Aphrodite (Ishtar) appealed to Zeus +(Anu), who decreed that Adonis should spend part of the year with +one goddess and part of the year with the other.</p> +<p>It is suggested that the myth of Adonis was derived in +post-Homeric times by the Greeks indirectly from Babylonia +through the Western Semites, the Semitic title "Adon", meaning +"lord", having been mistaken for a proper name. This theory, +however, cannot be accepted without qualifications. It does not +explain the existence of either the Phrygian myth of Attis, which +was developed differently from the Tammuz myth, or the Celtic +story of "Diarmid and the boar", which belongs to the +archaeological "Hunting Period". There are traces in Greek +mythology of pre-Hellenic myths about dying harvest deities, like +Hyakinthos and Erigone, for instance, who appear to have been +mourned for. There is every possibility, therefore, that the +Tammuz ritual may have been attached to a harvest god of the +pre-Hellenic Greeks, who received at the same time the new name +of Adonis. Osiris of Egypt resembles Tammuz, but his Mesopotamian +origin has not been proved. It would appear probable that Tammuz, +Attis, Osiris, and the deities represented by Adonis and Diarmid +were all developed<a id="page.anchor.85" name= +"page.anchor.85"></a> from an archaic god of fertility and +vegetation, the central figure of a myth which was not only as +ancient as the knowledge and practice of agriculture, but had +existence even in the "Hunting Period". Traces of the +Tammuz-Osiris story in various forms are found all over the area +occupied by the Mediterranean or Brown race from Sumeria to the +British Isles. Apparently the original myth was connected with +tree and water worship and the worship of animals. Adonis sprang +from a tree; the body of Osiris was concealed in a tree which +grew round the sea-drifted chest in which he was concealed. +Diarmid concealed himself in a tree when pursued by Finn. The +blood of Tammuz, Osiris, and Adonis reddened the swollen rivers +which fertilized the soil. Various animals were associated with +the harvest god, who appears to have been manifested from time to +time in different forms, for his spirit pervaded all nature. In +Egypt the soul of Osiris entered the Apis bull or the ram of +Mendes.</p> +<p>Tammuz in the hymns is called "the pre-eminent steer of +heaven", and a popular sacrifice was "a white kid of the god +Tammuz", which, however, might be substituted by a sucking pig. +Osiris had also associations with swine, and the Egyptians, +according to Herodotus, sacrificed a pig to him annually. When +Set at full moon hunted the boar in the Delta marshes, he +probably hunted the boar form of Osiris, whose human body had +been recovered from the sacred tree by Isis. As the soul of Bata, +the hero of the Egyptian folk tale,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1109" href="#ftn.fnrex1109" id="fnrex1109">109</a>]</span> +migrated from the blossom to the bull, and the bull to the tree, +so apparently did the soul of Osiris pass from incarnation to +incarnation. Set, the demon slayer of the harvest god, had also a +boar form; he was the black pig who devoured the waning moon and +blinded the Eye of Ra.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.86" name="page.anchor.86"></a>In his +character as a long-lived patriarch, Tammuz, the King Daonus or +Daos of Berosus, reigned in Babylonia for 36,000 years. When he +died, he departed to Hades or the Abyss. Osiris, after reigning +over the Egyptians, became Judge of the Dead.</p> +<p>Tammuz of the Sumerian hymns, however, is the Adonis-like god +who lived on earth for a part of the year as the shepherd and +agriculturist so dearly beloved by the goddess Ishtar. Then he +died so that he might depart to the realm of Eresh-ki-gal +(Persephone), queen of Hades. According to one account, his death +was caused by the fickle Ishtar. When that goddess wooed +Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, he upbraided her, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>On Tammuz, the spouse of thy +youth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou didst lay affliction every +year.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>King's Translation</em></span>.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>References in the Sumerian hymns suggest that there also +existed a form of the legend which gave an account of the slaying +of the young god by someone else than Ishtar. The slayer may have +been a Set-like demon--perhaps Nin-shach, who appears to have +symbolized the destroying influence of the sun. He was a war +deity, and his name, Professor Pinches says, "is conjectured to +mean 'lord of the wild boar'". There is no direct evidence, +however, to connect Tammuz's slayer with the boar which killed +Adonis. Ishtar's innocence is emphasized by the fact that she +mourned for her youthful lover, crying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Oh hero, my lord, ah me! I will +say;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Food I eat not ... water I drink not +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Because of the exalted one of the +nether world, him of the</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> radiant face, yea radiant,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of the exalted one of the nether world, +him of the dove-like</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> voice, yea dove-like.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1110" href="#ftn.fnrex1110" id= +"fnrex1110">110</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.87" name="page.anchor.87"></a>The Phrygian +Attis met his death, according to one legend, by self-mutilation +under a sacred tree. Another account sets forth, however, that he +was slain by a boar. The Greek Adonis was similarly killed by a +boar. This animal was a form of Ares (Mars), god of war and +tempest, who also loved Aphrodite (Ishtar). The Celtic Diarmid, +in his character as a love god, with lunar attributes, was slain +by "the green boar", which appears to have been one of the +animals of a ferocious Hag, an earth and air "mother" with +various names. In one of the many Fingalian stories the animal +is</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>... That venomous boar, and he so +fierce,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That Grey Eyebrows had with her herd of +swine.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1111" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1111" id="fnrex1111">111</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Diarmid had eloped with the wife of Finn-mac-Coul (Fingal), +who, like Ares, plotted to bring about his rival's death, and +accordingly set the young hero to hunt the boar. As a thunder god +Finn carried a hammer with which he smote his shield; the blows +were heard in Lochlann (Scandinavia). Diarmid, like Tammuz, the +"god of the tender voice and shining eyes", had much beauty. When +he expired, Finn cried:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>No maiden will raise her eye</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Since the mould has gone over thy +visage fair...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Blue without rashness in thine +eye!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Passion and beauty behind thy +curls!...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Oh, yesternight it was green the +hillock,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Red is it this day with Diarmid's +blood.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1112" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1112" id="fnrex1112">112</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tammuz died with the dying vegetation, and Diarmid expired +when the hills apparently were assuming their purple +tints.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1113" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1113" id="fnrex1113">113</a>]</span> The month of +Tammuz wailings was from<a id="page.anchor.88" name= +"page.anchor.88"></a> 20th June till 20th July, when the heat and +dryness brought forth the demons of pestilence. The mourners +chanted:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He has gone, he has gone to the bosom +of the earth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the dead are numerous in the +land....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Men are filled with sorrow: they +stagger by day in gloom ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the month of thy year which brings +not peace hast thou gone.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou hast gone on a journey that makes +an end of thy people.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The following extract contains a reference to the slaying of +the god:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The holy one of Ishtar, in the middle +of the year the fields languish...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The shepherd, the wise one, the man of +sorrows, why have they</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>slain?...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In his temple, in his inhabited +domain,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The child, lord of knowledge, abides no +more...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the meadows, verily, verily, the +soul of life perishes.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>There is wailing for Tammuz "at the sacred cedar, where the +mother bore thee", a reference which connects the god, like +Adonis and Osiris, with tree worship:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The wailing is for the herbs: the first +lament is, "they are not produced".</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The wailing is for the grain, ears are +not produced.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The wailing is for the habitations, for +the flocks which bring forth no more.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The wailing is for the perishing wedded +ones; for the perishing</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>children; the dark-headed people create +no more.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The wailing is also for the shrunken river, the parched +meadows, the fishpools, the cane brakes, the forests, the<a id= +"page.anchor.89" name="page.anchor.89"></a> plains, the gardens, +and the palace, which all suffer because the god of fertility has +departed. The mourner cries:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> How long shall the springing of +verdure be restrained?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> How long shall the putting forth of +leaves be held back?</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Whither went Tammuz? His destination has already been referred +to as "the bosom of the earth", and in the Assyrian version of +the "Descent of Ishtar" he dwells in "the house of darkness" +among the dead, "where dust is their nourishment and their food +mud", and "the light is never seen"--the gloomy Babylonian Hades. +In one of the Sumerian hymns, however, it is stated that Tammuz +"upon the flood was cast out". The reference may be to the +submarine "house of Ea", or the Blessed Island to which the +Babylonian Noah was carried. In this Hades bloomed the nether +"garden of Adonis".</p> +<p>The following extract refers to the garden of Damu +(Tammuz)<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1114" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1114" id="fnrex1114">114</a>]</span>:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Damu his youth therein slumbers +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Among the garden flowers he slumbers; +among the garden flowers</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>he is cast away ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Among the tamarisks he slumbers, with +woe he causes us to be</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>satiated.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Although Tammuz of the hymns was slain, he returned again from +Hades. Apparently he came back as a child. He is wailed for as +"child, Lord Gishzida", as well as "my hero Damu". In his lunar +character the Egyptian Osiris appeared each month as "the child +surpassingly beautiful"; the Osiris bull was also a child of the +moon; "it was begotten", says Plutarch, "by a ray of generative +light falling from the moon". When the bull of Attis was +sacrificed his worshippers were drenched<a id="page.anchor.90" +name="page.anchor.90"></a> with its blood, and were afterwards +ceremonially fed with milk, as they were supposed to have +"renewed their youth" and become children. The ancient Greek god +Eros (Cupid) was represented as a wanton boy or handsome youth. +Another god of fertility, the Irish Angus, who resembles Eros, is +called "the ever young"; he slumbers like Tammuz and awakes in +the Spring.</p> +<p>Apparently it was believed that the child god, Tammuz, +returned from the earlier Sumerian Paradise of the Deep, and grew +into full manhood in a comparatively brief period, like Vyasa and +other super-men of Indian mythology. A couplet from a Tammuz hymn +says tersely:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In his infancy in a sunken boat he +lay.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In his manhood in the submerged grain +he lay.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1115" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1115" id="fnrex1115">115</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The "boat" may be the "chest" in which Adonis was concealed by +Aphrodite when she confided him to the care of Persephone, queen +of Hades, who desired to retain the young god, but was compelled +by Zeus to send him back to the goddess of love and vegetation. +The fact that Ishtar descended to Hades in quest of Tammuz may +perhaps explain the symbolic references in hymns to mother +goddesses being in sunken boats also when their powers were in +abeyance, as were those of the god for part of each year. It is +possible, too, that the boat had a lunar and a solar +significance. Khonsu, the Egyptian moon god, for instance, was +associated with the Spring sun, being a deity of fertility and +therefore a corn spirit; he was a form of Osiris, the Patriarch, +who sojourned on earth to teach mankind how to grow corn and +cultivate fruit trees. In the Egyptian legend Osiris received the +corn seeds from Isis, which suggests that among<a id= +"page.anchor.91" name="page.anchor.91"></a> +Great-Mother-worshipping peoples, it was believed that +agricultural civilization had a female origin. The same myths may +have been attached to corn gods and corn goddesses, associated +with water, sun, moon, and stars.</p> +<p>That there existed in Babylonia at an extremely remote period +an agricultural myth regarding a Patriarch of divine origin who +was rescued from a boat in his childhood, is suggested by the +legend which was attached to the memory of the usurper King +Sargon of Akkad. It runs as follows:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"I am Sargon, the mighty King of Akkad. +My mother was a</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>vestal (priestess), my father an alien, +whose brother inhabited the</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>mountain.... When my mother had +conceived me, she bare</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>me in a hidden place. She laid me in a +vessel of rushes, stopped</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>the door thereof with pitch, and cast +me adrift on the river....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The river floated me to Akki, the water +drawer, who, in drawing</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>water, drew me forth. Akki, the water +drawer, educated me as</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>his son, and made me his gardener. As a +gardener, I was beloved</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>by the goddess Ishtar."</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>It is unlikely that this story was invented by Sargon. Like +the many variants of it found in other countries, it was probably +founded on a form of the Tammuz-Adonis myth. Indeed, a new myth +would not have suited Sargon's purpose so well as the adaptation +of an old one, which was more likely to make popular appeal when +connected with his name. The references to the goddess Ishtar, +and Sargon's early life as a gardener, suggest that the king +desired to be remembered as an agricultural Patriarch, if not of +divine, at any rate of semi-divine origin.</p> +<p>What appears to be an early form of the widespread Tammuz myth +is the Teutonic legend regarding the mysterious child who came +over the sea to inaugurate a new era of civilization and instruct +the people how to<a id="page.anchor.92" name= +"page.anchor.92"></a> grow corn and become great warriors. The +Northern peoples, as archaeological evidence suggests, derived +their knowledge of agriculture, and therefore their agricultural +myths, from the Neolithic representatives of the Mediterranean +race with whom they came into contact. There can be no doubt but +that the Teutonic legend refers to the introduction of +agriculture. The child is called "Scef" or "Sceaf", which +signifies "Sheaf", or "Scyld, the son of Sceaf". Scyld is the +patriarch of the Scyldings, the Danes, a people of mixed origin. +In the Anglo-Saxon <span class="emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> +poem, the reference is to "Scyld", but Ethelweard, William of +Malmesbury, and others adhered to "Sceaf" as the name of the +Patriarch of the Western Saxons.</p> +<p>The legend runs that one day a boat was seen approaching the +shore; it was not propelled by oars or sail. In it lay a child +fast asleep, his head pillowed upon a sheaf of grain. He was +surrounded by armour, treasure, and various implements, including +the fire-borer. The child was reared by the people who found him, +and he became a great instructor and warrior and ruled over the +tribe as king. In <span class="emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> +Scyld is the father of the elder Beowulf, whose grandson Hrothgar +built the famous Hall. The poem opens with a reference to the +patriarch "Scyld of the Sheaf". When he died, his body, according +to the request he had made, was laid in a ship which was set +adrift:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Upon his breast lay many treasures which were to travel with +him into the power of the flood. Certainly they (the mourners) +furnished him with no less of gifts, of tribal treasures, than +those had done who, in his early days, started him over the sea +alone, child as he was. Moreover, they set besides a +gold-embroidered standard high above his head, and let the flood +bear him--gave him to the sea. Their soul was sad, their spirit +sorrowful. Who<a id="page.anchor.93" name="page.anchor.93"></a> +received that load, men, chiefs of council, heroes under heaven, +cannot for certain tell.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1116" +href="#ftn.fnrex1116" id="fnrex1116">116</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Sceaf or Scyld is identical with Yngve, the patriarch of the +Ynglings; with Frey, the harvest and boar god, son of +Njord,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1117" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1117" id="fnrex1117">117</a>]</span> the sea god; and +with Hermod, referred to as follows in the Eddic "Lay of +Hyndla":</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To some grants he wealth, to his +children war fame,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Word skill to many and wisdom to +men,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Fair winds to sea-farers, song craft to +skalds,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And might of manhood to many a +warrior.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tammuz is similarly "the heroic lord of the land", the "wise +one", the "lord of knowledge", and "the sovereign, lord of +invocation".</p> +<p>Heimdal, watchman of the Teutonic gods, also dwelt for a time +among men as "Rig", and had human offspring, his son Thrall being +the ancestor of the Thralls, his son Churl of churls, and Jarl of +noblemen.</p> +<p>Tammuz, like Heimdal, is also a guardian. He watches the +flocks and herds, whom he apparently guards against the Gallu +demons as Heimdal guards the world and the heavens against +attacks by giants and monsters. The flocks of Tammuz, Professor +Pinches suggests, "recall the flocks of the Greek sun god Helios. +These were the clouds illuminated by the sun, which were likened +to sheep--indeed, one of the early Sumerian expressions for +'fleece' was 'sheep of the sky'. The name of Tammuz in Sumerian +is Dumu-zi, or in its rare fullest form, Dumuzida, meaning 'true +or faithful son'. There is probably some legend attached to this +which is at present unknown."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1118" href="#ftn.fnrex1118" id= +"fnrex1118">118</a>]</span><a id="page.anchor.94" name= +"page.anchor.94"></a></p> +<p>So the Sumerian hymn-chanters lamented:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Like an herdsman the sentinel place of +sheep and cattle he</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>(Tammuz) has forsaken...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>From his home, from his inhabited +domain, the son, he of wisdom,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>pre-eminent steer of heaven,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The hero unto the nether herding place +has taken his way.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1119" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1119" id="fnrex1119">119</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Agni, the Aryo-Indian god, who, as the sky sentinel, has +points of resemblance to Heimdal, also links with Tammuz, +especially in his Mitra character:</p> +<p>Agni has been established among the tribes of men, the son of +the waters, Mitra acting in the right way. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>, iii, 5, 3.</p> +<p>Agni, who has been looked and longed for in Heaven, who has +been looked for on earth--he who has been looked for has entered +all herbs. <span class="emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>, i, +98.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1120" href="#ftn.fnrex1120" +id="fnrex1120">120</a>]</span></p> +<p>Tammuz, like the Egyptian lunar and solar god Khonsu, is "the +healer", and Agni "drives away all disease". Tammuz is the god +"of sonorous voice"; Agni "roars like a bull"; and Heimdal blows +a horn when the giants and demons threaten to attack the citadel +of the gods. As the spring sun god, Tammuz is "a youthful +warrior", says Jastrow, "triumphing over the storms of +winter".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1121" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1121" id="fnrex1121">121</a>]</span> The storms, of +course, were symbolized as demons. Tammuz, "the heroic lord", was +therefore a demon slayer like Heimdal and Agni. Each of these +gods appear to have been developed in isolation from an archaic +spring god of fertility and corn whose attributes were +symbolized. In Teutonic mythology, for instance, Heimdal was the +warrior form of the patriarch Scef, while Frey was the deified +agriculturist who came over the deep as a child. In Saxo's +mythical history of Denmark,<a id="page.anchor.95" name= +"page.anchor.95"></a> Frey as Frode is taken prisoner by a storm +giant, Beli, "the howler", and is loved by his hag sister in the +Teutonic Hades, as Tammuz is loved by Eresh-ki-gal, spouse of the +storm god Nergal, in the Babylonian Hades. Frode returns to +earth, like Tammuz, in due season.</p> +<p>It is evident that there were various versions of the Tammuz +myth in Ancient Babylonia. In one the goddess Ishtar visited +Hades to search for the lover of her youth. A part of this form +of the legend survives in the famous Assyrian hymn known as "The +Descent of Ishtar". It was first translated by the late Mr. +George Smith, of the British Museum. A box containing inscribed +tablets had been sent from Assyria to London, and Mr. Smith, with +characteristic patience and skill, arranged and deciphered them, +giving to the world a fragment of ancient literature infused with +much sublimity and imaginative power. Ishtar is depicted +descending to dismal Hades, where the souls of the dead exist in +bird forms:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I spread like a bird my +hands.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I descend, I descend to the house of +darkness, the dwelling of the</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> god Irkalla:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To the house out of which there is no +exit,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To the road from which there is no +return:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To the house from whose entrance the +light is taken,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The place where dust is their +nourishment and their food mud.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Its chiefs also are like birds covered +with feathers;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The light is never seen, in darkness +they dwell....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Over the door and bolts is scattered +dust.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>When the goddess reaches the gate of Hades she cries to the +porter:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Keeper of the waters, open thy +gate,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Open thy gate that I may +enter.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>If thou openest not the gate that I may +enter</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I will strike the door, the bolts I +will shatter,<a id="page.anchor.96" name= +"page.anchor.96"></a></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I will strike the threshold and will +pass through the doors;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I will raise up the dead to devour the +living,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Above the living the dead shall exceed +in numbers.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The porter answers that he must first consult the Queen of +Hades, here called Allatu, to whom he accordingly announces the +arrival of the Queen of Heaven. Allatu's heart is filled with +anger, and makes reference to those whom Ishtar caused to +perish:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Let me weep over the strong who have +left their wives,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Let me weep over the handmaidens who +have lost the embraces of their husbands,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Over the only son let me mourn, who ere +his days are come is taken away.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Then she issues abruptly the stern decree:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Go, keeper, open the gate to +her,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Bewitch her according to the ancient +rules;</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>that is, "Deal with her as you deal with others who come +here".</p> +<p>As Ishtar enters through the various gates she is stripped of +her ornaments and clothing. At the first gate her crown was taken +off, at the second her ear-rings, at the third her necklace of +precious stones, at the fourth the ornaments of her breast, at +the fifth her gemmed waist-girdle,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1122" href="#ftn.fnrex1122" id="fnrex1122">122</a>]</span> +at the sixth the bracelets of her hands and feet, and at the +seventh the covering robe of her body. Ishtar asks at each gate +why she is thus dealt with, and the porter answers, "Such is the +command of Allatu."</p> +<p>After descending for a prolonged period the Queen of Heaven at +length stands naked before the Queen of Hades. Ishtar is proud +and arrogant, and Allatu, desiring to punish her rival whom she +cannot humble,</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2522188" name="id2522188"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure V.1. ISHTAR IN HADES</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/8.jpg" /></div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.97" name="page.anchor.97"></a>commands the +plague demon, Namtar, to strike her with disease in all parts of +her body. The effect of Ishtar's fate was disastrous upon earth: +growth and fertility came to an end.</p> +<p>Meanwhile Pap-sukal, messenger of the gods, hastened to +Shamash, the sun deity, to relate what had occurred. The sun god +immediately consulted his lunar father, Sin, and Ea, god of the +deep. Ea then created a man lion, named Nadushu-namir, to rescue +Ishtar, giving him power to pass through the seven gates of +Hades. When this being delivered his message</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Allatu ... struck her breast; she bit +her thumb,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>She turned again: a request she asked +not.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In her anger she cursed the rescuer of the Queen of +Heaven.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May I imprison thee in the great +prison,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May the garbage of the foundations of +the city be thy food,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May the drains of the city be thy +drink,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May the darkness of the dungeon be thy +dwelling,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May the stake be thy seat,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May hunger and thirst strike thy +offspring.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>She was compelled, however, to obey the high gods, and +addressed Namtar, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Unto Ishtar give the waters of life and +bring her before me.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Thereafter the Queen of Heaven was conducted through the +various gates, and at each she received her robe and the +ornaments which were taken from her on entering. Namtar says:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Since thou hast not paid a ransom for +thy deliverance to her</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> (Allatu), so to her again turn +back,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For Tammuz the husband of thy +youth.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The glistening waters (of life) pour +over him...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In splendid clothing dress him, with a +ring of crystal adorn him.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.98" name="page.anchor.98"></a>Ishtar mourns +for "the wound of Tammuz", smiting her breast, and she did not +ask for "the precious eye-stones, her amulets", which were +apparently to ransom Tammuz. The poem concludes with Ishtar's +wail:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O my only brother (Tammuz) thou dost +not lament for me.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the day that Tammuz adorned me, with +a ring of crystal,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With a bracelet of emeralds, together +with himself, he adorned me,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1123" href="#ftn.fnrex1123" id= +"fnrex1123">123</a>]</span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With himself he adorned me; may men +mourners and women</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> mourners</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>On a bier place him, and assemble the +wake.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1124" href="#ftn.fnrex1124" +id="fnrex1124">124</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>A Sumerian hymn to Tammuz throws light on this narrative. It +sets forth that Ishtar descended to Hades to entreat him to be +glad and to resume care of his flocks, but Tammuz refused or was +unable to return.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> His spouse unto her abode he sent +back.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>She then instituted the wailing ceremony:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The amorous Queen of Heaven sits as +one in darkness.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1125" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1125" id="fnrex1125">125</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Mr. Langdon also translates a hymn (Tammuz III) which appears +to contain the narrative on which the Assyrian version was +founded. The goddess who descends to Hades, however, is not +Ishtar, but the "sister", Belit-sheri. She is accompanied by +various demons-- the "gallu-demon", the "slayer", &c.--and +holds a conversation with Tammuz which, however, is +"unintelligible and badly broken". Apparently, however, he +promises to return to earth.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> ... I will go up, as for me I will +depart with thee ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> ... I will return, unto my mother +let us go back.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.99" name="page.anchor.99"></a>Probably two +goddesses originally lamented for Tammuz, as the Egyptian +sisters, Isis and Nepthys, lamented for Osiris, their brother. +Ishtar is referred to as "my mother". Isis figures alternately in +the Egyptian chants as mother, wife, sister, and daughter of +Osiris. She cries, "Come thou to thy wife in peace; her heart +fluttereth for thy love", ... "I am thy wife, made as thou art, +the elder sister, soul of her brother".... "Come thou to us as a +babe".... "Lo, thou art as the Bull of the two goddesses--come +thou, child growing in peace, our lord!"... "Lo! the Bull, +begotten of the two cows, Isis and Nepthys".... "Come thou to the +two widowed goddesses".... "Oh child, lord, first maker of the +body".... "Father Osiris."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1126" +href="#ftn.fnrex1126" id="fnrex1126">126</a>]</span></p> +<p>As Ishtar and Belit-sheri weep for Tammuz, so do Isis and +Nepthys weep for Osiris.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Calling upon thee with weeping--yet +thou art prostrate upon thy</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> bed!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Gods and men ... are weeping for thee +at the same time, when</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> they behold me (Isis).</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lo! I invoke thee with wailing that +reacheth high as heaven.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Isis is also identified with Hathor (Ishtar) the Cow.... "The +cow weepeth for thee with her voice."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1127" href="#ftn.fnrex1127" id= +"fnrex1127">127</a>]</span></p> +<p>There is another phase, however, to the character of the +mother goddess which explains the references to the desertion and +slaying of Tammuz by Ishtar. "She is", says Jastrow, "the goddess +of the human instinct, or passion which accompanies human love. +Gilgamesh ... reproaches her with abandoning the objects of her +passion after a brief period of union." At Ishtar's temple +"public maidens accepted temporary partners, assigned to them +by<a id="page.anchor.100" name="page.anchor.100"></a> +Ishtar".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1128" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1128" id="fnrex1128">128</a>]</span> The worship of +all mother goddesses in ancient times was accompanied by +revolting unmoral rites which are referred to in condemnatory +terms in various passages in the Old Testament, especially in +connection with the worship of Ashtoreth, who was identical with +Ishtar and the Egyptian Hathor.</p> +<p>Ishtar in the process of time overshadowed all the other +female deities of Babylonia, as did Isis in Egypt. Her name, +indeed, which is Semitic, became in the plural, Ishtaráte, +a designation for goddesses in general. But although she was +referred to as the daughter of the sky, Anu, or the daughter of +the moon, Sin or Nannar, she still retained traces of her ancient +character. Originally she was a great mother goddess, who was +worshipped by those who believed that life and the universe had a +female origin in contrast to those who believed in the theory of +male origin. Ishtar is identical with Nina, the fish goddess, a +creature who gave her name to the Sumerian city of Nina and the +Assyrian city of Nineveh. Other forms of the Creatrix included +Mama, or Mami, or Ama, "mother", Aruru, Bau, Gula, and +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span>. These were all +"Preservers" and healers. At the same time they were +"Destroyers", like Nin-sun and the Queen of Hades, Eresh-ki-gal +or Allatu. They were accompanied by shadowy male forms ere they +became wives of strongly individualized gods, or by child gods, +their sons, who might be regarded as "brothers" or "husbands of +their mothers", to use the paradoxical Egyptian term. Similarly +Great Father deities had vaguely defined wives. The "Semitic" +Baal, "the lord", was accompanied by a female reflection of +himself--Beltu, "the lady". Shamash, the sun god, had for wife +the shadowy Aa.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.101" name="page.anchor.101"></a>As has been +shown, Ishtar is referred to in a Tammuz hymn as the mother of +the child god of fertility. In an Egyptian hymn the sky goddess +Nut, "the mother" of Osiris, is stated to have "built up life +from her own body".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1129" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1129" id="fnrex1129">129</a>]</span> Sri or Lakshmi, +the Indian goddess, who became the wife of Vishnu, as the mother +goddess Saraswati, a tribal deity, became the wife of Brahma, +was, according to a Purana commentator, "the mother of the world +... eternal and undecaying".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1130" href="#ftn.fnrex1130" id= +"fnrex1130">130</a>]</span></p> +<p>The gods, on the other hand, might die annually: the goddesses +alone were immortal. Indra was supposed to perish of old age, but +his wife, Indrani, remained ever young. There were fourteen +Indras in every "day of Brahma", a reference apparently to the +ancient conception of Indra among the Great-Mother-worshipping +sections of the Aryo-Indians.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1131" href="#ftn.fnrex1131" id="fnrex1131">131</a>]</span> +In the <span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span> the god +Shiva, as Mahadeva, commands Indra on "one of the peaks of +Himavat", where they met, to lift up a stone and join the Indras +who had been before him. "And Indra on removing that stone beheld +a cave on the breast of that king of mountains in which were four +others resembling himself." Indra exclaimed in his grief, "Shall +I be even like these?" These five Indras, like the "Seven +Sleepers", awaited the time when they would be called forth. They +were ultimately reborn as the five Pandava warriors.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1132" href="#ftn.fnrex1132" id= +"fnrex1132">132</a>]</span></p> +<p>The ferocious, black-faced Scottish mother goddess, Cailleach +Bheur, who appears to be identical with Mala Lith, "Grey +Eyebrows" of Fingalian story, and the English "Black Annis", +figures in Irish song and legend as "The Old Woman of Beare". +This "old woman" (Cailleach) "had", says Professor Kuno Meyer, +"seven <a id="page.anchor.102" name="page.anchor.102"></a>periods +of youth one after another, so that every man who had lived with +her came to die of old age, and her grandsons and great-grandsons +were tribes and races". When old age at length came upon her she +sang her "swan song", from which the following lines are +extracted:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ebb tide to me as of the +sea!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Old age causes me reproach +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>It is riches</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ye love, it is not men:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the time when <span class= +"emphasis"><em>we</em></span> lived</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>It was men we loved ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>My arms when they are seen</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Are bony and thin:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Once they would fondle,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They would be round glorious kings +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I must take my garment even in the +sun:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The time is at hand that shall renew +me.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1133" href="#ftn.fnrex1133" +id="fnrex1133">133</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Freyja, the Germanic mother goddess, whose car was drawn by +cats, had similarly many lovers. In the Icelandic poem +"Lokasenna", Loki taunts her, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Silence, Freyja! Full well I know +thee,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And faultless art thou not +found;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of the gods and elves who here are +gathered</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Each one hast thou made thy +mate.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Idun, the keeper of the apples of immortal youth, which +prevent the gods growing old, is similarly addressed:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Silence, Idun! I swear, of all +women</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Thou the most wanton art;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Who couldst fling those fair-washed +arms of thine</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> About thy brother's +slayer.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.103" name="page.anchor.103"></a>Frigg, wife +of Odin, is satirized as well:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Silence, Frigg! Earth's spouse for a +husband,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And hast ever yearned after +men!<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1134" href="#ftn.fnrex1134" +id="fnrex1134">134</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The goddesses of classic mythology had similar reputations. +Aphrodite (Venus) had many divine and mortal lovers. She links +closely with Astarte and Ashtoreth (Ishtar), and reference has +already been made to her relations with Adonis (Tammuz). These +love deities were all as cruel as they were wayward. When Ishtar +wooed the Babylonian hero, Gilgamesh, he spurned her advances, as +has been indicated, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>On Tammuz, the spouse of thy +youth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou didst lay affliction every +year.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou didst love the brilliant Allalu +bird</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>But thou didst smite him and break his +wing;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He stands in the woods and cries "O my +wing".</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>He likewise charged her with deceiving the lion and the horse, +making reference to obscure myths:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou didst also love a shepherd of the +flock,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Who continually poured out for thee the +libation,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And daily slaughtered kids for +thee;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>But thou didst smite him and didst +change him into a leopard,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>So that his own sheep boy hunted +him,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And his own hounds tore him to +pieces.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1135" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1135" id="fnrex1135">135</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>These goddesses were ever prone to afflict human beings who +might offend them or of whom they wearied. Demeter (Ceres) +changed Ascalaphus into an owl and Stellio into a lizard. Rhea +(Ops) resembled</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The tow'red Cybele,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Mother of a hundred gods,</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.104" name="page.anchor.104"></a>the wanton +who loved Attis (Adonis). Artemis (Diana) slew her lover Orion, +changed Actaeon into a stag, which was torn to pieces by his own +dogs, and caused numerous deaths by sending a boar to ravage the +fields of Oeneus, king of Calydon. Human sacrifices were +frequently offered to the bloodthirsty "mothers". The most famous +victim of Artemis was the daughter of Agamemnon, "divinely tall +and most divinely fair".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1136" +href="#ftn.fnrex1136" id="fnrex1136">136</a>]</span> Agamemnon +had slain a sacred stag, and the goddess punished him by sending +a calm when the war fleet was about to sail for Troy, with the +result that his daughter had to be sacrificed. Artemis thus sold +breezes like the northern wind hags and witches.</p> +<p>It used to be customary to account for the similarities +manifested by the various mother goddesses by assuming that there +was constant cultural contact between separate nationalities, +and, as a result, a not inconsiderable amount of "religious +borrowing". Greece was supposed to have received its great +goddesses from the western Semites, who had come under the spell +of Babylonian religion. Archaeological evidence, however, tends +to disprove this theory. "The most recent researches into +Mesopotamian history", writes Dr. Farnell, "establish with +certainty the conclusion that there was no direct political +contact possible between the powers in the valley of the +Euphrates and the western shores of the Aegean in the second +millennium B.C. In fact, between the nascent Hellas and the great +world of Mesopotamia there were powerful and possibly independent +strata of cultures interposing."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1137" href="#ftn.fnrex1137" id= +"fnrex1137">137</a>]</span></p> +<p>The real connection appears to be the racial one. Among the +Mediterranean Neolithic tribes of Sumeria, Arabia, and Europe, +the goddess cult appears to have <a id="page.anchor.105" name= +"page.anchor.105"></a>been influential. Mother worship was the +predominant characteristic of their religious systems, so that +the Greek goddesses were probably of pre-Hellenic origin, the +Celtic of Iberian, the Egyptian of proto-Egyptian, and the +Babylonian of Sumerian. The northern hillmen, on the other hand, +who may be identified with the "Aryans" of the philologists, were +father worshippers. The Vedic Aryo-Indians worshipped father +gods,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1138" href="#ftn.fnrex1138" +id="fnrex1138">138</a>]</span> as did also the Germanic peoples +and certain tribes in the "Hittite confederacy". Earth spirits +were males, like the Teutonic elves, the Aryo-Indian Ribhus, and +the Burkans, "masters", of the present-day Buriats, a Mongolian +people. When the father-worshipping peoples invaded the dominions +of the mother-worshipping peoples, they introduced their strongly +individualized gods, but they did not displace the mother +goddesses. "The Aryan Hellenes", says Dr. Farnell, "were able to +plant their Zeus and Poseidon on the high hill of Athens, but not +to overthrow the supremacy of Athena in the central shrine and in +the aboriginal soul of the Athenian people."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1139" href="#ftn.fnrex1139" id= +"fnrex1139">139</a>]</span> As in Egypt, the beliefs of the +father worshippers, represented by the self-created Ptah, were +fused with the beliefs of the mother worshippers, who adored +Isis, Mut, Neith, and others. In Babylonia this process of racial +and religious fusion was well advanced before the dawn of +history. Ea, who had already assumed manifold forms, may have +originally been the son or child lover of Damkina, "Lady of the +Deep", as was Tammuz of Ishtar. As the fish, Ea was the offspring +of the mother river.</p> +<p>The mother worshippers recognized male as well as female +deities, but regarded the great goddess as the First Cause. +Although the primeval spirits were grouped in <a id= +"page.anchor.106" name="page.anchor.106"></a>four pairs in Egypt, +and apparently in Babylonia also, the female in the first pair +was more strongly individualized than the male. The Egyptian Nu +is vaguer than his consort Nut, and the Babylonian Apsu than his +consort Tiamat. Indeed, in the narrative of the Creation Tablets +of Babylon, which will receive full treatment in a later chapter, +Tiamat, the great mother, is the controlling spirit. She is more +powerful and ferocious than Apsu, and lives longer. After Apsu's +death she elevates one of her brood, named Kingu, to be her +consort, a fact which suggests that in the Ishtar-Tammuz myth +survives the influence of exceedingly ancient modes of thought. +Like Tiamat, Ishtar is also a great battle heroine, and in this +capacity she was addressed as "the lady of majestic rank exalted +over all gods". This was no idle flattery on the part of +worshippers, but a memory of her ancient supremacy.</p> +<p>Reference has been made to the introduction of Tammuz worship +into Jerusalem. Ishtar, as Queen of Heaven, was also adored by +the backsliding Israelites as a deity of battle and harvest. When +Jeremiah censured the people for burning incense and serving gods +"whom they knew not", he said, "neither they, ye, nor your +fathers", they made answer: "Since we left off to burn incense to +the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings unto her, we +have wanted all things, and have been consumed by the sword and +the famine". The women took a leading part in these practices, +but refused to accept all the blame, saying, "When we burned +incense to the queen of heaven, and poured out drink offerings +unto her, did we make our cakes and pour out drink offerings unto +her without our men?"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1140" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1140" id="fnrex1140">140</a>]</span> That the +husbands, and the children even, assisted at the ceremony is made +evident in another reference to goddess worship: <a id= +"page.anchor.107" name="page.anchor.107"></a>"The children gather +wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead the +dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1141" href="#ftn.fnrex1141" id= +"fnrex1141">141</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>CYLINDER-SEAL IMPRESSIONS. </b><span class= +"emphasis"><em>(British Museum)</em></span></p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2523186" name="id2523186"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure V.2. Female figure in adoration before +a goddess</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/9.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2523200" name="id2523200"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure V.3. The winged Ishtar above the +rising sun god, the river god, and other deities</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/10.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2523214" name="id2523214"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure V.4. Gilgamesh in conflict with bulls +(see page <a href="#page.anchor.176">176</a>)</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/11.jpg" /></div> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2523350" name="id2523350"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure V.5. PLAQUE OF UR-NINA</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>In Limestone. From the original in +the Louvre, Paris. (See pages <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>)</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/12.jpg" /></div> +<p>Jastrow suggests that the women of Israel wept for Tammuz, +offered cakes to the mother goddess, &c., because "in all +religious bodies ... women represent the conservative element; +among them religious customs continue in practice after they have +been abandoned by men".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1142" +href="#ftn.fnrex1142" id="fnrex1142">142</a>]</span> The evidence +of Jeremiah, however, shows that the men certainly co-operated at +the archaic ceremonials. In lighting the fires with the "vital +spark", they apparently acted in imitation of the god of +fertility. The women, on the other hand, represented the +reproductive harvest goddess in providing the food supply. In +recognition of her gift, they rewarded the goddess by offering +her the cakes prepared from the newly ground wheat and +barley--the "first fruits of the harvest". As the corn god came +as a child, the children began the ceremony by gathering the wood +for the sacred fire. When the women mourned for Tammuz, they did +so evidently because the death of the god was lamented by the +goddess Ishtar. It would appear, therefore, that the suggestion +regarding the "conservative element" should really apply to the +immemorial practices of folk religion. These differed from the +refined ceremonies of the official cult in Babylonia, where there +were suitable temples and organized bands of priests and +priestesses. But the official cult received no recognition in +Palestine; the cakes intended for a goddess were not offered up +in the temple of Abraham's God, but "in the streets of Jerusalem" +and those of other cities.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1143" +href="#ftn.fnrex1143" id="fnrex1143">143</a>]</span></p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.108" name="page.anchor.108"></a>The obvious +deduction seems to be that in ancient times women everywhere +played a prominent part in the ceremonial folk worship of the +Great Mother goddess, while the men took the lesser part of the +god whom she had brought into being and afterwards received as +"husband of his mother". This may account for the high social +status of women among goddess worshippers, like the +representatives of the Mediterranean race, whose early religion +was not confined to temples, but closely associated with the acts +of everyday life.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1105" href="#fnrex1105" id= +"ftn.fnrex1105">105</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, viii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1106" href="#fnrex1106" id= +"ftn.fnrex1106">106</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Psalms</em></span>, cxxvi.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1107" href="#fnrex1107" id= +"ftn.fnrex1107">107</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, J.T. Dennis <span class= +"emphasis"><em>(Wisdom of the East</em></span> series), pp. 21, +22.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1108" href="#fnrex1108" id= +"ftn.fnrex1108">108</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Semites</em></span>, pp. 412, +414.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1109" href="#fnrex1109" id= +"ftn.fnrex1109">109</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 45 et +seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1110" href="#fnrex1110" id= +"ftn.fnrex1110">110</a>]</span> Langdon's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, pp. +319-321.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1111" href="#fnrex1111" id= +"ftn.fnrex1111">111</a>]</span> Campbell's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>West Highland Tales</em></span>, vol. iii, p. +74.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1112" href="#fnrex1112" id= +"ftn.fnrex1112">112</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>West +Highland Tales</em></span>, vol. iii, pp. 85, 86.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1113" href="#fnrex1113" id= +"ftn.fnrex1113">113</a>]</span> If Finn and his band were really +militiamen--the original Fenians--as is believed in Ireland, they +may have had attached to their memories the legends of archaic +Iberian deities who differed from the Celtic Danann deities. +Theodoric the Goth, as Dietrich von Bern, was identified, for +instance, with Donar or Thunor (Thor), the thunder god. In +Scotland Finn and his followers are all giants. Diarmid is the +patriarch of the Campbell clan, the MacDiarmids being "sons of +Diarmid".</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1114" href="#fnrex1114" id= +"ftn.fnrex1114">114</a>]</span> Isaiah condemns a magical custom +connected with the worship of Tammuz in the garden, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xvii, 9, 11. This "Garden of +Adonis" is dealt with in the next chapter.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1115" href="#fnrex1115" id= +"ftn.fnrex1115">115</a>]</span> Quotations are from <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, +translated by Stephen Langdon, Ph.D. (Paris and London, 1909), +pp. 299-341.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1116" href="#fnrex1116" id= +"ftn.fnrex1116">116</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>, translated by J.R. Clark Hall +(London, 1911), pp. 9-11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1117" href="#fnrex1117" id= +"ftn.fnrex1117">117</a>]</span> For Frey's connection with the +Ynglings see Morris and Magnusson's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Heimskringla</em></span> (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Saga Library</em></span>, vol. iii), pp. +23-71.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1118" href="#fnrex1118" id= +"ftn.fnrex1118">118</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 72.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1119" href="#fnrex1119" id= +"ftn.fnrex1119">119</a>]</span> Langdon's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, pp. +325, 339.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1120" href="#fnrex1120" id= +"ftn.fnrex1120">120</a>]</span> Professor Oldenberg's +translation.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1121" href="#fnrex1121" id= +"ftn.fnrex1121">121</a>]</span> Osiris is also invoked to "remove +storms and rain and give fecundity in the nighttime". As a spring +sun god he slays demons; as a lunar god he brings +fertility.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1122" href="#fnrex1122" id= +"ftn.fnrex1122">122</a>]</span> Like the love-compelling girdle +of Aphrodite.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1123" href="#fnrex1123" id= +"ftn.fnrex1123">123</a>]</span> A wedding bracelet of crystal is +worn by Hindu women; they break it when the husband dies.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1124" href="#fnrex1124" id= +"ftn.fnrex1124">124</a>]</span> Quotations from the translation +in <span class="emphasis"><em>The Chaldean Account of +Genesis</em></span>, by George Smith.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1125" href="#fnrex1125" id= +"ftn.fnrex1125">125</a>]</span> Langdon's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, p. 329 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1126" href="#fnrex1126" id= +"ftn.fnrex1126">126</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, translated by J.T. Dennis +(<span class="emphasis"><em>Wisdom of the East</em></span> +series), pp. 24, 31, 32, 39, 45, 46, 49.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1127" href="#fnrex1127" id= +"ftn.fnrex1127">127</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, pp. 22, 46.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1128" href="#fnrex1128" id= +"ftn.fnrex1128">128</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 137, and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, book i, 199.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1129" href="#fnrex1129" id= +"ftn.fnrex1129">129</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, p. 47.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1130" href="#fnrex1130" id= +"ftn.fnrex1130">130</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Original Sanskrit Texts</em></span>, J. Muir, +London, 1890, vol. i, p. 67.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1131" href="#fnrex1131" id= +"ftn.fnrex1131">131</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Original Sanskrit Texts</em></span>, vol. i, p. +44.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1132" href="#fnrex1132" id= +"ftn.fnrex1132">132</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Adi +Parva</em></span> section of <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> (Roy's +translation), pp. 553, 555.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1133" href="#fnrex1133" id= +"ftn.fnrex1133">133</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ancient Irish Poetry</em></span>, Kuno Meyer +(London, 1911), pp. 88-90.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1134" href="#fnrex1134" id= +"ftn.fnrex1134">134</a>]</span> Translations from <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Elder Edda</em></span>, by O. Bray (part i), +London, 1908.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1135" href="#fnrex1135" id= +"ftn.fnrex1135">135</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian Religion</em></span>, L.W. King, pp. +160, 161.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1136" href="#fnrex1136" id= +"ftn.fnrex1136">136</a>]</span> Tennyson's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>A Dream of Fair Women.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1137" href="#fnrex1137" id= +"ftn.fnrex1137">137</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Greece +and Babylon</em></span>, L.R. Farnell (Edinburgh, 1911), p. +35.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1138" href="#fnrex1138" id= +"ftn.fnrex1138">138</a>]</span> The goddesses did not become +prominent until the "late invasion" of the post-Vedic +Aryans.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1139" href="#fnrex1139" id= +"ftn.fnrex1139">139</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Greece +and Babylon</em></span>, p. 96.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1140" href="#fnrex1140" id= +"ftn.fnrex1140">140</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah</em></span>, xliv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1141" href="#fnrex1141" id= +"ftn.fnrex1141">141</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah, vii, 18.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1142" href="#fnrex1142" id= +"ftn.fnrex1142">142</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, pp. 348, 349.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1143" href="#fnrex1143" id= +"ftn.fnrex1143">143</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah, vii, 17.</em></span></div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2523463" name= +"id2523463"></a>Chapter VI. Wars of the City States of Sumer and +Akkad</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Civilization well advanced--The Patesi--Prominent City +States--Surroundings of Babylonia--The Elamites--Biblical +References to Susa--The Sumerian Temperament--Fragmentary +Records--City States of Kish and Opis--A Shopkeeper who became a +Queen--Goddess Worship--Tammuz as Nin-Girsu--Great Dynasty of +Lagash--Ur-Nina and his Descendants--A Napoleonic +Conqueror--Golden Age of Sumerian Art--The First Reformer in +History--His Rise and Fall--The Dynasty of Erech--Sargon of +Akkad--The Royal Gardener--Sargon Myth in India--A Great +Empire--The King who Purchased Land--Naram Sin the +Conqueror--Disastrous Foreign Raid--Lagash again Prominent--Gudea +the Temple Builder--Dynasty of Ur--Dynasty of Isin--Another +Gardener becomes King--Rise of Babylon--Humanized Deities--Why +Sumerian Gods wore Beards.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.109" name="page.anchor.109"></a> When the +curtain rises to reveal the drama of Babylonian civilization we +find that we have missed the first act and its many fascinating +scenes. Sumerians and Akkadians come and go, but it is not always +possible to distinguish between them. Although most Semites are +recognizable by their flowing beards, prominent noses, and long +robes, some have so closely imitated the Sumerians as to suffer +almost complete loss of identity. It is noticeable that in the +north the Akkadians are more Semitic than their contemporaries in +the south, but it is difficult at times to say whether a city is +controlled by the descendants of the indigenous people or those +of later settlers. Dynasties rise and fall, and, as in Egypt at +times, the progress of the fragmentary narrative is interrupted +by a sudden change <a id="page.anchor.110" name= +"page.anchor.110"></a>of scene ere we have properly grasped a +situation and realized its significance.</p> +<p>What we know for certain is that civilization is well +advanced. Both in the north and the south there are many +organized and independent city states, and not unfrequently these +wage war one against another. Occasionally ambitious rulers tower +among their fellows, conduct vigorous military campaigns, and +become overlords of wide districts. As a rule, a subjugated +monarch who has perforce to acknowledge the suzerainty of a +powerful king is allowed to remain in a state of +semi-independence on condition that he pays a heavy annual +tribute of grain. His own laws continue in force, and the city +deities remain supreme, although recognition may also be given to +the deities of his conqueror. He styles himself a Patesi--a +"priest king", or more literally, "servant of the chief deity". +But as an independent monarch may also be a pious Patesi, it does +not always follow when a ruler is referred to by that title he is +necessarily less powerful than his neighbours.</p> +<p>When the historical narrative begins Akkad included the cities +of Babylon, Cutha, Kish, Akkad, and Sippar, and north of +Babylonia proper is Semitic Opis. Among the cities of Sumer were +Eridu, Ur, Lagash, Larsa, Erech, Shuruppak, and probably Nippur, +which was situated on the "border". On the north Assyria was yet +"in the making", and shrouded in obscurity. A vague but vast area +above Hit on the Euphrates, and extending to the Syrian coast, +was known as the "land of the Amorites". The fish-shaped +Babylonian valley lying between the rivers, where walled towns +were surrounded by green fields and numerous canals flashed in +the sunshine, was bounded on the west by the bleak wastes of the +Arabian desert, where during the dry season "the rocks branded +<a id="page.anchor.111" name="page.anchor.111"></a>the body" and +occasional sandstorms swept in blinding folds towards the "plain +of Shinar" (Sumer) like demon hosts who sought to destroy the +world. To the east the skyline was fretted by the Persian +Highlands, and amidst the southern mountains dwelt the fierce +Elamites, the hereditary enemies of the Sumerians, although a +people apparently of the same origin. Like the Nubians and the +Libyans, who kept watchful eyes on Egypt, the Elamites seemed +ever to be hovering on the eastern frontier of Sumeria, longing +for an opportunity to raid and plunder.</p> +<p>The capital of the Elamites was the city of Susa, where +excavations have revealed traces of an independent civilization +which reaches back to an early period in the Late Stone Age. Susa +is referred to in the Old Testament--"The words of Nehemiah.... I +was in Shushan the palace".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1144" +href="#ftn.fnrex1144" id="fnrex1144">144</a>]</span> An Assyrian +plan of the city shows it occupying a strategic position at a +bend of the Shawur river, which afforded protection against +Sumerian attacks from the west, while a canal curved round its +northern and eastern sides, so that Susa was completely +surrounded by water. Fortifications had been erected on the river +and canal banks, and between these and the high city walls were +thick clumps of trees. That the kings of Elam imitated the +splendours of Babylonian courts in the later days of Esther and +Haman and Mordecai, is made evident by the Biblical references to +the gorgeous palace, which had "white, green, and blue hangings, +fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and +pillars of marble; the beds were of gold and silver, upon a +pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black +marble".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1145" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1145" id="fnrex1145">145</a>]</span> Beyond Elam were +the plains, plateaus, and grassy steppes occupied by the Medes +and other <a id="page.anchor.112" name= +"page.anchor.112"></a>peoples of Aryan speech. Cultural +influences came and went like spring winds between the various +ancient communities.</p> +<p>For ten long centuries Sumer and Akkad flourished and +prospered ere we meet with the great Hammurabi, whose name has +now become almost as familiar as that of Julius Caesar. But our +knowledge of the leading historical events of this vast period is +exceedingly fragmentary. The Sumerians were not like the later +Assyrians or their Egyptian contemporaries--a people with a +passion for history. When inscriptions were composed and cut on +stone, or impressed upon clay tablets and bricks, the kings +selected as a general rule to record pious deeds rather than to +celebrate their victories and conquests. Indeed, the average +monarch had a temperament resembling that of Keats, who +declared:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The silver +flow</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of Hero's tears, the swoon of +Imogen,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Fair Pastorella in the bandits' +den,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Are things to brood on with more +ardency</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Than the death day of +empires.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The Sumerian king was emotionally religious as the great +English poet was emotionally poetical. The tears of Ishtar for +Tammuz, and the afflictions endured by the goddess imprisoned in +Hades, to which she had descended for love of her slain husband, +seemed to have concerned the royal recorder to a greater degree +than the memories of political upheavals and the social changes +which passed over the land, like the seasons which alternately +brought greenness and gold, barrenness and flood.</p> +<p>City chronicles, as a rule, are but indices of obscure events, +to which meagre references were sometimes also made on mace +heads, vases, tablets, stelae, and sculptured <a id= +"page.anchor.113" name="page.anchor.113"></a>monoliths. +Consequently, present-day excavators and students have often +reason to be grateful that the habit likewise obtained of +inscribing on bricks in buildings and the stone sockets of doors +the names of kings and others. These records render obscure +periods faintly articulate, and are indispensable for comparative +purposes. Historical clues are also obtained from lists of year +names. Each city king named a year in celebration of a great +event--his own succession to the throne, the erection of a new +temple or of a city wall, or, mayhap, the defeat of an invading +army from a rival state. Sometimes, too, a monarch gave the name +of his father in an official inscription, or happily mentioned +several ancestors. Another may be found to have made an +illuminating statement regarding a predecessor, who centuries +previously erected the particular temple that he himself has +piously restored. A reckoning of this kind, however, cannot +always be regarded as absolutely correct. It must be compared +with and tested by other records, for in these ancient days +calculations were not unfrequently based on doubtful +inscriptions, or mere oral traditions, perhaps. Nor can implicit +trust be placed on every reference to historical events, for the +memoried deeds of great rulers were not always unassociated with +persistent and cumulative myths. It must be recognized, +therefore, that even portions of the data which had of late been +sifted and systematized by Oriental scholars in Europe, may yet +have to be subjected to revision. Many interesting and important +discoveries, which will throw fresh light on this fascinating +early period, remain to be made in that ancient and deserted +land, which still lies under the curse of the Hebrew prophet, who +exclaimed: "Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the +Chaldees' excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and +<a id="page.anchor.114" name="page.anchor.114"></a>Gomorrah. It +shall never be inhabited; neither shall the Arabian pitch tent +there; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there. But +wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall +be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and +satyrs shall dance there. And the wild beasts of the islands +shall cry in their desolate houses and dragons in their pleasant +palaces."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1146" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1146" id="fnrex1146">146</a>]</span></p> +<p>The curtain rises, as has been indicated, after civilization +had been well advanced. To begin with, our interests abide with +Akkad, and during a period dated approximately between 3000 B.C. +and 2800 B.C., when Egypt was already a united kingdom, and the +Cretans were at the dawn of the first early Minoan period, and +beginning to use bronze. In Kish Sumerian and Akkadian elements +had apparently blended, and the city was the centre of a powerful +and independent government. After years have fluttered past +dimly, and with them the shadow-shapes of vigorous rulers, it is +found that Kish came under the sway of the pronouncedly Semitic +city of Opis, which was situated "farthest north" and on the +western bank of the river Tigris. A century elapsed ere Kish +again threw off the oppressor's yoke and renewed the strength of +its youth.</p> +<p>The city of Kish was one of the many ancient centres of +goddess worship. The Great Mother appears to have been the +Sumerian Bau, whose chief seat was at Lagash. If tradition is to +be relied upon, Kish owed its existence to that notable lady, +Queen Azag-Bau. Although floating legends gathered round her +memory as they have often gathered round the memories of famous +men, like Sargon of Akkad, Alexander the Great, and Theodoric the +Goth, who became Emperor of Rome, it is probable <a id= +"page.anchor.115" name="page.anchor.115"></a>that the queen was a +prominent historical personage. She was reputed to have been of +humble origin, and to have first achieved popularity and +influence as the keeper of a wine shop. Although no reference +survives to indicate that she was believed to be of miraculous +birth, the Chronicle of Kish gravely credits her with a prolonged +and apparently prosperous reign of a hundred years. Her son, who +succeeded her, sat on the throne for a quarter of a century. +These calculations are certainly remarkable. If the Queen +Azag-Bau founded Kish when she was only twenty, and gave birth to +the future ruler in her fiftieth year, he must have been an +elderly gentleman of seventy when he began to reign. When it is +found, further, that the dynasty in which mother and son +flourished was supposed to have lasted for 586 years, divided +between eight rulers, one of whom reigned for only three years, +two for six, and two for eleven, it becomes evident that the +historian of Kish cannot be absolutely relied upon in detail. It +seems evident that the memory of this lady of forceful character, +who flourished about thirteen hundred years before the rise of +Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt, has overshadowed the doubtful annals +of ancient Kish at a period when Sumerian and Semite were +striving in the various states to achieve political +ascendancy.</p> +<p>Meanwhile the purely Sumerian city of Lagash had similarly +grown powerful and aggressive. For a time it acknowledged the +suzerainty of Kish, but ultimately it threw off the oppressor's +yoke and asserted its independence. The cumulative efforts of a +succession of energetic rulers elevated Lagash to the position of +a metropolis in Ancient Babylonia.</p> +<p>The goddess Bau, "the mother of Lagash", was worshipped in +conjunction with other deities, including the god Nin-Girsu, an +agricultural deity, and therefore <a id="page.anchor.116" name= +"page.anchor.116"></a>a deity of war, who had solar attributes. +One of the titles of Nin-Girsu was En-Mersi, which, according to +Assyrian evidence, was another name of Tammuz, the spring god who +slew the storm and winter demons, and made the land fertile so +that man might have food. Nin-Girsu was, it would seem, a +developed form of Tammuz, like the Scandinavian Frey, god of +harvest, or Heimdal, the celestial warrior. Bau was one of the +several goddesses whose attributes were absorbed by the Semitic +Ishtar. She was a "Great Mother", a creatrix, the source of all +human and bestial life, and, of course, a harvest goddess. She +was identified with Gula, "the great one", who cured diseases and +prolonged life. Evidently the religion of Lagash was based on the +popular worship of the "Queen of Heaven", and her son, the dying +god who became "husband of his mother".</p> +<p>The first great and outstanding ruler of Lagash was Ur-Nina, +who appears to have owed his power to the successful military +operations of his predecessors. It is uncertain whether or not he +himself engaged in any great war. His records are silent in that +connection, but, judging from what we know of him, it may be +taken for granted that he was able and fully prepared to give a +good account of himself in battle. He certainly took steps to +make secure his position, for he caused a strong wall to be +erected round Lagash. His inscriptions are eloquent of his piety, +which took practical shape, for he repaired and built temples, +dedicated offerings to deities, and increased the wealth of +religious bodies and the prosperity of the State by cutting +canals and developing agriculture. In addition to serving local +deities, he also gave practical recognition to Ea at Eridu and +Enlil at Nippur. He, however, overlooked Anu at Erech, a fact +which suggests that he held sway over Eridu and <a id= +"page.anchor.117" name="page.anchor.117"></a>Nippur, but had to +recognize Erech as an independent city state.</p> +<p>Among the deities of Lagash, Ur-Nina favoured most the goddess +Nina, whose name he bore. As she was a water deity, and perhaps +identical with Belit-sheri, sister of "Tammuz of the Abyss" and +daughter of Ea, one of the canals was dedicated to her. She was +also honoured with a new temple, in which was probably placed her +great statue, constructed by special order of her royal +worshipper. Like the Egyptian goddess, the "Mother of Mendes", +Nina received offerings of fish, not only as a patroness of +fishermen, but also as a corn spirit and a goddess of maternity. +She was in time identified with Ishtar.</p> +<p>A famous limestone plaque, which is preserved in the Louvre, +Paris, depicts on its upper half the pious King Ur-Nina engaged +in the ceremony of laying the foundations of a temple dedicated +either to the goddess Nina or to the god Nin-Girsu. His face and +scalp are clean shaven, and he has a prominent nose and firm +mouth, eloquent of decision. The folds of neck and jaw suggest +Bismarckian traits. He is bare to the waist, and wears a pleated +kilt, with three flounces, which reaches almost to his ankles. On +his long head he has poised deftly a woven basket containing the +clay with which he is to make the first brick. In front of him +stand five figures. The foremost is honoured by being sculptured +larger than the others, except the prominent monarch. Apparently +this is a royal princess, for her head is unshaven, and her +shoulder dress or long hair drops over one of her arms. Her name +is Lida, and the conspicuous part she took in the ceremony +suggests that she was the representative of the goddess Nina. She +is accompanied by her brothers, and at least one official, Anita, +the cup-bearer, or high <a id="page.anchor.118" name= +"page.anchor.118"></a>priest. The concluding part of this +ceremony, or another ceremonial act, is illustrated on the lower +part of the plaque. Ur-Nina is seated on his throne, not, as +would seem at first sight, raising the wine cup to his lips and +toasting to the success of the work, but pouring out a libation +upon the ground. The princess is not present; the place of honour +next to the king is taken by the crown prince. Possibly in this +case it is the god Nin-Girsu who is being honoured. Three male +figures, perhaps royal sons, accompany the prominent crown +prince. The cup-bearer is in attendance behind the throne.</p> +<p>The inscription on this plaque, which is pierced in the centre +so as to be nailed to a sacred shrine, refers to the temples +erected by Ur-Nina, including those of Nina and Nin-Girsu.</p> +<p>After Ur-Nina's prosperous reign came to a close, his son +Akurgal ascended the throne. He had trouble with Umma, a powerful +city, which lay to the north-west of Lagash, between the +Shatt-el-Kai and Shatt-el-Hai canals. An army of raiders invaded +his territory and had to be driven back.</p> +<p>The next king, whose name was Eannatum, had Napoleonic +characteristics. He was a military genius with great ambitions, +and was successful in establishing by conquest a small but +brilliant empire. Like his grandfather, he strengthened the +fortifications of Lagash; then he engaged in a series of +successful campaigns. Umma had been causing anxiety in Lagash, +but Eannatum stormed and captured that rival city, appropriated +one of its fertile plains, and imposed an annual tribute to be +paid in kind. An army of Elamites swept down from the hills, but +Ur-Nina's grandson inflicted upon these bold foreigners a +crushing defeat and pursued them over the frontier. Several +cities were afterwards forced to <a id="page.anchor.119" name= +"page.anchor.119"></a>come under the sway of triumphant Lagash, +including Erech and Ur, and as his suzerainty was already +acknowledged at Eridu, Eannatum's power in Sumeria became as +supreme as it was firmly established.</p> +<p>Evidently Zuzu, king of the northern city of Opis, considered +that the occasion was opportune to overcome the powerful Sumerian +conqueror, and at the same time establish Semitic rule over the +subdued and war-wasted cities. He marched south with a large +army, but the tireless and ever-watchful Eannatum hastened to the +fray, scattered the forces of Opis, and captured the foolhardy +Zuzu.</p> +<p>Eannatum's activities, however, were not confined to +battlefields. At Lagash he carried out great improvements in the +interests of agriculture; he constructed a large reservoir and +developed the canal system. He also extended and repaired +existing temples in his native city and at Erech. Being a patron +of the arts, he encouraged sculpture work, and the finest +Sumerian examples belong to his reign.</p> +<p>Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, Enannatum I. Apparently +the new monarch did not share the military qualities of his royal +predecessor, for there were signs of unrest in the loose +confederacy of states. Indeed, Umma revolted. From that city an +army marched forth and took forcible possession of the plain +which Eannatum had appropriated, removing and breaking the +landmarks, and otherwise challenging the supremacy of the sovran +state. A Lagash force defeated the men of Umma, but appears to +have done little more than hold in check their aggressive +tendencies.</p> +<p>No sooner had Entemena, the next king, ascended the throne +than the flame of revolt burst forth again. The Patesi of Umma +was evidently determined to free, once <a id="page.anchor.120" +name="page.anchor.120"></a>and for all, his native state from the +yoke of Lagash. But he had gravely miscalculated the strength of +the vigorous young ruler. Entemena inflicted upon the rebels a +crushing defeat, and following up his success, entered the walled +city and captured and slew the patesi. Then he took steps to +stamp out the embers of revolt in Umma by appointing as its +governor one of his own officials, named Ili, who was duly +installed with great ceremony. Other military successes followed, +including the sacking of Opis and Kish, which assured the +supremacy of Lagash for many years. Entemena, with characteristic +vigour, engaged himself during periods of peace in strengthening +his city fortifications and in continuing the work of improving +and developing the irrigation system. He lived in the golden age +of Sumerian art, and to his reign belongs the exquisite silver +vase of Lagash, which was taken from the Tello mound, and is now +in the Louvre. This votive offering was placed by the king in the +temple of Nin-Girsu. It is exquisitely shaped, and has a base of +copper. The symbolic decorations include the lion-headed eagle, +which was probably a form of the spring god of war and fertility, +the lion, beloved by the Mother goddess, and deer and ibexes, +which recall the mountain herds of Astarte. In the dedicatory +inscription the king is referred to as a patesi, and the fact +that the name of the high priest, Dudu, is given may be taken as +an indication of the growing power of an aggressive priesthood. +After a brilliant reign of twenty-nine years the king died, and +was succeeded by his son, Enannatum II, who was the last ruler of +Ur-Nina's line. An obscure period ensued. Apparently there had +been a city revolt, which may have given the enemies of Lagash +the desired opportunity to gather strength for the coming +conflict. There is a reference to <a id="page.anchor.121" name= +"page.anchor.121"></a>an Elamite raid which, although repulsed, +may be regarded as proof of disturbed political conditions.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2524106" name="id2524106"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VI.1. SILVER VASE DEDICATED TO THE GOD +NIN-GIRSU BY ENTEMENA</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The finest example extant of Sumerian metal work. (See page +120) <span class="emphasis"><em>Reproduced by permission from +"Découvertes en Chaldée" (E. Letoux, +Paris)</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/13.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2524128" name="id2524128"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VI.2. STELE OF NARAM SIN</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>Louvre, Paris</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/14.jpg" /></div> +<p>One or two priests sat on the throne of Lagash in brief +succession, and then arose to power the famous Urukagina, the +first reformer in history. He began to rule as patesi, but +afterwards styled himself king. What appears certain is that he +was the leader of a great social upheaval, which received the +support of a section of the priesthood, for he recorded that his +elevation was due to the intercession of the god Nin-Girsu. Other +deities, who were sons and daughters of Nin-Girsu and Nina, had +been given recognition by his predecessors, and it is possible +that the orthodox section of Lagash, and especially the +agricultural classes, supported the new ruler in sweeping away +innovations to which they were hostile.</p> +<p>Like Khufu and his descendants, the Pyramid kings of Egypt's +fourth dynasty, the vigorous and efficient monarchs of the +Ur-Nina dynasty of Lagash were apparently remembered and +execrated as tyrants and oppressors of the people. To maintain +many endowed temples and a standing army the traders and +agriculturists had been heavily taxed. Each successive monarch +who undertook public works on a large scale for the purpose of +extending and developing the area under cultivation, appears to +have done so mainly to increase the revenue of the exchequer, so +as to conserve the strength of the city and secure its +pre-eminence as a metropolis. A leisured class had come into +existence, with the result that culture was fostered and +civilization advanced. Lagash seems to have been intensely modern +in character prior to 2800 B.C., but with the passing of the old +order of things there arose grave social problems which never +appear to have been seriously dealt with. All indications <a id= +"page.anchor.122" name="page.anchor.122"></a>of social unrest +were, it would appear, severely repressed by the iron-gloved +monarchs of Ur-Nina's dynasty.</p> +<p>The people as a whole groaned under an ever-increasing burden +of taxation. Sumeria was overrun by an army of officials who were +notoriously corrupt; they do not appear to have been held in +check, as in Egypt, by royal auditors. "In the domain of +Nin-Girsu", one of Urukagina's tablets sets forth, "there were +tax gatherers down to the sea." They not only attended to the +needs of the exchequer, but enriched themselves by sheer robbery, +while the priests followed their example by doubling their fees +and appropriating temple offerings to their own use. The splendid +organization of Lagash was crippled by the dishonesty of those +who should have been its main support.</p> +<p>Reforms were necessary and perhaps overdue, but, unfortunately +for Lagash, Urukagina's zeal for the people's cause amounted to +fanaticism. Instead of gradually readjusting the machinery of +government so as to secure equality of treatment without +impairing its efficiency as a defensive force in these perilous +times, he inaugurated sweeping and revolutionary social changes +of far-reaching character regardless of consequences. Taxes and +temple fees were cut down, and the number of officials reduced to +a minimum. Society was thoroughly disorganized. The army, which +was recruited mainly from the leisured and official classes, went +practically out of existence, so that traders and agriculturists +obtained relief from taxation at the expense of their material +security.</p> +<p>Urukagina's motives were undoubtedly above reproach, and he +showed an example to all who occupied positions of trust by +living an upright life and denying himself luxuries. He was +disinterestedly pious, and built and restored temples, and acted +as the steward of his god <a id="page.anchor.123" name= +"page.anchor.123"></a>with desire to promote the welfare and +comfort of all true worshippers. His laws were similar to those +which over two centuries afterwards were codified by Hammurabi, +and like that monarch he was professedly the guardian of the weak +and the helper of the needy; he sought to establish justice and +liberty in the kingdom. But his social Arcadia vanished like a +dream because he failed to recognize that Right must be supported +by Might.</p> +<p>In bringing about his sudden social revolution, Urukagina had +at the same time unwittingly let loose the forces of disorder. +Discontented and unemployed officials, and many representatives +of the despoiled leisured and military classes of Lagash, no +doubt sought refuge elsewhere, and fostered the spirit of revolt +which ever smouldered in subject states. At any rate, Umma, +remembering the oppressions of other days, was not slow to +recognize that the iron hand of Lagash had become unnerved. The +zealous and iconoclastic reformer had reigned but seven years +when he was called upon to defend his people against the invader. +He appears to have been utterly unprepared to do so. The +victorious forces of Umma swept against the stately city of +Lagash and shattered its power in a single day. Echoes of the +great disaster which ensued rise from a pious tablet inscription +left by a priest, who was convinced that the conquerors would be +called to account for the sins they had committed against the +great god Nin-Girsu. He lamented the butchery and robbery which +had taken place. We gather from his composition that blood was +shed by the raiders of Umma even in the sacred precincts of +temples, that statues were shattered, that silver and precious +stones were carried away, that granaries were plundered and +standing crops destroyed, and that many buildings were set on +fire. Amidst these horrors of savagery and vengeance, <a id= +"page.anchor.124" name="page.anchor.124"></a>the now tragic +figure of the great reformer suddenly vanishes from before our +eyes. Perhaps he perished in a burning temple; perhaps he found a +nameless grave with the thousands of his subjects whose bodies +had lain scattered about the blood-stained streets. With +Urukagina the glory of Lagash departed. Although the city was +rebuilt in time, and was even made more stately than before, it +never again became the metropolis of Sumeria.</p> +<p>The vengeful destroyer of Lagash was Lugal-zaggisi, Patesi of +Umma, a masterful figure in early Sumerian history. We gather +from the tablet of the unknown scribe, who regarded him as a +sinner against the god Nin-Girsu, that his city goddess was named +Nidaba. He appears also to have been a worshipper of Enlil of +Nippur, to whose influence he credited his military successes. +But Enlil was not his highest god, he was the interceder who +carried the prayers of Lugal-zaggisi to the beloved father, Anu, +god of the sky. No doubt Nin-Girsu represented a school of +theology which was associated with unpleasant memories in Umma. +The sacking and burning of the temples of Lagash suggests as +much.</p> +<p>Having broken the power of Lagash, Lugal-zaggisi directed his +attention to the rival city of Kish, where Semitic influence was +predominating. When Nanizak, the last monarch of the line of the +famous Queen Azag-Bau, had sat upon the throne for but three +years, he perished by the sword of the Umma conqueror. Nippur +likewise came under his sway, and he also subdued the southern +cities.</p> +<p>Lugal-zaggisi chose for his capital ancient Erech, the city of +Anu, and of his daughter, the goddess Nana, who afterwards was +identified with Ishtar. Anu's spouse was Anatu, and the pair +subsequently became abstract deities, like Anshar and Kishar, +their parents, who figure in the <a id="page.anchor.125" name= +"page.anchor.125"></a>Babylonian Creation story. Nana was +worshipped as the goddess of vegetation, and her relation to Anu +was similar to that of Belit-sheri to Ea at Eridu. Anu and Ea +were originally identical, but it would appear that the one was +differentiated as the god of the waters above the heaven and the +other as god of the waters beneath the earth, both being forms of +Anshar. Elsewhere the chief god of the spring sun or the moon, +the lover of the goddess, became pre-eminent, displacing the +elder god, like Nin-Girsu at Lagash. At Sippar the sun god, +Babbar, whose Semitic name was Shamash, was exalted as the chief +deity, while the moon god remained supreme at Ur. This +specializing process, which was due to local theorizing and the +influence of alien settlers, has been dealt with in a previous +chapter.</p> +<p>In referring to himself as the favoured ruler of various city +deities, Lugal-zaggisi appears as a ruler of all Sumeria. How far +his empire extended it is impossible to determine with certainty. +He appears to have overrun Akkad, and even penetrated to the +Syrian coast, for in one inscription it is stated that he "made +straight his path from the Lower Sea (the Persian Gulf) over the +Euphrates and Tigris to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean)". The +allegiance of certain states, however, depended on the strength +of the central power. One of his successors found it necessary to +attack Kish, which was ever waiting for an opportunity to regain +its independence.</p> +<p>According to the Chronicle of Kish, the next ruler of Sumer +and Akkad after Lugal-zaggisi was the famous Sargon I. It would +appear that he was an adventurer or usurper, and that he owed his +throne indirectly to Lugal-zaggisi, who had dethroned the ruler +of Akkad. Later traditions, which have been partly confirmed by +contemporary inscriptions, agree that Sargon was of humble <a id= +"page.anchor.126" name="page.anchor.126"></a>birth. In the +previous chapter reference was made to the Tammuz-like myth +attached to his memory. His mother was a vestal virgin dedicated +to the sun god, Shamash, and his father an unknown stranger from +the mountains--a suggestion of immediate Semitic affinities. +Perhaps Sargon owed his rise to power to the assistance received +by bands of settlers from the land of the Amorites, which +Lugal-zaggisi had invaded.</p> +<p>According to the legend, Sargon's birth was concealed. He was +placed in a vessel which was committed to the river. Brought up +by a commoner, he lived in obscurity until the Semitic goddess, +Ishtar, gave him her aid.</p> +<p>A similar myth was attached in India to the memory of Karna, +the Hector of that great Sanskrit epic the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>. Kama's mother, the +Princess Pritha, who afterwards became a queen, was loved by the +sun god, Surya. When in secret she gave birth to her son she +placed him in an ark of wickerwork, which was set adrift on a +stream. Ultimately it reached the Ganges, and it was borne by +that river to the country of Anga, where the child was rescued by +a woman and afterwards reared by her and her husband, a +charioteer. In time Karna became a great warrior, and was crowned +King of Anga by the Kaurava warriors.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1147" href="#ftn.fnrex1147" id= +"fnrex1147">147</a>]</span></p> +<p>Before he became king, Sargon of Akkad, the Sharrukin of the +texts, was, according to tradition, a gardener and watchman +attached to the temple of the war god Zamama of Kish. This deity +was subsequently identified with Merodach, son of Ea; Ninip, son +of Enlil; and Nin-Girsu of Lagash. He was therefore one of the +many developed forms of Tammuz--a solar, corn, and military +deity, and an interceder for mankind. The goddess of Kish appears +to have been a form of Bau, as is <a id="page.anchor.127" name= +"page.anchor.127"></a>testified by the name of Queen Azag-Bau, +the legendary founder of the city.</p> +<p>Unfortunately our knowledge of Sargon's reign is of meagre +character. It is undoubted that he was a distinguished general +and able ruler. He built up an empire which included Sumer and +Akkad, and also Amurru, "the western land", or "land of the +Amorites". The Elamites gave him an opportunity to extend his +conquests eastward. They appear to have attacked Opis, but he +drove them back, and on more than one occasion penetrated their +country, over the western part of which, known as Anshan, he +ultimately imposed his rule. Thither went many Semitic settlers +who had absorbed the culture of Sumeria.</p> +<p>During Sargon's reign Akkad attained to a splendour which +surpassed that of Babylon. In an omen text the monarch is lauded +as the "highly exalted one without a peer". Tradition relates +that when he was an old man all the Babylonian states rose in +revolt against him and besieged Akkad. But the old warrior led +forth his army against the combined forces and achieved a +shattering victory.</p> +<p>Manishtusu, who succeeded Sargon I, had similarly to subdue a +great confederacy of thirty-two city states, and must therefore +have been a distinguished general. But he is best known as the +monarch who purchased several large estates adjoining subject +cities, his aim having been probably to settle on these Semitic +allies who would be less liable to rebel against him than the +workers they displaced. For the latter, however, he found +employment elsewhere. These transactions, which were recorded on +a monument subsequently carried off with other spoils by the +Elamites and discovered at Susa, show that at this early period +(about 2600 B.C.) even a <a id="page.anchor.128" name= +"page.anchor.128"></a>conquering monarch considered it advisable +to observe existing land laws. Urumush,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1148" href="#ftn.fnrex1148" id= +"fnrex1148">148</a>]</span> the next ruler, also achieved +successes in Elam and elsewhere, but his life was cut short by a +palace revolution.</p> +<p>The prominent figure of Naram Sin, a later king of Akkad, +bulks largely in history and tradition. According to the +Chronicle of Kish, he was a son of Sargon. Whether he was or not, +it is certain that he inherited the military and administrative +genius of that famous ex-gardener. The arts flourished during his +reign. One of the memorable products of the period was an +exquisitely sculptured monument celebrating one of Naram Sin's +victories, which was discovered at Susa. It is one of the most +wonderful examples of Babylonian stone work which has come to +light.</p> +<p>A successful campaign had been waged against a mountain +people. The stele shows the warrior king leading his army up a +steep incline and round the base of a great peak surmounted by +stars. His enemies flee in confusion before him. One lies on the +ground clutching a spear which has penetrated his throat, two are +falling over a cliff, while others apparently sue for mercy. +Trees have been depicted to show that part of the conquered +territory is wooded. Naram Sin is armed with battleaxe and bow, +and his helmet is decorated with horns. The whole composition is +spirited and finely grouped; and the military bearing of the +disciplined troops contrasts sharply with the despairing +attitudes of the fleeing remnants of the defending army.</p> +<p>During this period the Semitized mountaineers to the +north-east of Babylonia became the most aggressive opponents of +the city states. The two most prominent were the Gutium, or men +of Kutu, and the Lulubu. <a id="page.anchor.129" name= +"page.anchor.129"></a>Naram Sin's great empire included the whole +of Sumer and Akkad, Amurru and northern Palestine, and part of +Elam, and the district to the north. He also penetrated Arabia, +probably by way of the Persian Gulf, and caused diorite to be +quarried there. One of his steles, which is now in the Imperial +Ottoman Museum at Constantinople, depicts him as a fully bearded +man with Semitic characteristics. During his lifetime he was +deified--a clear indication of the introduction of foreign ideas, +for the Sumerians were not worshippers of kings and +ancestors.</p> +<p>Naram Sin was the last great king of his line. Soon after his +death the power of Akkad went to pieces, and the Sumerian city of +Erech again became the centre of empire. Its triumph, however, +was shortlived. After a quarter of a century had elapsed, Akkad +and Sumer were overswept by the fierce Gutium from the +north-eastern mountains. They sacked and burned many cities, +including Babylon, where the memory of the horrors perpetrated by +these invaders endured until the Grecian Age. An obscure period, +like the Egyptian Hyksos Age, ensued, but it was of comparatively +brief duration.</p> +<p>When the mists cleared away, the city Lagash once more came to +the front, having evidently successfully withstood the onslaughts +of the Gutium, but it never recovered the place of eminence it +occupied under the brilliant Ur-Nina dynasty. It is manifest that +it must have enjoyed under the various overlords, during the +interval, a considerable degree of independence, for its +individuality remained unimpaired. Of all its energetic and +capable patesis, the most celebrated was Gudea, who reigned +sometime before 2400 B.C. In contrast to the Semitic Naram Sin, +he was beardless and pronouncedly Sumerian in aspect. His +favoured deity, the city god <a id="page.anchor.130" name= +"page.anchor.130"></a>Nin-Girsu, again became prominent, having +triumphed over his jealous rivals after remaining in obscurity +for three or four centuries. Trade flourished, and the arts were +fostered. Gudea had himself depicted, in one of the most +characteristic sculptures of his age, as an architect, seated +reverently with folded hands with a temple plan lying on his +knees, and his head uplifted as if watching the builders engaged +in materializing the dream of his life. The temple in which his +interests were centred was erected in honour of Nin-Girsu. Its +ruins suggest that it was of elaborate structure and great +beauty. Like Solomon in later days, Gudea procured material for +his temple from many distant parts--cedar from Lebanon, marble +from Amurru, diorite from Arabia, copper from Elam, and so forth. +Apparently the King of Lagash was strong enough or wealthy enough +to command respect over a wide area.</p> +<p>Another city which also rose into prominence, amidst the +shattered Sumerian states, was Ur, the centre of moon worship. +After Gudea's death, its kings exercised sway over Lagash and +Nippur, and, farther south, over Erech and Larsa as well. This +dynasty endured for nearly a hundred and twenty years, during +which Ur flourished like Thebes in Egypt. Its monarchs styled +themselves as "Kings of the Four Regions". The worship of Nannar +(Sin) became officially recognized at Nippur, the seat of Enlil, +during the reign of King Dungi of Ur; while at Erech, the high +priest of Anu, the sky god, became the high priest of the moon +god. Apparently matriarchal ideas, associated with lunar worship, +again came into prominence, for the king appointed two of his +daughters to be rulers of conquered states in Elam and Syria. In +the latter half of his reign, Dungi, the conqueror, was installed +as high priest at Eridu. It <a id="page.anchor.131" name= +"page.anchor.131"></a>would thus appear that there was a +renascence of early Sumerian religious ideas. Ea, the god of the +deep, had long been overshadowed, but a few years before Dungi's +death a temple was erected to him at Nippur, where he was +worshipped as Dagan. Until the very close of his reign, which +lasted for fifty-eight years, this great monarch of tireless +activity waged wars of conquest, built temples and palaces, and +developed the natural resources of Sumer and Akkad. Among his +many reforms was the introduction of standards of weights, which +received divine sanction from the moon god, who, as in Egypt, was +the measurer and regulator of human transactions and human +life.</p> +<p>To this age also belongs many of the Sumerian business and +legal records, which were ultimately carried off to Susa, where +they have been recovered by French excavators.</p> +<p>About half a century after Dungi's death the Dynasty of Ur +came to an end, its last king having been captured by an Elamite +force.</p> +<p>At some time subsequent to this period, Abraham migrated from +Ur to the northern city of Harran, where the moon god was also +the chief city deity--the Baal, or "lord". It is believed by +certain Egyptologists that Abraham sojourned in Egypt during its +Twelfth Dynasty, which, according to the Berlin system of minimum +dating, extended from about 2000 B.C. till 1780 B.C. The Hebrew +patriarch may therefore have been a contemporary of Hammurabi's, +who is identified with Amraphel, king of Shinar (Sumer) in the +Bible.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1149" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1149" id="fnrex1149">149</a>]</span></p> +<p>But after the decline of Ur's ascendancy, and long before +Babylon's great monarch came to the throne, the centre of power +in Sumeria was shifted to Isin, where <a id="page.anchor.132" +name="page.anchor.132"></a>sixteen kings flourished for two and a +quarter centuries. Among the royal names, recognition was given +to Ea and Dagan, Sin, Enlil, and Ishtar, indicating that Sumerian +religion in its Semitized form was receiving general recognition. +The sun god was identical with Ninip and Nin-Girsu, a god of +fertility, harvest, and war, but now more fully developed and +resembling Babbar, "the shining one", the solar deity of Akkadian +Sippar, whose Semitic name was Shamash. As Shamash was ultimately +developed as the god of justice and righteousness, it would +appear that his ascendancy occurred during the period when +well-governed communities systematized their religious beliefs to +reflect social conditions.</p> +<p>The first great monarch of the Isin dynasty was Ishbi-Urra, +who reigned for thirty-two years. Like his successors, he called +himself "King of Sumer and Akkad", and it appears that his sway +extended to the city of Sippar, where solar worship prevailed. +Traces of him have also been found at Eridu, Ur, Erech, and +Nippur, so that he must have given recognition to Ea, Sin, Anu, +and Enlil. In this period the early national pantheon may have +taken shape, Bel Enlil being the chief deity. Enlil was +afterwards displaced by Merodach of Babylon.</p> +<p>Before 2200 B.C. there occurred a break in the supremacy of +Isin. Gungunu, King of Ur, combined with Larsa, whose sun temple +he restored, and declared himself ruler of Sumer and Akkad. But +Isin again gathered strength under Ur-Ninip, who was not related +to his predecessor. Perhaps he came from Nippur, where the god +Ninip was worshipped as the son of Bel Enlil.</p> +<p>According to a Babylonian document, a royal grandson of +Ur-Ninip's, having no direct heir, selected as his successor his +gardener, Enlil-bani. He placed the crown on the head of this +obscure individual, abdicated in his <a id="page.anchor.133" +name="page.anchor.133"></a>favour, and then died a mysterious +death within his palace.</p> +<p>It is highly probable that Enlil-bani, whose name signifies +"Enlil is my creator", was a usurper like Sargon of Akkad, and he +may have similarly circulated a myth regarding his miraculous +origin to justify his sudden rise to power. The truth appears to +be that he came to the throne as the leader of a palace +revolution at a time of great unrest. But he was not allowed to +remain in undisputed possession. A rival named Sin-ikisha, +evidently a moon worshipper and perhaps connected with Ur, +displaced the usurper, and proclaimed himself king. After a brief +reign of six months he was overthrown, however, by Enlil-bani, +who piously credited his triumph over his enemy to the chief god +of Nippur, whose name he bore. Although he took steps to secure +his position by strengthening the fortifications of Isin, and +reigned for about a quarter of a century, he was not succeeded by +his heir, if he had one. King Zambia, who was no relation, +followed him, but his reign lasted for only three years. The +names of the next two kings are unknown. Then came Sin-magir, who +was succeeded by Damik-ilishu, the last King of Isin.</p> +<p>Towards the close of Damik-ilishu's reign of twenty-four years +he came under the suzerainty of Larsa, whose ruler was Rim Sin. +Then Isin was captured by Sin-muballit, King of Babylon, the +father of the great Hammurabi. Rim Sin was an Elamite.</p> +<p>Afterwards the old order of things passed away. Babylon became +the metropolis, the names of Sumer and Akkad dropped out of use, +and the whole country between the rivers was called +Babylonia.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1150" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1150" id="fnrex1150">150</a>]</span> The various +systems of <a id="page.anchor.134" name="page.anchor.134"></a>law +which obtained in the different states were then codified by +Hammurabi, who appointed governors in all the cities which came +under his sway to displace the patesis and kings. A new national +pantheon of representative character was also formed, over which +Merodach (Marduk), the city god of Babylon, presided. How this +younger deity was supposed to rise to power is related in the +Babylonian legend of Creation, which is dealt with in the next +chapter.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1151" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1151" id="fnrex1151">151</a>]</span> In framing this +myth from the fragments of older myths, divine sanction was given +to the supremacy achieved by Merodach's city. The allegiance of +future generations was thus secured, not only by the strong arm +of the law, but also by the combined influence of the reorganized +priesthoods at the various centres of administration.</p> +<p>An interesting problem, which should be referred to here, +arises in connection with the sculptured representations of +deities before and after the rise of Akkad as a great Power. It +is found, although the Sumerians shaved their scalps and faces at +the dawn of the historical age, that they worshipped gods who had +long hair and also beards, which were sometimes square and +sometimes pointed.</p> +<p>At what period the Sumerian deities were given human shape it +is impossible to determine. As has been shown (Chapters II and +III) all the chief gods and goddesses had animal forms and +composite monster forms before they became anthropomorphic +deities. Ea had evidently a fish shape ere he was clad in the +skin of a fish, as an Egyptian god was simply a bull before he +was depicted in human shape wearing a bull's skin. The archaic +Sumerian animal and composite monster gods of animistic <a id= +"page.anchor.135" name="page.anchor.135"></a>and totemic origin +survived after the anthropomorphic period as mythical figures, +which were used for decorative or magical purposes and as +symbols. A form of divine headdress was a cap enclosed in horns, +between which appeared the soaring lion-headed eagle, which +symbolized Nin-Girsu. This god had also lion and antelope forms, +which probably figured in lost myths--perhaps they were like the +animals loved by Ishtar and referred to in the Gilgamesh epic. +Similarly the winged bull was associated with the moon god +Nannar, or Sin, of Ur, who was "a horned steer". On various +cylinder seals appear groups of composite monsters and rearing +wild beasts, which were evidently representations of gods and +demons in conflict.</p> +<p>Suggestive data for comparative study is afforded in this +connection by ancient Egypt. Sokar, the primitive Memphite deity, +retained until the end his animal and composite monster forms. +Other gods were depicted with human bodies and the heads of +birds, serpents, and crocodiles, thus forming links between the +archaic demoniac and the later anthropomorphic deities. A +Sumerian example is the deified Ea-bani, who, like Pan, has the +legs and hoofs of a goat.</p> +<p>The earliest representations of Sumerian humanized deities +appear on reliefs from Tello, the site of Lagash. These examples +of archaic gods, however, are not bearded in Semitic fashion. On +the contrary, their lips and cheeks are shaved, while an +exaggerated chin tuft is retained. The explanation suggested is +that the Sumerians gave their deities human shape before they +themselves were clean shaven, and that the retention of the +characteristic facial hair growth of the Mediterranean Race is +another example of the conservatism of the religious instinct. In +Egypt the clean-shaven Pharaohs, who represented gods, wore false +chin-tuft beards; even Queen <a id="page.anchor.136" name= +"page.anchor.136"></a>Hatshepsut considered it necessary to +assume a beard on state occasions. Ptah-Osiris retained his +archaic beard until the Ptolemaic period.</p> +<p>It seems highly probable that in similarly depicting their +gods with beards, the early Sumerians were not influenced by the +practices of any alien people or peoples. Not until the period of +Gudea, the Patesi of Lagash, did they give their gods heavy +moustaches, side whiskers, and flowing beards of Semitic type. It +may be, however, that by then they had completely forgotten the +significance of an ancient custom. Possibly, too, the sculptors +of Lagash were working under the influence of the Akkadian school +of art, which had produced the exquisite stele of victory for +Naram-Sin, and consequently adopted the conventional Semitic +treatment of bearded figures. At any rate, they were more likely +to study and follow the artistic triumphs of Akkad than the crude +productions of the archaic period. Besides, they lived in an age +when Semitic kings were deified and the Semitic overlords had +attained to great distinction and influence.</p> +<p>The Semitic folks were not so highly thought of in the early +Sumerian period. It is not likely that the agricultural people +regarded as models of gods the plunderers who descended from the +hills, and, after achieving successes, returned home with their +spoils. More probably they regarded them as "foreign devils". +Other Semites, however, who came as traders, bringing wood, +stone, and especially copper, and formed communities in cities, +may well have influenced Sumerian religious thought. The god +Ramman, for instance, who was given recognition all through +Babylonia, was a god of hill folks as far north as Asia Minor and +throughout Syria. He may have been introduced by settlers who +adopted Sumerian <a id="page.anchor.137" name= +"page.anchor.137"></a>habits of life and shaved scalp and face. +But although the old cities could never have existed in a +complete state of isolation from the outer world, it is unlikely +that their inhabitants modelled their deities on those worshipped +by groups of aliens. A severe strain is imposed on our credulity +if we are expected to believe that it was due to the teachings +and example of uncultured nomads that the highly civilized +Sumerians developed their gods from composite monsters to +anthropomorphic deities. Such a supposition, at any rate, is not +supported by the evidence of Ancient Egypt.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1144" href="#fnrex1144" id= +"ftn.fnrex1144">144</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nehemiah</em></span>, i, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1145" href="#fnrex1145" id= +"ftn.fnrex1145">145</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Esther</em></span>, i, 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1146" href="#fnrex1146" id= +"ftn.fnrex1146">146</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xiii, 19-22.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1147" href="#fnrex1147" id= +"ftn.fnrex1147">147</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 173-175 and 192-194.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1148" href="#fnrex1148" id= +"ftn.fnrex1148">148</a>]</span> Or Rimush.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1149" href="#fnrex1149" id= +"ftn.fnrex1149">149</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xiv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1150" href="#fnrex1150" id= +"ftn.fnrex1150">150</a>]</span> That is, the equivalent of +Babylonia. During the Kassite period the name was +Karduniash.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1151" href="#fnrex1151" id= +"ftn.fnrex1151">151</a>]</span> The narrative follows +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Seven Tablets of +Creation</em></span> and other fragments, while the account given +by Berosus is also drawn upon.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2524978" name= +"id2524978"></a>Chapter VII. Creation Legend: Merodach the Dragon +Slayer</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Elder Spirits of the Primordial Deep--Apsu and the Tiamat +Dragon--Plot to Destroy the Beneficent Gods--Ea overcomes Apsu +and Muminu--The Vengeful Preparations of the Dragon--Anshar's +Appeal to Merodach--The Festival of the High Gods--Merodach +exalted as Ruler of the Universe--Dragon slain and Host taken +captive--Merodach rearranges the Pantheon--Creation of +Man--Merodach as Asari--The Babylonian Osiris--The Chief Purpose +of Mankind--Tiamat as Source of Good and Evil--The Dragon as the +Serpent or Worm--Folk Tale aspect of Creation Myth--British +Neolithic Legends--German and Egyptian Contracts--Biblical +references to Dragons--The Father and Son theme--Merodach and +Tammuz--Monotheistic Tendency--Bi-sexual Deities.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.138" name="page.anchor.138"></a> In the +beginning the whole universe was a sea. Heaven on high had not +been named, nor the earth beneath. Their begetter was Apsu, the +father of the primordial Deep, and their mother was Tiamat, the +spirit of Chaos. No plain was yet formed, no marsh could be seen; +the gods had no existence, nor had their fates been determined. +Then there was a movement in the waters, and the deities issued +forth. The first who had being were the god Lachmu and the +goddess Lachamu. Long ages went past. Then were created the god +Anshar and the goddess Kishar. When the days of these deities had +increased and extended, they were followed by Anu, god of the +sky, whose consort was Anatu; and Ea, most wise and all-powerful, +who was without an equal. Now Ea, god of the deep, was also Enki, +"lord of earth", and <a id="page.anchor.139" name= +"page.anchor.139"></a>his eternal spouse, Damkina, was Gashan-ki, +"lady of earth". The son of Ea and Damkina was Bel, the lord, who +in time created mankind.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1152" +href="#ftn.fnrex1152" id="fnrex1152">152</a>]</span> Thus were +the high gods established in power and in glory.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2525050" name="id2525050"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VII.1. STATUE OF GUDEA</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>Louvre, Paris</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/15.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2525068" name="id2525068"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VII.2. "THE SEVEN TABLETS OF +CREATION"</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Library of Ashur-bani-pal +at Kouyunjik (Nineveh): now in the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/16.jpg" /></div> +<p>Now Apsu and Tiamat remained amidst confusion in the deeps of +chaos. They were troubled because their offspring, the high gods, +aspired to control the universe and set it in order.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1153" href="#ftn.fnrex1153" id= +"fnrex1153">153</a>]</span> Apsu was still powerful and fierce, +and Tiamat snarled and raised tempests, smiting herself. Their +purpose was to work evil amidst eternal confusion.</p> +<p>Then Apsu called upon Mummu, his counsellor, the son who +shared his desires, and said, "O Mummu, thou who art pleasing +unto me, let us go forth together unto Tiamat and speak with +her."</p> +<p>So the two went forth and prostrated themselves before the +Chaos Mother to consult with her as to what should be done to +prevent the accomplishment of the purpose of the high gods.</p> +<p>Apsu opened his mouth and spake, saying, "O Tiamat, thou +gleaming one, the purpose of the gods troubles me. I cannot rest +by day nor can I repose by night. I will thwart them and destroy +their purpose. I will bring sorrow and mourning so that we may +lie down undisturbed by them."</p> +<p>Tiamat heard these words and snarled. She raised angry and +roaring tempests; in her furious grief she uttered a curse, and +then spake to Apsu, saying, "What shall we do so that their +purpose may be thwarted and we may lie down undisturbed +again?"</p> +<p>Mummu, the counsellor, addressing Apsu, made answer, and said, +"Although the gods are powerful, thou <a id="page.anchor.140" +name="page.anchor.140"></a>canst overcome them; although their +purpose is strong, thou canst thwart it. Then thou shalt have +rest by day and peace by night to lie down."</p> +<p>The face of Apsu grew bright when he heard these words spoken +by Mummu, yet he trembled to think of the purpose of the high +gods, to whom he was hostile. With Tiamat he lamented because the +gods had changed all things; the plans of the gods filled their +hearts with dread; they sorrowed and spake with Mummu, plotting +evil.</p> +<p>Then Ea, who knoweth all, drew near; he beheld the evil ones +conspiring and muttering together. He uttered a pure incantation +and accomplished the downfall of Apsu and Mummu, who were taken +captive.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1154" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1154" id="fnrex1154">154</a>]</span></p> +<p>Kingu, who shared the desires of Tiamat, spake unto her words +of counsel, saying, "Apsu and Mummu have been overcome and we +cannot repose. Thou shalt be their Avenger, O Tempestuous +One."</p> +<p>Tiamat heard the words of this bright and evil god, and made +answer, saying, "On my strength thou canst trust. So let war be +waged."</p> +<p>Then were the hosts of chaos and the deep gathered together. +By day and by night they plotted against the high gods, raging +furiously, making ready for battle, fuming and storming and +taking no rest.</p> +<p>Mother Chuber,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1155" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1155" id="fnrex1155">155</a>]</span> the creator of +all, provided irresistible weapons. She also brought into being +eleven kinds of fierce monsters--giant serpents, sharp of tooth +with unsparing fangs, whose bodies were filled with poison +instead of blood; snarling dragons, clad with terror, and of such +lofty stature that whoever saw them was overwhelmed with fear, +nor could any escape their attack when they <a id= +"page.anchor.141" name="page.anchor.141"></a>lifted themselves +up; vipers and pythons, and the Lachamu, hurricane monsters, +raging hounds, scorpion men, tempest furies, fish men, and +mountain rams. These she armed with fierce weapons and they had +no fear of war.</p> +<p>Then Tiamat, whose commands are unchangeable and mighty, +exalted Kingu, who had come to her aid, above all the evil gods; +she made him the leader to direct the army in battle, to go in +front, to open the attack. Robing Kingu in splendour, she seated +him on high and spoke, saying:</p> +<p>"I have established thy command over all the gods. Thou shalt +rule over them. Be mighty, thou my chosen husband, and let thy +name be exalted over all the spirits of heaven and spirits of +earth."</p> +<p>Unto Kingu did Tiamat deliver the tablets of fate; she laid +them in his bosom, and said, "Thy commands cannot be changed; thy +words shall remain firm."</p> +<p>Thus was Kingu exalted; he was vested with the divine power of +Anu to decree the fate of the gods, saying, "Let thy mouth open +to thwart the fire god; be mighty in battle nor brook +resistance."</p> +<p>Then had Ea knowledge of Tiamat's doings, how she had gathered +her forces together, and how she had prepared to work evil +against the high gods with purpose to avenge Apsu. The wise god +was stricken with grief, and he moaned for many days. Thereafter +he went and stood before his father, Anshar, and spake, saying, +"Our mother, Tiamat, hath turned against us in her wrath. She +hath gathered the gods about her, and those thou didst create are +with her also."</p> +<p>When Anshar heard all that Ea revealed regarding the +preparations made by Tiamat, he smote his loins and clenched his +teeth, and was ill at ease. In sorrow and anger he spoke and +said, "Thou didst go forth aforetime <a id="page.anchor.142" +name="page.anchor.142"></a>to battle; thou didst bind Mummu and +smite Apsu. Now Kingu is exalted, and there is none who can +oppose Tiamat."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1156" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1156" id="fnrex1156">156</a>]</span></p> +<p>Anshar called his son, Anu, before him, and spoke, saying: "O +mighty one without fear, whose attack is irresistible, go now +before Tiamat and speak so that her anger may subside and her +heart be made merciful. But if she will not hearken unto thee, +speak thou for me, so that she may be reconciled."</p> +<p>Anu was obedient to the commands of Anshar. He departed, and +descended by the path of Tiamat until he beheld her fuming and +snarling, but he feared to approach her, and turned back.</p> +<p>Then Ea was sent forth, but he was stricken with terror and +turned back also.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1157" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1157" id="fnrex1157">157</a>]</span></p> +<p>Anshar then called upon Merodach, son of Ea, and addressed +him, saying, "My son, who softeneth my heart, thou shalt go forth +to battle and none shall stand against thee."</p> +<p>The heart of Merodach was made glad at these words. He stood +before Anshar, who kissed him, because that he banished fear. +Merodach spake, saying: "O lord of the gods, withdraw not thy +words; let me go forth to do as is thy desire. What man hath +challenged thee to battle?"</p> +<p>Anshar made answer and said: "No man hath challenged me. It is +Tiamat, the woman, who hath resolved to wage war against us. But +fear not and make merry, for thou shalt bruise the head of +Tiamat. O wise god, thou shalt overcome her with thy pure +incantation. Tarry not but hasten forth; she cannot wound thee; +thou shalt come back again." <a id="page.anchor.143" name= +"page.anchor.143"></a>The words of Anshar delighted the heart of +Merodach, who spake, saying: "O lord of the gods, O fate of the +high gods, if I, the avenger, am to subdue Tiamat and save all, +then proclaim my greatness among the gods. Let all the high gods +gather together joyfully in Upshukinaku (the Council Hall), so +that my words like thine may remain unchanged, and what I do may +never be altered. Instead of thee I will decree the fates of the +gods."</p> +<p>Then Anshar called unto his counsellor, Gaga, and addressing +him, said: "O thou who dost share my desires, thou who dost +understand the purpose of my heart, go unto Lachmu and Lachamu +and summon all the high gods to come before me to eat bread and +drink wine. Repeat to them all I tell you of Tiamat's +preparations for war, of my commands to Anu and Ea, who turned +back, fearing the dragon, of my choice of Merodach to be our +avenger, and his desire to be equipped with my power to decree +fate, so that he may be made strong to combat against our +enemy."</p> +<p>As Anshar commanded so did Gaga do. He went unto Lachmu and +Lachamu and prostrated himself humbly before them. Then he rose +and delivered the message of Anshar, their son, adding: "Hasten +and speedily decide for Merodach your fate. Permit him to depart +to meet your powerful foe."</p> +<p>When Lachmu and Lachamu heard all that Gaga revealed unto them +they uttered lamentations, while the Igigi (heavenly spirits) +sorrowed bitterly, and said: "What change hath happened that +Tiamat hath become hostile to her own offspring? We cannot +understand her deeds."</p> +<p>All the high gods then arose and went unto Anshar, They filled +his council chamber and kissed one another. <a id= +"page.anchor.144" name="page.anchor.144"></a>Then they sat down +to eat bread and drink sesame wine. And when they were made drunk +and were merry and at their ease, they decreed the fate for +Merodach.</p> +<p>In the chamber of Anshar they honoured the Avenger. He was +exalted as a prince over them all, and they said: "Among the high +gods thou art the highest; thy command is the command of Anu. +Henceforth thou wilt have power to raise up and to cast down. +None of the gods will dispute thy authority. O Merodach, our +avenger, we give thee sovereignty over the entire Universe. Thy +weapon will ever be irresistible. Smite down the gods who have +raised revolt, but spare the lives of those who repose their +trust in thee."</p> +<p>Then the gods laid down a garment before Merodach, saying: +"Open thy mouth and speak words of command, so that the garment +may be destroyed; speak again and it will be brought back."</p> +<p>Merodach spake with his mouth and the garment vanished; he +spake again and the garment was reproduced.</p> +<p>All the gods rejoiced, and they prostrated themselves and +cried out, "Merodach is King!"</p> +<p>Thereafter they gave him the sceptre and the throne and the +insignia of royalty, and also an irresistible weapon<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1158" href="#ftn.fnrex1158" id= +"fnrex1158">158</a>]</span> with which to overcome his enemies, +saying: "Now, O Merodach, hasten and slay Tiamat. Let the winds +carry her blood to hidden places."</p> +<p>So was the fate of Merodach decreed by the gods; so was a path +of prosperity and peace prepared for him. He made ready for +battle; he strung his bow and hung his quiver; he slung a dart +over his shoulder, and he grasped a club in his right hand; +before him he set lightning, and with flaming fire he filled his +body. Anu gave unto him <a id="page.anchor.145" name= +"page.anchor.145"></a>a great net with which to snare his enemies +and prevent their escape. Then Merodach created seven winds--the +wind of evil, the uncontrollable wind, the sandstorm, and the +whirlwind, the fourfold wind, the sevenfold wind, and the wind +that has no equal--and they went after him. Next he seized his +mighty weapon, the thunderstone, and leapt into his storm +chariot, to which were yoked four rushing and destructive steeds +of rapid flight, with foam-flecked mouths and teeth full of +venom, trained for battle, to overthrow enemies and trample them +underfoot. A light burned on the head of Merodach, and he was +clad in a robe of terror. He drove forth, and the gods, his +fathers, followed after him: the high gods clustered around and +followed him, hastening to battle.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2525477" name="id2525477"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VII.3. MERODACH SETS FORTH TO ATTACK +TIAMAT</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/17.jpg" /></div> +<p>Merodach drove on, and at length he drew nigh to the secret +lair of Tiamat, and he beheld her muttering with Kingu, her +consort. For a moment he faltered, and when the gods who followed +him beheld this, their eyes were troubled.</p> +<p>Tiamat snarled nor turned her head. She uttered curses, and +said: "O Merodach, I fear not thy advance as chief of the gods. +My allies are assembled here, and are more powerful than thou +art."</p> +<p>Merodach uplifted his arm, grasping the dreaded thunderstone, +and spake unto Tiamat, the rebellious one, saying: "Thou hast +exalted thyself, and with wrathful heart hath prepared for war +against the high gods and their fathers, whom thou dost hate in +thy heart of evil. Unto Kingu thou hast given the power of Anu to +decree fate, because thou art hostile to what is good and loveth +what is sinful. Gather thy forces together, and arm thyself and +come forth to battle."</p> +<p>When Tiamat heard these mighty words she raved and cried aloud +like one who is possessed; all her limbs <a id="page.anchor.146" +name="page.anchor.146"></a>shook, and she muttered a spell. The +gods seized their weapons.</p> +<p>Tiamat and Merodach advanced to combat against one another. +They made ready for battle. The lord of the high gods spread out +the net which Anu had given him. He snared the dragon and she +could not escape. Tiamat opened her mouth which was seven miles +wide, and Merodach called upon the evil wind to smite her; he +caused the wind to keep her mouth agape so that she could not +close it. All the tempests and the hurricanes entered in, filling +her body, and her heart grew weak; she gasped, overpowered. Then +the lord of the high gods seized his dart and cast it through the +lower part of her body; it tore her inward parts and severed her +heart. So was Tiamat slain.</p> +<p>Merodach overturned the body of the dead dragon and stood upon +it. All the evil gods who had followed her were stricken with +terror and broke into flight. But they were unable to escape. +Merodach caught them in his great net, and they stumbled and fell +uttering cries of distress, and the whole world resounded with +their wailing and lamentations. The lord of the high gods broke +the weapons of the evil gods and put them in bondage. Then he +fell upon the monsters which Tiamat had created; he subdued them, +divested them of their powers, and trampled them under his feet. +Kingu he seized with the others. From this god great Merodach +took the tablets of fate, and impressing upon them his own seal, +placed them in his bosom.</p> +<p>So were the enemies of the high gods overthrown by the +Avenger. Ansar's commands were fulfilled and the desires of Ea +fully accomplished.</p> +<p>Merodach strengthened the bonds which he had laid upon the +evil gods and then returned to Tiamat. He <a id="page.anchor.147" +name="page.anchor.147"></a>leapt upon the dragon's body; he clove +her skull with his great club; he opened the channels of her +blood which streamed forth, and caused the north to carry her +blood to hidden places. The high gods, his fathers, clustered +around; they raised shouts of triumph and made merry. Then they +brought gifts and offerings to the great Avenger.</p> +<p>Merodach rested a while, gazing upon the dead body of the +dragon. He divided the flesh of Ku-pu<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1159" href="#ftn.fnrex1159" id="fnrex1159">159</a>]</span>, +and devised a cunning plan.</p> +<p>Then the lord of the high gods split the body of the dragon +like that of a mashde fish into two halves. With one half he +enveloped the firmament; he fixed it there and set a watchman to +prevent the waters falling down<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1160" href="#ftn.fnrex1160" id="fnrex1160">160</a>]</span>. +With the other half he made the earth<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1161" href="#ftn.fnrex1161" id="fnrex1161">161</a>]</span>. +Then he made the abode of Ea in the deep, and the abode of Anu in +high heaven. The abode of Enlil was in the air.</p> +<p>Merodach set all the great gods in their several stations. He +also created their images, the stars of the Zodiac, and fixed +them all. He measured the year and divided it into months; for +twelve months he made three stars each. After he had given starry +images of the gods separate control of each day of the year, he +founded the station of Nibiru (Jupiter), his own star, to +determine the limits of all stars, so that none might err or go +astray. He placed beside his own the stations of Enlil and Ea, +and on each side he opened mighty <a id="page.anchor.148" name= +"page.anchor.148"></a>gates, fixing bolts on the left and on the +right. He set the zenith in the centre.</p> +<p>Merodach decreed that the moon god should rule the night and +measure the days, and each month he was given a crown. Its +various phases the great lord determined, and he commanded that +on the evening of its fullest brilliancy it should stand opposite +the sun.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1162" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1162" id="fnrex1162">162</a>]</span></p> +<p>He placed his bow in heaven (as a constellation) and his net +also.</p> +<p>We have now reached the sixth tablet, which begins with a +reference to words spoken to Merodach by the gods. Apparently Ea +had conceived in his heart that mankind should be created. The +lord of the gods read his thoughts and said: "I will shed my +blood and fashion bone... I will create man to dwell on the earth +so that the gods may be worshipped and shrines erected for them. +I will change the pathways of the gods...."</p> +<p>The rest of the text is fragmentary, and many lines are +missing. Berosus states, however, that Belus (Bel Merodach) +severed his head from his shoulders. His blood flowed forth, and +the gods mixed it with earth and formed the first man and various +animals.</p> +<p>In another version of the creation of man, it is related that +Merodach "laid a reed upon the face of the waters; he formed +dust, and poured it out beside the reed.... That he might cause +the gods to dwell in the habitation of their heart's desire, he +formed mankind." The goddess Aruru, a deity of Sippar, and one of +the forms of "the lady of the gods", is associated with Merodach +as the creatrix of the seed of mankind. "The beasts of the field +and living creatures in the field he formed." <a id= +"page.anchor.149" name="page.anchor.149"></a>He also created the +Tigris and Euphrates rivers, grass, reeds, herbs and trees, +lands, marshes and swamps, cows, goats, &c.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1163" href="#ftn.fnrex1163" id= +"fnrex1163">163</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the seventh tablet Merodach is praised by the gods--the +Igigi (spirits of heaven). As he has absorbed all their +attributes, he is addressed by his fifty-one names; henceforth +each deity is a form of Merodach. Bel Enlil, for instance, is +Merodach of lordship and domination; Sin, the moon god, is +Merodach as ruler of night; Shamash is Merodach as god of law and +holiness; Nergal is Merodach of war; and so on. The tendency to +monotheism appears to have been most marked among the priestly +theorists of Babylon.</p> +<p>Merodach is hailed to begin with as Asari, the introducer of +agriculture and horticulture, the creator of grain and plants. He +also directs the decrees of Anu, Bel, and Ea; but having rescued +the gods from destruction at the hands of Kingu and Tiamat, he +was greater than his "fathers", the elder gods. He set the +Universe in order, and created all things anew. He is therefore +Tutu, "the creator", a merciful and beneficent god. The following +are renderings of lines 25 to 32:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Tutu: Aga-azaga (the glorious crown) +may he make the crowns glorious--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The lord of the glorious incantation +bringing the dead to life;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He who had mercy on the gods who had +been overpowered;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Made heavy the yoke which he had laid +on the gods who were his enemies,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>(And) to redeem (?) them created +mankind.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"The merciful one", "he with whom is +salvation",</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May his word be established, and not +forgotten,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the mouth of the black-headed ones +whom his hands have made.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Pinches' Translation</em></span><span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1164" href="#ftn.fnrex1164" id= +"fnrex1164">164</a>]</span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.150" name= +"page.anchor.150"></a>Tutu as Aga-azag may mankind fourthly +magnify!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"The Lord of the Pure Incantation", +"the Quickener of the Dead",</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Who had mercy upon the captive +gods",</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Who removed the yoke from upon the +gods his enemies".</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"For their forgiveness did he create +mankind",</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"The Merciful One, with whom it is to +bestow life!"</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May his deeds endure, may they never be +forgotten</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the mouth of mankind whom his hands +have made.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>King's Translation.</em></span><span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1165" href="#ftn.fnrex1165" id= +"fnrex1165">165</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Apparently the Babylonian doctrine set forth that mankind was +created not only to worship the gods, but also to bring about the +redemption of the fallen gods who followed Tiamat.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Those rebel angels <span class= +"emphasis"><em>(ili</em></span>, gods) He prohibited +return;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>He stopped their service; He removed +them unto the gods <span class="emphasis"><em>(ili)</em></span> +who were His enemies.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In their room he created +mankind.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1166" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1166" id="fnrex1166">166</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tiamat, the chaos dragon, is the Great Mother. She has a dual +character. As the origin of good she is the creatrix of the gods. +Her beneficent form survived as the Sumerian goddess Bau, who was +obviously identical with the Phoenician Baau, mother of the first +man. Another name of Bau was Ma, and Nintu, "a form of the +goddess Ma", was half a woman and half a serpent, and was +depicted with "a babe suckling her breast" (Chapter IV). The +Egyptian goddesses Neheb-kau and Uazit were serpents, and the +goddesses Isis and Nepthys had also serpent forms. The serpent +was a symbol of fertility, and as a mother was a protector. +Vishnu, the Preserver of the Hindu Trinity, sleeps on the +world-serpent's body. Serpent charms are protective and fertility +charms.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.151" name="page.anchor.151"></a>As the +origin of evil Tiamat personified the deep and tempests. In this +character she was the enemy of order and good, and strove to +destroy the world.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> I have seen</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The ambitious ocean swell and rage and +foam</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To be exalted with the threatening +clouds.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1167" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1167" id="fnrex1167">167</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tiamat was the dragon of the sea, and therefore the serpent or +leviathan. The word "dragon" is derived from the Greek "drakon", +the serpent known as "the seeing one" or "looking one", whose +glance was the lightning. The Anglo-Saxon "fire drake" ("draca", +Latin "draco") is identical with the "flying dragon".</p> +<p>In various countries the serpent or worm is a destroyer which +swallows the dead. "The worm shall eat them like wool", exclaimed +Isaiah in symbolic language.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1168" href="#ftn.fnrex1168" id="fnrex1168">168</a>]</span> +It lies in the ocean which surrounds the world in Egyptian, +Babylonian, Greek, Teutonic, Indian, and other mythologies. The +Irish call it "morúach", and give it a mermaid form like +the Babylonian Nintu. In a Scottish Gaelic poem Tiamat figures as +"The Yellow Muilearteach", who is slain by Finn-mac-Coul, +assisted by his warrior band.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>There was seen coming on the top of the +waves</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The crooked, clamouring, shivering +brave ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Her face was blue black of the lustre +of coal,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And her bone-tufted tooth was like +rusted bone.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1169" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1169" id="fnrex1169">169</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The serpent figures in folk tales. When Alexander the Great, +according to Ethiopic legend, was lowered in a glass cage to the +depths of the ocean, he saw a great monster going past, and sat +for two days "watching for its tail and hinder parts to +appear".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1170" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1170" id="fnrex1170">170</a>]</span> An <a id= +"page.anchor.152" name="page.anchor.152"></a>Argyllshire +Highlander had a similar experience. He went to fish one morning +on a rock. "He was not long there when he saw the head of an eel +pass. He continued fishing for an hour and the eel was still +passing. He went home, worked in the field all day, and having +returned to the same rock in the evening, the eel was still +passing, and about dusk he saw her tail +disappearing."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1171" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1171" id="fnrex1171">171</a>]</span> Tiamat's +sea-brood is referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> as "nickers". The hero "slew +by night sea monsters on the waves" (line 422).</p> +<p>The well dragon--the French "draco"--also recalls the +Babylonian water monsters. There was a "dragon well" near +Jerusalem.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1172" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1172" id="fnrex1172">172</a>]</span> From China to +Ireland rivers are dragons, or goddesses who flee from the well +dragons. The demon of the Rhone is called the "drac". Floods are +also referred to as dragons, and the Hydra, or water serpent, +slain by Hercules, belongs to this category. Water was the source +of evil as well as good. To the Sumerians, the ocean especially +was the abode of monsters. They looked upon it as did +Shakespeare's Ferdinand, when, leaping into the sea, he cried: +"Hell is empty and all the devils are here".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1173" href="#ftn.fnrex1173" id= +"fnrex1173">173</a>]</span></p> +<p>There can be little doubt but that in this Babylonian story of +Creation we have a glorified variation of the widespread Dragon +myth. Unfortunately, however, no trace can be obtained of the +pre-existing Sumerian oral version which the theorizing priests +infused with such sublime symbolism. No doubt it enjoyed as great +popularity as the immemorial legend of Perseus and Andromeda, +which the sages of Greece attempted to rationalize, and parts of +which the poets made use of and developed as these appealed to +their imaginations.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.153" name="page.anchor.153"></a>The lost +Sumerian story may be summarized as follows: There existed in the +savage wilds, or the ocean, a family of monsters antagonistic to +a group of warriors represented in the Creation legend by the +gods. Ea, the heroic king, sets forth to combat with the enemies +of man, and slays the monster father, Apsu, and his son, Mummu. +But the most powerful demon remains to be dealt with. This is the +mother Tiamat, who burns to avenge the deaths of her kindred. To +wage war against her the hero makes elaborate preparations, and +equips himself with special weapons. The queen of monsters cannot +be overcome by ordinary means, for she has great cunning, and is +less vulnerable than were her husband and son. Although Ea may +work spells against her, she is able to thwart him by working +counter spells. Only a hand-to-hand combat can decide the fray. +Being strongly protected by her scaly hide, she must be wounded +either on the under part of her body or through her mouth by a +weapon which will pierce her liver, the seat of life. It will be +noted in this connection that Merodach achieved success by +causing the winds which followed him to distend the monster's +jaws, so that he might be able to inflict the fatal blow and +prevent her at the same time from uttering spells to weaken +him.</p> +<p>This type of story, in which the mother monster is greater and +more powerful than her husband or son, is exceedingly common in +Scottish folklore. In the legend which relates the adventures of +"Finn in the Kingdom of Big Men", the hero goes forth at night to +protect his allies against the attacks of devastating sea +monsters. Standing on the beach, "he saw the sea advancing in +fiery kilns and as a darting serpent.... A huge monster came up, +and looking down below where he (Finn) was, exclaimed, 'What +little speck do I see here?'" <a id="page.anchor.154" name= +"page.anchor.154"></a>Finn, aided by his fairy dog, slew the +water monster. On Finn, aided by his fairy dog, slew the water +monster. On the following night a bigger monster, "the father", +came ashore, and he also was slain. But the most powerful enemy +had yet to be dealt with. "The next night a Big Hag came ashore, +and the tooth in the front of her mouth would make a distaff. +'You killed my husband and son,' she said." Finn acknowledged +that he did, and they began to fight. After a prolonged struggle, +in which Finn was almost overcome, the Hag fell and her head was +cut off.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1174" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1174" id="fnrex1174">174</a>]</span></p> +<p>The story of "Finlay the Changeling" has similar features. The +hero slew first a giant and then the giant's father. Thereafter +the Hag came against him and exclaimed, "Although with cunning +and deceitfulness you killed my husband last night and my son on +the night before last, I shall certainly kill you to-night." A +fierce wrestling match ensued on the bare rock. The Hag was +ultimately thrown down. She then offered various treasures to +ransom her life, including "a gold sword in my cave", regarding +which she says, "never was it drawn to man or to beast whom it +did not overcome".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1175" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1175" id="fnrex1175">175</a>]</span> In other Scottish +stories of like character the hero climbs a tree, and says +something to induce the hag to open her mouth, so that he may +plunge his weapon down her throat.</p> +<p>The Grendel story in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1176" href="#ftn.fnrex1176" id="fnrex1176">176</a>]</span> +the Anglo-Saxon epic, is of like character. A male water monster +preys nightly upon the warriors who sleep in the great hall of +King Hrothgar. Beowulf comes over the sea, as did Finn to the +"Kingdom of Big Men", to sky Grendel. He wrestles with this +man-eater and mortally wounds him. Great rejoicings ensue, but +they have to be brought to an abrupt conclusion, because the +mother of Grendel has <a id="page.anchor.155" name= +"page.anchor.155"></a>meanwhile resolved "to go a sorry journey +and avenge the death of her son".</p> +<p>The narrative sets forth that she enters the Hall in the +darkness of night. "Quickly she grasped one of the nobles tight, +and then she went towards the fen", towards her submarine cave. +Beowulf follows in due course, and, fully armoured, dives through +the waters and ultimately enters the monster's lair. In the +combat the "water wife" proves to be a more terrible opponent +than was her son. Indeed, Beowulf was unable to slay her until he +possessed himself of a gigantic sword, "adorned with treasure", +which was hanging in the cave. With this magic weapon he slays +the mother monster, whose poisonous blood afterwards melts the +"damasked blade". Like Finn, he subsequently returns with the +head of one of the monsters.</p> +<p>An interesting point about this story is that it does not +appear in any form in the North German cycle of Romance. Indeed, +the poet who included in his epic the fiery dragon story, which +links the hero Beowulf with Sigurd and Siegfried, appears to be +doubtful about the mother monster's greatness, as if dealing with +unfamiliar material, for he says: "The terror (caused by +Grendel's mother) was less by just so much as woman's strength, +woman's war terror, is (measured) by fighting men".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1177" href="#ftn.fnrex1177" id= +"fnrex1177">177</a>]</span> Yet, in the narrative which follows +the Amazon is proved to be the stronger monster of the two. +Traces of the mother monster survive in English folklore, +especially in the traditions about the mythical "Long Meg of +Westminster", referred to by Ben Jonson in his masque of the +"Fortunate Isles":</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Westminster Meg,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With her long leg,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.156" name= +"page.anchor.156"></a>As long as a crane;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And feet like a plane,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With a pair of heels</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As broad as two wheels.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Meg has various graves. One is supposed to be marked by a huge +stone in the south side of the cloisters of Westminster Abbey; it +probably marks the trench in which some plague victims--regarded, +perhaps, as victims of Meg--were interred. Meg was also reputed +to have been petrified, like certain Greek and Irish giants and +giantesses. At Little Salkeld, near Penrith, a stone circle is +referred to as "Long Meg and her Daughters". Like "Long Tom", the +famous giant, "Mons Meg" gave her name to big guns in early +times, all hags and giants having been famous in floating folk +tales as throwers of granite boulders, balls of hard clay, +quoits, and other gigantic missiles.</p> +<p>The stories about Grendel's mother and Long Meg are similar to +those still repeated in the Scottish Highlands. These contrast +sharply with characteristic Germanic legends, in which the giant +is greater than the giantess, and the dragon is a male, like +Fafner, who is slain by Sigurd, and Regin whom Siegfried +overcomes. It is probable, therefore, that the British stories of +female monsters who were more powerful than their husbands and +sons, are of Neolithic and Iberian origin--immemorial relics of +the intellectual life of the western branch of the Mediterranean +race.</p> +<p>In Egypt the dragon survives in the highly developed mythology +of the sun cult of Heliopolis, and, as sun worship is believed to +have been imported, and the sun deity is a male, it is not +surprising to find that the night demon, Apep, was a +personification of Set. This god, who is identical with Sutekh, a +Syrian and Asia Minor deity, was <a id="page.anchor.157" name= +"page.anchor.157"></a>apparently worshipped by a tribe which was +overcome in the course of early tribal struggles in pre-dynastic +times. Being an old and discredited god, he became by a familiar +process the demon of the conquerors. In the eighteenth dynasty, +however, his ancient glory was revived, for the Sutekh of Rameses +II figures as the "dragon slayer".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1178" href="#ftn.fnrex1178" id="fnrex1178">178</a>]</span> +It is in accordance with Mediterranean modes of thought, however, +to find that in Egypt there is a great celestial battle heroine. +This is the goddess Hathor-Sekhet, the "Eye of Ra".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1179" href="#ftn.fnrex1179" id= +"fnrex1179">179</a>]</span> Similarly in India, the post-Vedic +goddess Kali is a destroyer, while as Durga she is a guardian of +heroes.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1180" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1180" id="fnrex1180">180</a>]</span> Kali, Durga, and +Hathor-Sekhet link with the classical goddesses of war, and also +with the Babylonian Ishtar, who, as has been shown, retained the +outstanding characteristics of Tiamat, the fierce old "Great +Mother" of primitive Sumerian folk religion.</p> +<p>It is possible that in the Babylonian dragon myth the original +hero was Ea. As much may be inferred from the symbolic references +in the Bible to Jah's victory over the monster of the deep: "Art +thou not it that hath cut Rahab and wounded the +dragon?"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1181" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1181" id="fnrex1181">181</a>]</span> "Thou brakest the +heads of the dragons in the waters; thou brakest the heads of +leviathan in pieces, and gavest him to be meat to the people +inhabiting the wilderness";<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1182" +href="#ftn.fnrex1182" id="fnrex1182">182</a>]</span> "He divideth +the sea with his power, and by his understanding he smiteth +through the proud (Rahab). By his spirit he hath garnished the +heavens: his hand hath formed (or pierced) the crooked +serpent";<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1183" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1183" id="fnrex1183">183</a>]</span> "Thou hast broken +Rahab in pieces as one that is slain: thou hast scattered thine +enemies with thy strong arm";<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1184" href="#ftn.fnrex1184" id="fnrex1184">184</a>]</span> +"In that day the <a id="page.anchor.158" name= +"page.anchor.158"></a>Lord with his sore and great and strong +sword shall punish leviathan the piercing (or stiff) serpent, +even leviathan that crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon +that is in the sea".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1185" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1185" id="fnrex1185">185</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the Babylonian Creation legend Ea is supplanted as dragon +slayer by his son Merodach. Similarly Ninip took the place of his +father, Enlil, as the champion of the gods. "In other words," +writes Dr. Langdon, "later theology evolved the notion of the son +of the earth god, who acquires the attributes of the father, and +becomes the god of war. It is he who stood forth against the +rebellious monsters of darkness, who would wrest the dominion of +the world from the gods who held their conclave on the mountain. +The gods offer him the Tablets of Fate; the right to utter +decrees is given unto him." This development is "of extreme +importance for studying the growth of the idea of father and son, +as creative and active principles of the world".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1186" href="#ftn.fnrex1186" id= +"fnrex1186">186</a>]</span> In Indian mythology Indra similarly +takes the place of his bolt-throwing father Dyaus, the sky god, +who so closely resembles Zeus. Andrew Lang has shown that this +myth is of widespread character.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1187" href="#ftn.fnrex1187" id="fnrex1187">187</a>]</span> +Were the Babylonian theorists guided by the folk-lore clue?</p> +<p>Now Merodach, as the son of Ea whom he consulted and received +spells from, was a brother of "Tammuz of the Abyss". It seems +that in the great god of Babylon we should recognize one of the +many forms of the primeval corn spirit and patriarch--the +shepherd youth who was beloved by Ishtar. As the deity of the +spring sun, Tammuz slew the winter demons of rain and tempest, so +that he was an appropriate spouse for the goddess of harvest and +war. Merodach may have been a development of Tammuz in his +character as a demon slayer. <a id="page.anchor.159" name= +"page.anchor.159"></a> When he was raised to the position of Bel, +"the Lord" by the Babylonian conquerors, Merodach supplanted the +older Bel--Enlil of Nippur. Now Enlil, who had absorbed all the +attributes of rival deities, and become a world god, was the</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lord of the harvest lands ... lord of +the grain fields,</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>being "lord of the anunnaki", or "earth spirits". As +agriculturists in early times went to war so as to secure +prisoners who could be sacrificed to feed the corn spirit, Enlil +was a god of war and was adored as such:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The haughty, the hostile land thou dost +humiliate ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With thee who ventureth to make +war?</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>He was also "the bull of goring horns ... Enlil the bull", the +god of fertility as well as of battle.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1188" href="#ftn.fnrex1188" id= +"fnrex1188">188</a>]</span></p> +<p>Asari, one of Merodach's names, links him with Osiris, the +Egyptian Tammuz, who was supplanted by his son Horus. As the +dragon slayer, he recalls, among others, Perseus, the Grecian +hero, of whom it was prophesied that he would slay his +grandfather. Perseus, like Tammuz and Osiris, was enclosed in a +chest which was cast into the sea, to be rescued, however, by a +fisherman on the island of Seriphos. This hero afterwards slew +Medusa, one of the three terrible sisters, the Gorgons--a demon +group which links with Tiamat. In time, Perseus returned home, +and while an athletic contest was in progress, he killed his +grandfather with a quoit. There is no evidence, however, to show +that the displacement of Enlil by Merodach had any legendary +sanction of like character. The god of Babylon absorbed all other +deities, apparently for political purposes, and in accordance +with the tendency of the thought of the times, <a id= +"page.anchor.160" name="page.anchor.160"></a>when raised to +supreme rank in the national pantheon; and he was depicted +fighting the winged dragon, flapping his own storm wings, and +carrying the thunder weapon associated with Ramman.</p> +<p>Merodach's spouse Zer-panitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> +was significantly called "the lady of the Abyss", a title which +connects her with Damkina, the mother, and Belit-sheri, the +sister of Tammuz. Damkina was also a sky goddess like Ishtar.</p> +<p>Zer-panitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> was no pale +reflection of her Celestial husband, but a goddess of sharply +defined character with independent powers. Apparently she was +identical with Aruru, creatrix of the seed of mankind, who was +associated with Merodach when the first man and the first woman +were brought into being. Originally she was one of the mothers in +the primitive spirit group, and so identical with Ishtar and the +other prominent goddesses.</p> +<p>As all goddesses became forms of Ishtar, so did all gods +become forms of Merodach. Sin was "Merodach as illuminator of +night", Nergal was "Merodach of war", Addu (Ramman) was "Merodach +of rain", and so on. A colophon which contains a text in which +these identifications are detailed, appears to be "a copy", says +Professor Pinches, "of an old inscription", which, he thinks, +"may go back as far as 2000 B.C. This is the period at which the +name <span class="emphasis"><em>Yau<span class= +'phonetic'>m</span>-ilu</em></span>, 'Jah is god', is found, +together with references to <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ilu</em></span> as the name for the one great god, +and is also, roughly, the date of Abraham, who, it may be noted, +was a Babylonian of Ur of the Chaldees."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1189" href="#ftn.fnrex1189" id= +"fnrex1189">189</a>]</span></p> +<p>In one of the hymns Merodach is addressed as follows:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.161" name= +"page.anchor.161"></a>Who shall escape from before thy +power?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy will is an eternal +mystery!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou makest it plain in +heaven</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And in the earth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Command the sea</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the sea obeyeth thee.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Command the tempest</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the tempest becometh a +calm.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Command the winding course</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of the Euphrates,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the will of Merodach</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Shall arrest the floods.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lord, thou art holy!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Who is like unto thee?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Merodach thou art honoured</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Among the gods that bear a +name.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The monotheistic tendency, which was a marked feature of +Merodach worship, had previously become pronounced in the worship +of Bel Enlil of Nippur. Although it did not affect the religion +of the masses, it serves to show that among the ancient scholars +and thinkers of Babylonia religious thought had, at an early +period, risen far above the crude polytheism of those who +bargained with their deities and propitiated them with offerings +and extravagant flattery, or exercised over them a magical +influence by the performance of seasonal ceremonies, like the +backsliders in Jerusalem, censured so severely by Jeremiah, who +baked cakes to reward the Queen of Heaven for an abundant +harvest, and wept with her for the slain Tammuz when he departed +to Hades.</p> +<p>Perhaps it was due to the monotheistic tendency, if not to the +fusion of father-worshipping and mother-worshipping peoples, that +bi-sexual deities were conceived of. Nannar, the moon god, was +sometimes addressed as <a id="page.anchor.162" name= +"page.anchor.162"></a> father and mother in one, and Ishtar as a +god as well as a goddess. In Egypt Isis is referred to in a +temple chant as "the woman who was made a male by her father +Osiris", and the Nile god Hapi was depicted as a man with female +breasts.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1152" href="#fnrex1152" id= +"ftn.fnrex1152">152</a>]</span> The elder Bel was Enlil of Nippur +and the younger Merodach of Babylon. According to Damascius the +elder Bel came into existence before Ea, who as Enki shared his +attributes.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1153" href="#fnrex1153" id= +"ftn.fnrex1153">153</a>]</span> This is the inference drawn from +fragmentary texts.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1154" href="#fnrex1154" id= +"ftn.fnrex1154">154</a>]</span> A large portion of the narrative +is awaiting here.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1155" href="#fnrex1155" id= +"ftn.fnrex1155">155</a>]</span> A title of Tiamat; pron. +<span class="emphasis"><em>ch</em></span> guttural.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1156" href="#fnrex1156" id= +"ftn.fnrex1156">156</a>]</span> There is another gap here which +interrupts the narrative.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1157" href="#fnrex1157" id= +"ftn.fnrex1157">157</a>]</span> This may refer to Ea's first +visit when he overcame Kingu, but did not attack Tiamat.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1158" href="#fnrex1158" id= +"ftn.fnrex1158">158</a>]</span> The lightning trident or +thunderstone.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1159" href="#fnrex1159" id= +"ftn.fnrex1159">159</a>]</span> The authorities are not agreed as +to the meaning of "Ku-pu." Jensen suggests "trunk, body". In +European dragon stories the heroes of the Siegfried order roast +and eat the dragon's heart. Then they are inspired with the +dragon's wisdom and cunning. Sigurd and Siegfried immediately +acquire the language of birds. The birds are the "Fates", and +direct the heroes what next they should do. Apparently Merodach's +"cunning plan" was inspired after he had eaten a part of the body +of Tiamat.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1160" href="#fnrex1160" id= +"ftn.fnrex1160">160</a>]</span> The waters above the +firmament.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1161" href="#fnrex1161" id= +"ftn.fnrex1161">161</a>]</span> According to Berosus.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1162" href="#fnrex1162" id= +"ftn.fnrex1162">162</a>]</span> This portion is fragmentary and +seems to indicate that the Babylonians had made considerable +progress in the science of astronomy. It is suggested that they +knew that the moon derived its light from the sun.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1163" href="#fnrex1163" id= +"ftn.fnrex1163">163</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Seven Tablets of Creation</em></span>, L.W. King, pp. 134, +135.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1164" href="#fnrex1164" id= +"ftn.fnrex1164">164</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, p. +43.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1165" href="#fnrex1165" id= +"ftn.fnrex1165">165</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Seven Tablets of Creation</em></span>, L. W. King, vol. i, pp. +98, 99.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1166" href="#fnrex1166" id= +"ftn.fnrex1166">166</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Trans. +Soc. Bib. Arch</em></span>., iv, 251-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1167" href="#fnrex1167" id= +"ftn.fnrex1167">167</a>]</span> Shakespeare's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Julius Caesar</em></span>, i, 3, 8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1168" href="#fnrex1168" id= +"ftn.fnrex1168">168</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, li, 8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1169" href="#fnrex1169" id= +"ftn.fnrex1169">169</a>]</span> Campbell's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>West Highland Tales</em></span>, pp. 136 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1170" href="#fnrex1170" id= +"ftn.fnrex1170">170</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great</em></span>, E. A. +Wallis Budge, pp. 284, 285.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1171" href="#fnrex1171" id= +"ftn.fnrex1171">171</a>]</span> Campbell's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>West Highland Tales</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1172" href="#fnrex1172" id= +"ftn.fnrex1172">172</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nehemiah</em></span>, ii, 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1173" href="#fnrex1173" id= +"ftn.fnrex1173">173</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Tempest</em></span>, i, 2, 212.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1174" href="#fnrex1174" id= +"ftn.fnrex1174">174</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Waifs +and Strays of Celtic Tradition</em></span>, vol. iv, p. 176 et +seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1175" href="#fnrex1175" id= +"ftn.fnrex1175">175</a>]</span> From unpublished folk tale.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1176" href="#fnrex1176" id= +"ftn.fnrex1176">176</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>, translated by Clark Hall, +London, 1911, p. 18 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1177" href="#fnrex1177" id= +"ftn.fnrex1177">177</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>, translated by Clark Hall, +London, 1911, p. 69, lines 1280-1287.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1178" href="#fnrex1178" id= +"ftn.fnrex1178">178</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 260, +261.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1179" href="#fnrex1179" id= +"ftn.fnrex1179">179</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 8, +9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1180" href="#fnrex1180" id= +"ftn.fnrex1180">180</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. xli, 149, 150.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1181" href="#fnrex1181" id= +"ftn.fnrex1181">181</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, li, 9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1182" href="#fnrex1182" id= +"ftn.fnrex1182">182</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Psalms</em></span>, lxxiv, 13, 14. It will be +noted that the Semitic dragon, like the Egyptian, is a +male.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1183" href="#fnrex1183" id= +"ftn.fnrex1183">183</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Job</em></span>, xxvi, 12, 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1184" href="#fnrex1184" id= +"ftn.fnrex1184">184</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Psalms</em></span>, lxxxix, 10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1185" href="#fnrex1185" id= +"ftn.fnrex1185">185</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxvii, I.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1186" href="#fnrex1186" id= +"ftn.fnrex1186">186</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, p. +204.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1187" href="#fnrex1187" id= +"ftn.fnrex1187">187</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Custom +and Myth</em></span>, pp. 45 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1188" href="#fnrex1188" id= +"ftn.fnrex1188">188</a>]</span> Translation by Dr. Langdon, pp. +199 <span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1189" href="#fnrex1189" id= +"ftn.fnrex1189">189</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, T.G. Pinches, pp. +118, 119.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2526908" name= +"id2526908"></a>Chapter VIII. Deified Heroes: Etana and +Gilgamesh</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>God and Heroes and the "Seven Sleepers"--Quests of Etana, +Gilgamesh, Hercules, &c.--The Plant of Birth--Eagle carries +Etana to Heaven--Indian Parallel--Flights of Nimrod, Alexander +the Great, and a Gaelic Hero--Eagle as a God--Indian Eagle +identified with Gods of Creation, Fire, Fertility, and +Death--Eagle carries Roman Emperor's Soul to Heaven--Fire and +Agricultural Ceremonies--Nimrod of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> and John Barleycorn--Gilgamesh +and the Eagle--Sargon-Tammuz Garden Myth--Ea-bani compared to +Pan, Bast, and Nebuchadnezzar--Exploits of Gilgamesh and +Ea-bani--Ishtar's Vengeance--Gilgamesh journeys to +Otherworld--Song of Sea Maiden and "Lay of the +Harper"--Babylonian Noah and the Plant of Life--Teutonic +Parallels--Alexander the Great as Gilgamesh--Water of Life in the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span>--The Indian +Gilgamesh and Hercules--The Mountain Tunnel in various +Mythologies--Widespread Cultural Influences.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.163" name="page.anchor.163"></a> One of the +oldest forms of folk stories relates to the wanderings of a hero +in distant regions. He may set forth in search of a fair lady who +has been taken captive, or to obtain a magic herb or stone to +relieve a sufferer, to cure diseases, and to prolong life. +Invariably he is a slayer of dragons and other monsters. A +friendly spirit, or a group of spirits, may assist the hero, who +acts according to the advice given him by a "wise woman", a +magician, or a god. The spirits are usually wild beasts or +birds--the "fates" of immemorial folk belief--and they may either +carry the hero on their backs, instruct him from time to time, or +come to his aid when called upon.</p> +<p>When a great national hero appealed by reason of his +achievements to the imagination of a people, all the <a id= +"page.anchor.164" name="page.anchor.164"></a>floating legends of +antiquity were attached to his memory, and he became identified +with gods and giants and knight-errants "old in story". In +Scotland, for instance, the boulder-throwing giant of Eildon +hills bears the name of Wallace, the Edinburgh giant of Arthur's +Seat is called after an ancient Celtic king,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1190" href="#ftn.fnrex1190" id= +"fnrex1190">190</a>]</span> and Thomas the Rhymer takes the +place, in an Inverness fairy mound called Tom-na-hurich, of Finn +(Fingal) as chief of the "Seven Sleepers". Similarly Napoleon +sleeps in France and Skobeleff in Russia, as do also other heroes +elsewhere. In Germany the myths of Thunor (Thor) were mingled +with hazy traditions of Theodoric the Goth (Dietrich), while in +Greece, Egypt, and Arabia, Alexander the Great absorbed a mass of +legendary matter of great antiquity, and displaced in the +memories of the people the heroes of other Ages, as those heroes +had previously displaced the humanized spirits of fertility and +growth who alternately battled fiercely against the demons of +spring, made love, gorged and drank deep and went to sleep--the +sleep of winter. Certain folk tales, and the folk beliefs on +which they were based, seem to have been of hoary antiquity +before the close of the Late Stone Age.</p> +<p>There are two great heroes of Babylonian fame who link with +Perseus and Hercules, Sigurd and Siegfried, Dietrich and +Finn-mac-Coul. These are Etana and Gilgamesh, two legendary kings +who resemble Tammuz the Patriarch referred to by Berosus, a form +of Tammuz the Sleeper of the Sumerian psalms. One journeys to the +Nether World to obtain the Plant of Birth and the other to obtain +the Plant of Life. The floating legends with which they were +associated were utilized <a id="page.anchor.165" name= +"page.anchor.165"></a>and developed by the priests, when engaged +in the process of systematizing and symbolizing religious +beliefs, with purpose to unfold the secrets of creation and the +Otherworld. Etana secures the assistance or a giant eagle who is +an enemy of serpents like the Indian Garuda, half giant, half +eagle. As Vishnu, the Indian god, rides on the back of Garuda, so +does Etana ride on the back of the Babylonian Eagle. In one +fragmentary legend which was preserved in the tablet-library of +Ashur-banipal, the Assyrian monarch, Etana obtained the +assistance of the Eagle to go in quest of the Plant of Birth. His +wife was about to become a mother, and was accordingly in need of +magical aid. A similar belief caused birth girdles of straw or +serpent skins, and eagle stones found in eagles' nests, to be +used in ancient Britain and elsewhere throughout Europe +apparently from the earliest times.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1191" href="#ftn.fnrex1191" id= +"fnrex1191">191</a>]</span></p> +<p>On this or another occasion Etana desired to ascend to highest +heaven. He asked the Eagle to assist him, and the bird assented, +saying: "Be glad, my friend. Let me bear thee to the highest +heaven. Lay thy breast on mine and thine arms on my wings, and +let my body be as thy body." Etana did as the great bird +requested him, and together they ascended towards the firmament. +After a flight which extended over two hours, the Eagle asked +Etana to gaze downwards. He did so, and beheld the ocean +surrounding the earth, and the earth seemed like a mountainous +island. The Eagle resumed its flight, and when another two hours +had elapsed, it again asked Etana to look downwards. Then the +hero saw that the sea resembled a girdle which clasped the land. +Two hours later Etana found that he had been raised to a height +<a id="page.anchor.166" name="page.anchor.166"></a>from which the +sea appeared to be no larger than a pond. By this time he had +reached the heaven of Anu, Bel, and Ea, and found there rest and +shelter.</p> +<p>Here the text becomes fragmentary. Further on it is gathered +from the narrative that Etana is being carried still higher by +the Eagle towards the heaven of Ishtar, "Queen of Heaven", the +supreme mother goddess. Three times, at intervals of two hours, +the Eagle asks Etana to look downwards towards the shrinking +earth. Then some disaster happens, for further onwards the broken +tablet narrates that the Eagle is falling. Down and down eagle +and man fall together until they strike the earth, and the +Eagle's body is shattered.</p> +<p>The Indian Garuda eagle<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1192" +href="#ftn.fnrex1192" id="fnrex1192">192</a>]</span> never met +with such a fate, but on one occasion Vishnu overpowered it with +his right arm, which was heavier than the whole universe, and +caused many feathers to fall <span class= +"emphasis"><em>off</em></span>. In the story of Rama's +wanderings, however, as told in the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ramayana</em></span> and the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, there are interesting +references in this connection to Garuda's two "sons". One was +mortally wounded by Ravana, the demon king of Ceylon. The other +bird related to Rama, who found it disabled: "Once upon a time we +two (brothers), with the desire of outstripping each other, flew +towards the sun. My wings were burnt, but those of my brother +were not.... I fell down on the top of this great mountain, where +I still am."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1193" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1193" id="fnrex1193">193</a>]</span></p> +<p>Another version of the Etana story survives among the Arabian +Moslems. In the "Al Fatihat" chapter of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> it is related that a Babylonian +king held a dispute with Abraham "concerning his Lord". +Commentators <a id="page.anchor.167" name= +"page.anchor.167"></a>identify the monarch with Nimrod, who +afterwards caused the Hebrew patriarch to be cast into a fire +from which he had miraculous deliverance. Nimrod then built a +tower so as to ascend to heaven "to see Abraham's god", and make +war against Him, but the tower was overthrown. He, however, +persisted in his design. The narrative states that he was +"carried to heaven in a chest borne by four monstrous birds; but +after wandering for some time through the air, he fell down on a +mountain with such a force that he made it shake". A reference in +the <span class="emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> to "contrivances +... which make mountains tremble" is believed to allude to +Nimrod's vain attempt.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1194" +href="#ftn.fnrex1194" id="fnrex1194">194</a>]</span></p> +<p>Alexander the Great was also reputed to have ascended on the +back of an eagle. Among the myths attached to his memory in the +Ethiopic "history" is one which explains how "he knew and +comprehended the length and breadth of the earth", and how he +obtained knowledge regarding the seas and mountains he would have +to cross. "He made himself small and flew through the air on an +eagle, and he arrived in the heights of the heavens and he +explored them." Another Alexandrian version of the Etana myth +resembles the Arabic legend of Nimrod. "In the Country of +Darkness" Alexander fed and tamed great birds which were larger +than eagles. Then he ordered four of his soldiers to mount them. +The men were carried to the "Country of the Living", and when +they returned they told Alexander "all that had happened and all +that they had seen".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1195" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1195" id="fnrex1195">195</a>]</span></p> +<p>In a Gaelic story a hero is carried off by a Cromhineach, "a +vast bird like an eagle". He tells that it "sprang to the clouds +with me, and I was a while that I <a id="page.anchor.168" name= +"page.anchor.168"></a>did not know which was heaven or earth for +me". The hero died, but, curiously enough, remained conscious of +what was happening. Apparently exhausted, the eagle flew to an +island in the midst of the ocean. It laid the hero on the sunny +side. The hero proceeds: "Sleep came upon herself (the eagle) and +she slept. The sun was enlivening me pretty well though I was +dead." Afterwards the eagle bathed in a healing well, and as it +splashed in the water, drops fell on the hero and he came to +life. "I grew stronger and more active", he adds, "than I had +ever been before."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1196" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1196" id="fnrex1196">196</a>]</span></p> +<p>The eagle figures in various mythologies, and appears to have +been at one time worshipped as the god or goddess of fertility, +and storm and lightning, as the bringer of children, and the +deity who carried souls to Hades. It was also the symbol of +royalty, because the earthly ruler represented the controlling +deity. Nin-Girsu, the god of Lagash, who was identified with +Tammuz, was depicted as a lion-headed eagle. Zeus, the Greek sky +and air god, was attended by an eagle, and may, at one time, have +been simply an eagle. In Egypt the place of the eagle is taken by +Nekhebit, the vulture goddess whom the Greeks identified with +"Eileithyia, the goddess of birth; she was usually represented as +a vulture hovering over the king".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1197" href="#ftn.fnrex1197" id= +"fnrex1197">197</a>]</span></p> +<p>The double-headed eagle of the Hittites, which figures in the +royal arms of Germany and Russia, appears to have symbolized the +deity of whom the king was an incarnation or son. In Indian +mythology Garuda, the eagle giant, which destroyed serpents like +the Babylonian Etana eagle, issued from its egg like a flame of +fire; its eyes flashed the lightning and its voice was the +thunder. This bird is identified in a hymn with Agni, god of +fire, who <a id="page.anchor.169" name="page.anchor.169"></a>has +the attributes of Tammuz and Mithra, with Brahma, the creator, +with Indra, god of thunder and fertility, and with Yama, god of +the dead, who carries off souls to Hades. It is also called "the +steed-necked incarnation of Vishnu", the "Preserver" of the Hindu +trinity who rode on its back. The hymn referred to lauds Garuda +as "the bird of life, the presiding spirit of the animate and +inanimate universe ... destroyer of all, creator of all". It +burns all "as the sun in his anger burneth all +creatures".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1198" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1198" id="fnrex1198">198</a>]</span></p> +<p>Birds were not only fates, from whose movements in flight +omens were drawn, but also spirits of fertility. When the +childless Indian sage Mandapala of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span> was refused admittance to +heaven until a son was born to him, he "pondered deeply" and +"came to know that of all creatures birds alone were blest with +fecundity"; so he became a bird.</p> +<p>It is of interest, therefore, to find the Etana eagle figuring +as a symbol of royalty at Rome. The deified Roman Emperor's waxen +image was burned on a pyre after his death, and an eagle was let +loose from the great pile to carry his soul to +heaven.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1199" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1199" id="fnrex1199">199</a>]</span> This custom was +probably a relic of seasonal fire worship, which may have been +introduced into Northern and Western Syria and Asia Minor by the +mysterious Mitanni rulers, if it was not an archaic Babylonian +custom<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1200" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1200" id="fnrex1200">200</a>]</span> associated with +fire-and-water magical ceremonies, represented in the British +Isles by May-Day and Midsummer fire-and-water festivals. Sandan, +the mythical founder of Tarsus, was honoured <a id= +"page.anchor.170" name="page.anchor.170"></a>each year at that +city by burning a great bonfire, and he was identified with +Hercules. Probably he was a form of Moloch and +Melkarth.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1201" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1201" id="fnrex1201">201</a>]</span> Doves were burned +to Adonis. The burning of straw figures, representing gods of +fertility, on May-Day bonfires may have been a fertility rite, +and perhaps explains the use of straw birth-girdles.</p> +<p>According to the commentators of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span>, Nimrod, the Babylonian king, +who cast victims in his annual bonfires at Cuthah, died on the +eighth day of the Tammuz month, which, according to the Syrian +calendar, fell on 13th July.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1202" href="#ftn.fnrex1202" id="fnrex1202">202</a>]</span> +It is related that gnats entered Nimrod's brain, causing the +membrane to grow larger. He suffered great pain, and to relieve +it had his head beaten with a mallet. Although he lived for +several hundred years, like other agricultural patriarchs, +including the Tammuz of Berosus, it is possible that he was +ultimately sacrificed and burned. The beating of Nimrod recalls +the beating of the corn spirit of the agricultural legend +utilized by Burns in his ballad of "John Barleycorn", which gives +a jocular account of widespread ancient customs that are not yet +quite extinct even in Scotland:<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1203" href="#ftn.fnrex1203" id= +"fnrex1203">203</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They laid him down upon his +back</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And cudgelled him full +sore;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They hung him up before a +storm</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And turned him o'er and +o'er.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They filled up a darksome +pit</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> With water to the brim,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They heaved in John +Barleycorn--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> There let him sink or +swim.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.171" name= +"page.anchor.171"></a>They wasted o'er a scorching +flame</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The marrow of his bones,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>But the miller used him worst of +all,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> For he crushed him between two +stones.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Hercules, after performing many mythical exploits, had himself +burned alive on the pyre which he built upon Mount Oeta, and was +borne to Olympus amidst peals of thunder.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, who links with Etana, +Nimrod, and Sandan, is associated with the eagle, which in India, +as has been shown, was identified with the gods of fertility, +fire, and death. According to a legend related by +Aelian,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1204" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1204" id="fnrex1204">204</a>]</span> "the guards of +the citadel of Babylon threw down to the ground a child who had +been conceived and brought forth in secret, and who afterwards +became known as Gilgamos". This appears to be another version of +the Sargon-Tammuz myth, and may also refer to the sacrifice of +children to Melkarth and Moloch, who were burned or slain "in the +valleys under the clefts of the rocks"<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1205" href="#ftn.fnrex1205" id="fnrex1205">205</a>]</span> +to ensure fertility and feed the corn god. Gilgamesh, however, +did not perish. "A keen-eyed eagle saw the child falling, and +before it touched the ground the bird flew under it and received +it on its back, and carried it away to a garden and laid it down +gently." Here we have, it would appear, Tammuz among the flowers, +and Sargon, the gardener, in the "Garden of Adonis". Mimic Adonis +gardens were cultivated by women. Corn, &c., was forced in +pots and baskets, and thrown, with an image of the god, into +streams. "Ignorant people", writes Professor Frazer, "suppose +that by mimicking the effect which they desire to produce they +actually help to produce it: thus by sprinkling water they <a id= +"page.anchor.172" name="page.anchor.172"></a>make rain, by +lighting a fire they make sunshine, and so on."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1206" href="#ftn.fnrex1206" id= +"fnrex1206">206</a>]</span> Evidently Gilgamesh was a heroic form +of the god Tammuz, the slayer of the demons of winter and storm, +who passed one part of the year in the world and another in Hades +(Chapter VI).</p> +<p>Like Hercules, Gilgamesh figured chiefly in legendary +narrative as a mighty hero. He was apparently of great antiquity, +so that it is impossible to identify him with any forerunner of +Sargon of Akkad, or Alexander the Great. His exploits were +depicted on cylinder seals of the Sumerian period, and he is +shown wrestling with a lion as Hercules wrestled with the +monstrous lion in the valley of Nemea. The story of his +adventures was narrated on twelve clay tablets, which were +preserved in the library of Ashur-banipal, the Assyrian emperor. +In the first tablet, which is badly mutilated, Gilgamesh is +referred to as the man who beheld the world, and had great wisdom +because he peered into the mysteries. He travelled to distant +places, and was informed regarding the flood and the primitive +race which the gods destroyed; he also obtained the plant of +life, which his enemy, the earth-lion, in the form of a serpent +or well demon, afterwards carried away.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh was associated with Erech, where he reigned as "the +lord". There Ishtar had a great temple, but her worldly wealth +had decreased. The fortifications of the city were crumbling, and +for three years the Elamites besieged it. The gods had turned to +flies and the winged bulls had become like mice. Men wailed like +wild beasts and maidens moaned like doves. Ultimately the people +prayed to the goddess Aruru to create a liberator. Bel, Shamash, +and Ishtar also came to their aid.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.173" name="page.anchor.173"></a>Aruru heard +the cries of her worshippers. She dipped her hands in water and +then formed a warrior with clay. He was named Ea-bani, which +signifies "Ea is my creator". It is possible, therefore, that an +ancient myth of Eridu forms the basis of the narrative.</p> +<p>Ea-bani is depicted on the cylinder seals as a hairy +man-monster resembling the god Pan. He ate grass with the +gazelles and drank water with wild beasts, and he is compared to +the corn god, which suggests that he was an early form of Tammuz, +and of character somewhat resembling the Egyptian Bast, the +half-bestial god of fertility. A hunter was sent out from Erech +to search for the man-monster, and found him beside a stream in a +savage place drinking with his associates, the wild animals. The +description of Ea-bani recalls that of Nebuchadnezzar when he was +stricken with madness. "He was driven from men, and did eat grass +as oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his +hairs were grown like eagles' feathers, and his nails like birds' +claws."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1207" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1207" id="fnrex1207">207</a>]</span></p> +<p>The hunter had no desire to combat with Ea-bani, so he had him +lured from the wilds by a beautiful woman. Love broke the spell +which kept Ea-bani in his savage state, and the wild beasts fled +from him. Then the temptress pleaded with him to go with her to +Erech, where Anu and Ishtar had their temples, and the mighty +Gilgamesh lived in his palace. Ea-bani, deserted by his bestial +companions, felt lonely and desired human friendship. So he +consented to accompany his bride. Having heard of Gilgamesh from +the hunter, he proposed to test his strength in single combat, +but Shamash, god of the sun, warned Ea-bani that he was the +protector of Gilgamesh, <a id="page.anchor.174" name= +"page.anchor.174"></a>who had been endowed with great knowledge +by Bel and Anu and Ea. Gilgamesh was also counselled in a vision +of night to receive Ea-bani as an ally.</p> +<p>Ea-bani was not attracted by city life and desired to return +to the wilds, but Shamash prevailed upon him to remain as the +friend of Gilgamesh, promising that he would be greatly honoured +and exalted to high rank.</p> +<p>The two heroes became close friends, and when the narrative +becomes clear again, they are found to be setting forth to wage +war against Chumbaba,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1208" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1208" id="fnrex1208">208</a>]</span> the King of Elam. +Their journey was long and perilous. In time they entered a thick +forest, and wondered greatly at the numerous and lofty cedars. +They saw the great road which the king had caused to be made, the +high mountain, and the temple of the god. Beautiful were the +trees about the mountain, and there were many shady retreats that +were fragrant and alluring.</p> +<p>At this point the narrative breaks off, for the tablet is +mutilated. When it is resumed a reference is made to "the head of +Chumbaba", who has apparently been slain by the heroes. Erech was +thus freed from the oppression of its fierce enemy.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh and Ea-bani appear to have become prosperous and +happy. But in the hour of triumph a shadow falls. Gilgamesh is +robed in royal splendour and wears his dazzling crown. He is +admired by all men, but suddenly it becomes known that the +goddess Ishtar has been stricken with love for him. She "loved +him with that love which was his doom". Those who are loved by +celestials or demons become, in folk tales, melancholy wanderers +and "night wailers". The "wretched wight" in Keats' "La Belle +Dame Sans Merci" is a typical example.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.175" name= +"page.anchor.175"></a>O what can ail thee, +knight-at-arms,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Alone and palely +loitering?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The sedge is withered from the +lake</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And no birds sing.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"> +<tt> * * * * *</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I met a lady in the meads,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Full beautiful--a faery's +child;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Her hair was long, her foot was +light,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And her eyes were wild.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"> +<tt> * * * * *</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>She found me roots of relish +sweet,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And honey wild and manna +dew;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And sure in language strange she +said,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> "I love thee true".</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Having kissed her lover to sleep, the fairy woman vanished. +The "knight" then saw in a dream the ghosts of knights and +warriors, her previous victims, who warned him of his fate.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I saw their starved lips in the +gloam,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> With horrid warning gaped +wide;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And I awoke and found me +here</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> On the cold hill's side.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The goddess Ishtar appeared as "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" +before Gilgamesh and addressed him tenderly, saying: "Come, O +Gilgamesh, and be my consort. Gift thy strength unto me. Be thou +my husband and I will be thy bride. Thou shalt have a chariot of +gold and lapis lazuli with golden wheels and gem-adorned. Thy +steeds shall be fair and white and powerful. Into my dwelling +thou shalt come amidst the fragrant cedars. Every king and every +prince will bow down before thee, O Gilgamesh, to kiss thy feet, +and all people will become subject unto thee."</p> +<p>Gilgamesh feared the fate which would attend him as <a id= +"page.anchor.176" name="page.anchor.176"></a>the lover of Ishtar, +and made answer saying: "To what husband hast thou ever remained +faithful? Each year Tammuz, the lover of thy youth, is caused by +thee to weep. Thou didst love the Allala bird and then broke his +wings, and he moans in the woods crying, 'O my wings!' Thou didst +love the lion and then snared him. Thou didst love the horse, and +then laid harness on him and made him gallop half a hundred miles +so that he suffered great distress, and thou didst oppress his +mother Silili. Thou didst love a shepherd who sacrificed kids +unto thee, and then thou didst smite him so that he became a +jackal (or leopard); his own herd boy drove him away and his dogs +rent him in pieces. Thou didst love Ishullanu, the gardener of +Anu, who made offerings unto thee, and then smote him so that he +was unable to move. Alas! if thou wouldst love me, my fate would +be like unto the fates of those on whom thou hast laid +affliction."</p> +<p>Ishtar's heart was filled with wrath when she heard the words +which Gilgamesh had spoken, and she prevailed upon her father Anu +to create a fierce bull which she sent against the lord of +Erech.</p> +<p>This monster, however, was slain by Gilgamesh<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1209" href="#ftn.fnrex1209" id= +"fnrex1209">209</a>]</span> and Ea-bani, but their triumph was +shortlived. Ishtar cursed Gilgamesh. Ea-bani then defied her and +threatened to deal with her as he had dealt with the bull, with +the result that he was cursed by the goddess also.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2527990" name="id2527990"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure VIII.1. THE SLAYING OF THE BULL OF +ISHTAR</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>From the Painting by E. Wallcousins</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/18.jpg" /></div> +<p>Gilgamesh dedicated the horns of the bull to Shamash and +returned with his friend to Erech, where they were received with +great rejoicings. A festival was held, and afterwards the heroes +lay down to sleep. Then Ea-bani dreamt a dream of ill omen. He +met his death soon afterwards, apparently in a battle, and +Gilgamesh lamented <a id="page.anchor.177" name= +"page.anchor.177"></a>over him. From the surviving fragments of +the narrative it would appear that Gilgamesh resolved to +undertake a journey, for he had been stricken by disease. He wept +and cried out, "Oh! let me not die like Ea-bani, for death is +fearful. I will seek the aid of mine ancestor, +Pir-napishtim"--the Babylonian Noah, who was believed to be +dwelling on an island which corresponds to the Greek "Island of +the Blessed". The Babylonian island lay in the ocean of the +Nether World.</p> +<p>It seems that Gilgamesh not only hoped to obtain the Water of +Life and the Plant of Life to cure his own disease, but also to +restore to life his dead friend, Ea-bani, whom he loved.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh set out on his journey and in time reached a +mountain chasm. Gazing on the rugged heights, he beheld fierce +lions and his heart trembled. Then he cried upon the moon god, +who took pity upon him, and under divine protection the hero +pressed onward. He crossed the rocky range and then found himself +confronted by the tremendous mountain of Mashi--"Sunset hill", +which divided the land of the living from the western land of the +dead. The mountain peak rose to heaven, and its foundations were +in Aralu, the Underworld.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1210" +href="#ftn.fnrex1210" id="fnrex1210">210</a>]</span> A dark +tunnel pierced it and could be entered through a door, but the +door was shut and on either side were two monsters of horrible +aspect--the gigantic "scorpion man" and his wife, whose heads +reached to the clouds. When Gilgamesh beheld them he swooned with +terror. But they did him no harm, perceiving that he was a son of +a god and had a body like a god.</p> +<p>When Gilgamesh revived, he realized that the monsters <a id= +"page.anchor.178" name="page.anchor.178"></a>regarded him with +eyes of sympathy. Addressing the scorpion giant, he told that he +desired to visit his ancestor, Pir-napishtim, who sat in the +council of the gods and had divine attributes. The giant warned +him of the dangers which he would encounter, saying that the +mountain passage was twelve miles long and beamless and black. +Gilgamesh, however, resolved to encounter any peril, for he was +no longer afraid, and he was allowed to go forward. So he entered +through the monster-guarded mountain door and plunged into thick +unbroken darkness. For twice twelve hours he groped blindly +onward, until he saw a ray of light. Quickening his steps, he +then escaped from the dreadful tunnel and once more rejoiced in +the rays of the sun. He found himself in an enchanted garden, and +in the midst of it he saw a divine and beautiful tree towards +which he hastened. On its gleaming branches hung clusters of +precious stones and its leaves were of lapis lazuli. His eyes +were dazzled, but he did not linger there. Passing many other +wonderful trees, he came to a shoreland, and he knew that he was +drawing nigh to the Sea of Death. The country which he entered +was ruled over by the sea lady whose name was Sabitu. When she +saw the pilgrim drawing nigh, she entered her palace and shut the +door.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh called out requesting that he should be allowed to +enter, and mingled his entreaties with threats to break open the +door. In the end Sabitu appeared and spoke, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Gilgamesh, whither hurriest +thou?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The life that thou seekest thou wilt +not find.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When the gods created man</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>They fixed death for +mankind.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Life they took in their own +hand.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou, O Gilgamesh, let thy belly be +filled!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.179" name= +"page.anchor.179"></a>Day and night be merry,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Daily celebrate a feast,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Day and night dance and make +merry!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Clean be thy clothes,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy head be washed, bathe in +water!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Look joyfully on the child that grasps +thy hand,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Be happy with the wife in thine +arms!<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1211" href="#ftn.fnrex1211" +id="fnrex1211">211</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>This is the philosophy of the Egyptian "Lay of the Harper". +The following quotations are from two separate versions:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>How rests this just prince!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The goodly destiny befalls,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The bodies pass away</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Since the time of the god,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And generations come into their +places.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"> +<tt> * * * * *</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>(Make) it pleasant for thee to follow +thy desire</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>While thou livest.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Put myrrh upon thy head,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And garments on thee of fine +linen....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Celebrate the glad day,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Be not weary therein....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thy sister (wife) who dwells in thy +heart.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>She sits at thy side.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Put song and music before +thee,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Behind thee all evil things,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And remember thou (only) +joy.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1212" href="#ftn.fnrex1212" +id="fnrex1212">212</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Jastrow contrasts the Babylonian poem with the following +quotation from Ecclesiastes:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and +drink thy wine with</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>a merry heart.... Let thy garments be +always white; and</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.180" name= +"page.anchor.180"></a>let thy head lack no ointment. Live +joyfully with the wife whom</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>thou lovest all the days of the life of +thy vanity, which he [God]</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>hath given thee under the sun, all the +days of thy vanity: for that</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>is thy portion in this life, and in thy +labour which thou takest</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>under the sun.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1213" href="#ftn.fnrex1213" id= +"fnrex1213">213</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>"The pious Hebrew mind", Jastrow adds, "found the corrective +to this view of life in the conception of a stern but just God, +acting according to self-imposed standards of right and wrong, +whose rule extends beyond the grave." The final words of the +Preacher are, "Fear God and keep his commandments".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1214" href="#ftn.fnrex1214" id= +"fnrex1214">214</a>]</span></p> +<p>Gilgamesh did not accept the counsel of the fatalistic sea +lady. He asked her how he could reach Pir-napishtim, his +ancestor, saying he was prepared to cross the Sea of Death: if he +could not cross it he would die of grief.</p> +<p>Sabitu answered him, saying: "O Gilgamesh, no mortal is +ferried over this great sea. Who can pass over it save Shamash +alone? The way is full of peril. O Gilgamesh, how canst thou +battle against the billows of death?"</p> +<p>At length, however, the sea lady revealed to the pilgrim that +he might obtain the aid of the sailor, Arad Ea, who served his +ancestor Pir-napishtim.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh soon found where Arad Ea dwelt, and after a time +prevailed upon him to act as ferryman. Arad Ea required a helm +for his boat, and Gilgamesh hastened to fashion one from a tree. +When it was fixed on, the boat was launched and the voyage began. +Terrible experiences were passed through as they crossed the Sea +of Death, but at length they drew nigh to the "Island of the +Blessed" on which dwelt Pir-napishtim and his wife. Wearied by +his exertions and wasted by disease, Gilgamesh sat resting in the +boat. He did not go ashore.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.181" name= +"page.anchor.181"></a>Pir-napishtim had perceived the vessel +crossing the Sea of Death and marvelled greatly.</p> +<p>The story is unfortunately interrupted again, but it appears +that Gilgamesh poured into the ears of his ancestor the tale of +his sufferings, adding that he feared death and desired to escape +his fate.</p> +<p>Pir-napishtim made answer, reminding the pilgrim that all men +must die. Men built houses, sealed contracts, disputed one with +another, and sowed seeds in the earth, but as long as they did so +and the rivers rose in flood, so long would their fate endure. +Nor could any man tell when his hour would come. The god of +destiny measured out the span of life: he fixed the day of death, +but never revealed his secrets.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh then asked Pir-napishtim how it chanced that he was +still alive. "Thou hast suffered no change," he said, "thou art +even as I am. Harden not thy heart against me, but reveal how +thou hast obtained divine life in the company of the gods."</p> +<p>Pir-napishtim thereupon related to his descendant the story of +the deluge, which is dealt with fully in the next chapter. The +gods had resolved to destroy the world, and Ea in a dream +revealed unto Pir-napishtim how he could escape. He built a ship +which was tossed about on the waters, and when the world had been +destroyed, Bel discovered him and transported him to that island +in the midst of the Sea of Death.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh sat in the boat listening to the words of his +ancestor. When the narrative was ended, Pir-napishtim spoke +sympathetically and said: "Who among the gods will restore thee +to health, O Gilgamesh? Thou hast knowledge of my life, and thou +shalt be given the life thou dost strive after. Take heed, +therefore, to what I say unto thee. For six days and seven nights +thou <a id="page.anchor.182" name="page.anchor.182"></a>shalt not +lie down, but remain sitting like one in the midst of +grief."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1215" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1215" id="fnrex1215">215</a>]</span></p> +<p>Gilgamesh sat in the ship, and sleep enveloped him like to a +black storm cloud.</p> +<p>Pir-napishtim spoke to his wife and said: "Behold the hero who +desireth to have life. Sleep envelops him like to a black storm +cloud."</p> +<p>To that lone man his wife made answer: "Lay thine hand upon +him so that he may have perfect health and be enabled to return +to his own land. Give him power to pass through the mighty door +by which he entered."</p> +<p>Then Pir-napishtim addressed his wife, saying: "His sufferings +make me sad. Prepare thou for him the magic food, and place it +near his head."</p> +<p>On the day when Gilgamesh lay down, the food was prepared by +seven magic processes, and the woman administered it while yet he +slept. Then Pir-napishtim touched him, and he awoke full of +life.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh spake unto Pir-napishtim and said: "I was suddenly +overcome by sleep.... But thou didst awaken me by touching me, +even thou.... Lo! I am bewitched. What hast thou done unto thy +servant?"</p> +<p>Then Pir-napishtim told Gilgamesh that he had been given to +eat of the magic food. Afterwards he caused Arad Ea to carry +Gilgamesh to a fountain of healing, where his disease-stricken +body was cleansed. The blemished skin fell from him, and he was +made whole.</p> +<p>Thereafter Gilgamesh prepared to return to his own land. Ere +he bade farewell, however, Pir-napishtim revealed unto him the +secret of a magic plant which had power to renew life and give +youth and strength unto those who were old.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.183" name="page.anchor.183"></a>Arad Ea +conducted the hero to the island where the plant grew, and when +Gilgamesh found it he rejoiced, and said that he would carry it +to Erech, his own city, where he would partake of it and restore +his youth.</p> +<p>So Gilgamesh and Arad Ea went on their way together, nor +paused until they came to a well of pure water. The hero stooped +down to draw water.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1216" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1216" id="fnrex1216">216</a>]</span> But while he was +thus engaged that demon, the Earth Lion, crept forth as a +serpent, and, seizing the magic plant of life, carried it away. +Stricken with terror, Gilgamesh uttered a curse. Then he sat down +and wept bitterly, and the tears streamed over his face. To Arad +Ea he spake, saying: "Why has my health been restored to me? Why +should I rejoice because that I live? The benefit which I should +have derived for myself has now fallen to the Earth Lion."</p> +<p>The two travellers then resumed their journey, performing +religious acts from time to time; chanting dirges and holding +feasts for the dead, and at length Gilgamesh returned to Erech. +He found that the city walls were crumbling, and he spake +regarding the ceremonies which had been performed while yet he +was in a far-distant country.</p> +<p>During the days which followed Gilgamesh sorrowed for his lost +friend Ea-bani, whose spirit was in the Underworld, the captive +of the spirits of death. "Thou canst not draw thy bow now," he +cried, "nor raise the battle shout. Thou canst not kiss the woman +thou hast loved; thou canst not kiss the child thou hast loved, +nor canst thou smite those whom thou hast hated."</p> +<p>In vain Gilgamesh appealed to his mother goddess to restore +Ea-bani to him. Then he turned to the gods, and <a id= +"page.anchor.184" name="page.anchor.184"></a>Ea heard him. +Thereafter Nergal, god of death, caused the grave to yawn, and +the spirit of Ea-bani arose like a wind gust.</p> +<p>Gilgamesh, still dreading death, spoke to the ghost of his +friend, saying: "Tell me, my friend, O tell me regarding the land +in which thou dost dwell."</p> +<p>Ea-bani made answer sorrowfully: "Alas! I cannot tell thee, my +friend. If I were to tell thee all, thou wouldst sit down and +weep."</p> +<p>Said Gilgamesh: "Let me sit down and weep, but tell me +regarding the land of spirits."</p> +<p>The text is mutilated here, but it can be gathered that +Ea-bani described the land where ill-doers were punished, where +the young were like the old, where the worm devoured, and dust +covered all. But the state of the warrior who had been given +burial was better than that of the man who had not been buried, +and had no one to lament or care for him. "He who hath been slain +in battle," the ghost said, "reposeth on a couch drinking pure +water--one slain in battle as thou hast seen and I have seen. His +head is supported by his parents: beside him sits his wife. His +spirit doth not haunt the earth. But the spirit of that man whose +corpse has been left unburied and uncared for, rests not, but +prowls through the streets eating scraps of food, the leavings of +the feast, and drinking the dregs of vessels."</p> +<p>So ends the story of Gilgamesh in the form which survives to +us.</p> +<p>The journey of Gilgamesh to the Island of the Blessed recalls +the journeys made by Odin, Hermod, Svipdag, Hotherus and others +to the Germanic Hela. When Hermod went to search for Balder, as +the Prose Edda relates, he rode through thick darkness for nine +days and nine nights ere he crossed the mountains. As Gilgamesh +<a id="page.anchor.185" name="page.anchor.185"></a>met Sabitu, +Hermod met Modgudur, "the maiden who kept the bridge" over the +river Gjõll. Svipdag, according to a Norse poem, was +guided like the Babylonian hero by the moon god, Gevar, who +instructed him what way he should take to find the irresistible +sword. Saxo's Hother, who is instructed by "King Gewar", crosses +dismal mountains "beset with extraordinary cold".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1217" href="#ftn.fnrex1217" id= +"fnrex1217">217</a>]</span> Thorkill crosses a stormy ocean to +the region of perpetual darkness, where the ghosts of the dead +are confined in loathsome and dusty caves. At the main entrance +"the door posts were begrimed with the soot of ages".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1218" href="#ftn.fnrex1218" id= +"fnrex1218">218</a>]</span> In the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Elder Edda</em></span> Svipdag is charmed against +the perils he will be confronted by as he fares "o'er seas +mightier than men do know", or is overtaken by night "wandering +on the misty way".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1219" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1219" id="fnrex1219">219</a>]</span> When Odin +"downward rode into Misty Hel" he sang spells at a "witch's +grave", and the ghost rose up to answer his questions regarding +Balder. "Tell me tidings of Hel", he addressed her, as Gilgamesh +addressed the ghost of Ea-bani.</p> +<p>In the mythical histories of Alexander the Great, the hero +searches for the Water of Life, and is confronted by a great +mountain called Musas (Mashti). A demon stops him and says; "O +king, thou art not able to march through this mountain, for in it +dwelleth a mighty god who is like unto a monster serpent, and he +preventeth everyone who would go unto him." In another part of +the narrative Alexander and his army arrive at a place of +darkness "where the blackness is not like the darkness of night, +but is like unto the mists and clouds which descend at the break +of day". A servant uses a shining jewel stone, which Adam had +brought from Paradise, to guide him, and found the well. He drank +<a id="page.anchor.186" name="page.anchor.186"></a>of the "waters +of life" and bathed in them, with the result that he was +strengthened and felt neither hunger nor thirst. When he came out +of the well "all the flesh of his body became bluish-green and +his garments likewise bluish-green". Apparently he assumed the +colour of supernatural beings. Rama of India was blue, and +certain of his monkey allies were green, like the fairies of +England and Scotland. This fortunate man kept his secret. His +name was Matun, but he was afterwards nicknamed "'El-Khidr', that +is to say, 'Green'". What explanation he offered for his sudden +change of appearance has not been recorded.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1220" href="#ftn.fnrex1220" id= +"fnrex1220">220</a>]</span> It is related that when Matun reached +the Well of Life a dried fish which he dipped in the water was +restored to life and swam away. In the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> a similar story is told +regarding Moses and Joshua, who travelled "for a long space of +time" to a place where two seas met. "They forgot their fish +which they had taken with them, and the fish took its way freely +to the sea." The Arabian commentators explain that Moses once +agreed to the suggestion that he was the wisest of men. In a +dream he was directed to visit Al Khedr, who was "more knowing +than he", and to take a fish with him in a basket. On the +seashore Moses fell asleep, and the fish, which had been roasted, +leapt out of the basket into the sea. Another version sets forth +that Joshua, "making the ablution at the fountain of life", some +of the water happened to be sprinkled on the fish, which +immediately leapt up.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1221" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1221" id="fnrex1221">221</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Well of Life is found in Fingalian legends. When Diarmid +was mortally wounded by the boar, he called upon Finn to carry +water to him from the well:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.187" name= +"page.anchor.187"></a>Give me a draught from thy palms, O +Finn,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Son of my king for my +succour,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For my life and my dwelling.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Campbell's West Highland Tales</em></span>, vol. +iii, 80.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The quest of the plant, flower, or fruit of life is referred +to in many folk tales. In the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, Bhima, the Indian +Gilgamesh or Hercules, journeys to north-eastern Celestial +regions to find the lake of the god Kuvera (Kubera), on which +grow the "most beautiful and unearthly lotuses", which restore +health and give strength to the weary. As Gilgamesh meets with +Pir-napishtim, who relates the story of the Deluge which +destroyed the "elder race", Bhima meets with Hanuman, who informs +him regarding the Ages of the Universe and the races which were +periodically destroyed by deluges. When Bhima reaches the lotus +lake he fights with demons. To heal his wounds and recover +strength he plunges into the lake. "As he drank of the waters, +like unto nectar, his energy and strength were again fully +restored."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1222" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1222" id="fnrex1222">222</a>]</span></p> +<p>Hercules similarly sets out to search for the golden apples +which grow in</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> those Hesperian gardens famed of +old,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Fortunate fields, and groves and +flowery vales.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>As Bhima slew Yakshas which guarded the lotuses, Hercules slew +Ladon, the guardian of the apples. Other heroes kill +treasure-protecting dragons of various kinds.</p> +<p>There is a remarkable resemblance between the Babylonian +account of Gilgamesh's journey through the mountain tunnel to the +garden and seashore, and the Indian story of the demigod Hanuman +passing through the long <a id="page.anchor.188" name= +"page.anchor.188"></a>cavern to the shoreland palace of the +female ascetic, when he was engaged searching for Sita, the wife +of Rama, who had been carried away by Ravana, the demon king of +Ceylon. In the version of the latter narrative which is given in +the <span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, Hanuman +says: "I bring thee good news, O Rama; for Janaka's daughter hath +been seen by me. Having searched the southern region with all its +hills, forests, and mines for some time, we became very weary. At +length we beheld a great cavern. And having beheld it, we entered +that cavern which extended over many <span class= +"emphasis"><em>yojanas</em></span>. It was dark and deep, and +overgrown with trees and infested by worms. And having gone a +great way through it, we came upon sunshine and beheld a +beautiful palace. It was the abode of the Daitya (sea demon) +Maya. And there we beheld a female ascetic named +Parbhàvati engaged in ascetic austerities. And she gave us +food and drink of various kinds. And having refreshed ourselves +therewith and regained our strength, we proceeded along the way +shown by her. At last we came out of the cavern and beheld the +briny sea, and on its shores, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sahya</em></span>, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Malaya</em></span>, and the great <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Dardura</em></span> mountains. And ascending the +mountains of <span class="emphasis"><em>Malaya</em></span>, we +beheld before us the vast ocean (or, "the abode of Varuna"). And +beholding it, we felt sorely grieved in mind.... We despaired of +returning with our lives.... We then sat together, resolved to +die there of starvation."</p> +<p>Hanuman and his friends, having had, so far, experiences +similar to those of Gilgamesh, next discovered the eagle giant +which had burned its wings when endeavouring to soar to the sun. +This great bird, which resembles the Etana eagle, expressed the +opinion that Sita was in Lanka (Ceylon), whither she must have +been carried by Ravana. But no one dared to cross the dangerous +ocean. Hanuman <a id="page.anchor.189" name= +"page.anchor.189"></a>at length, however, obtained the assistance +of Vayu, the wind god, his divine father, and leapt over the sea, +slaying monsters as he went. He discovered where the fair lady +was concealed by the king of demons.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1223" href="#ftn.fnrex1223" id= +"fnrex1223">223</a>]</span></p> +<p>The dark tunnel is met with in many British stories of daring +heroes who set out to explore it, but never return. In the +Scottish versions the adventurers are invariably pipers who are +accompanied by dogs. The sound of the pipes is heard for a time; +then the music ceases suddenly, and shortly afterwards the dog +returns without a hair upon its body. It has evidently been in +conflict with demons.</p> +<p>The tunnel may run from a castle to the seashore, from a cave +on one side of a hill to a cave on the other, or from a seashore +cave to a distant island.</p> +<p>It is possible that these widespread tunnel stories had origin +among the cave dwellers of the Palaeolithic Age, who believed +that deep caverns were the doors of the underground retreats of +dragons and giants and other supernatural enemies of mankind.</p> +<p>In Babylonia, as elsewhere, the priests utilized the floating +material from which all mythologies were framed, and impressed +upon it the stamp of their doctrines. The symbolized stories were +afterwards distributed far and wide, as were those attached to +the memory of Alexander the Great at a later period. Thus in many +countries may be found at the present day different versions of +immemorial folk tales, which represent various stages of culture, +and direct and indirect contact at different periods with +civilizations that have stirred the ocean of human thought, and +sent their ideas rippling in widening circles to far-distant +shores.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1190" href="#fnrex1190" id= +"ftn.fnrex1190">190</a>]</span> It is suggested that Arthur is +derived from the Celtic word for "bear". If so, the bear may have +been the "totem" of the Arthur tribe represented by the Scottish +clan of MacArthurs.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1191" href="#fnrex1191" id= +"ftn.fnrex1191">191</a>]</span> See "Lady in the Straw" beliefs +in <span class="emphasis"><em>Brand's Popular +Antiquities</em></span>, vol. ii, 66 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>. 1899 ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1192" href="#fnrex1192" id= +"ftn.fnrex1192">192</a>]</span> Like the Etana "mother eagle" +Garuda was a slayer of serpents (Chapter III).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1193" href="#fnrex1193" id= +"ftn.fnrex1193">193</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vana +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahábhárata</em></span> (Roy's +trans.), p. 818 <span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>., +and <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and +Legend</em></span>, p. 413.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1194" href="#fnrex1194" id= +"ftn.fnrex1194">194</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Koran</em></span> (with notes from approved commentators), trans. +by George Sale, P-246, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1195" href="#fnrex1195" id= +"ftn.fnrex1195">195</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great</em></span>, E. Wallis +Budge (London, 1896), pp. 277-8, 474-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1196" href="#fnrex1196" id= +"ftn.fnrex1196">196</a>]</span> Campbell's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>West Highland Tales</em></span>, vol. iii, pp. +251-4 (1892 ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1197" href="#fnrex1197" id= +"ftn.fnrex1197">197</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, A. +Wiedemann, p. 141.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1198" href="#fnrex1198" id= +"ftn.fnrex1198">198</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Adi +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> (Hymn to +Garuda), Roy's trans., p. 88, 89.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1199" href="#fnrex1199" id= +"ftn.fnrex1199">199</a>]</span> Herodian, iv, 2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1200" href="#fnrex1200" id= +"ftn.fnrex1200">200</a>]</span> The image made by Nebuchadnezzar +is of interest in this connection. He decreed that "whoso falleth +not down and worshippeth" should be burned in the "fiery +furnace". The Hebrews, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, were +accordingly thrown into the fire, but were delivered by God. +<span class="emphasis"><em>Daniel</em></span>, iii, 1-30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1201" href="#fnrex1201" id= +"ftn.fnrex1201">201</a>]</span> The Assyrian and Phoenician +Hercules is discussed by Raoul Rochette in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mémoires de l'Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles Lettres</em></span> (Paris, 1848), pp. 178 +et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1202" href="#fnrex1202" id= +"ftn.fnrex1202">202</a>]</span> G. Sale's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span>, p. 246, n.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1203" href="#fnrex1203" id= +"ftn.fnrex1203">203</a>]</span> In the Eddic poem "Lokasenna" the +god Byggvir (Barley) is addressed by Loki, "Silence, Barleycorn!" +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Elder Edda</em></span>, +translation by Olive Bray, pp. 262, 263.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1204" href="#fnrex1204" id= +"ftn.fnrex1204">204</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>De +Nat. Animal</em></span>., xii, 21, ed. Didot, p. 210, quoted by +Professor Budge in <span class="emphasis"><em>The Life and +Exploits of Alexander the Great</em></span>, p. 278, n.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1205" href="#fnrex1205" id= +"ftn.fnrex1205">205</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, lvii, 4 and 5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1206" href="#fnrex1206" id= +"ftn.fnrex1206">206</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Golden Bough (Adonis, Attis, Osiris</em></span> vol.), "The +Gardens of Adonis", pp. 194 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>. (3rd ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1207" href="#fnrex1207" id= +"ftn.fnrex1207">207</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Daniel</em></span>, iv, 33. It is possible that +Nebuchadnezzar, as the human representative of the god of corn +and fertility, imitated the god by living a time in the wilds +like Ea-bani.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1208" href="#fnrex1208" id= +"ftn.fnrex1208">208</a>]</span> Pronounce <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ch</em></span> guttural.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1209" href="#fnrex1209" id= +"ftn.fnrex1209">209</a>]</span> On a cylinder seal the heroes +each wrestle with a bull.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1210" href="#fnrex1210" id= +"ftn.fnrex1210">210</a>]</span> Alexander the Great in the course +of his mythical travels reached a mountain at the world-end. "Its +peak reached to the first heaven and its base to the seventh +earth."--<span class="emphasis"><em>Budge</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1211" href="#fnrex1211" id= +"ftn.fnrex1211">211</a>]</span> Jastrow's trans., <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 374.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1212" href="#fnrex1212" id= +"ftn.fnrex1212">212</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient +Egypt</em></span> (1912), J.H. Breasted, pp. 183-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1213" href="#fnrex1213" id= +"ftn.fnrex1213">213</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ecclesiastes</em></span>, ix, 7-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1214" href="#fnrex1214" id= +"ftn.fnrex1214">214</a>]</span> Ibid., xii, 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1215" href="#fnrex1215" id= +"ftn.fnrex1215">215</a>]</span> Perhaps brooding and undergoing +penance like an Indian Rishi with purpose to obtain spiritual +power.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1216" href="#fnrex1216" id= +"ftn.fnrex1216">216</a>]</span> Probably to perform the ceremony +of pouring out a libation.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1217" href="#fnrex1217" id= +"ftn.fnrex1217">217</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Saxo</em></span>, iii, 71.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1218" href="#fnrex1218" id= +"ftn.fnrex1218">218</a>]</span> Ibid., viii, 291.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1219" href="#fnrex1219" id= +"ftn.fnrex1219">219</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Elder Edda</em></span>, O. Bray, pp. 157 et seq. See also +<span class="emphasis"><em>Teutonic Myth and +Legend</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1220" href="#fnrex1220" id= +"ftn.fnrex1220">220</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great</em></span>, E. Wallis +Budge, pp. xl et seq., 167 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1221" href="#fnrex1221" id= +"ftn.fnrex1221">221</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Koran</em></span>, trans, by G. Sale, pp. 222, 223 (chap. +xviii).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1222" href="#fnrex1222" id= +"ftn.fnrex1222">222</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vana +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> (Roy's +trans.), pp. 435-60, and <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth +and Legend</em></span>, pp. 105-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1223" href="#fnrex1223" id= +"ftn.fnrex1223">223</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vana +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> (Roy's +translation), pp. 832, 833.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2529027" name= +"id2529027"></a>Chapter IX. Deluge Legend, the Island of the +Blessed, and Hades</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Babylonian Story of the Flood--The Two Immortals on the Island +of the Blessed--Deluge Legends in the Old and New Worlds--How +Babylonian Culture reached India--Theory of Cosmic +Periods--Gilgamesh resembles the Indian Yama and Persian +Yimeh--Links with Varuna and Mitra--The Great Winter in Persian +and Teutonic Mythologies--Babylonian Hades compared with the +Egyptian, Greek, Indian, Teutonic, and Celtic Otherworlds--Legend +of Nergal and the Queen of Death--Underworld originally the +Grave--Why Weapons, &c., were Buried with the Dead--Japanese +and Roman Beliefs--Palaeolithic Burial Customs--"Our Graves are +our Houses"--Importance of Babylonian Funerary +Ceremonies--Doctrine of Eternal Bliss in Egypt and India--Why +Suppressed in Babylonia--Heavy Burial Fees--Various Burial +Customs.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.190" name="page.anchor.190"></a> The story +of the Deluge which was related to Gilgamesh by Pir-napishtim +runs as follows:--</p> +<p>"Hear me, O Gilgamesh, and I will make revelation regarding +the hidden doings of the high gods. As thou knowest, the city of +Shurippak is situated upon the bank of the Euphrates. The gods +were within it: there they assembled together in council. Anu, +the father, was there, and Bel the counsellor and warrior, Ninip +the messenger, and Ennugi the governor. Ea, the wise lord, sat +also with them. In their hearts the gods agreed together to send +a great deluge.</p> +<p>"Thereafter Ea made known the purpose of the divine rulers in +the hut of reeds, saying:<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1224" +href="#ftn.fnrex1224" id="fnrex1224">224</a>]</span> 'O hut of +<a id="page.anchor.191" name="page.anchor.191"></a>reeds, hear; O +wall, understand ... O man of Shurippak, son of Umbara Tutu, tear +down thy house and build a ship; leave all thou dost possess and +save thy life, and preserve in the ship the living seed of every +kind. The ship that thou wilt build must be of goodly proportions +in length and height. It must be floated on the great deep.'</p> +<p>"I heard the command of Ea and understood, and I made answer, +saying, 'O wise lord, as thou hast said so will I do, for thy +counsel is most excellent. But how shall I give reason for my +doings to the young men and the elders?'</p> +<p>"Ea opened his mouth and said unto me, his servant: 'What thou +shalt say unto them is this.... <span class="emphasis"><em>It +hath been revealed unto me that Bel doth hate me, therefore I +cannot remain any longer in his domain, this city of Shurippak, +so I must depart unto the domain of Ea and dwell with him.... +Unto you will Bel send abundance of rain, so that you may obtain +birds and fishes in plenty and have a rich harvest. But Shamash +hath appointed a time for Ramman to pour down destruction from +the heavens.</em></span>'"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1225" +href="#ftn.fnrex1225" id="fnrex1225">225</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ea then gave instructions to Pir-napishtim how to build the +ship in which he should find refuge. So far as can be gathered +from the fragmentary text, it appears that this vessel was to +have a deck house six stories high, with nine apartments in each +story. According to another account, Ea drew a plan of the great +ship upon the sand.</p> +<p>Pir-napishtim set to work and made a flat-bottomed vessel, +which was 120 cubits wide and 120 cubits in height. He smeared it +with bitumen inside and pitch outside; and on the seventh day it +was ready. Then <a id="page.anchor.192" name= +"page.anchor.192"></a>he carried out Ea's further instructions. +Continuing his narrative to Gilgamesh, he said:</p> +<p>"I gathered together all that I possessed, my silver and gold +and seeds of every kind, and my goods also. These I placed in the +ship. Then I caused to go aboard all my family and house +servants, the animals of the field and the beasts of the field +and the workers--every one of them I sent up.</p> +<p>"The god Shamash appointed the time, saying: 'I will cause the +Night Lord to send much rain and bring destruction. Then enter +thou the ship and shut thy door.'</p> +<p>"At the appointed time the Night Lord sent at even-time much +rain. I saw the beginning of the deluge and I was afraid to look +up. I entered the ship and shut the door. I appointed +Buzur-Kurgala, the sailor, to be captain, and put under his +command the great vessel and all that it contained.</p> +<p>"At the dawn of day I saw rising athwart the heavens a dark +cloud, and in the midst of it Ramman thundered. Nebo and Merodach +went in front, speeding like emissaries over hills and plains. +The cables of the ship were let loose.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2529196" name="id2529196"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure IX.1. THE BABYLONIAN DELUGE</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/19.jpg" /></div> +<p>"Then Ninip, the tempest god, came nigh, and the storm broke +in fury before him. All the earth spirits leapt up with flaming +torches and the whole land was aflare. The thunder god swept over +the heavens, blotting out the sunlight and bringing thick +darkness. Rain poured down the whole day long, and the earth was +covered with water; the rivers were swollen; the land was in +confusion; men stumbled about in the darkness, battling with the +elements. Brothers were unable to see brothers; no man could +recognize his friends.... The spirits above looked down and +beheld the rising <a id="page.anchor.193" name= +"page.anchor.193"></a>flood and were afraid: they fled away, and +in the heaven of Anu they crouched like to hounds in the +protecting enclosures.</p> +<p>"In time Ishtar, the lady of the gods, cried out +distressfully, saying: 'The elder race hath perished and turned +to clay because that I have consented to evil counsel in the +assembly of the gods. Alas! I have allowed my people to be +destroyed. I gave being to man, but where is he? Like the +offspring of fish he cumbers the deep.'</p> +<p>"The earth spirits were weeping with Ishtar: they sat down +cowering with tightened lips and spake not; they mourned in +silence.</p> +<p>"Six days and six nights went past, and the tempest raged over +the waters which gradually covered the land. But when the seventh +day came, the wind fell, the whirling waters grew peaceful, and +the sea retreated. The storm was over and the rain of destruction +had ceased. I looked forth. I called aloud over the waters. But +all mankind had perished and turned to clay. Where fields had +been I saw marshes only.</p> +<p>"Then I opened wide the window of the ship, and the sunlight +suffused my countenance. I was dazzled and sank down weeping and +the tears streamed over my face. Everywhere I looked I saw +water.</p> +<p>"At length, land began to appear. The ship drifted towards the +country of Nitsir, and then it was held fast by the mountain of +Nitsir. Six days went past and the ship remained stedfast. On the +seventh day I sent forth a dove, and she flew away and searched +this way and that, but found no resting place, so she returned. I +then sent forth a swallow, and she returned likewise. Next I sent +forth a raven, and she flew away. She saw that the waters were +shrinking, and gorged and croaked and waded, but <a id= +"page.anchor.194" name="page.anchor.194"></a>did not come back. +Then I brought forth all the animals into the air of heaven.</p> +<p>"An offering I made on the mountain. I poured out a libation. +I set up incense vessels seven by seven on heaped-up reeds and +used cedar wood with incense. The gods smelt the sweet savour, +and they clustered like flies about the sacrificer.</p> +<p>"Thereafter Ishtar (Sirtu) drew nigh. Lifting up the jewels, +which the god Anu had fashioned for her according to her desire, +she spake, saying: 'Oh! these gods! I vow by the lapis lazuli +gems upon my neck that I will never forget! I will remember these +days for ever and ever. Let all the gods come hither to the +offering, save Bel (Enlil) alone, because that he ignored my +counsel, and sent a great deluge which destroyed my people.'</p> +<p>"But Bel Enlil came also, and when he beheld the ship he +paused. His heart was filled with wrath against the gods and the +spirits of heaven. Angrily he spake and said: 'Hath one escaped? +It was decreed that no human being should survive the +deluge.'</p> +<p>"Ninip, son of Bel, spoke, saying: 'Who hath done this save Ea +alone? He knoweth all things.'</p> +<p>"Ea, god of the deep, opened his mouth and said unto the +warrior Bel: 'Thou art the lord of the gods, O warrior. But thou +wouldst not hearken to my counsel and caused the deluge to be. +Now punish the sinner for his sins and the evil doer for his evil +deed, but be merciful and do not destroy all mankind. May there +never again be a flood. Let the lion come and men will decrease. +May there never again be a flood. Let the leopard come and men +will decrease. May there never again be a flood. Let famine come +upon the land; let Ura, god of pestilence, come and snatch off +mankind.... I did not reveal the secret purpose of the mighty +gods, <a id="page.anchor.195" name="page.anchor.195"></a>but I +caused Atra-chasis (Pir-napishtim) to dream a dream in which he +had knowledge of what the gods had decreed.'</p> +<p>"Having pondered a time over these words, Bel entered the ship +alone. He grasped my hand and led me forth, even me, and he led +forth my wife also, and caused her to kneel down beside me. Then +he stood between us and gave his blessing. He spoke, saying: 'In +time past Pir-napishtim was a man. Henceforth Pir-napishtim and +his wife will be like unto deities, even us. Let them dwell apart +beyond the river mouths.'</p> +<p>"Thereafter Bel carried me hither beyond the mouths of +rivers."</p> +<hr class="footnote" /> +<p>Flood myths are found in many mythologies both in the Old +World and the New.</p> +<p>The violent and deceitful men of the mythical Bronze Age of +Greece were destroyed by a flood. It is related that Zeus said on +one occasion to Hermes: "I will send a great rain, such as hath +not been since the making of the world, and the whole race of men +shall perish. I am weary of their iniquity."</p> +<p>For receiving with hospitable warmth these two gods in human +guise, Deucalion, an old man, and his wife Pyrrha were spared, +however. Zeus instructed his host to build an ark of oak, and +store it well with food. When this was done, the couple entered +the vessel and shut the door. Then Zeus "broke up all the +fountains of the deep, and opened the well springs of heaven, and +it rained for forty days and forty nights continually". The +Bronze folk perished: not even those who fled to the hilltops +could escape. The ark rested on Parnassus, and when the waters +ebbed the old couple descended the mountain and took up their +abode in a cave.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1226" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1226" id="fnrex1226">226</a>]</span></p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.196" name="page.anchor.196"></a>In Indian +mythology the world is destroyed by a flood at the end of each +Age of the Universe. There are four ages: the Krita or Perfect +Age, the Treta Age, the Dwapara Age, and the Kali or Wicked Age. +These correspond closely to the Greek and Celtic +ages.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1227" href="#ftn.fnrex1227" +id="fnrex1227">227</a>]</span> There are also references in +Sanskrit literature to the destruction of the world because too +many human beings lived upon it. "When the increase of population +had been so frightful," a sage related, "the Earth, oppressed +with the excessive burden, sank down for a hundred Yojanas. +Suffering pain in all her limbs, and being deprived of her senses +by excessive pressure, the Earth in distress sought the +protection of Narayana, the foremost of the gods."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1228" href="#ftn.fnrex1228" id= +"fnrex1228">228</a>]</span></p> +<p>Manu's account of the flood has been already referred to +(Chapter II). The god in fish shape informed him: "The time is +ripe for purging the world.... Build a strong and massive ark, +and furnish it with a long rope...." When the waters rose the +horned fish towed the ark over the roaring sea, until it grounded +on the highest peak of the Himavat, which is still called +Naubandha (the harbour). Manu was accompanied by seven +rishis.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1229" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1229" id="fnrex1229">229</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the Celtic (Irish) account of the flood, Cessair, +granddaughter of Noah, was refused a chamber for herself in the +ark, and fled to the western borders of the world as advised by +her idol.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1230" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1230" id="fnrex1230">230</a>]</span> Her fleet +consisted of three ships, but two foundered before Ireland was +reached. The survivors in addition to Cessair were, her father +Bith, two other men, Fintan and Ladru, and fifty women. All of +these perished on the hills except Fintan, who slept on the crest +of a great billow, and lived to see Partholon, the giant, +arriving from Greece.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.197" name="page.anchor.197"></a>There is a +deluge also in Egyptian mythology. When Ra, the sun god, grew old +as an earthly king, men began to mutter words against him. He +called the gods together and said: "I will not slay them (his +subjects) until I have heard what ye say concerning them." Nu, +his father, who was the god of primeval waters, advised the +wholesale destruction of mankind.</p> +<p>Said Ra: "Behold men flee unto the hills; their heart is full +of fear because of that which they said."</p> +<p>The goddess Hathor-Sekhet, the Eye of Ra, then went forth and +slew mankind on the hills. Thereafter Ra, desiring to protect the +remnant of humanity, caused a great offering to be made to the +goddess, consisting of corn beer mixed with herbs and human +blood. This drink was poured out during the night. "And the +goddess came in the morning; she found the fields inundated, she +rejoiced thereat, she drank thereof, her heart was rejoiced, she +went about drunken and took no more cognizance of +men."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1231" href="#ftn.fnrex1231" +id="fnrex1231">231</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is obvious that the Egyptian myth refers to the annual +inundation of the Nile, the "human blood" in the "beer" being the +blood of the slain corn god, or of his earthly representative. It +is probable that the flood legends of North and South America +similarly reflected local phenomena, although the possibility +that they were of Asiatic origin, like the American Mongoloid +tribes, cannot be overlooked. Whether or not Mexican +civilization, which was flourishing about the time of the battle +of Hastings, received any cultural stimulus from Asia is a +question regarding which it would be unsafe to dogmatize, owing +to the meagre character of the available data.</p> +<p>The Mexican deluge was caused by the "water sun", which +suddenly discharged the moisture it had been <a id= +"page.anchor.198" name="page.anchor.198"></a>drawing from the +earth in the form of vapour through long ages. All life was +destroyed.</p> +<p>A flood legend among the Nahua tribes resembles closely the +Babylonian story as told by Pir-napishtim. The god Titlacahuan +instructed a man named Nata to make a boat by hollowing out a +cypress tree, so as to escape the coming deluge with his wife +Nena. This pair escaped destruction. They offered up a fish +sacrifice in the boat and enraged the deity who visited them, +displaying as much indignation as did Bel when he discovered that +Pir-napishtim had survived the great disaster. Nata and Nena had +been instructed to take with them one ear of maize only, which +suggests that they were harvest spirits.</p> +<p>In Brazil, Monan, the chief god, sent a great fire to burn up +the world and its wicked inhabitants. To extinguish the flames a +magician caused so much rain to fall that the earth was +flooded.</p> +<p>The Californian Indians had a flood legend, and believed that +the early race was diminutive; and the Athapascan Indians of the +north-west professed to be descendants of a family who escaped +the deluge. Indeed, deluge myths were widespread in the "New +World".</p> +<p>The American belief that the first beings who were created +were unable to live on earth was shared by the Babylonians. +According to Berosus the first creation was a failure, because +the animals could not bear the light and they all +died.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1232" href="#ftn.fnrex1232" +id="fnrex1232">232</a>]</span> Here we meet with the germs of the +Doctrine of the World's Ages, which reached its highest +development in Indian, Greek, and Celtic (Irish) mythologies.</p> +<p>The Biblical account of the flood is familiar to readers. "It +forms", says Professor Pinches, "a good subject for <a id= +"page.anchor.199" name="page.anchor.199"></a>comparison with the +Babylonian account, with which it agrees so closely in all the +main points, and from which it differs so much in many essential +details."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1233" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1233" id="fnrex1233">233</a>]</span></p> +<p>The drift of Babylonian culture was not only directed westward +towards the coast of Palestine, and from thence to Greece during +the Phoenician period, but also eastward through Elam to the +Iranian plateau and India. Reference has already been made to the +resemblances between early Vedic and Sumerian mythologies. When +the "new songs" of the Aryan invaders of India were being +composed, the sky and ocean god, Varuna, who resembles Ea-Oannes, +and Mitra, who links with Shamash, were already declining in +splendour. Other cultural influences were at work. Certain of the +Aryan tribes, for instance, buried their dead in Varuna's "house +of clay", while a growing proportion cremated their dead and +worshipped Agni, the fire god. At the close of the Vedic period +there were fresh invasions into middle India, and the "late +comers" introduced new beliefs, including the doctrines of the +Transmigration of Souls and of the Ages of the Universe. +Goddesses also rose into prominence, and the Vedic gods became +minor deities, and subject to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These +"late comers" had undoubtedly been influenced by Babylonian ideas +before they entered India. In their Doctrine of the World's Ages +or Yugas, for instance, we are forcibly reminded of the +Euphratean ideas regarding space and time. Mr. Robert Brown, +junr., who is an authority in this connection, shows that the +system by which the "Day of Brahma" was calculated in India +resembles closely an <a id="page.anchor.200" name= +"page.anchor.200"></a>astronomical system which obtained in +Babylonia, where apparently the theory of cosmic periods had +origin.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1234" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1234" id="fnrex1234">234</a>]</span></p> +<p>The various alien peoples, however, who came under the spell +of Babylonian modes of thought did not remain in a state of +intellectual bondage. Thought was stimulated rather than arrested +by religious borrowing, and the development of ideas regarding +the mysteries of life and death proceeded apace in areas over +which the ritualistic and restraining priesthood of Babylonia +exercised no sway. As much may be inferred from the contrasting +conceptions of the Patriarchs of Vedic and Sumerian mythologies. +Pir-napishtim, the Babylonian Noah, and the semi-divine Gilgamesh +appear to be represented in Vedic mythology by Yama, god of the +dead. Yama was "the first man", and, like Gilgamesh, he set out +on a journey over mountains and across water to discover +Paradise. He is lauded in the Vedic hymns as the explorer of "the +path" or "way" to the "Land of the Pitris" (Fathers), the +Paradise to which the Indian uncremated dead walked on foot. Yama +never lost his original character. He is a traveller in the Epics +as in the Vedas.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1235" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1235" id="fnrex1235">235</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Him who along the mighty heights departed, Him who searched +and spied the path for many, Son of Vivasvat, gatherer of the +people, Yama, the King, with sacrifices worship. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span>, x, 14, 1.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1236" href="#ftn.fnrex1236" id= +"fnrex1236">236</a>]</span> To Yama, mighty King, be gifts and +homage paid, He was the first of men that died, the first to +brave Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road +To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sir M. Monier Williams' +Translation</em></span>.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1237" +href="#ftn.fnrex1237" id="fnrex1237">237</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Yama and his sister Yami were the first human pair. <a id= +"page.anchor.201" name="page.anchor.201"></a>They are identical +with the Persian Celestial twins, Yima and Yimeh. Yima resembles +Mitra (Mithra); Varuna, the twin brother of Mitra, in fact, +carries the noose associated with the god of death.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1238" href="#ftn.fnrex1238" id= +"fnrex1238">238</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Indian Yama, who was also called Pitripati, "lord of the +fathers", takes Mitra's place in the Paradise of Ancestors beside +Varuna, god of the sky and the deep. He sits below a tree, +playing on a flute and drinking the Soma drink which gives +immortality. When the descendants of Yama reached Paradise they +assumed shining forms "refined and from all taint set +free".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1239" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1239" id="fnrex1239">239</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Persian mythology "Yima", says Professor Moulton, "reigns +over a community which may well have been composed of his own +descendants, for he lived yet longer than Adam. To render them +immortal, he gives them to eat forbidden food, being deceived by +the Daevas (demons). What was this forbidden food? May we connect +it with another legend whereby, at the Regeneration, Mithra is to +make men immortal by giving them to eat the fat of the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ur-Kuh</em></span>, the primeval cow +from whose slain body, according to the Aryan legends adopted by +Mithraism, mankind was first created?"</p> +<p>Yima is punished for "presumptuously grasping at immortality +for himself and mankind, on the suggestion of an evil power, +instead of waiting Ahura's good time". Professor Moulton wonders +if this story, which he endeavours to reconstruct, "owed anything +to Babylon?"</p> +<p>Yima, like the Babylonian Pir-napishtim, is also a revealer of +the secrets of creation. He was appointed to be "Guardian, +Overseer, Watcher over my Creation" by Ahura, the supreme god. +Three hundred years went past--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.202" name= +"page.anchor.202"></a>Then the earth became abounding,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Full of flocks and full of +cattle,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Full of men, of birds, dogs +likewise,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Full of fires all bright and +blazing,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Nor did men, flocks, herds of +cattle,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Longer find them places in +it.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jackson's Translation</em></span>.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The earth was thereafter cloven with a golden arrow. Yima then +built a refuge in which mankind and the domesticated animals +might find shelter during a terrible winter. "The picture", says +Professor Moulton, "strongly tempts us to recognize the influence +of the Babylonian Flood-Legend."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1240" href="#ftn.fnrex1240" id="fnrex1240">240</a>]</span> +The "Fimbul winter" of Germanic mythology is also recalled. Odin +asks in one of the Icelandic Eddie poems:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>What beings shall live when the long +dread winter</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Comes o'er the people of +earth?<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1241" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1241" id="fnrex1241">241</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In another Eddie poem, the Voluspa, the Vala tells of a Sword +Age, an Axe Age, a Wind Age, and a Wolf Age which is to come "ere +the world sinks". After the battle of the gods and demons,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The sun is darkened, earth sinks in the +sea.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In time, however, a new world appears.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I see uprising a second time</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Earth from the Ocean, green +anew;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The waters fall, on high the +eagle</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Flies o'er the fell and catches +fish.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>When the surviving gods return, they will talk, according to +the Vala (prophetess), of "the great world serpent" (Tiamat). The +fields will be sown and "Balder will <a id="page.anchor.203" +name="page.anchor.203"></a>come"<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1242" href="#ftn.fnrex1242" id= +"fnrex1242">242</a>]</span>--apparently as Tammuz came. The +association of Balder with corn suggests that, like Nata of the +Nahua tribes, he was a harvest spirit, among other things.</p> +<p>Leaving, meantime, the many problems which arise from +consideration of the Deluge legends and their connection with +primitive agricultural myths, the attention of readers may be +directed to the Babylonian conception of the Otherworld.</p> +<p>Pir-napishtim, who escaped destruction at the Flood, resides +in an Island Paradise, which resembles the Greek "Islands of the +Blessed", and the Irish "Tir nan og" or "Land of the Young", +situated in the western ocean, and identical with the +British<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1243" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1243" id="fnrex1243">243</a>]</span></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> island-valley of Avilion,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Where falls not hail, or rain, or any +snow,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Nor ever wind blows loudly, but it +lies</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Deep meadow'd, happy, fair with orchard +lawns</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And bowery hollows crowned with summer +sea.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1244" href="#ftn.fnrex1244" +id="fnrex1244">244</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Only two human beings were permitted to reside on the +Babylonian island paradise, however. These were Pir-napishtim and +his wife. Apparently Gilgamesh could not join them there. His +gods did not transport heroes and other favoured individuals to a +happy isle or isles like those of the Greeks and Celts and +Aryo-Indians. There was no Heaven for the Babylonian dead. All +mankind were doomed to enter the gloomy Hades of the Underworld, +"the land of darkness and the shadow of death; a land of +darkness, as darkness itself; and of the shadow of death, without +any order, and where the light is darkness", as Job exclaimed in +the hour of despair, lamenting his fate.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1245" href="#ftn.fnrex1245" id= +"fnrex1245">245</a>]</span></p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.204" name="page.anchor.204"></a>This gloomy +habitation of the dead resembles the Greek Hades, the Teutonic +Nifelhel, and the Indian "Put". No detailed description of it has +been found. The references, however, in the "Descent of Ishtar" +and the Gilgamesh epic suggest that it resembled the hidden +regions of the Egyptians, in which souls were tortured by demons +who stabbed them, plunged them in pools of fire, and thrust them +into cold outer darkness where they gnashed their teeth, or into +places of horror swarming with poisonous reptiles.</p> +<p>Ishtar was similarly tortured by the plague demon, Namtar, +when she boldly entered the Babylonian Underworld to search for +Tammuz. Other sufferings were, no doubt, in store for her, +resembling those, perhaps, with which the giant maid in the Eddic +poem "Skirnismal" was threatened when she refused to marry Frey, +the god of fertility and harvest:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Trolls shall torment thee from morn +till eve</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> In the realms of the Jotun +race,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Each day to the dwellings of Frost +giants must thou</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Creep helpless, creep hopeless of +love;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou shalt weeping have in the stead of +joy,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And sore burden bear with +tears....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May madness and shrieking, bondage and +yearning</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Burden thee with bondage and +tears.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1246" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1246" id="fnrex1246">246</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In like manner, too, the inhabitants of the Indian Hell +suffered endless and complicated tortures.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1247" href="#ftn.fnrex1247" id= +"fnrex1247">247</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Persephone of the Babylonian Underworld was Eresh-ki-gal, +who was also called Allatu. A myth, which was found among the +Egyptian Tel-el-Amarna "Letters", sets forth that on one occasion +the Babylonian gods held a feast. All the deities attended it, +except Eresh-ki-gal. <a id="page.anchor.205" name= +"page.anchor.205"></a>She was unable to leave her gloomy +Underworld, and sent her messenger, the plague demon Namtar, to +obtain her share. The various deities honoured Namtar, except +Nergal, by standing up to receive him. When Eresh-ki-gal was +informed of this slight she became very angry, and demanded that +Nergal should be delivered up to her so that he might be put to +death. The storm god at once hastened to the Underworld, +accompanied by his own group of fierce demons, whom he placed as +guardians at the various doors so as to prevent the escape of +Eresh-ki-gal. Then he went boldly towards the goddess, clutched +her by the hair, and dragged her from her throne. After a brief +struggle, she found herself overpowered. Nergal made ready to cut +off her head, but she cried for mercy and said: "Do not kill me, +my brother! Let me speak to thee."</p> +<p>This appeal indicated that she desired to ransom her +life--like the hags in the European folk tales--so Nergal +unloosed his hold.</p> +<p>Then Eresh-ki-gal continued: "Be thou my husband and I will be +thy wife. On thee I confer sovereignty over the wide earth, +giving thee the tablet of wisdom. Thou shalt be my lord and I +will be thy lady."</p> +<p>Nergal accepted these terms by kissing the goddess. +Affectionately drying her tears, he spoke, saying: "Thou shalt +now have from me what thou hast demanded during these past +months."</p> +<p>In other words, Nergal promises to honour her as she desired, +after becoming her husband and equal.</p> +<p>In the "Descent of Ishtar" the Babylonian Underworld is called +Cuthah. This city had a famous cemetery, like Abydos in Egypt, +where many pious and orthodox worshippers sought sepulture. The +local god was Nergal, who symbolized the destructive power of the +sun and the <a id="page.anchor.206" name= +"page.anchor.206"></a>sand storm; he was a gloomy, vengeful +deity, attended by the spirits of tempest, weariness, pestilence, +and disease, and was propitiated because he was dreaded.</p> +<p>In Nether Cuthah, as Ea-bani informed Gilgamesh, the worm +devoured the dead amidst the dust and thick darkness.</p> +<p>It is evident that this Underworld was modelled on the grave. +In early times men believed that the spirits of the dead hovered +in or about the place of sepulture. They were therefore provided +with "houses" to protect them, in the same manner as the living +were protected in their houses above the ground.</p> +<p>The enemies of the human ghosts were the earth spirits. +Weapons were laid beside the dead in their graves so that they +might wage war against demons when necessary. The corpse was also +charmed, against attack, by the magical and protecting ornaments +which were worn by the living--necklaces, armlets, ear-rings, +&c. Even face paint was provided, probably as a charm against +the evil eye and other subtle influences.</p> +<p>So long as corpses were left in their graves, the spirits of +the dead were, it would appear, believed to be safe. But they +required food and refreshment. Food vessels and drinking urns +were therefore included in the funerary furniture, and the dead +were given food offerings at regular intervals. Once a year the +living held feasts in the burial ground, and invited the ghosts +to share in the repast. This custom was observed in Babylonia, +and is not yet obsolete in Egypt; Moslems and Coptic Christians +alike hold annual all-night feasts in their cemeteries.</p> +<p>The Japanese "Land of Yomi" is similarly an underworld, or +great grave, where ghosts mingle with the demons of disease and +destruction. Souls reach it by "the pass of Yomi". The Mikado, +however, may be <a id="page.anchor.207" name= +"page.anchor.207"></a>privileged to ascend to heaven and join the +gods in the "Eternal Land".</p> +<p>Among the ancient Romans the primitive belief survived that +the spirit of the dead "just sank into the earth where it rested, +and returned from time to time to the upper world through certain +openings in the ground (mundi), whose solemn uncovering was one +of the regular observances of the festal calendar".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1248" href="#ftn.fnrex1248" id= +"fnrex1248">248</a>]</span></p> +<p>According to Babylonian belief, the dead who were not properly +buried roamed through the streets searching for food, eating +refuse and drinking impure water.</p> +<p>Prior to the period of ceremonial burials, the dead were +interred in the houses in which they had lived--a custom which +has made it possible for present-day scientists to accumulate +much valuable data regarding primitive races and their habits of +life. The Palaeolithic cave-dwellers of Europe were buried in +their caves. These were then deserted and became the haunts of +wild animals. After a long interval a deserted cave was occupied +by strangers. In certain characteristic caves the various layers +containing human remains represent distinct periods of the vast +Pleistocene Age.</p> +<p>When Mediterranean man moved northward through Europe, he +utilized some of these caves, and constructed in them well-built +graves for his dead, digging down through older layers. In thus +making a "house" within a "house", he has provided us with a link +between an old custom and a new. Apparently he was influenced by +local practices and beliefs, for he met and mingled in certain +localities with the men of the Late Palaeolithic Age.</p> +<p>The primitive house-burial rite is referred to in the Ethiopic +version of the life of Alexander the Great. The <a id= +"page.anchor.208" name="page.anchor.208"></a>"Two-horned", as the +hero was called, conversed with Brahmans when he reached India. +He spoke to one of them, "saying: 'Have ye no tombs wherein to +bury any man among ye who may die?' And an interpreter made +answer to him, saying: 'Man and woman and child grow up, and +arrive at maturity, and become old, and when any one of them +dieth we bury him in the place wherein he lived; thus our graves +are our houses. And our God knoweth that we desire this more than +the lust for food and meat which all men have: this is our life +and manner of living in the darkness of our tombs.'" When +Alexander desired to make a gift to these Brahmans, and asked +them what they desired most, their answer was, "Give us +immortality".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1249" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1249" id="fnrex1249">249</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the Gilgamesh epic the only ray of hope which relieves the +gloomy closing passages is Ea-bani's suggestion that the +sufferings endured by the dead may be alleviated by the +performance of strict burial rites. Commenting on this point +Professor Jastrow says: "A proper burial with an affectionate +care of the corpse ensures at least a quiet repose.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Such a one rests on a couch and drinks +pure water;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>But he whose shade has no rest in the +earth, as I have seen and you will see,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>His shade has no rest in the +earth</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Whose shade no one cares for +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>What is left over in the pot, remains +of food</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That are thrown in the street, he +eats."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1250" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1250" id="fnrex1250">250</a>]</span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Gilgamesh Epic</em></span>.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.209" name="page.anchor.209"></a>By +disseminating the belief that the dead must be buried with much +ceremony, the priests secured great power over the people, and +extracted large fees.</p> +<p>In Egypt, on the other hand, the teachers of the sun cult sold +charms and received rewards to perform ceremonies so that chosen +worshippers might enter the sun-barque of Ra; while the Osirian +priests promised the just and righteous that they would reach an +agricultural Paradise where they could live and work as on earth, +but receive a greater return for their labour, the harvests of +the Otherworld being of unequalled abundance.</p> +<p>In the sacred books of India a number of Paradises are +referred to. No human beings, however, entered the Paradise of +Varuna, who resembles the Sumerian Ea-Oannes. The souls of the +dead found rest and enjoyment in the Paradise of Yama, while +"those kings that yield up their lives, without turning their +backs on the field of battle, attain", as the sage told a hero, +"to the mansion of Indra", which recalls the Valhal of Odin. It +will thus be seen that belief in immortality was a tenet of the +Indian cults of Indra and Yama.</p> +<p>It is possible that the Gilgamesh epic in one of its forms +concluded when the hero reached the island of Pir-napishtim, like +the Indian Yama who "searched and spied the path for many". The +Indian "Land of the Pitris" (Ancestors), over which Yama +presided, may be compared to the Egyptian heaven of Osiris. It +contains, we are told, "all kinds of enjoyable articles", and +also "sweet, juicy, agreeable and delicious edibles ... floral +wreaths of the most delicious fragrance, and trees that yield +fruits that are desired of them". Thither go "all sinners among +human beings, as also (those) that have died during the winter +solstice"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1251" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1251" id="fnrex1251">251</a>]</span>--a suggestion +that this <a id="page.anchor.210" name= +"page.anchor.210"></a>Paradise was not unconnected with the +Tammuz-like deity who took up his abode in the spirit land during +the barren season.</p> +<p>The view may be urged that in the Gilgamesh epic we have a +development of the Tammuz legend in its heroic form. Like Ishtar, +when she descended to Hades, the King of Erech could not return +to earth until he had been sprinkled by the water of life. No +doubt, an incident of this character occurred also in the +original Tammuz legend. The life of the god had to be renewed +before he could return. Did he slumber, like one of the Seven +Sleepers, in Ea's house, and not awake again until he arrived as +a child in his crescent moon boat--"the sunken boat" of the +hymns--like Scef, who came over the waves to the land of the +Scyldings?</p> +<p>It seems remarkable that the doctrine of Eternal Bliss, which +obtained in Egypt on the one hand and in India on the other, +should never have been developed among the Babylonians. Of +course, our knowledge in this connection is derived from the +orthodox religious texts. Perhaps the great thinkers, whose +influence can be traced in the tendencies towards monotheism +which became marked at various periods, believed in a Heaven for +the just and good. If they did, their teachings must have been +suppressed by the mercenary priests. It was extremely profitable +for these priests to perpetuate the belief that the spirits of +the dead were consigned to a gloomy Hades, where the degree of +suffering which they endured depended on the manner in which +their bodies were disposed of upon earth. An orthodox funeral +ceremony was costly at all times. This is made evident by the +inscriptions which record the social reforms of Urukagina, the +ill-fated patesi of Lagash. When he came to the throne he cut +down the burial fees by more than a half. "In <a id= +"page.anchor.211" name="page.anchor.211"></a>the case of an +ordinary burial," writes Mr. King, "when a corpse was laid in a +grave, it had been the custom for the presiding priest to demand +as a fee for himself seven urns of wine or strong drink, four +hundred and twenty loaves of bread, one hundred and twenty +measures of corn, a garment, a kid, a bed, and a seat." The +reformer reduced the perquisites to "three urns of wine, eighty +loaves of bread, a bed, and a kid, while the fee of his (the +priest's) assistant was cut down from sixty to thirty measures of +corn".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1252" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1252" id="fnrex1252">252</a>]</span></p> +<p>The conservative element in Babylonian religion is reflected +by the burial customs. These did not change greatly after the +Neolithic period. Prehistoric Sumerian graves resemble closely +those of pre-Dynastic Egypt. The bodies of the dead were laid on +their sides in crouching posture, with a "beaker", or "drinking +cup" urn, beside the right hand. Other vessels were placed near +the head. In this connection it may be noted that the magic food +prepared for Gilgamesh by Pir-napishtim's wife, when he lay +asleep, was also placed near his head.</p> +<p>The corpse was always decked with various ornaments, including +rings, necklaces, and armlets. As has been indicated, these were +worn by the living as charms, and, no doubt, they served the same +purpose for the dead. This charm-wearing custom was condemned by +the Hebrew teachers. On one occasion Jacob commanded his +household to "put away the strange gods which were in their hand, +and all the ear-rings which were in their ears; and Jacob buried +them under the oak which was by Shechem".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1253" href="#ftn.fnrex1253" id= +"fnrex1253">253</a>]</span> To Jacob, personal ornaments had +quite evidently an idolatrous significance.</p> +<p>"A very typical class of grave furniture", writes Mr. <a id= +"page.anchor.212" name="page.anchor.212"></a>King, "consisted of +palettes, or colour dishes, made of alabaster, often of graceful +shape, and sometimes standing on four feet.... There is no doubt +as to their use, for colour still remains in many of them, +generally black and yellow, but sometimes a light rose and light +green." Palettes for face paint have also been found in many +early Egyptian graves.</p> +<p>The gods had their faces painted like the living and the dead +and were similarly adorned with charms. In the course of the +daily service in the Egyptian temples an important ceremony was +"dressing the god with white, green, bright-red, and dark-red +sashes, and supplying two kinds of ointment and black and green +eye paint".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1254" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1254" id="fnrex1254">254</a>]</span> In the +word-picture of the Aryo-Indian Varuna's heaven in the +<span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span> the deity is +depicted "attired in celestial robes and decked with celestial +ornaments and jewels". His attendants, the Adityas, appear +"adorned with celestial garlands and perfumed with celestial +scents and besmeared with paste of celestial +fragrance".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1255" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1255" id="fnrex1255">255</a>]</span> Apparently the +"paste", like the face paint of the Babylonians and Egyptians, +had protective qualities. The Picts of Scotland may have +similarly painted themselves to charm their bodies against +magical influences and the weapons of their enemies. A painted +man was probably regarded as one who was likely to have good +luck, being guarded against bad luck.</p> +<p>Weapons and implements were also laid in the Sumerian graves, +indicating a belief that the spirits of the dead could not only +protect themselves against their enemies but also provide +themselves with food. The funerary gifts of fish-hooks suggests +that spirits were expected to catch fish and thus obtain clean +food, instead <a id="page.anchor.213" name= +"page.anchor.213"></a>of returning to disturb the living as they +searched for the remnants of the feast, like the Scottish +Gunna,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> perched alone</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>On a chilly old grey stone,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Nibbling, nibbling at a bone</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> That we'll maybe throw +away.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Some bodies which were laid in Sumerian graves were wrapped up +in reed matting, a custom which suggests that the reeds afforded +protection or imparted magical powers. Magical ceremonies were +performed in Babylonian reed huts. As we have seen, Ea revealed +the "purpose" of the gods, when they resolved to send a flood, by +addressing the reed hut in which Pir-napishtim lay asleep. +Possibly it was believed that the dead might also have visions in +their dreams which would reveal the "purpose" of demons who were +preparing to attack them. In Syria it was customary to wrap the +dead in a sheep skin.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1256" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1256" id="fnrex1256">256</a>]</span> As priests and +gods were clad in the skins of animals from which their powers +were derived, it is probable that the dead were similarly +supposed to receive inspiration in their skin coverings. The +Highland seer was wrapped in a bull's skin and left all night +beside a stream so as to obtain knowledge of the future. This was +a form of the Taghairm ceremony, which is referred to by Scott in +his "Lady of the Lake".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1257" +href="#ftn.fnrex1257" id="fnrex1257">257</a>]</span> The belief +in the magical influence of sacred clothing gave origin to the +priestly robes. When David desired to ascertain what Saul +intended to do he said, "Bring hither the ephod". <a id= +"page.anchor.214" name="page.anchor.214"></a>Then he came to know +that his enemy had resolved to attack Keilah.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1258" href="#ftn.fnrex1258" id= +"fnrex1258">258</a>]</span> Elisha became a prophet when he +received Elijah's mantle.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1259" +href="#ftn.fnrex1259" id="fnrex1259">259</a>]</span></p> +<p>Sometimes the bodies of the Sumerians were placed in +sarcophagi of clay. The earlier type was of "bath-tub" shape, +round and flat-bottomed, with a rounded lid, while the later was +the "slipper-shaped coffin", which was ornamented with charms. +There is a close resemblance between the "bath-tub" coffins of +Sumeria and the Egyptian pottery coffins of oval shape found in +Third and Fourth Dynasty tombs in rock chambers near Nuerat. +Certain designs on wooden coffins, and tombs as early as the +First Dynasty, have direct analogies in Babylonia.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1260" href="#ftn.fnrex1260" id= +"fnrex1260">260</a>]</span></p> +<p>No great tombs were erected in Sumeria. The coffins were +usually laid in brick vaults below dwellings, or below temples, +or in trenches outside the city walls. On the "stele of victory", +which belongs to the period of Eannatum, patesi of Lagash, the +dead bodies on the battlefield are piled up in pairs quite naked, +and earth is being heaped over them; this is a specimen of mound +burial.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2530933" name="id2530933"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure IX.2. SLIPPER-SHAPED COFFIN MADE OF +GLAZED EARTHENWARE</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/20.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2530951" name="id2530951"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure IX.3. STELE OF HAMMURABI, WITH "CODE +OF LAWS"</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>Louvre, Paris</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/21.jpg" /></div> +<p>According to Herodotus the Babylonians "buried their dead in +honey, and had funeral lamentations like the +Egyptians".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1261" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1261" id="fnrex1261">261</a>]</span> The custom of +preserving the body in this manner does not appear to have been +an ancient one, and may have resulted from cultural contact with +the Nile valley during the late Assyrian period. So long as the +bones were undisturbed, the spirit was supposed to be assured of +rest in the Underworld. This archaic belief was widespread, and +finds an echo in the quaint lines over Shakespeare's grave in +Stratford church:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.215" name= +"page.anchor.215"></a>Good friend, for Jesus' sake +forbeare</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To dig the dust enclosed +heare;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Blest be the man that spares these +stones,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And curst be he that moves my +bones.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In Babylonia the return of the spirits of the dead was greatly +dreaded. Ishtar once uttered the terrible threat: "I will cause +the dead to rise; they will then eat and live. The dead will be +more numerous than the living." When a foreign country was +invaded, it was a common custom to break open the tombs and +scatter the bones they contained. Probably it was believed, when +such acts of vandalism were committed, that the offended spirits +would plague their kinsfolk. Ghosts always haunted the homes they +once lived in, and were as malignant as demons. It is significant +to find in this connection that the bodies of enemies who were +slain in battle were not given decent burial, but mutilated and +left for birds and beasts of prey to devour.</p> +<p>The demons that plagued the dead might also attack the living. +A fragmentary narrative, which used to be referred to as the +"Cuthean Legend of Creation",<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1262" href="#ftn.fnrex1262" id="fnrex1262">262</a>]</span> +and has been shown by Mr. L.W. King to have no connection with +the struggle between Merodach and the dragon,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1263" href="#ftn.fnrex1263" id= +"fnrex1263">263</a>]</span> deals with a war waged by an ancient +king against a horde of evil spirits, led by "the lord of +heights, lord of the Anunaki (earth spirits)". Some of the +supernatural warriors had bodies like birds; others had "raven +faces", and all had been "suckled by Tiamat".</p> +<p>For three years the king sent out great armies to attack the +demons, but "none returned alive". Then he decided to go forth +himself to save his country from destruction. So he prepared for +the conflict, and took <a id="page.anchor.216" name= +"page.anchor.216"></a>the precaution of performing elaborate and +therefore costly religious rites so as to secure the co-operation +of the gods. His expedition was successful, for he routed the +supernatural army. On his return home, he recorded his great +victory on tablets which were placed in the shrine of Nergal at +Cuthah.</p> +<p>This myth may be an echo of Nergal's raid against +Eresh-ki-gal. Or, being associated with Cuthah, it may have been +composed to encourage burial in that city's sacred cemetery, +which had been cleared by the famous old king of the evil demons +which tormented the dead and made seasonal attacks against the +living.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1224" href="#fnrex1224" id= +"ftn.fnrex1224">224</a>]</span> Ea addresses the hut in which his +human favourite, Pir-napishtim, slept. His message was conveyed +to this man in a dream.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1225" href="#fnrex1225" id= +"ftn.fnrex1225">225</a>]</span> The second sentence of Ea's +speech is conjectural, as the lines are mutilated.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1226" href="#fnrex1226" id= +"ftn.fnrex1226">226</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Muses' Pageant</em></span>, W.M.L. Hutchinson, pp. 5 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1227" href="#fnrex1227" id= +"ftn.fnrex1227">227</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 107 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1228" href="#fnrex1228" id= +"ftn.fnrex1228">228</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vana +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahábhárata</em></span> (Roy's +trans.), p. 425.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1229" href="#fnrex1229" id= +"ftn.fnrex1229">229</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 141.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1230" href="#fnrex1230" id= +"ftn.fnrex1230">230</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Book +of Leinster</em></span>, and Keating's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>History of Ireland</em></span>, p. 150 (1811 +ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1231" href="#fnrex1231" id= +"ftn.fnrex1231">231</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, A. +Wiedemann, pp. 58 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1232" href="#fnrex1232" id= +"ftn.fnrex1232">232</a>]</span> Pinches' <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, +p. 42.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1233" href="#fnrex1233" id= +"ftn.fnrex1233">233</a>]</span> The problems involved are +discussed from different points of view by Mr. L.W. King in +<span class="emphasis"><em>Babylonian Religion</em></span> (Books +on Egypt and Chaldaea, vol. iv), Professor Pinches in +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Old Testament in the Light of the +Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and +Babylonia,</em></span> and other vols.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1234" href="#fnrex1234" id= +"ftn.fnrex1234">234</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, vol. i, pp. +334-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1235" href="#fnrex1235" id= +"ftn.fnrex1235">235</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, chap. iii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1236" href="#fnrex1236" id= +"ftn.fnrex1236">236</a>]</span> Professor Macdonell's +translation.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1237" href="#fnrex1237" id= +"ftn.fnrex1237">237</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Wisdom</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1238" href="#fnrex1238" id= +"ftn.fnrex1238">238</a>]</span> "Varuna, the deity bearing the +noose as his weapon", <span class="emphasis"><em>Sabha +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahábhárata</em></span> (Roy's +trans.), p. 29.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1239" href="#fnrex1239" id= +"ftn.fnrex1239">239</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 38-42.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1240" href="#fnrex1240" id= +"ftn.fnrex1240">240</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Early +Religious Poetry of Persia</em></span>, J.H. Moulton, pp. 41 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>. and 154 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1241" href="#fnrex1241" id= +"ftn.fnrex1241">241</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Elder Edda</em></span>, O. Bray, p. 55.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1242" href="#fnrex1242" id= +"ftn.fnrex1242">242</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Elder Edda</em></span>, O. Bray, pp. 291 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1243" href="#fnrex1243" id= +"ftn.fnrex1243">243</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Celtic +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 133 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1244" href="#fnrex1244" id= +"ftn.fnrex1244">244</a>]</span> Tennyson's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Passing of Arthur</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1245" href="#fnrex1245" id= +"ftn.fnrex1245">245</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Job</em></span>, x, 1-22.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1246" href="#fnrex1246" id= +"ftn.fnrex1246">246</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Elder Edda</em></span>, O. Bray, pp. 150-1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1247" href="#fnrex1247" id= +"ftn.fnrex1247">247</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 326.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1248" href="#fnrex1248" id= +"ftn.fnrex1248">248</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Ancient Rome</em></span>, Cyril Bailey, p. 50.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1249" href="#fnrex1249" id= +"ftn.fnrex1249">249</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great (Ethiopic version of the +Pseudo Callisthenes)</em></span>, pp. 133-4. The conversation +possibly never took place, but it is of interest in so far as it +reflects beliefs which were familiar to the author of this +ancient work. His Brahmans evidently believed that immortality +was denied to ordinary men, and reserved only for the king, who +was the representative of the deity, of course.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1250" href="#fnrex1250" id= +"ftn.fnrex1250">250</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, Morris Jastrow, pp. +358-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1251" href="#fnrex1251" id= +"ftn.fnrex1251">251</a>]</span> The <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> +(<span class="emphasis"><em>Sabha Parva</em></span> section), +Roy's translation, pp. 25-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1252" href="#fnrex1252" id= +"ftn.fnrex1252">252</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Sumer and Akkad</em></span>, L.W. King, pp. +181-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1253" href="#fnrex1253" id= +"ftn.fnrex1253">253</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxxv, 2-4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1254" href="#fnrex1254" id= +"ftn.fnrex1254">254</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Religion of Ancient Egypt</em></span>, W.M. Flinders Petrie, p. +72.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1255" href="#fnrex1255" id= +"ftn.fnrex1255">255</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Sabha +Parva</em></span> section of the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahàbhàrata</em></span> (Roy's +trans.), p. 29.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1256" href="#fnrex1256" id= +"ftn.fnrex1256">256</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. +214.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1257" href="#fnrex1257" id= +"ftn.fnrex1257">257</a>]</span> Canto iv:--</div> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Last eventide</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Brian an augury hath +tried....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The Taghairm called; by which +afar</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Our sires foresaw the events of +war.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Duncraggan's milk-white bull they +slew....</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1258" href="#fnrex1258" id= +"ftn.fnrex1258">258</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Samuel</em></span>, xxiii, 9-11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1259" href="#fnrex1259" id= +"ftn.fnrex1259">259</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xix, 19 and <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, ii, 13-15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1260" href="#fnrex1260" id= +"ftn.fnrex1260">260</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt</em></span>, John Garstang, pp. +28, 29 (London, 1907).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1261" href="#fnrex1261" id= +"ftn.fnrex1261">261</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herod.</em></span>, book i, 198.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1262" href="#fnrex1262" id= +"ftn.fnrex1262">262</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Records of the Past</em></span> (old series), xi, +pp. 109 et seq., and (new series), vol. i, pp. 149 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1263" href="#fnrex1263" id= +"ftn.fnrex1263">263</a>]</span> L.W. King's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Seven Tablets of Creation</em></span>.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2531105" name= +"id2531105"></a>Chapter X. Buildings and Laws and Customs of +Babylon</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Decline and Fall of Sumerian Kingdoms--Elamites and Semites +strive for Supremacy--Babylon's Walls, Gates, Streets, and +Canals--The Hanging Gardens--Merodach's Great Temple--The Legal +Code of Hammurabi--The Marriage Market--Position of +Women--Marriage brought Freedom--Vestal Virgins--Breach of +Promise and Divorce--Rights of Children--Female Publicans--The +Land Laws--Doctors legislated out of Existence--Folk +Cures--Spirits of Disease expelled by Magical Charms--The Legend +of the Worm--"Touch Iron"--Curative Water--Magical Origin of +Poetry and Music.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.217" name="page.anchor.217"></a> The rise +of Babylon inaugurated a new era in the history of Western Asia. +Coincidentally the political power of the Sumerians came to an +end. It had been paralysed by the Elamites, who, towards the +close of the Dynasty of Isin, successfully overran the southern +district and endeavoured to extend their sway over the whole +valley. Two Elamite kings, Warad-Sin and his brother Rim-Sin, +struggled with the rulers of Babylon for supremacy, and for a +time it appeared as if the intruders from the East were to +establish themselves permanently as a military aristocracy over +Sumer and Akkad. But the Semites were strongly reinforced by new +settlers of the same blended stock who swarmed from the land of +the Amorites. Once again Arabia was pouring into Syria vast +hordes of its surplus population, with the result that ethnic +disturbances were constant and widespread. This migration is +termed the Canaanitic or Amorite: it flowed into Mesopotamia and +across Assyria, while it supplied <a id="page.anchor.218" name= +"page.anchor.218"></a>the "driving power" which secured the +ascendancy of the Hammurabi Dynasty at Babylon. Indeed, the +ruling family which came into prominence there is believed to +have been of Canaanitic origin.</p> +<p>Once Babylon became the metropolis it retained its +pre-eminence until the end. Many political changes took place +during its long and chequered history, but no rival city in the +south ever attained to its splendour and greatness. Whether its +throne was occupied by Amorite or Kassite, Assyrian or Chaldean, +it was invariably found to be the most effective centre of +administration for the lower Tigro-Euphrates valley. Some of the +Kassite monarchs, however, showed a preference for Nippur.</p> +<p>Of its early history little is known. It was overshadowed in +turn by Kish and Umma, Lagash and Erech, and may have been little +better than a great village when Akkad rose into prominence. +Sargon I, the royal gardener, appears to have interested himself +in its development, for it was recorded that he cleared its +trenches and strengthened its fortifications. The city occupied a +strategic position, and probably assumed importance on that +account as well as a trading and industrial centre. Considerable +wealth had accumulated at Babylon when the Dynasty of Ur reached +the zenith of its power. It is recorded that King Dungi plundered +its famous "Temple of the High Head", E-sagila, which some +identify with the Tower of Babel, so as to secure treasure for +Ea's temple at Eridu, which he specially favoured. His +vandalistic raid, like that of the Gutium, or men of Kutu, was +remembered for long centuries afterwards, and the city god was +invoked at the time to cut short his days.</p> +<p>No doubt, Hammurabi's Babylon closely resembled the later city +so vividly described by Greek writers, although it was probably +not of such great dimensions. <a id="page.anchor.219" name= +"page.anchor.219"></a>According to Herodotus, it occupied an +exact square on the broad plain, and had a circumference of sixty +of our miles. "While such is its size," the historian wrote, "in +magnificence there is no other city that approaches to it." Its +walls were eighty-seven feet thick and three hundred and fifty +feet high, and each side of the square was fifteen miles in +length. The whole city was surrounded by a deep, broad canal or +moat, and the river Euphrates ran through it.</p> +<p>"Here", continued Herodotus, "I may not omit to tell the use +to which the mould dug out of the great moat was turned, nor the +manner in which the wall was wrought. As fast as they dug the +moat the soil which they got from the cutting was made into +bricks, and when a sufficient number were completed they baked +the bricks in kilns. Then they set to building, and began with +bricking the borders of the moat, after which they proceeded to +construct the wall itself, using throughout for their cement hot +bitumen, and interposing a layer of wattled reeds at every +thirtieth course of the bricks. On the top, along the edges of +the wall, they constructed buildings of a single chamber facing +one another, leaving between them room for a four-horse chariot +to turn. In the circuit of the wall are a hundred gates, all of +brass, with brazen lintels and side posts."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1264" href="#ftn.fnrex1264" id= +"fnrex1264">264</a>]</span> These were the gates referred to by +Isaiah when God called Cyrus:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I will loose the loins of kings, to +open before him the two</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>leaved gates; and the gates shall not +be shut: I will go before</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>thee, and make the crooked places +straight; I will break in pieces</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>the gates of brass, and cut in sunder +the bars of iron.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1265" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1265" id="fnrex1265">265</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The outer wall was the main defence of the city, but there was +also an inner wall less thick but not much <a id= +"page.anchor.220" name="page.anchor.220"></a>inferior in +strength. In addition, a fortress stood in each division of the +city. The king's palace and the temple of Bel Merodach were +surrounded by walls.</p> +<p>All the main streets were perfectly straight, and each crossed +the city from gate to gate, a distance of fifteen miles, half of +them being interrupted by the river, which had to be ferried. As +there were twenty-five gates on each side of the outer wall, the +great thoroughfares numbered fifty in all, and there were six +hundred and seventy-six squares, each over two miles in +circumference. From Herodotus we gather that the houses were +three or four stories high, suggesting that the tenement system +was not unknown, and according to Q. Curtius, nearly half of the +area occupied by the city was taken up by gardens within the +squares.</p> +<p>In Greek times Babylon was famous for the hanging or terraced +gardens of the "new palace", which had been erected by +Nebuchadnezzar II. These occupied a square which was more than a +quarter of a mile in circumference. Great stone terraces, resting +on arches, rose up like a giant stairway to a height of about +three hundred and fifty feet, and the whole structure was +strengthened by a surrounding wall over twenty feet in thickness. +So deep were the layers of mould on each terrace that fruit trees +were grown amidst the plants of luxuriant foliage and the +brilliant Asian flowers. Water for irrigating the gardens was +raised from the river by a mechanical contrivance to a great +cistern situated on the highest terrace, and it was prevented +from leaking out of the soil by layers of reeds and bitumen and +sheets of lead. Spacious apartments, luxuriously furnished and +decorated, were constructed in the spaces between the arches and +were festooned by flowering creepers. A broad stairway ascended +from terrace to terrace.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.221" name="page.anchor.221"></a>The old +palace stood in a square nearly four miles in circumference, and +was strongly protected by three walls, which were decorated by +sculptures in low relief, representing battle scenes and scenes +of the chase and royal ceremonies. Winged bulls with human heads +guarded the main entrance.</p> +<p>Another architectural feature of the city was E-sagila, the +temple of Bel Merodach, known to the Greeks as "Jupiter-Belus". +The high wall which enclosed it had gates of solid brass. "In the +middle of the precinct", wrote Herodotus, "there was a tower of +solid masonry, a furlong in length and breadth, upon which was +raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to +eight. The ascent to the top is on the outside, by a path which +winds round all the towers. When one is about halfway up, one +finds a resting-place and seats, where persons are wont to sit +some time on their way to the summit. On the topmost tower there +is a spacious temple, and inside the temple stands a couch of +unusual size, richly adorned, with a golden table by its side. +There is no statue of any kind set up in the place, nor is the +chamber occupied of nights by anyone but a single native woman, +who, as the Chaldaeans, the priests of this god, affirm, is +chosen for himself by the deity out of all the women of the +land."</p> +<p>A woman who was the "wife of Amon" also slept in that god's +temple at Thebes in Egypt. A similar custom was observed in +Lycia.</p> +<p>"Below, in the same precinct," continued Herodotus, "there is +a second temple, in which is a sitting figure of Jupiter, all of +gold. Before the figure stands a large golden table, and the +throne whereon it sits, and the base on which the throne is +placed, are likewise of pure gold.... Outside the temple are two +altars, one of solid gold, on which it is only lawful to offer +sucklings; <a id="page.anchor.222" name="page.anchor.222"></a>the +other, a common altar, but of great size, on which the full-grown +animals are sacrificed. It is also on the great altar that the +Chaldaeans burn the frankincense, which is offered to the amount +of a thousand talents' weight, every year, at the festival of the +god. In the time of Cyrus there was likewise in this temple a +figure of a man, twelve cubits high, entirely of solid gold.... +Besides the ornaments which I have mentioned, there are a large +number of private offerings in this holy precinct."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1266" href="#ftn.fnrex1266" id= +"fnrex1266">266</a>]</span></p> +<p>The city wall and river gates were closed every night, and +when Babylon was besieged the people were able to feed +themselves. The gardens and small farms were irrigated by canals, +and canals also controlled the flow of the river Euphrates. A +great dam had been formed above the town to store the surplus +water during inundation and increase the supply when the river +sank to its lowest.</p> +<p>In Hammurabi's time the river was crossed by ferry boats, but +long ere the Greeks visited the city a great bridge had been +constructed. So completely did the fierce Sennacherib destroy the +city, that most of the existing ruins date from the period of +Nebuchadnezzar II.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1267" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1267" id="fnrex1267">267</a>]</span></p> +<p>Our knowledge of the social life of Babylon and the territory +under its control is derived chiefly from the Hammurabi Code of +laws, of which an almost complete copy was discovered at Susa, +towards the end of 1901, by the De Morgan expedition. The laws +were inscribed on a stele of black diorite 7 ft. 3 in. high, with +a circumference at the base of 6 ft. 2 in. and at the top of 5 +ft. 4 in. This important relic of an ancient law-abiding people +had been broken in three pieces, but when these <a id= +"page.anchor.223" name="page.anchor.223"></a>were joined together +it was found that the text was not much impaired. On one side are +twenty-eight columns and on the other sixteen. Originally there +were in all nearly 4000 lines of inscriptions, but five columns, +comprising about 300 lines, had been erased to give space, it is +conjectured, for the name of the invader who carried the stele +away, but unfortunately the record was never made.</p> +<p>On the upper part of the stele, which is now one of the +treasures of the Louvre, Paris, King Hammurabi salutes, with his +right hand reverently upraised, the sun god Shamash, seated on +his throne, at the summit of E-sagila, by whom he is being +presented with the stylus with which to inscribe the legal code. +Both figures are heavily bearded, but have shaven lips and chins. +The god wears a conical headdress and a flounced robe suspended +from his left shoulder, while the king has assumed a round +dome-shaped hat and a flowing garment which almost sweeps the +ground.</p> +<p>It is gathered from the Code that there were three chief +social grades--the aristocracy, which included landowners, high +officials and administrators; the freemen, who might be wealthy +merchants or small landholders; and the slaves. The fines imposed +for a given offence upon wealthy men were much heavier than those +imposed upon the poor. Lawsuits were heard in courts. Witnesses +were required to tell the truth, "affirming before the god what +they knew", and perjurers were severely dealt with; a man who +gave false evidence in connection with a capital charge was put +to death. A strict watch was also kept over the judges, and if +one was found to have willingly convicted a prisoner on +insufficient evidence he was fined and degraded.</p> +<p>Theft was regarded as a heinous crime, and was invariably +<a id="page.anchor.224" name="page.anchor.224"></a>punished by +death. Thieves included those who made purchases from minors or +slaves without the sanction of elders or trustees. Sometimes the +accused was given the alternative of paying a fine, which might +exceed by ten or even thirty fold the value of the article or +animal he had appropriated. It was imperative that lost property +should be restored. If the owner of an article of which he had +been wrongfully deprived found it in possession of a man who +declared that he had purchased it from another, evidence was +taken in court. When it happened that the seller was proved to +have been the thief, the capital penalty was imposed. On the +other hand, the alleged purchaser was dealt with in like manner +if he failed to prove his case. Compensation for property stolen +by a brigand was paid by the temple, and the heirs of a man slain +by a brigand within the city had to be compensated by the local +authority.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2531547" name="id2531547"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure X.1. THE BABYLONIAN MARRIAGE +MARKET</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by Edwin Long, +R.d., in the Royal Holloway College</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/22.jpg" /></div> +<p>Of special interest are the laws which relate to the position +of women. In this connection reference may first be made to the +marriage-by-auction custom, which Herodotus described as follows: +"Once a year in each village the maidens of age to marry were +collected all together into one place, while the men stood round +them in a circle. Then a herald called up the damsels one by one, +and offered them for sale. He began with the most beautiful. When +she was sold for no small sum of money, he offered for sale the +one who came next to her in beauty. All of them were sold to be +wives. The richest of the Babylonians who wished to wed bid +against each other for the loveliest maidens, while the humbler +wife-seekers, who were indifferent about beauty, took the more +homely damsels with marriage portions. For the custom was that +when the herald had gone through the whole number of the +beautiful <a id="page.anchor.225" name= +"page.anchor.225"></a>damsels, he should then call up the +ugliest--a cripple, if there chanced to be one--and offer her to +the men, asking who would agree to take her with the smallest +marriage portion. And the man who offered to take the smallest +sum had her assigned to him. The marriage portions were furnished +by the money paid for the beautiful damsels, and thus the fairer +maidens portioned out the uglier. No one was allowed to give his +daughter in marriage to the man of his choice, nor might anyone +carry away the damsel whom he had purchased without finding bail +really and truly to make her his wife; if, however, it turned out +that they did not agree, the money might be paid back. All who +liked might come, even from distant villages, and bid for the +women."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1268" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1268" id="fnrex1268">268</a>]</span></p> +<p>This custom is mentioned by other writers, but it is +impossible to ascertain at what period it became prevalent in +Babylonia and by whom it was introduced. Herodotus understood +that it obtained also in "the Illyrian tribe of the Eneti", which +was reputed to have entered Italy with Antenor after the fall of +Troy, and has been identified with the Venetians of later times. +But the ethnic clue thus afforded is exceedingly vague. There is +no direct reference to the custom in the Hammurabi Code, which +reveals a curious blending of the principles of "Father right" +and "Mother right". A girl was subject to her father's will; he +could dispose of her as he thought best, and she always remained +a member of his family; after marriage she was known as the +daughter of so and so rather than the wife of so and so. But +marriage brought her freedom and the rights of citizenship. The +power vested in her father was never transferred to her +husband.</p> +<p>A father had the right to select a suitable spouse for <a id= +"page.anchor.226" name="page.anchor.226"></a>his daughter, and +she could not marry without his consent. That this law did not +prevent "love matches" is made evident by the fact that provision +was made in the Code for the marriage of a free woman with a male +slave, part of whose estate in the event of his wife's death +could be claimed by his master.</p> +<p>When a betrothal was arranged, the father fixed the "bride +price", which was paid over before the contract could be +concluded, and he also provided a dowry. The amount of the "bride +price" might, however, be refunded to the young couple to give +them a start in life. If, during the interval between betrothal +and marriage, the man "looked upon another woman", and said to +his father-in-law, "I will not marry your daughter", he forfeited +the "bride price" for breach of promise of marriage.</p> +<p>A girl might also obtain a limited degree of freedom by taking +vows of celibacy and becoming one of the vestal virgins, or nuns, +who were attached to the temple of the sun god. She did not, +however, live a life of entire seclusion. If she received her due +proportion of her father's estate, she could make business +investments within certain limits. She was not, for instance, +allowed to own a wineshop, and if she even entered one she was +burned at the stake. Once she took these vows she had to observe +them until the end of her days. If she married, as she might do +to obtain the legal status of a married woman and enjoy the +privileges of that position, she denied her husband conjugal +rites, but provided him with a concubine who might bear him +children, as Sarah did to Abraham. These nuns must not be +confused with the unmoral women who were associated with the +temples of Ishtar and other love goddesses of shady repute.</p> +<p>The freedom secured by a married woman had its <a id= +"page.anchor.227" name="page.anchor.227"></a>legal limitations. +If she became a widow, for instance, she could not remarry +without the consent of a judge, to whom she was expected to show +good cause for the step she proposed to take. Punishments for +breaches of the marriage law were severe. Adultery was a capital +crime; the guilty parties were bound together and thrown into the +river. If it happened, however, that the wife of a prisoner went +to reside with another man on account of poverty, she was +acquitted and allowed to return to her husband after his release. +In cases where no plea of poverty could be urged the erring women +were drowned. The wife of a soldier who had been taken prisoner +by an enemy was entitled to a third part of her husband's estate +if her son was a minor, the remainder was held in trust. The +husband could enter into possession of all his property again if +he happened to return home.</p> +<p>Divorce was easily obtained. A husband might send his wife +away either because she was childless or because he fell in love +with another woman. Incompatibility of temperament was also +recognized as sufficient reason for separation. A woman might +hate her husband and wish to leave him. "If", the Code sets +forth, "she is careful and is without blame, and is neglected by +her husband who has deserted her", she can claim release from the +marriage contract. But if she is found to have another lover, and +is guilty of neglecting her duties, she is liable to be put to +death.</p> +<p>A married woman possessed her own property. Indeed, the value +of her marriage dowry was always vested in her. When, therefore, +she divorced her husband, or was divorced by him, she was +entitled to have her dowry refunded and to return to her father's +house. Apparently she could claim maintenance from her +father.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.228" name="page.anchor.228"></a>A woman +could have only one husband, but a man could have more than one +wife. He might marry a secondary wife, or concubine, because he +was without offspring, but "the concubine", the Code lays down, +"shall not rank with the wife". Another reason for second +marriage recognized by law was a wife's state of health. In such +circumstances a man could not divorce his sickly wife. He had to +support her in his house as long as she lived.</p> +<p>Children were the heirs of their parents, but if a man during +his lifetime gifted his property to his wife, and confirmed it on +"a sealed tablet", the children could have no claim, and the +widow was entitled to leave her estate to those of her children +she preferred; but she could not will any portion of it to her +brothers. In ordinary cases the children of a first marriage +shared equally the estate of a father with those of a second +marriage. If a slave bore children to her employer, their right +to inheritance depended on whether or not the father had +recognized them as his offspring during his lifetime. A father +might legally disown his son if the young man was guilty of +criminal practices.</p> +<p>The legal rights of a vestal virgin were set forth in detail. +If she had received no dowry from her father when she took vows +of celibacy, she could claim after his death one-third of the +portion of a son. She could will her estate to anyone she +favoured, but if she died intestate her brothers were her heirs. +When, however, her estate consisted of fields or gardens allotted +to her by her father, she could not disinherit her legal heirs. +The fields or gardens might be worked during her lifetime by her +brothers if they paid rent, or she might employ a manager on the +"share system".</p> +<p>Vestal virgins and married women were protected <a id= +"page.anchor.229" name="page.anchor.229"></a>against the +slanderer. Any man who "pointed the finger" against them +unjustifiably was charged with the offence before a judge, who +could sentence him to have his forehead branded. It was not +difficult, therefore, in ancient Babylonia to discover the men +who made malicious and unfounded statements regarding an innocent +woman. Assaults on women were punished according to the victim's +rank; even slaves were protected.</p> +<p>Women appear to have monopolized the drink traffic. At any +rate, there is no reference to male wine sellers. A female +publican had to conduct her business honestly, and was bound to +accept a legal tender. If she refused corn and demanded silver, +when the value of the silver by "grand weight" was below the +price of corn, she was prosecuted and punished by being thrown +into the water. Perhaps she was simply ducked. As much may be +inferred from the fact that when she was found guilty of allowing +rebels to meet in her house, she was put to death.</p> +<p>The land laws were strict and exacting. A tenant could be +penalized for not cultivating his holding properly. The rent paid +was a proportion of the crop, but the proportion could be fixed +according to the average yield of a district, so that a careless +or inefficient tenant had to bear the brunt of his neglect or +want of skill. The punishment for allowing a field to lie fallow +was to make a man hoe and sow it and then hand it over to his +landlord, and this applied even to a man who leased unreclaimed +land which he had contracted to cultivate. Damage done to fields +by floods after the rent was paid was borne by the cultivator; +but if it occurred before the corn was reaped the landlord's +share was calculated in proportion to the amount of the yield +which was recovered. Allowance was also made for poor harvests, +when the <a id="page.anchor.230" name= +"page.anchor.230"></a>shortage was not due to the neglect of the +tenant, but to other causes, and no interest was paid for +borrowed money even if the farm suffered from the depredations of +the tempest god; the moneylender had to share risks with +borrowers. Tenants who neglected their dykes, however, were not +exempted from their legal liabilities, and their whole estates +could be sold to reimburse their creditors.</p> +<p>The industrious were protected against the careless. Men who +were negligent about controlling the water supply, and caused +floods by opening irrigation ditches which damaged the crops of +their neighbours, had to pay for the losses sustained, the +damages being estimated according to the average yield of a +district. A tenant who allowed his sheep to stray on to a +neighbour's pasture had to pay a heavy fine in corn at the +harvest season, much in excess of the value of the grass cropped +by his sheep. Gardeners were similarly subject to strict laws. +All business contracts had to be conducted according to the +provisions of the Code, and in every case it was necessary that a +proper record should be made on clay tablets. As a rule a +dishonest tenant or trader had to pay sixfold the value of the +sum under dispute if the judge decided in court against his +claim.</p> +<p>The law of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth was +strictly observed in Babylonia. A freeman who destroyed an eye of +a freeman had one of his own destroyed; if he broke a bone, he +had a bone broken. Fines were imposed, however, when a slave was +injured. For striking a gentleman, a commoner received sixty +lashes, and the son who smote his father had his hands cut off. A +slave might have his ears cut off for assaulting his master's +son.</p> +<p>Doctors must have found their profession an extremely <a id= +"page.anchor.231" name="page.anchor.231"></a>risky one. No +allowance was made for what is nowadays known as a "professional +error". A doctor's hands were cut off if he opened a wound with a +metal knife and his patient afterwards died, or if a man lost his +eye as the result of an operation. A slave who died under a +doctor's hands had to be replaced by a slave, and if a slave lost +his eye, the doctor had to pay half the man's market value to the +owner. Professional fees were fixed according to a patient's +rank. Gentlemen had to pay five shekels of silver to a doctor who +set a bone or restored diseased flesh, commoners three shekels, +and masters for their slaves two shekels. There was also a scale +of fees for treating domesticated animals, and it was not +over-generous. An unfortunate surgeon who undertook to treat an +ox or ass suffering from a severe wound had to pay a quarter of +its price to its owner if it happened to die. A shrewd farmer who +was threatened with the loss of an animal must have been +extremely anxious to engage the services of a surgeon.</p> +<p>It is not surprising, after reviewing this part of the +Hammurabi Code, to find Herodotus stating bluntly that the +Babylonians had no physicians. "When a man is ill", he wrote, +"they lay him in the public square, and the passers-by come up to +him, and if they have ever had his disease themselves, or have +known anyone who has suffered from it, they give him advice, +recommending him to do whatever they found good in their own +case, or in the case known to them; and no one is allowed to pass +the sick man in silence without asking him what his ailment is." +One might imagine that Hammurabi had legislated the medical +profession out of existence, were it not that letters have been +found in the Assyrian library of Ashur-banipal which indicate +that skilled physicians were held in high repute. It is +improbable, however, <a id="page.anchor.232" name= +"page.anchor.232"></a>that they were numerous. The risks they ran +in Babylonia may account for their ultimate disappearance in that +country.</p> +<p>No doubt patients received some benefit from exposure in the +streets in the sunlight and fresh air, and perhaps, too, from +some of the old wives' remedies which were gratuitously +prescribed by passers-by. In Egypt, where certain of the folk +cures were recorded on papyri, quite effective treatment was +occasionally given, although the "medicines" were exceedingly +repugnant as a rule; ammonia, for instance, was taken with the +organic substances found in farmyards. Elsewhere some wonderful +instances of excellent folk cures have come to light, especially +among isolated peoples, who have received them interwoven in +their immemorial traditions. A medical man who has investigated +this interesting subject in the Scottish Highlands has shown that +"the simple observation of the people was the starting-point of +our fuller knowledge, however complete we may esteem it to be". +For dropsy and heart troubles, foxglove, broom tops, and juniper +berries, which have reputations "as old as the hills", are "the +most reliable medicines in our scientific armoury at the present +time". These discoveries of the ancient folks have been "merely +elaborated in later days". Ancient cures for indigestion are +still in use. "Tar water, which was a remedy for chest troubles, +especially for those of a consumptive nature, has endless +imitations in our day"; it was also "the favourite remedy for +skin diseases". No doubt the present inhabitants of Babylonia, +who utilize bitumen as a germicide, are perpetuating an ancient +folk custom.</p> +<p>This medical man who is being quoted adds: "The whole matter +may be summed up, that we owe infinitely more to the simple +nature study of our people in the <a id="page.anchor.233" name= +"page.anchor.233"></a>great affair of health than we owe to all +the later science."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1269" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1269" id="fnrex1269">269</a>]</span></p> +<p>Herodotus, commenting on the custom of patients taking a +census of folk cures in the streets, said it was one of the +wisest institutions of the Babylonian people. It is to be +regretted that he did not enter into details regarding the +remedies which were in greatest favour in his day. His data would +have been useful for comparative purposes.</p> +<p>So far as can be gathered from the clay tablets, faith cures +were not unknown, and there was a good deal of quackery. If +surgery declined, as a result of the severe restrictions which +hampered progress in an honourable profession, magic flourished +like tropical fungi. Indeed, the worker of spells was held in +high repute, and his operations were in most cases allowed free +play. There are only two paragraphs in the Hammurabi Code which +deal with magical practices. It is set forth that if one man +cursed another and the curse could not be justified, the +perpetrator of it must suffer the death penalty. Provision was +also made for discovering whether a spell had been legally +imposed or not. The victim was expected to plunge himself in a +holy river. If the river carried him away it was held as proved +that he deserved his punishment, and "the layer of the spell" was +given possession of the victim's house. A man who could swim was +deemed to be innocent; he claimed the residence of "the layer of +the spell", who was promptly put to death. With this interesting +glimpse of ancient superstition the famous Code opens, and then +strikes a modern note by detailing the punishments for perjury +and the unjust administration of law in the courts.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.234" name="page.anchor.234"></a>The poor +sufferers who gathered at street corners in Babylon to make mute +appeal for cures believed that they were possessed by evil +spirits. Germs of disease were depicted by lively imaginations as +invisible demons, who derived nourishment from the human body. +When a patient was wasted with disease, growing thinner and +weaker and more bloodless day by day, it was believed that a +merciless vampire was sucking his veins and devouring his flesh. +It had therefore to be expelled by performing a magical ceremony +and repeating a magical formula. The demon was either driven or +enticed away.</p> +<p>A magician had to decide in the first place what particular +demon was working evil. He then compelled its attention and +obedience by detailing its attributes and methods of attack, and +perhaps by naming it. Thereafter he suggested how it should next +act by releasing a raven, so that it might soar towards the +clouds like that bird, or by offering up a sacrifice which it +received for nourishment and as compensation. Another popular +method was to fashion a waxen figure of the patient and prevail +upon the disease demon to enter it. The figure was then carried +away to be thrown in the river or burned in a fire.</p> +<p>Occasionally a quite effective cure was included in the +ceremony. As much is suggested by the magical treatment of +toothache. First of all the magician identified the toothache +demon as "the worm". Then he recited its history, which is as +follows: After Anu created the heavens, the heavens created the +earth, the earth created the rivers, the rivers created the +canals, the canals created the marshes, and last of all the +marshes created "the worm".</p> +<p>This display of knowledge compelled the worm to listen, and no +doubt the patient was able to indicate to <a id="page.anchor.235" +name="page.anchor.235"></a>what degree it gave evidence of its +agitated mind. The magician continued:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Came the worm and wept before +Shamash,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Before Ea came her tears:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"What wilt thou give me for my +food,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>What wilt thou give me to +devour?"</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>One of the deities answered: "I will give thee dried bones and +scented ... wood"; but the hungry worm protested:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Nay, what are these dried bones of +thine to me?</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Let me drink among the +teeth;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And set me on the gums</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That I may devour the blood of the +teeth,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And of their gums destroy their +strength--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Then shall I hold the bolt of the +door."</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The magician provided food for "the worm", and the following +is his recipe: "Mix beer, the plant sa-kil-bir, and oil together; +put it on the tooth and repeat Incantation." No doubt this +mixture soothed the pain, and the sufferer must have smiled +gladly when the magician finished his incantation by +exclaiming:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"So must thou say this, O +Worm!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May Ea smite thee with the might of his +fist."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1270" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1270" id="fnrex1270">270</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Headaches were no doubt much relieved when damp cloths were +wrapped round a patient's head and scented wood was burned beside +him, while the magician, in whom so much faith was reposed, +droned out a mystical incantation. The curative water was drawn +from the confluence of two streams and was sprinkled with much +ceremony. In like manner the evil-eye curers, who still <a id= +"page.anchor.236" name="page.anchor.236"></a>operate in isolated +districts in these islands, draw water from under bridges "over +which the dead and the living pass",<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1271" href="#ftn.fnrex1271" id="fnrex1271">271</a>]</span> +and mutter charms and lustrate victims.</p> +<p>Headaches were much dreaded by the Babylonians. They were +usually the first symptoms of fevers, and the demons who caused +them were supposed to be bloodthirsty and exceedingly awesome. +According to the charms, these invisible enemies of man were of +the brood of Nergal. No house could be protected against them. +They entered through keyholes and chinks of doors and windows; +they crept like serpents and stank like mice; they had lolling +tongues like hungry dogs.</p> +<p>Magicians baffled the demons by providing a charm. If a +patient "touched iron"--meteoric iron, which was the "metal of +heaven"--relief could be obtained. Or, perhaps, the sacred water +would dispel the evil one; as the drops trickled from the +patient's face, so would the fever spirit trickle away. When a +pig was offered up in sacrifice as a substitute for a patient, +the wicked spirit was commanded to depart and allow a kindly +spirit to take its place--an indication that the Babylonians, +like the Germanic peoples, believed that they were guarded by +spirits who brought good luck.</p> +<p>The numerous incantations which were inscribed on clay tablets +and treasured in libraries, do not throw much light on the +progress of medical knowledge, for the genuine folk cures were +regarded as of secondary importance, and were not as a rule +recorded. But these metrical compositions are of special +interest, in so far as they indicate how poetry originated and +achieved widespread popularity among ancient peoples. Like the +religious dance, the earliest poems were used for magical +purposes. They were composed in the first place by men <a id= +"page.anchor.237" name="page.anchor.237"></a>and women who were +supposed to be inspired in the literal sense; that is, possessed +by spirits. Primitive man associated "spirit" with "breath", +which was the "air of life", and identical with wind. The +poetical magician drew in a "spirit", and thus received +inspiration, as he stood on some sacred spot on the mountain +summit, amidst forest solitudes, beside a' whispering stream, or +on the sounding shore. As Burns has sung:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The muse, nae poet ever fand +her,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Till by himsel' he learn'd to +wander,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Adown some trottin' burn's +meander,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> An' no think lang:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O sweet to stray, an' pensive +ponder</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> A heart-felt sang!</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Or, perhaps, the bard received inspiration by drinking magic +water from the fountain called Hippocrene, or the skaldic mead +which dripped from the moon.</p> +<p>The ancient poet did not sing for the mere love of singing: he +knew nothing about "Art for Art's sake". His object in singing +appears to have been intensely practical. The world was inhabited +by countless hordes of spirits, which were believed to be ever +exercising themselves to influence mankind. The spirits caused +suffering; they slew victims; they brought misfortune; they were +also the source of good or "luck". Man regarded spirits +emotionally; he conjured them with emotion; he warded off their +attacks with emotion; and his emotions were given rhythmical +expression by means of metrical magical charms.</p> +<p>Poetic imagery had originally a magical significance; if the +ocean was compared to a dragon, it was because it was supposed to +be inhabited by a storm-causing dragon; the wind whispered +because a spirit whispered in it. <a id="page.anchor.238" name= +"page.anchor.238"></a>Love lyrics were charms to compel the love +god to wound or possess a maiden's heart--to fill it, as an +Indian charm sets forth, with "the yearning of the Apsaras +(fairies)"; satires conjured up evil spirits to injure a victim; +and heroic narratives chanted at graves were statements made to +the god of battle, so that he might award the mighty dead by +transporting him to the Valhal of Odin or Swarga of Indra.</p> +<p>Similarly, music had magical origin as an imitation of the +voices of spirits--of the piping birds who were "Fates", of the +wind high and low, of the thunder roll, of the bellowing sea. So +the god Pan piped on his reed bird-like notes, Indra blew his +thunder horn, Thor used his hammer like a drumstick, Neptune +imitated on his "wreathed horn" the voice of the deep, the Celtic +oak god Dagda twanged his windy wooden harp, and Angus, the +Celtic god of spring and love, came through budding forest ways +with a silvern harp which had strings of gold, echoing the +tuneful birds, the purling streams, the whispering winds, and the +rustling of scented fir and blossoming thorn.</p> +<p>Modern-day poets and singers, who voice their moods and cast +the spell of their moods over readers and audiences, are the +representatives of ancient magicians who believed that moods were +caused by the spirits which possessed them--the rhythmical wind +spirits, those harpers of the forest and songsters of ocean.</p> +<p>The following quotations from Mr. R.C. Thompson's translations +of Babylonian charms will serve to illustrate their poetic +qualities:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Fever like frost hath come upon the +land.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Fever hath blown upon the man as the +wind blast,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>It hath smitten the man and humbled his +pride.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.239" name= +"page.anchor.239"></a>Headache lieth like the stars of heaven in +the desert and hath no praise;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Pain in the head and shivering like a +scudding cloud turn unto the form of man.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Headache whose course like the +dread windstorm none knoweth.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Headache roareth over the desert, +blowing like the wind,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Flashing like lightning, it is +loosed above and below,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> It cutteth off him, who feareth not +his god, like a reed ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> From amid mountains it hath +descended upon the land.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Headache ... a rushing +hag-demon,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Granting no rest, nor giving +kindly sleep ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Whose shape is as the +whirlwind.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Its appearance is as the +darkening heavens,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And its face as the deep shadow +of the forest.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Sickness ... breaking the fingers +as a rope of wind ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Flashing like a heavenly star, it +cometh like the dew.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>These early poets had no canons of Art, and there were no +critics to disturb their meditations. Many singers had to sing +and die ere a critic could find much to say. In ancient times, +therefore, poets had their Golden Age-- they were a law unto +themselves. Even the "minors" were influential members of +society.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1264" href="#fnrex1264" id= +"ftn.fnrex1264">264</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, book i, 179 (Rawlinson's +translation).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1265" href="#fnrex1265" id= +"ftn.fnrex1265">265</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xlv, 1, 2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1266" href="#fnrex1266" id= +"ftn.fnrex1266">266</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, book i, 181-3 (Rawlinson's +translation).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1267" href="#fnrex1267" id= +"ftn.fnrex1267">267</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>History of Sumer and Akkad</em></span>, L.W. King, +p. 37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1268" href="#fnrex1268" id= +"ftn.fnrex1268">268</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, book i, 196 (Rawlinson's +translation).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1269" href="#fnrex1269" id= +"ftn.fnrex1269">269</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Home +Life of the Highlanders</em></span> (Dr. Cameron Gillies on +<span class="emphasis"><em>Medical Knowledge</em></span>,) pp. 85 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span> Glasgow, +1911.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1270" href="#fnrex1270" id= +"ftn.fnrex1270">270</a>]</span> Translations by R.C. Thompson in +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Devils and Spirits of +Babylon</em></span>, vol. i, pp. lxiii <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1271" href="#fnrex1271" id= +"ftn.fnrex1271">271</a>]</span> Bridges which lead to +graveyards.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2532489" name= +"id2532489"></a>Chapter XI. The Golden Age of Babylonia</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Rise of the Sun God--Amorites and Elamites struggle for +Ascendancy--The Conquering Ancestors of Hammurabi--Sumerian +Cities Destroyed--Widespread Race Movements--Phoenician Migration +from Persian Gulf--Wanderings of Abraham and Lot--Biblical +References to Hittites and Amorites--Battles of Four Kings with +Five--Amraphel, Arioch, and Tidal--Hammurabi's Brilliant +Reign--Elamite Power Stamped Out--Babylon's Great General and +Statesman--The Growth of Commerce, Agriculture, and Education--An +Ancient School--Business and Private Correspondence--A Love +Letter--Postal System--Hammurabi's Successors--The Earliest +Kassites--The Sealand Dynasty--Hittite Raid on Babylon and Hyksos +Invasion of Egypt.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.240" name="page.anchor.240"></a> Sun +worship came into prominence in its most fully developed form +during the obscure period which followed the decline of the +Dynasty of Isin. This was probably due to the changed political +conditions which brought about the ascendancy for a time of +Larsa, the seat of the Sumerian sun cult, and of Sippar, the seat +of the Akkadian sun cult. Larsa was selected as the capital of +the Elamite conquerors, while their rivals, the Amorites, appear +to have first established their power at Sippar.</p> +<p>Babbar, the sun god of Sippar, whose Semitic name was Shamash, +must have been credited with the early successes of the Amorites, +who became domiciled under his care, and it was possibly on that +account that the ruling family subsequently devoted so much +attention to his worship in Merodach's city of Babylon, where a +sun temple was erected, and Shamash received devout recognition +<a id="page.anchor.241" name="page.anchor.241"></a>as an abstract +deity of righteousness and law, who reflected the ideals of well +organized and firmly governed communities.</p> +<p>The first Amoritic king was Sumu-abum, but little is known +regarding him except that he reigned at Sippar. He was succeeded +by Sumu-la-ilu, a deified monarch, who moved from Sippar to +Babylon, the great wall of which he either repaired or entirely +reconstructed in his fifth year. With these two monarchs began +the brilliant Hammurabi, or First Dynasty of Babylonia, which +endured for three centuries. Except Sumu-abum, who seems to stand +alone, all its kings belonged to the same family, and son +succeeded father in unbroken succession.</p> +<p>Sumu-la-ilu was evidently a great general and conqueror of the +type of Thothmes III of Egypt. His empire, it is believed, +included the rising city states of Assyria, and extended +southward as far as ancient Lagash.</p> +<p>Of special interest on religious as well as political grounds +was his association with Kish. That city had become the +stronghold of a rival family of Amoritic kings, some of whom were +powerful enough to assert their independence. They formed the +Third Dynasty of Kish. The local god was Zamama, the Tammuz-like +deity, who, like Nin-Girsu of Lagash, was subsequently identified +with Merodach of Babylon. But prominence was also given to the +moon god Nannar, to whom a temple had been erected, a fact which +suggests that sun worship was not more pronounced among the +Semites than the Arabians, and may not, indeed, have been of +Semitic origin at all. Perhaps the lunar temple was a relic of +the influential Dynasty of Ur.</p> +<p>Sumu-la-ilu attacked and captured Kish, but did not slay +Bunutakhtunila, its king, who became his vassal. Under the +overlordship of Sumu-la-ilu, the next ruler of <a id= +"page.anchor.242" name="page.anchor.242"></a>Kish, whose name was +Immerum, gave prominence to the public worship of Shamash. +Politics and religion went evidently hand in hand.</p> +<p>Sumu-la-ilu strengthened the defences of Sippar, restored the +wall and temple of Cuthah, and promoted the worship of Merodach +and his consort Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> at +Babylon. He was undoubtedly one of the forceful personalities of +his dynasty. His son, Zabium, had a short but successful reign, +and appears to have continued the policy of his father in +consolidating the power of Babylon and securing the allegiance of +subject cities. He enlarged Merodach's temple, E-sagila, restored +the Kish temple of Zamama, and placed a golden image of himself +in the temple of the sun god at Sippar. Apil-Sin, his son, +surrounded Babylon with a new wall, erected a temple to Ishtar, +and presented a throne of gold and silver to Shamash in that +city, while he also strengthened Borsippa, renewed Nergal's +temple at Cuthah, and dug canals.</p> +<p>The next monarch was Sin-muballit, son of Apil-Sin and father +of Hammurabi. He engaged himself in extending and strengthening +the area controlled by Babylon by building city fortifications +and improving the irrigation system. It is recorded that he +honoured Shamash with the gift of a shrine and a golden altar +adorned with jewels. Like Sumu-la-ilu, he was a great battle +lord, and was specially concerned in challenging the supremacy of +Elam in Sumeria and in the western land of the Amorites.</p> +<p>For a brief period a great conqueror, named Rim-Anum, had +established an empire which extended from Kish to Larsa, but +little is known regarding him. Then several kings flourished at +Larsa who claimed to have ruled over Ur. The first monarch with +an Elamite name who became connected with Larsa was Kudur-Mabug, +<a id="page.anchor.243" name="page.anchor.243"></a>son of +Shimti-Shilkhak, the father of Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin.</p> +<p>It was from one of these Elamite monarchs that Sin-muballit +captured Isin, and probably the Elamites were also the leaders of +the army of Ur which he had routed before that event took place. +He was not successful, however, in driving the Elamites from the +land, and possibly he arranged with them a treaty of peace or +perhaps of alliance.</p> +<p>Much controversy has been waged over the historical problems +connected with this disturbed age. The records are exceedingly +scanty, because the kings were not in the habit of commemorating +battles which proved disastrous to them, and their fragmentary +references to successes are not sufficient to indicate what +permanent results accrued from their various campaigns. All we +know for certain is that for a considerable period, extending +perhaps over a century, a tremendous and disastrous struggle was +waged at intervals, which desolated middle Babylonia. At least +five great cities were destroyed by fire, as is testified by the +evidence accumulated by excavators. These were Lagash, Umma, +Shurruppak, Kisurra, and Adab. The ancient metropolis of Lagash, +whose glory had been revived by Gudea and his kinsmen, fell soon +after the rise of Larsa, and lay in ruins until the second +century B.C., when, during the Seleucid Period, it was again +occupied for a time. From its mound at Tello, and the buried +ruins of the other cities, most of the relics of ancient Sumerian +civilization have been recovered.</p> +<p>It was probably during one of the intervals of this stormy +period that the rival kings in Babylonia joined forces against a +common enemy and invaded the Western Land. Probably there was +much unrest there. Great ethnic disturbances were in progress +which were changing <a id="page.anchor.244" name= +"page.anchor.244"></a>the political complexion of Western Asia. +In addition to the outpourings of Arabian peoples into Palestine +and Syria, which propelled other tribes to invade Mesopotamia, +northern Babylonia, and Assyria, there was also much unrest all +over the wide area to north and west of Elam. Indeed, the Elamite +migration into southern Babylonia may not have been unconnected +with the southward drift of roving bands from Media and the +Iranian plateau.</p> +<p>It is believed that these migrations were primarily due to +changing climatic conditions, a prolonged "Dry Cycle" having +caused a shortage of herbage, with the result that pastoral +peoples were compelled to go farther and farther afield in quest +of "fresh woods and pastures new". Innumerable currents and cross +currents were set in motion once these race movements swept +towards settled districts either to flood them with human waves, +or surround them like islands in the midst of tempest-lashed +seas, fretting the frontiers with restless fury, and ever groping +for an inlet through which to flow with irresistible force.</p> +<p>The Elamite occupation of Southern Babylonia appears to have +propelled migrations of not inconsiderable numbers of its +inhabitants. No doubt the various sections moved towards +districts which were suitable for their habits of life. +Agriculturists, for instance, must have shown preference for +those areas which were capable of agricultural development, while +pastoral folks sought grassy steppes and valleys, and seafarers +the shores of alien seas.</p> +<p>Northern Babylonia and Assyria probably attracted the tillers +of the soil. But the movements of seafarers must have followed a +different route. It is possible that about this time the +Phoenicians began to migrate towards the "Upper Sea". According +to their own traditions their racial cradle was on the northern +shore of the Persian <a id="page.anchor.245" name= +"page.anchor.245"></a>Gulf. So far as we know, they first made +their appearance on the Mediterranean coast about 2000 B.C., +where they subsequently entered into competition as sea traders +with the mariners of ancient Crete. Apparently the pastoral +nomads pressed northward through Mesopotamia and towards Canaan. +As much is suggested by the Biblical narrative which deals with +the wanderings of Terah, Abraham, and Lot. Taking with them their +"flocks and herds and tents", and accompanied by wives, and +families, and servants, they migrated, it is stated, from the +Sumerian city of Ur northwards to Haran "and dwelt there". After +Terah's death the tribe wandered through Canaan and kept moving +southward, unable, it would seem, to settle permanently in any +particular district. At length "there was a famine in the +land"--an interesting reference to the "Dry Cycle"--and the +wanderers found it necessary to take refuge for a time in Egypt. +There they appear to have prospered. Indeed, so greatly did their +flocks and herds increase that when they returned to Canaan they +found that "the land was not able to bear them", although the +conditions had improved somewhat during the interval. "There +was", as a result, "strife between the herdmen of Abram's cattle +and the herdmen of Lot's cattle."</p> +<p>It is evident that the area which these pastoral flocks were +allowed to occupy must have been strictly circumscribed, for more +than once it is stated significantly that "the Canaanite and the +Perizzite dwelled in the land". The two kinsmen found it +necessary, therefore, to part company. Lot elected to go towards +Sodom in the plain of Jordan, and Abraham then moved towards the +plain of Mamre, the Amorite, in the Hebron district.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1272" href="#ftn.fnrex1272" id= +"fnrex1272">272</a>]</span> With Mamre, and his brothers, Eshcol +and Aner, the <a id="page.anchor.246" name= +"page.anchor.246"></a>Hebrew patriarch formed a confederacy for +mutual protection.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1273" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1273" id="fnrex1273">273</a>]</span></p> +<p>Other tribes which were in Palestine at this period included +the Horites, the Rephaims, the Zuzims, the Zamzummims, and the +Emims. These were probably representatives of the older stocks. +Like the Amorites, the Hittites or "children of Heth" were +evidently "late comers", and conquerors. When Abraham purchased +the burial cave at Hebron, the landowner with whom he had to deal +was one Ephron, son of Zohar, the Hittite.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1274" href="#ftn.fnrex1274" id= +"fnrex1274">274</a>]</span> This illuminating statement agrees +with what we know regarding Hittite expansion about 2000 B.C. The +"Hatti" or "Khatti" had constituted military aristocracies +throughout Syria and extended their influence by forming +alliances. Many of their settlers were owners of estates, and +traders who intermarried with the indigenous peoples and the +Arabian invaders. As has been indicated (Chapter I), the +large-nosed Armenoid section of the Hittite confederacy appear to +have contributed to the racial blend known vaguely as the +Semitic. Probably the particular group of Amorites with whom +Abraham became associated had those pronounced Armenoid traits +which can still be traced in representatives of the Hebrew +people. Of special interest in this connection is Ezekiel's +declaration regarding the ethnics of Jerusalem: "Thy birth and +thy nativity", he said, "is of the land of Canaan; thy father was +an Amorite, and thy mother an Hittite."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1275" href="#ftn.fnrex1275" id= +"fnrex1275">275</a>]</span></p> +<p>It was during Abraham's residence in Hebron that the Western +Land was raided by a confederacy of Babylonian and Elamite battle +lords. The Biblical narrative which deals with this episode is of +particular interest and has long engaged the attention of +European scholars:</p> +<p>"And it came to pass in the days of Amraphel <a id= +"page.anchor.247" name="page.anchor.247"></a>(Hammurabi) king of +Shinar (Sumer), Arioch (Eri-aku or Warad-Sin) king of Ellasar +(Larsa), Chedor-laomer (Kudur-Mabug) king of Elam, and Tidal +(Tudhula) king of nations; that these made war with Bera king of +Sodom, and with Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, +and Shemeber king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela, which is +Zoar. All these joined together in the vale of Siddim, which is +the salt sea. Twelve years they served Chedor-laomer, and in the +thirteenth year they rebelled."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1276" href="#ftn.fnrex1276" id="fnrex1276">276</a>]</span> +Apparently the Elamites had conquered part of Syria after +entering southern Babylonia.</p> +<p>Chedor-laomer and his allies routed the Rephaims, the Zuzims, +the Emims, the Horites and others, and having sacked Sodom and +Gomorrah, carried away Lot and "his goods". On hearing of this +disaster, Abraham collected a force of three hundred and eighteen +men, all of whom were no doubt accustomed to guerrilla warfare, +and delivered a night attack on the tail of the victorious army +which was withdrawing through the area afterwards allotted to the +Hebrew tribe of Dan. The surprise was complete; Abraham "smote" +the enemy and "pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand +of Damascus. And he brought back all the goods, and also brought +again his brother Lot, and his goods, and the women also, and the +people."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1277" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1277" id="fnrex1277">277</a>]</span></p> +<p>The identification of Hammurabi with Amraphel is now generally +accepted. At first the guttural "h", which gives the English +rendering "Khammurabi", presented a serious difficulty, but in +time the form "Ammurapi" which appears on a tablet became known, +and the conclusion was reached that the softer "h" sound was used +and not the guttural. The "l" in the Biblical Amraphel <a id= +"page.anchor.248" name="page.anchor.248"></a>has suggested +"Ammurapi-ilu", "Hammurabi, the god", but it has been argued, on +the other hand, that the change may have been due to western +habitual phonetic conditions, or perhaps the slight alteration of +an alphabetical sign. Chedor-laomer, identified with Kudur-Mabug, +may have had several local names. One of his sons, either +Warad-Sin or Rim-Sin, but probably the former, had his name +Semitized as Eri-Aku, and this variant appears in inscriptions. +"Tidal, king of nations", has not been identified. The suggestion +that he was "King of the Gutium" remains in the realm of +suggestion. Two late tablets have fragmentary inscriptions which +read like legends with some historical basis. One mentions +Kudur-lahmal (?Chedor-laomer) and the other gives the form +"Kudur-lahgumal", and calls him "King of the land of Elam". +Eri-Eaku (?Eri-aku) and Tudhula (?Tidal) are also mentioned. +Attacks had been delivered on Babylon, and the city and its great +temple E-sagila were flooded. It is asserted that the Elamites +"exercised sovereignty in Babylon" for a period. These +interesting tablets have been published by Professor Pinches.</p> +<p>The fact that the four leaders of the expedition to Canaan are +all referred to as "kings" in the Biblical narrative need not +present any difficulty. Princes and other subject rulers who +governed under an overlord might be and, as a matter of fact, +were referred to as kings. "I am a king, son of a king", an +unidentified monarch recorded on one of the two tablets just +referred to. Kudur-Mabug, King of Elam, during his lifetime +called his son Warad-Sin (Eri-Aku = Arioch) "King of Larsa". It +is of interest to note, too, in connection with the Biblical +narrative regarding the invasion of Syria and Palestine, that he +styled himself "overseer of the Amurru (Amorites)".</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2532989" name="id2532989"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XI.1. HAMMURABI RECEIVING THE "CODE OF +LAWS" FROM THE SUN GOD</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(<span class="emphasis"><em>Louvre, Paris</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/23.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2533007" name="id2533007"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XI.2. THE HORSE IN WARFARE</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Marble slab showing Ashur-natsir-pal and army advancing +against a besieged town. A battering ram is being drawn on a +six-wheeled carriage <span class="emphasis"><em>From N.W. Palace +of Nimroud: now in the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/24.jpg" /></div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.249" name="page.anchor.249"></a>No traces +have yet been found in Palestine of its conquest by the Elamites, +nor have the excavators been able to substantiate the claim of +Lugal-zaggizi of a previous age to have extended his empire to +the shores of the Mediterranean. Any relics which these and other +eastern conquerors may have left were possibly destroyed by the +Egyptians and Hittites.</p> +<p>When Hammurabi came to the throne he had apparently to +recognize the overlordship of the Elamite king or his royal son +at Larsa. Although Sin-muballit had captured Isin, it was +retaken, probably after the death of the Babylonian war-lord, by +Rim-Sin, who succeeded his brother Warad-Sin, and for a time held +sway in Lagash, Nippur, and Erech, as well as Larsa.</p> +<p>It was not until the thirty-first year of his reign that +Hammurabi achieved ascendancy over his powerful rival. Having +repulsed an Elamite raid, which was probably intended to destroy +the growing power of Babylon, he "smote down Rim-Sin", whose +power he reduced almost to vanishing point. For about twenty +years afterwards that subdued monarch lived in comparative +obscurity; then he led a force of allies against Hammurabi's son +and successor, Samsu-iluna, who defeated him and put him to +death, capturing, in the course of his campaign, the revolting +cities of Emutbalum, Erech, and Isin. So was the last smouldering +ember of Elamite power stamped out in Babylonia.</p> +<p>Hammurabi, statesman and general, is one of the great +personalities of the ancient world. No more celebrated monarch +ever held sway in Western Asia. He was proud of his military +achievements, but preferred to be remembered as a servant of the +gods, a just ruler, a father of his people, and "the shepherd +that gives peace". In the epilogue to his code of laws he refers +to "the burden <a id="page.anchor.250" name= +"page.anchor.250"></a>of royalty", and declares that he "cut off +the enemy" and "lorded it over the conquered" so that his +subjects might have security. Indeed, his anxiety for their +welfare was the most pronounced feature of his character. "I +carried all the people of Sumer and Akkad in my bosom", he +declared in his epilogue. "By my protection, I guided in peace +its brothers. By my wisdom I provided for them." He set up his +stele, on which the legal code was inscribed, so "that the great +should not oppress the weak" and "to counsel the widow and +orphan", and "to succour the injured.... The king that is gentle, +king of the city, exalted am I."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1278" href="#ftn.fnrex1278" id= +"fnrex1278">278</a>]</span></p> +<p>Hammurabi was no mere framer of laws but a practical +administrator as well. He acted as supreme judge, and his +subjects could appeal to him as the Romans could to Caesar. Nor +was any case too trivial for his attention. The humblest man was +assured that justice would be done if his grievance were laid +before the king. Hammurabi was no respecter of persons, and +treated alike all his subjects high and low. He punished corrupt +judges, protected citizens against unjust governors, reviewed the +transactions of moneylenders with determination to curb +extortionate demands, and kept a watchful eye on the operations +of taxgatherers.</p> +<p>There can be little doubt but that he won the hearts of his +subjects, who enjoyed the blessings of just administration under +a well-ordained political system. He must also have endeared +himself to them as an exemplary exponent of religious tolerance. +He respected the various deities in whom the various groups of +people reposed their faith, restored despoiled temples, and +re-endowed them with characteristic generosity. By so doing he +not only <a id="page.anchor.251" name= +"page.anchor.251"></a>afforded the pious full freedom and +opportunity to perform their religious ordinances, but also +promoted the material welfare of his subjects, for the temples +were centres of culture and the priests were the teachers of the +young. Excavators have discovered at Sippar traces of a school +which dates from the Hammurabi Dynasty. Pupils learned to read +and write, and received instruction in arithmetic and +mensuration. They copied historical tablets, practised the art of +composition, and studied geography.</p> +<p>Although there were many professional scribes, a not +inconsiderable proportion of the people of both sexes were able +to write private and business letters. Sons wrote from a distance +to their fathers when in need of money then as now, and with the +same air of undeserved martyrdom and subdued but confident +appeal. One son indited a long complaint regarding the quality of +the food he was given in his lodgings. Lovers appealed to +forgetful ladies, showing great concern regarding their health. +"Inform me how it fares with thee," one wrote four thousand years +ago. "I went up to Babylon so that I might meet thee, but did +not, and was much depressed. Let me know why thou didst go away +so that I may be made glad. And do come hither. Ever have care of +thy health, remembering me." Even begging-letter writers were not +unknown. An ancient representative of this class once wrote to +his employer from prison. He expressed astonishment that he had +been arrested, and, having protested his innocence, he made +touching appeal for little luxuries which were denied to him, +adding that the last consignment which had been forwarded had +never reached him.</p> +<p>Letters were often sent by messengers who were named, but +there also appears to have been some sort of postal system. +Letter carriers, however, could not <a id="page.anchor.252" name= +"page.anchor.252"></a>have performed their duties without the +assistance of beasts of burden. Papyri were not used as in Egypt. +Nor was ink required. Babylonian letters were shapely little +bricks resembling cushions. The angular alphabetical characters, +bristling with thorn-like projections, were impressed with a +wedge-shaped stylus on tablets of soft clay which were afterwards +carefully baked in an oven. Then the letters were placed in baked +clay envelopes, sealed and addressed, or wrapped in pieces of +sacking transfixed by seals. If the ancient people had a festive +season which was regarded, like the European Yuletide or the +Indian Durga fortnight, as an occasion suitable for the general +exchange of expressions of goodwill, the Babylonian streets and +highways must have been greatly congested by the postal traffic, +while muscular postmen worked overtime distributing the contents +of heavy and bulky letter sacks. Door to door deliveries would +certainly have presented difficulties. Wood being dear, everyone +could not afford doors, and some houses were entered by stairways +leading to the flat and partly open roofs.</p> +<p>King Hammurabi had to deal daily with a voluminous +correspondence. He received reports from governors in all parts +of his realm, legal documents containing appeals, and private +communications from relatives and others. He paid minute +attention to details, and was probably one of the busiest men in +Babylonia. Every day while at home, after worshipping Merodach at +E-sagila, he dictated letters to his scribes, gave audiences to +officials, heard legal appeals and issued interlocutors, and +dealt with the reports regarding his private estates. He looks a +typical man of affairs in sculptured representations-- shrewd, +resolute, and unassuming, feeling "the burden of royalty", but +ever ready and well qualified to discharge <a id= +"page.anchor.253" name="page.anchor.253"></a>his duties with +thoroughness and insight. His grasp of detail was equalled only +by his power to conceive of great enterprises which appealed to +his imagination. It was a work of genius on his part to weld +together that great empire of miscellaneous states extending from +southern Babylonia to Assyria, and from the borders of Elam to +the Mediterranean coast, by a universal legal Code which secured +tranquillity and equal rights to all, promoted business, and set +before his subjects the ideals of right thinking and right +living.</p> +<p>Hammurabi recognized that conquest was of little avail unless +followed by the establishment of a just and well-arranged +political system, and the inauguration of practical measures to +secure the domestic, industrial, and commercial welfare of the +people as a whole. He engaged himself greatly, therefore, in +developing the natural resources of each particular district. The +network of irrigating canals was extended in the homeland so that +agriculture might prosper: these canals also promoted trade, for +they were utilized for travelling by boat and for the +distribution of commodities. As a result of his activities +Babylon became not only the administrative, but also the +commercial centre of his Empire--the London of Western Asia--and +it enjoyed a spell of prosperity which was never surpassed in +subsequent times. Yet it never lost its pre-eminent position +despite the attempts of rival states, jealous of its glory and +influence, to suspend its activities. It had been too firmly +established during the Hammurabi Age, which was the Golden Age of +Babylonia, as the heartlike distributor and controller of +business life through a vast network of veins and arteries, to be +displaced by any other Mesopotamian city to pleasure even a +mighty monarch. For two thousand years, from the time of +Hammurabi until the dawn of the <a id="page.anchor.254" name= +"page.anchor.254"></a>Christian era, the city of Babylon remained +amidst many political changes the metropolis of Western Asiatic +commerce and culture, and none was more eloquent in its praises +than the scholarly pilgrim from Greece who wondered at its +magnificence and reverenced its antiquities.</p> +<p>Hammurabi's reign was long as it was prosperous. There is no +general agreement as to when he ascended the throne--some say in +2123 B.C., others hold that it was after 2000 B.C.--but it is +certain that he presided over the destinies of Babylon for the +long period of forty-three years.</p> +<p>There are interesting references to the military successes of +his reign in the prologue to the legal Code. It is related that +when he "avenged Larsa", the seat of Rim-Sin, he restored there +the temple of the sun god. Other temples were built up at various +ancient centres, so that these cultural organizations might +contribute to the welfare of the localities over which they held +sway. At Nippur he thus honoured Enlil, at Eridu the god Ea, at +Ur the god Sin, at Erech the god Anu and the goddess Nana +(Ishtar), at Kish the god Zamama and the goddess Ma-ma, at Cuthah +the god Nergal, at Lagash the god Nin-Girsu, while at Adab and +Akkad, "celebrated for its wide squares", and other centres he +carried out religious and public works. In Assyria he restored +the colossus of Ashur, which had evidently been carried away by a +conqueror, and he developed the canal system of Nineveh.</p> +<p>Apparently Lagash and Adab had not been completely deserted +during his reign, although their ruins have not yielded evidence +that they flourished after their fall during the long struggle +with the aggressive and plundering Elamites.</p> +<p>Hammurabi referred to himself in the Prologue as "a king who +commanded obedience in all the four <a id="page.anchor.255" name= +"page.anchor.255"></a>quarters". He was the sort of benevolent +despot whom Carlyle on one occasion clamoured vainly for--not an +Oriental despot in the commonly accepted sense of the term. As a +German writer puts it, his despotism was a form of Patriarchal +Absolutism. "When Marduk (Merodach)", as the great king recorded, +"brought me to direct all people, and commissioned me to give +judgment, I laid down justice and right in the provinces, I made +all flesh to prosper."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1279" +href="#ftn.fnrex1279" id="fnrex1279">279</a>]</span> That was the +keynote of his long life; he regarded himself as the earthly +representative of the Ruler of all--Merodach, "the lord god of +right", who carried out the decrees of Anu, the sky god of +Destiny.</p> +<p>The next king, Samsu-iluna, reigned nearly as long as his +illustrious father, and similarly lived a strenuous and pious +life. Soon after he came to the throne the forces of disorder +were let loose, but, as has been stated, he crushed and slew his +most formidable opponent, Rim-Sin, the Elamite king, who had +gathered together an army of allies. During his reign a Kassite +invasion was repulsed. The earliest Kassites, a people of +uncertain racial affinities, began to settle in the land during +Hammurabi's lifetime. Some writers connect them with the +Hittites, and others with the Iranians, vaguely termed as +Indo-European or Indo-Germanic folk. Ethnologists as a rule +regard them as identical with the Cossaei, whom the Greeks found +settled between Babylon and Media, east of the Tigris and north +of Elam. The Hittites came south as raiders about a century +later. It is possible that the invading Kassites had overrun Elam +and composed part of Rim-Sin's army. After settled conditions +were secured many of them remained in Babylonia, where they +engaged like <a id="page.anchor.256" name= +"page.anchor.256"></a>their pioneers in agricultural pursuits. No +doubt they were welcomed in that capacity, for owing to the +continuous spread of culture and the development of commerce, +rural labour had become scarce and dear. Farmers had a +long-standing complaint, "The harvest truly is plenteous, but the +labourers are few".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1280" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1280" id="fnrex1280">280</a>]</span> "Despite the +existence of slaves, who were for the most part domestic +servants, there was", writes Mr. Johns, "considerable demand for +free labour in ancient Babylonia. This is clear from the large +number of contracts relating to hire which have come down to +us.... As a rule, the man was hired for the harvest and was free +directly after. But there are many examples in which the term of +service was different--one month, half a year, or a whole +year.... Harvest labour was probably far dearer than any other, +because of its importance, the skill and exertion demanded, and +the fact that so many were seeking for it at once." When a farm +worker was engaged he received a shekel for "earnest money" or +arles, and was penalized for non-appearance or late +arrival.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1281" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1281" id="fnrex1281">281</a>]</span></p> +<p>So great was the political upheaval caused by Rim-Sin and his +allies and imitators in southern Babylonia, that it was not until +the seventeenth year of his reign that Samsu-iluna had recaptured +Erech and Ur and restored their walls. Among other cities which +had to be chastised was ancient Akkad, where a rival monarch +endeavoured to establish himself. Several years were afterwards +spent in building new fortifications, setting up memorials in +temples, and cutting and clearing canals. On more than one +occasion during the latter part of his reign he had to deal with +aggressive bands of Amorites.</p> +<p>The greatest danger to the Empire, however, was threatened by +a new kingdom which had been formed in <a id="page.anchor.257" +name="page.anchor.257"></a>Bit-Jakin, a part of Sealand which was +afterwards controlled by the mysterious Chaldeans. Here may have +collected evicted and rebel bands of Elamites and Sumerians and +various "gentlemen of fortune" who were opposed to the Hammurabi +regime. After the fall of Rim-Sin it became powerful under a king +called Ilu-ma-ilu. Samsu-iluna conducted at least two campaigns +against his rival, but without much success. Indeed, he was in +the end compelled to retreat with considerable loss owing to the +difficult character of that marshy country.</p> +<p>Abeshu, the next Babylonian king, endeavoured to shatter the +cause of the Sealanders, and made it possible for himself to +strike at them by damming up the Tigris canal. He achieved a +victory, but the wily Ilu-ma-ilu eluded him, and after a reign of +sixty years was succeeded by his son, Kiannib. The Sealand +Dynasty, of which little is known, lasted for over three and a +half centuries, and certain of its later monarchs were able to +extend their sway over part of Babylonia, but its power was +strictly circumscribed so long as Hammurabi's descendants held +sway.</p> +<p>During Abeshu's reign of twenty-eight years, of which but +scanty records survive, he appears to have proved an able +statesman and general. He founded a new city called Lukhaia, and +appears to have repulsed a Kassite raid.</p> +<p>His son, Ammiditana, who succeeded him, apparently inherited a +prosperous and well-organized Empire, for during the first +fifteen years of his reign he attended chiefly to the adornment +of temples and other pious undertakings. He was a patron of the +arts with archaeological leanings, and displayed traits which +suggest that he inclined, like Sumu-la-ilu, to ancestor worship. +Entemena, the pious patesi of Lagash, whose memory is <a id= +"page.anchor.258" name="page.anchor.258"></a>associated with the +famous silver vase decorated with the lion-headed eagle form of +Nin-Girsu, had been raised to the dignity of a god, and +Ammiditana caused his statue to be erected so that offerings +might be made to it. He set up several images of himself also, +and celebrated the centenary of the accession to the throne of +his grandfather, Samsu-iluna, "the warrior lord", by unveiling +his statue with much ceremony at Kish. About the middle of his +reign he put down a Sumerian rising, and towards its close had to +capture a city which is believed to be Isin, but the reference is +too obscure to indicate what political significance attached to +this incident. His son, Ammizaduga, reigned for over twenty years +quite peacefully so far as is known, and was succeeded by +Samsuditana, whose rule extended over a quarter of a century. +Like Ammiditana, these two monarchs set up images of themselves +as well as of the gods, so that they might be worshipped, no +doubt. They also promoted the interests of agriculture and +commerce, and incidentally increased the revenue from taxation by +paying much attention to the canals and extending the +cultivatable areas.</p> +<p>But the days of the brilliant Hammurabi Dynasty were drawing +to a close. It endured for about a century longer than the +Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, which came to an end, according to the +Berlin calculations, in 1788 B.C. Apparently some of the +Hammurabi and Amenemhet kings were contemporaries, but there is +no evidence that they came into direct touch with one another. It +was not until at about two centuries after Hammurabi's day that +Egypt first invaded Syria, with which, however, it had for a long +period previously conducted a brisk trade. Evidently the +influence of the Hittites and their Amoritic allies predominated +between Mesopotamia and the Delta <a id="page.anchor.259" name= +"page.anchor.259"></a>frontier of Egypt, and it is significant to +find in this connection that the "Khatti" or "Hatti" were +referred to for the first time in Egypt during the Twelfth +Dynasty, and in Babylonia during the Hammurabi Dynasty, sometime +shortly before or after 2000 B.C. About 1800 B.C. a Hittite raid +resulted in the overthrow of the last king of the Hammurabi +family at Babylon. The Hyksos invasion of Egypt took place after +1788 B.C.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1272" href="#fnrex1272" id= +"ftn.fnrex1272">272</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xii and xiii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1273" href="#fnrex1273" id= +"ftn.fnrex1273">273</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xiv, 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1274" href="#fnrex1274" id= +"ftn.fnrex1274">274</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., xxiii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1275" href="#fnrex1275" id= +"ftn.fnrex1275">275</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xvi, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1276" href="#fnrex1276" id= +"ftn.fnrex1276">276</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xiv, 1-4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1277" href="#fnrex1277" id= +"ftn.fnrex1277">277</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., 5-24.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1278" href="#fnrex1278" id= +"ftn.fnrex1278">278</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and +Letters</em></span>, C.H.W. Johns, pp. 392 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1279" href="#fnrex1279" id= +"ftn.fnrex1279">279</a>]</span> Translation by Johns in +<span class="emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, +Contracts, and Letters</em></span>, pp. 390 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1280" href="#fnrex1280" id= +"ftn.fnrex1280">280</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Matthew</em></span>, ix, 37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1281" href="#fnrex1281" id= +"ftn.fnrex1281">281</a>]</span> Johns's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, &c.</em></span>, +pp. 371-2.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2533567" name= +"id2533567"></a>Chapter XII. Rise of the Hittites, Mitannians, +Kassites, Hyksos, and Assyrians</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>The War God of Mountaineers--Antiquity of Hittite +Civilization--Prehistoric Movements of "Broad Heads"--Evidence of +Babylon and Egypt--Hittites and Mongolians--Biblical References +to Hittites in Canaan--Jacob's Mother and her +Daughters-in-law--Great Father and Great Mother Cults--History in +Mythology--The Kingdom of Mitanni--Its Aryan Aristocracy--The +Hyksos Problem--The Horse in Warfare--Hittites and +Mitannians--Kassites and Mitannians--Hyksos Empire in +Asia--Kassites overthrow Sealand Dynasty--Egyptian Campaigns in +Syria--Assyria in the Making--Ethnics of Genesis--Nimrod as +Merodach--Early Conquerors of Assyria--Mitannian +Overlords--Tell-el-Amarna Letters--Fall of Mitanni--Rise of +Hittite and Assyrian Empires--Egypt in Eclipse--Assyrian and +Babylonian Rivalries.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.260" name="page.anchor.260"></a> When the +Hammurabi Dynasty, like the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, is found to +be suffering languid decline, the gaps in the dulled historical +records are filled with the echoes of the thunder god, whose +hammer beating resounds among the northern mountains. As this +deity comes each year in Western Asia when vegetation has +withered and after fruits have dropped from trees, bringing +tempests and black rainclouds to issue in a new season of growth +and fresh activity, so he descended from the hills in the second +millennium before the Christian era as the battle lord of +invaders and the stormy herald of a new age which was to dawn +upon the ancient world.</p> +<p>He was the war god of the Hittites as well as of the <a id= +"page.anchor.261" name="page.anchor.261"></a>northern Amorites, +the Mitannians, and the Kassites; and he led the Aryans from the +Iranian steppes towards the verdurous valley of the Punjab. His +worshippers engraved his image with grateful hands on the +beetling cliffs of Cappadocian chasms in Asia Minor, where his +sway was steadfast and pre-eminent for long centuries. In one +locality he appears mounted on a bull wearing a fringed and +belted tunic with short sleeves, a conical helmet, and upturned +shoes, while he grasps in one hand the lightning symbol, and in +the other a triangular bow resting on his right shoulder. In +another locality he is the bringer of grapes and barley sheaves. +But his most familiar form is the bearded and thick-set +mountaineer, armed with a ponderous thunder hammer, a flashing +trident, and a long two-edged sword with a hemispherical knob on +the hilt, which dangles from his belt, while an antelope or goat +wearing a pointed tiara prances beside him. This deity is +identical with bluff, impetuous Thor of northern Europe, Indra of +the Himalayas, Tarku of Phrygia, and Teshup or Teshub of Armenia +and northern Mesopotamia, Sandan, the Hercules of Cilicia, Adad +or Hadad of Amurru and Assyria, and Ramman, who at an early +period penetrated Akkad and Sumer in various forms. His Hittite +name is uncertain, but in the time of Rameses II he was +identified with Sutekh (Set). He passed into southern Europe as +Zeus, and became "the lord" of the deities of the Aegean and +Crete.</p> +<p>The Hittites who entered Babylon about 1800 B.C., and +overthrew the last king of the Hammurabi Dynasty, may have been +plundering raiders, like the European Gauls of a later age, or a +well-organized force of a strong, consolidated power, which +endured for a period of uncertain duration. They were probably +the latter, for although they carried off Merodach and +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span>, these <a id= +"page.anchor.262" name="page.anchor.262"></a>idols were not +thrust into the melting pot, but retained apparently for +political reasons.</p> +<p>These early Hittites are "a people of the mist". More than +once in ancient history casual reference is made to them; but on +most of these occasions they soon vanish suddenly behind their +northern mountains. The explanation appears to be that at various +periods great leaders arose who were able to weld together the +various tribes, and make their presence felt in Western Asia. But +when once the organization broke down, either on account of +internal rivalries or the influence of an outside power, they +lapsed back again into a state of political insignificance in the +affairs of the ancient world. It is possible that about 1800 B.C. +the Hittite confederacy was controlled by an ambitious king who +had dreams of a great empire, and was accordingly pursuing a +career of conquest.</p> +<p>Judging from what we know of the northern worshippers of the +hammer god in later times, it would appear that when they were +referred to as the Hatti or Khatti, the tribe of that name was +the dominating power in Asia Minor and north Syria. The Hatti are +usually identified with the broad-headed mountaineers of Alpine +or Armenoid type--the ancestors of the modern Armenians. Their +ancient capital was at Boghaz-Köi, the site of Pteria, which +was destroyed, according to the Greeks, by Croesus, the last King +of Lydia, in the sixth century B.C. It was strongly situated in +an excellent pastoral district on the high, breezy plateau of +Cappadocia, surrounded by high mountains, and approached through +narrow river gorges, which in winter were blocked with snow.</p> +<p>Hittite civilization was of great antiquity. Excavations which +have been conducted at an undisturbed artificial <a id= +"page.anchor.263" name="page.anchor.263"></a>mound at Sakje-Geuzi +have revealed evidences of a continuous culture which began to +flourish before 3000 B.C.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1282" +href="#ftn.fnrex1282" id="fnrex1282">282</a>]</span> In one of +the lower layers occurred that particular type of Neolithic +yellow-painted pottery, with black geometric designs, which +resembles other specimens of painted fabrics found in Turkestan +by the Pumpelly expedition; in Susa, the capital of Elam, and its +vicinity, by De Morgan; in the Balkan peninsula by Schliemann; in +a First Dynasty tomb at Abydos in Egypt by Petrie; and in the +late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (Minoan) strata of Crete by +Evans. It may be that these interesting relics were connected +with the prehistoric drift westward of the broad-headed pastoral +peoples who ultimately formed the Hittite military +aristocracy.</p> +<p>According to Professor Elliot Smith, broad-headed aliens from +Asia Minor first reached Egypt at the dawn of history. There they +blended with the indigenous tribes of the Mediterranean or Brown +Race. A mesocephalic skull then became common. It is referred to +as the Giza type, and has been traced by Professor Elliot Smith +from Egypt to the Punjab, but not farther into India.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1283" href="#ftn.fnrex1283" id= +"fnrex1283">283</a>]</span></p> +<p>During the early dynasties this skull with alien traits was +confined chiefly to the Delta region and the vicinity of Memphis, +the city of the pyramid builders. It is not improbable that the +Memphite god Ptah may have been introduced into Egypt by the +invading broad heads. This deity is a world artisan like Indra, +and is similarly associated with dwarfish artisans; he hammers +out the copper sky, and therefore links with the various thunder +gods--Tarku, Teshup, Adad, Ramman, &c, of the Asian +mountaineers. Thunderstorms were of too rare occurrence in Egypt +to be connected with the food supply, <a id="page.anchor.264" +name="page.anchor.264"></a>which has always depended on the river +Nile. Ptah's purely Egyptian characteristics appear to have been +acquired after fusion with Osiris-Seb, the Nilotic gods of +inundation, earth, and vegetation. The ancient god Set (Sutekh), +who became a demon, and was ultimately re-exalted as a great +deity during the Nineteenth Dynasty, may also have had some +connection with the prehistoric Hatti.</p> +<p>Professor Elliot Smith, who has found alien traits in the +mummies of the Rameses kings, is convinced that the broad-headed +folks who entered Europe by way of Asia Minor, and Egypt through +the Delta, at the close of the Neolithic Age, represent "two +streams of the same Asiatic folk".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1284" href="#ftn.fnrex1284" id="fnrex1284">284</a>]</span> +The opinion of such an authority cannot be lightly set aside.</p> +<p>The earliest Egyptian reference to the Kheta, as the Hittites +were called, was made in the reign of the first Amenemhet of the +Twelfth Dynasty, who began to reign about 2000 B.C. Some +authorities, including Maspero,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1285" href="#ftn.fnrex1285" id="fnrex1285">285</a>]</span> +are of opinion that the allusion to the Hatti which is found in +the Babylonian <span class="emphasis"><em>Book of +Omens</em></span> belongs to the earlier age of Sargon of Akkad +and Naram-Sin, but Sayce favours the age of Hammurabi. Others +would connect the Gutium, or men of Kutu, with the Kheta or +Hatti. Sayce has expressed the opinion that the Biblical Tidal, +identified with Tudkhul or Tudhula, "king of nations", the ally +of Arioch, Amraphel, and Chedor-laomer, was a Hittite king, the +"nations" being the confederacy of Asia Minor tribes controlled +by the Hatti. "In the fragments of the Babylonian story of +Chedor-laomer published by Dr. Pinches", says Professor Sayce, +"the name of Tid^{c}al is written Tudkhul, and he is described as +King of the <span class="emphasis"><em>Umman Manda</em></span>, +or Nations of the North, <a id="page.anchor.265" name= +"page.anchor.265"></a>of which the Hebrew <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Goyyim</em></span> is a literal translation. Now +the name is Hittite. In the account of the campaign of Rameses II +against the Hittites it appears as Tid^{c}al, and one of the +Hittite kings of Boghaz-Köi bears the same name, which is +written as Dud-khaliya in cuneiform.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1286" href="#ftn.fnrex1286" id= +"fnrex1286">286</a>]</span></p> +<p>One of the racial types among the Hittites wore pigtails. +These head adornments appear on figures in certain Cappadocian +sculptures and on Hittite warriors in the pictorial records of a +north Syrian campaign of Rameses II at Thebes. It is suggestive, +therefore, to find that on the stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad, the +mountaineers who are conquered by that battle lord wear pigtails +also. Their split robes are unlike the short fringed tunics of +the Hittite gods, but resemble the long split mantles worn over +their tunics by high dignitaries like King Tarku-dimme, who +figures on a famous silver boss of an ancient Hittite dagger. +Naram-Sin inherited the Empire of Sargon of Akkad, which extended +to the Mediterranean Sea. If his enemies were not natives of +Cappadocia, they may have been the congeners of the Hittite +pigtailed type in another wooded and mountainous country.</p> +<p>It has been suggested that these wearers of pigtails were +Mongolians. But although high cheek bones and oblique eyes +occurred in ancient times, and still occur, in parts of Asia +Minor, suggesting occasional Mongolian admixture with Ural-Altaic +broad heads, the Hittite pigtailed warriors must not be confused +with the true small-nosed Mongols of north-eastern Asia. The +Egyptian sculptors depicted them with long and prominent noses, +which emphasize their strong Armenoid affinities.</p> +<p>Other tribes in the Hittite confederacy included the <a id= +"page.anchor.266" name="page.anchor.266"></a>representatives of +the earliest settlers from North Africa of Mediterranean racial +stock. These have been identified with the Canaanites, and +especially the agriculturists among them, for the Palestinian +Hittites are also referred to as Canaanites in the Bible, and in +one particular connection under circumstances which afford an +interesting glimpse of domestic life in those far-off times. When +Esau, Isaac's eldest son, was forty years of age, "he took to +wife Judith the daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and Bashemath the +daughter of Elon the Hittite"<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1287" href="#ftn.fnrex1287" id="fnrex1287">287</a>]</span>. +Apparently the Hittite ladies considered themselves to be of +higher caste than the indigenous peoples and the settlers from +other countries, for when Ezekiel declared that the mother of +Jerusalem was a Hittite he said: "Thou art thy mother's daughter, +that lotheth her husband and her children."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1288" href="#ftn.fnrex1288" id= +"fnrex1288">288</a>]</span> Esau's marriage was "a grief of mind +unto Isaac and to Rebekah".<span class="sub">[<a href= +"#ftn.fnrex1287">287</a>]</span> The Hebrew mother seems to have +entertained fears that her favourite son Jacob would fall a +victim to the allurements of other representatives of the same +stock as her superior and troublesome daughters-in-law, for she +said to Isaac: "I am weary of my life because of the daughters of +Heth; if Jacob take a wife of the daughters of Heth, such as +these which are of the daughters of the land, what good shall my +life do me?"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1289" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1289" id="fnrex1289">289</a>]</span> Isaac sent for +Jacob, "and charged him, and said unto him, Thou shalt not take a +wife of the daughters of Canaan. Arise, go to Padan-aram, to the +house of Bethuel, thy mother's father; and take thee a wife from +thence of the daughters of Laban, thy mother's +brother."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1290" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1290" id="fnrex1290">290</a>]</span> From these +quotations two obvious deductions may be drawn: the Hebrews +regarded the Hittites "of the land" as one with the Canaanites, +the stocks having probably <a id="page.anchor.267" name= +"page.anchor.267"></a>been so well fused, and the worried Rebekah +had the choosing of Jacob's wife or wives from among her own +relations in Mesopotamia who were of Sumerian stock and kindred +of Abraham.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1291" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1291" id="fnrex1291">291</a>]</span> It is not +surprising to find traces of Sumerian pride among the descendants +of the evicted citizens of ancient Ur, especially when brought +into association with the pretentious Hittites.</p> +<p>Evidence of racial blending in Asia Minor is also afforded by +Hittite mythology. In the fertile agricultural valleys and round +the shores of that great Eur-Asian "land bridge" the indigenous +stock was also of the Mediterranean race, as Sergi and other +ethnologists have demonstrated. The Great Mother goddess was +worshipped from the earliest times, and she bore various local +names. At Comana in Pontus she was known to the Greeks as Ma, a +name which may have been as old as that of the Sumerian Mama (the +creatrix), or Mamitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> (goddess of +destiny); in Armenia she was Anaitis; in Cilicia she was Ate +('Atheh of Tarsus); while in Phrygia she was best known as +Cybele, mother of Attis, who links with Ishtar as mother and wife +of Tammuz, Aphrodite as mother and wife of Adonis, and Isis as +mother and wife of Osiris. The Great Mother was in Phoenicia +called Astarte; she was a form of Ishtar, and identical with the +Biblical Ashtoreth. In the Syrian city of Hierapolis she bore the +name of Atargatis, which Meyer, with whom Frazer agrees, +considers to be the Greek rendering of the Aramaic +'Athar-'Atheh--the god 'Athar and the goddess 'Atheh. Like the +"bearded Aphrodite", Atargatis may have been regarded as a +bisexual deity. Some of the specialized mother goddesses, whose +outstanding attributes reflected the history and politics of the +states they represented, were imported into Egypt--the land of +<a id="page.anchor.268" name="page.anchor.268"></a>ancient mother +deities--during the Empire period, by the half-foreign Rameses +kings; these included the voluptuous Kadesh and the warlike +Anthat. In every district colonized by the early representatives +of the Mediterranean race, the goddess cult came into prominence, +and the gods and the people were reputed to be descendants of the +great Creatrix. This rule obtained as far distant as Ireland, +where the Danann folk and the Danann gods were the children of +the goddess Danu.</p> +<p>Among the Hatti proper--that is, the broad-headed military +aristocracy--the chief deity of the pantheon was the Great +Father, the creator, "the lord of Heaven", the Baal. As Sutekh, +Tarku, Adad, or Ramman, he was the god of thunder, rain, +fertility, and war, and he ultimately acquired solar attributes. +A famous rock sculpture at Boghaz-Köi depicts a mythological +scene which is believed to represent the Spring marriage of the +Great Father and the Great Mother, suggesting a local fusion of +beliefs which resulted from the union of tribes of the god cult +with tribes of the goddess cult. So long as the Hatti tribe +remained the predominant partner in the Hittite confederacy, the +supremacy was assured of the Great Father who symbolized their +sway. But when, in the process of time, the power of the Hatti +declined, their chief god "fell... from his predominant place in +the religion of the interior", writes Dr. Garstang. "But the +Great Mother lived on, being the goddess of the +land."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1292" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1292" id="fnrex1292">292</a>]</span></p> +<p>In addition to the Hittite confederacy of Asia Minor and North +Syria, another great power arose in northern Mesopotamia. This +was the Mitanni Kingdom. Little is known regarding it, except +what is derived from indirect sources. Winckler believes that it +was first established <a id="page.anchor.269" name= +"page.anchor.269"></a>by early "waves" of Hatti people who +migrated from the east.</p> +<p>The Hittite connection is based chiefly on the following +evidence. One of the gods of the Mitanni rulers was Teshup, who +is identical with Tarku, the Thor of Asia Minor. The raiders who +in 1800 B.C. entered Babylon, set fire to E-sagila, and carried +off Merodach and his consort Zerpanitu<span class= +'phonetic'>m</span>, were called the Hatti. The images of these +deities were afterwards obtained from Khani (Mitanni).</p> +<p>At a later period, when we come to know more about Mitanni +from the letters of one of its kings to two Egyptian Pharaohs, +and the Winckler tablets from Bog-haz-Köi, it is found that +its military aristocracy spoke an Indo-European language, as is +shown by the names of their kings--Saushatar, Artatama, Sutarna, +Artashshumara, Tushratta, and Mattiuza. They worshipped the +following deities:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Mi-it-ra, Uru-w-na, In-da-ra, and +Na-sa-at-ti-ia--</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatyau (the "Twin Aswins" = Castor +and Pollux)--whose names have been deciphered by Winckler. These +gods were also imported into India by the Vedic Aryans. The +Mitanni tribe (the military aristocracy probably) was called +"Kharri", and some philologists are of opinion that it is +identical with "Arya", which was "the normal designation in Vedic +literature from the Rigveda onwards of an Aryan of the three +upper classes".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1293" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1293" id="fnrex1293">293</a>]</span> Mitanni signifies +"the river lands", and the descendants of its inhabitants, who +lived in Cappadocia, were called by the Greeks "Mattienoi". "They +are possibly", says Dr. Haddon, "the ancestors <a id= +"page.anchor.270" name="page.anchor.270"></a>of the modern +Kurds",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1294" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1294" id="fnrex1294">294</a>]</span> a conspicuously +long-headed people, proverbial, like the ancient Aryo-Indians and +the Gauls, for their hospitality and their raiding +propensities.</p> +<p>It would appear that the Mitannian invasion of northern +Mesopotamia and the Aryan invasion of India represented two +streams of diverging migrations from a common cultural centre, +and that the separate groups of wanderers mingled with other +stocks with whom they came into contact. Tribes of Aryan speech +were associated with the Kassite invaders of Babylon, who took +possession of northern Babylonia soon after the disastrous +Hittite raid. It is believed that they came from the east through +the highlands of Elam.</p> +<p>For a period, the dating of which is uncertain, the Mitannians +were overlords of part of Assyria, including Nineveh and even +Asshur, as well as the district called "Musri" by the Assyrians, +and part of Cappadocia. They also occupied the cities of Harran +and Kadesh. Probably they owed their great military successes to +their cavalry. The horse became common in Babylon during the +Kassite Dynasty, which followed the Hammurabi, and was there +called "the ass of the east", a name which suggests whence the +Kassites and Mitannians came.</p> +<p>The westward movement of the Mitannians in the second +millennium B.C. may have been in progress prior to the Kassite +conquest of Babylon and the Hyksos invasion of Egypt. Their +relations in Mesopotamia and Syria with the Hittites and the +Amorites are obscure. Perhaps they were for a time the overlords +of the Hittites. At any rate it is of interest to note that when +Thothmes III struck at the last Hyksos stronghold during his long +Syrian campaign of about twenty years' duration, his <a id= +"page.anchor.271" name="page.anchor.271"></a>operations were +directly against Kadesh on the Orontes, which was then held by +his fierce enemies the Mitannians of Naharina.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1295" href="#ftn.fnrex1295" id= +"fnrex1295">295</a>]</span></p> +<p>During the Hyksos Age the horse was introduced into Egypt. +Indeed the Hyksos conquest was probably due to the use of the +horse, which was domesticated, as the Pumpelly expedition has +ascertained, at a remote period in Turkestan, whence it may have +been obtained by the horse-sacrificing Aryo-Indians and the +horse-sacrificing ancestors of the Siberian Buriats.</p> +<p>If the Mitanni rulers were not overlords of the Hittites about +1800 B.C., the two peoples may have been military allies of the +Kassites. Some writers suggest, indeed, that the Kassites came +from Mitanni. Another view is that the Mitannians were the Aryan +allies of the Kassites who entered Babylon from the Elamite +highlands, and that they afterwards conquered Mesopotamia and +part of Cappadocia prior to the Hyksos conquest of Egypt. A third +solution of the problem is that the Aryan rulers of the Mitannian +Hittites were the overlords of northern Babylonia, which they +included in their Mesopotamian empire for a century before the +Kassites achieved political supremacy in the Tigro-Euphrates +valley, and that they were also the leaders of the Hyksos +invasion of Egypt, which they accomplished with the assistance of +their Hittite and Amoritic allies.</p> +<p>The first Kassite king of Babylonia of whom we have knowledge +was Gandash. He adopted the old Akkadian title, "king of the four +quarters", as well as the title "king of Sumer and Akkad", first +used by the rulers of the Dynasty of Ur. Nippur appears to have +been selected by Gandash as his capital, which suggests that his +war and storm god, Shuqamuna, was identified with Bel Enlil, who +<a id="page.anchor.272" name="page.anchor.272"></a>as a "world +giant" has much in common with the northern hammer gods. After +reigning for sixteen years, Gandash was succeeded by his son, +Agum the Great, who sat on the throne for twenty-two years. The +great-grandson of Agum the Great was Agum II, and not until his +reign were the statues of Merodach and his consort +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> brought back to the city +of Babylon. This monarch recorded that, in response to the oracle +of Shamash, the sun god, he sent to the distant land of Khani +(Mitanni) for the great deity and his consort. Babylon would +therefore appear to have been deprived of Merodach for about two +centuries. The Hittite-Mitanni raid is dated about 1800 B.C., and +the rise of Gandash, the Kassite, about 1700 B.C. At least a +century elapsed between the reigns of Gandash and Agum II. These +calculations do not coincide, it will be noted, with the +statement in a Babylonian hymn, that Merodach remained in the +land of the Hatti for twenty-four years, which, however, may be +either a priestly fiction or a reference to a later conquest. The +period which followed the fall of the Hammurabi Dynasty of +Babylonia is as obscure as the Hyksos Age of Egypt.</p> +<p>Agum II, the Kassite king, does not state whether or not he +waged war against Mitanni to recover Babylon's god Merodach. If, +however, he was an ally of the Mitanni ruler, the transference of +the deity may have been an ordinary diplomatic transaction. The +possibility may also be suggested that the Hittites of Mitanni +were not displaced by the Aryan military aristocracy until after +the Kassites were firmly established in northern Babylonia +between 1700 B.C. and 1600 B.C. This may account for the +statements that Merodach was carried off by the Hatti and +returned from the land of Khani.</p> +<p>The evidence afforded by Egypt is suggestive in this <a id= +"page.anchor.273" name="page.anchor.273"></a>connection. There +was a second Hyksos Dynasty in that country. The later rulers +became "Egyptianized" as the Kassites became "Babylonianized", +but they were all referred to by the exclusive and +sullen-Egyptians as "barbarians" and "Asiatics". They recognized +the sun god of Heliopolis, but were also concerned in promoting +the worship of Sutekh, a deity of sky and thunder, with solar +attributes, whom Rameses II identified with the "Baal" of the +Hittites. The Mitannians, as has been stated, recognized a Baal +called Teshup, who was identical with Tarku of the Western +Hittites and with their own tribal Indra also. One of the Hyksos +kings, named Ian or Khian, the Ianias of Manetho, was either an +overlord or the ally of an overlord, who swayed a great empire in +Asia. His name has been deciphered on relics found as far apart +as Knossos in Crete and Baghdad on the Tigris, which at the time +was situated within the area of Kassite control. Apparently +peaceful conditions prevailed during his reign over a wide extent +of Asia and trade was brisk between far-distant centres of +civilization. The very term Hyksos is suggestive in this +connection. According to Breasted it signifies "rulers of +countries", which compares with the Biblical "Tidal king of +nations", whom Sayce, as has been indicated, regards as a Hittite +monarch. When the Hittite hieroglyphics have been read and +Mesopotamia thoroughly explored, light may be thrown on the +relations of the Mitannians, the Hittites, the Hyksos, and the +Kassites between 1800 B.C. and 1500 B.C. It is evident that a +fascinating volume of ancient history has yet to be written.</p> +<p>The Kassites formed the military aristocracy of Babylonia, +which was called Karduniash, for nearly six centuries. Agum II +was the first of their kings who became thoroughly +Babylonianized, and although he still gave <a id= +"page.anchor.274" name="page.anchor.274"></a>recognition to +Shuqamuna, the Kassite god of battle, he re-exalted Merodach, +whose statue he had taken back from "Khani", and decorated +E-sagila with gifts of gold, jewels, rare woods, frescoes, and +pictorial tiles; he also re-endowed the priesthood. During the +reign of his successor, Burnaburiash I, the Dynasty of Sealand +came to an end.</p> +<p>Little is known regarding the relations between Elam and +Babylonia during the Kassite period. If the Kassite invaders +crossed the Tigris soon after the raid of the Mitannian Hittites +they must have previously overrun a great part of Elam, but +strongly situated Susa may have for a time withstood their +attacks. At first the Kassites held northern Babylonia only, +while the ancient Sumerian area was dominated by the Sealand +power, which had gradually regained strength during the closing +years of the Hammurabi Dynasty. No doubt many northern Babylonian +refugees reinforced its army.</p> +<p>The Elamites, or perhaps the Kassites of Elam, appear to have +made frequent attacks on southern Babylonia. At length Ea-gamil, +king of Sealand, invaded Elam with purpose, no doubt, to shatter +the power of his restless enemies. He was either met there, +however, by an army from Babylon, or his country was invaded +during his absence. Prince Ulamburiash, son of Burnaburiash I, +defeated Ea-gamil and brought to an end the Sealand Dynasty which +had been founded by Ilu-ma-ilu, the contemporary and enemy of +Samsu-la-ilu, son of Hammurabi. Ulamburiash is referred to on a +mace-head which was discovered at Babylon as "king of Sealand", +and he probably succeeded his father at the capital. The whole of +Babylonia thus came under Kassite sway.</p> +<p>Agum III, a grandson of Ulamburiash, found it necessary, +however, to invade Sealand, which must <a id="page.anchor.275" +name="page.anchor.275"></a>therefore have revolted. It was +probably a centre of discontent during the whole period of +Kassite ascendancy.</p> +<p>After a long obscure interval we reach the period when the +Hyksos power was broken in Egypt, that is, after 1580 B.C. The +great Western Asiatic kingdoms at the time were the Hittite, the +Mitannian, the Assyrian, and the Babylonian (Kassite). Between +1557 B.C. and 1501 B.C. Thothmes I of Egypt was asserting his +sway over part of Syria. Many years elapsed, however, before +Thothmes III, who died in 1447 B.C., established firmly, after +waging a long war of conquest, the supremacy of Egypt between the +Euphrates and the Mediterranean coast as far north as the borders +of Asia Minor.</p> +<p>"At this period", as Professor Flinders Petrie emphasizes, +"the civilization of Syria was equal or superior to that of +Egypt." Not only was there in the cities "luxury beyond that of +the Egyptians", but also "technical work which could teach them". +The Syrian soldiers had suits of scale armour, which afterwards +were manufactured in Egypt, and they had chariots adorned with +gold and silver and highly decorated, which were greatly prized +by the Egyptians when they captured them, and reserved for +royalty. "In the rich wealth of gold and silver vases", obtained +from captured cities by the Nilotic warriors, "we see also", adds +Petrie, "the sign of a people who were their (the Egyptians') +equals, if not their superiors in taste and skill."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1296" href="#ftn.fnrex1296" id= +"fnrex1296">296</a>]</span> It is not to be wondered at, +therefore, when the Pharaohs received tribute from Syria that +they preferred it to be carried into Egypt by skilled workmen. +"The keenness with which the Egyptians record all the beautiful +and luxurious products of the Syrians shows that the workmen +would <a id="page.anchor.276" name="page.anchor.276"></a>probably +be more in demand than other kinds or slave tribute."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1297" href="#ftn.fnrex1297" id= +"fnrex1297">297</a>]</span></p> +<p>One of the monarchs with whom Thothmes III corresponded was +the king of Assyria. The enemies of Egypt in northern Mesopotamia +were the Hittites and Mitannians, and their allies, and these +were also the enemies of Assyria. But to enable us to deal with +the new situation which was created by Egypt in Mesopotamia, it +is necessary in the first place to trace the rise of Assyria, +which was destined to become for a period the dominating power in +Western Asia, and ultimately in the Nile valley also.</p> +<p>The Assyrian group of cities grew up on the banks of the +Tigris to the north of Babylonia, the mother country. The +following Biblical references regarding the origins of the two +states are of special interest:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, +and Japheth.... The sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Phut, and +Canaan.... And Cush begat Nimrod; he began to be a mighty one in +the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; wherefore it +is said, Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter before the Lord. And +the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and +Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land went forth Asshur +and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen +between Nineveh and Calah: the same is a great city. The children +of Shem: Elam and Asshur ... (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, x, 1-22). The land of Assyria +... and the land of Nimrod in the entrances thereof (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Micah</em></span>, v, 6).</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>It will be observed that the Sumero-Babylonians are Cushites +or Hamites, and therefore regarded as racially akin to the +proto-Egyptians of the Mediterranean race--an interesting +confirmation of recent ethnological conclusions.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.277" name="page.anchor.277"></a>Nimrod, the +king of Babel (Babylon), in Shinar (Sumer), was, it would appear, +a deified monarch who became ultimately identified with the +national god of Babylonia. Professor Pinches has +shown<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1298" href="#ftn.fnrex1298" +id="fnrex1298">298</a>]</span> that his name is a rendering of +that of Merodach. In Sumerian Merodach was called Amaruduk or +Amarudu, and in the Assyro-Babylonian language Marduk. By a +process familiar to philologists the suffix "uk" was dropped and +the rendering became Marad. The Hebrews added "ni" = "ni-marad", +assimilating the name "to a certain extent to the 'niphal forms' +of the Hebrew verbs and making a change", says Pinches, "in +conformity with the genius of the Hebrew language".</p> +<p>Asshur, who went out of Nimrod's country to build Nineveh, was +a son of Shem--a Semite, and so far as is known it was after the +Semites achieved political supremacy in Akkad that the Assyrian +colonies were formed. Asshur may have been a subject ruler who +was deified and became the god of the city of Asshur, which +probably gave its name to Assyria.</p> +<p>According to Herodotus, Nineveh was founded by King Ninus and +Queen Semiramis. This lady was reputed to be the daughter of +Derceto, the fish goddess, whom Pliny identified with Atargatis. +Semiramis was actually an Assyrian queen of revered memory. She +was deified and took the place of a goddess, apparently Nina, the +prototype of Derceto. This Nina, perhaps a form of Damkina, wife +of Ea, was the great mother of the Sumerian city of Nina, and +there, and also at Lagash, received offerings of fish. She was +one of the many goddesses of maternity absorbed by Ishtar. The +Greek Ninus is regarded as a male form of her name; like <a id= +"page.anchor.278" name="page.anchor.278"></a>Atargatis, she may +have become a bisexual deity, if she was not always accompanied +by a shadowy male form. Nineveh (Ninua) was probably founded or +conquered by colonists from Nina or Lagash, and called after the +fish goddess.</p> +<p>All the deities of Assyria were imported from Babylonia +except, as some hold, Ashur, the national god.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1299" href="#ftn.fnrex1299" id= +"fnrex1299">299</a>]</span> The theory that Ashur was identical +with the Aryo-Indian Asura and the Persian Ahura is not generally +accepted. One theory is that he was an eponymous hero who became +the city god of Asshur, although the early form of his name, +Ashir, presents a difficulty in this connection. Asshur was the +first capital of Assyria. Its city god may have become the +national god on that account.</p> +<p>At an early period, perhaps a thousand years before Thothmes +III battled with the Mitannians in northern Syria, an early wave +of one of the peoples of Aryan speech may have occupied the +Assyrian cities. Mr. Johns points out in this connection that the +names of Ushpia, Kikia, and Adasi, who, according to Assyrian +records, were early rulers in Asshur, "are neither Semitic nor +Sumerian". An ancient name of the goddess of Nineveh was +Shaushka, which compares with Shaushkash, the consort of Teshup, +the Hittite-Mitanni hammer god. As many of the Mitannian names +"are", according to Mr. Johns, "really Elamitic", he suggests an +ethnic connection between the early conquerors of Assyria and the +people of Elam.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1300" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1300" id="fnrex1300">300</a>]</span> Were the +pre-Semitic Elamites originally speakers of an agglutinative +language, like the Sumerians and present-day Basques, who were +conquered in prehistoric times by a people of Aryan speech?</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.279" name="page.anchor.279"></a>The +possibility is urged by Mr. Johns's suggestion that Assyria may +have been dominated in pre-Semitic times by the congeners of the +Aryan military aristocracy of Mitanni. As has been shown, it was +Semitized by the Amoritic migration which, about 2000 B.C., +brought into prominence the Hammurabi Dynasty of Babylon.</p> +<p>A long list of kings with Semitic names held sway in the +Assyrian cities during and after the Hammurabi Age. But not until +well on in the Kassite period did any of them attain prominence +in Western Asia. Then Ashur-bel-nish-eshu, King of Asshur, was +strong enough to deal on equal terms with the Kassite ruler +Kara-indash I, with whom he arranged a boundary treaty. He was a +contemporary of Thothmes III of Egypt.</p> +<p>After Thothmes III had secured the predominance of Egypt in +Syria and Palestine he recognized Assyria as an independent +power, and supplied its king with Egyptian gold to assist him, no +doubt, in strengthening his territory against their common enemy. +Gifts were also sent from Assyria to Egypt to fan the flame of +cordial relations.</p> +<p>The situation was full of peril for Saushatar, king of +Mitanni. Deprived by Egypt of tribute-paying cities in Syria, his +exchequer must have been sadly depleted. A standing army had to +be maintained, for although Egypt made no attempt to encroach +further on his territory, the Hittites were ever hovering on his +north-western frontier, ready when opportunity offered to win +back Cappadocia. Eastward, Assyria was threatening to become a +dangerous rival. He had himself to pay tribute to Egypt, and +Egypt was subsidizing his enemy. It was imperative on his part, +therefore, to take action without delay. The power of Assyria had +to be crippled; its revenues were required for the Mitannian +exchequer. So <a id="page.anchor.280" name= +"page.anchor.280"></a>Saushatar raided Assyria during the closing +years of the reign of Thothmes III, or soon after his successor, +Amenhotep II, ascended the Egyptian throne.</p> +<p>Nothing is known from contemporary records regarding this +campaign; but it can be gathered from the references of a later +period that the city of Asshur was captured and plundered; its +king, Ashur-nadin-akhe, ceased corresponding and exchanging gifts +with Egypt. That Nineveh also fell is made clear by the fact that +a descendant of Saushatar (Tushratta) was able to send to a +descendant of Thothmes III at Thebes (Amenhotep III) the image of +Ishtar (Shaushka) of Nineveh. Apparently five successive +Mitannian kings were overlords of Assyria during a period which +cannot be estimated at much less than a hundred years.</p> +<p>Our knowledge regarding these events is derived chiefly from +the Tell-el-Amarna letters, and the tablets found by Professor +Hugo Winckler at Boghaz-Köi in Cappadocia, Asia Minor.</p> +<p>The Tell-el-Amarna letters were discovered among the ruins of +the palace of the famous Egyptian Pharaoh, Akhenaton, of the +Eighteenth Dynasty, who died about 1358 B.C. During the winter of +1887-8 an Egyptian woman was excavating soil for her garden, when +she happened upon the cellar of Akhenaton's foreign office in +which the official correspondence had been stored. The "letters" +were baked clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform alphabetical +signs in the Babylonian-Assyrian language, which, like French in +modern times, was the language of international diplomacy for +many centuries in Western Asia after the Hyksos period.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2534935" name="id2534935"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XII.1. LETTER FROM TUSHRATTA, KING OF +MITANNI, TO AMENHOTEP III, KING OF EGYPT</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>One of the Tell-el-Amarna tablets, +now in the British Museum. (See pages <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.282">282</a>)</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/25.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2534970" name="id2534970"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XII.2. THE GOD NINIP AND ANOTHER +DEITY</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Marble slab from Kouyunjik +(Nineveh): now in the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/26.jpg" /></div> +<p>The Egyptian natives, ever so eager to sell antiquities so as +to make a fortune and retire for life, offered some specimens of +the tablets for sale. One or two were sent <a id= +"page.anchor.281" name="page.anchor.281"></a>to Paris, where they +were promptly declared to be forgeries, with the result that for +a time the inscribed bricks were not a marketable commodity. Ere +their value was discovered, the natives had packed them into +sacks, with the result that many were damaged and some completely +destroyed. At length, however, the majority of them reached the +British Museum and the Berlin Museum, while others drifted into +the museums at Cairo, St. Petersburg, and Paris. When they were +deciphered, Mitanni was discovered, and a flood of light thrown +on the internal affairs of Egypt and its relations with various +kingdoms in Asia, while glimpses were also afforded of the life +and manners of the times.</p> +<p>The letters covered the reigns of Amenhotep III, the +great-grandson of Thothmes III, and of his son Akhenaton, "the +dreamer king", and included communications from the kings of +Babylonia, Assyria, Mitanni, Cyprus, the Hittites, and the +princes of Phoenicia and Canaan. The copies of two letters from +Amenhotep III to Kallima-Sin, King of Babylonia, had also been +preserved. One deals with statements made by Babylonian +ambassadors, whom the Pharaoh stigmatizes as liars. Kallima-Sin +had sent his daughter to the royal harem of Egypt, and desired to +know if she was alive and well. He also asked for "much gold" to +enable him to carry on the work of extending his temple. When +twenty minas of gold was sent to him, he complained in due course +that the quantity received was not only short but that the gold +was not pure; it had been melted in the furnace, and less than +five minas came out. In return he sent to Akhenaton two minas of +enamel, and some jewels for his daughter, who was in the Egyptian +royal harem.</p> +<p>Ashur-uballit, king of Ashur, once wrote intimating to +Akhenaton that he was gifting him horses and chariots <a id= +"page.anchor.282" name="page.anchor.282"></a>and a jewel seal. He +asked for gold to assist in building his palace. "In your +country", he added, "gold is as plentiful as dust." He also made +an illuminating statement to the effect that no ambassador had +gone from Assyria to Egypt since the days of his ancestor +Ashur-nadin-akhe. It would therefore appear that Ashur-uballit +had freed part of Assyria from the yoke of Mitanni.</p> +<p>The contemporary king of Mitanni was Tushratta. He +corresponded both with his cousin Amenhotep III and his +son-in-law Akhenaton. In his correspondence with Amenhotep III +Tushratta tells that his kingdom had been invaded by the +Hittites, but his god Teshup had delivered them into his hand, +and he destroyed them; "not one of them", he declared, "returned +to his own country". Out of the booty captured he sent Amenhotep +several chariots and horses, and a boy and a girl. To his sister +Gilu-khipa, who was one of the Egyptian Pharaoh's wives, he +gifted golden ornaments and a jar of oil. In another letter +Tushratta asked for a large quantity of gold "without measure". +He complained that he did not receive enough on previous +occasions, and hinted that some of the Egyptian gold looked as if +it were alloyed with copper. Like the Assyrian king, he hinted +that gold was as plentiful as dust in Egypt. His own presents to +the Pharaoh included precious stones, gold ornaments, chariots +and horses, and women (probably slaves). This may have been +tribute. It was during the third Amenhotep's illness that +Tushratta forwarded the Nineveh image of Ishtar to Egypt, and he +made reference to its having been previously sent thither by his +father, Sutarna.</p> +<p>When Akhenaton came to the throne Tushratta wrote to him, +desiring to continue the friendship which had existed for two or +three generations between the kings of Mitanni and Egypt, and +made complimentary references <a id="page.anchor.283" name= +"page.anchor.283"></a>to "the distinguished Queen Tiy", +Akhenaton's mother, who evidently exercised considerable +influence in shaping Egypt's foreign policy. In the course of his +long correspondence with the Pharaohs, Tushratta made those +statements regarding his ancestors which have provided so much +important data for modern historians of his kingdom.</p> +<p>During the early part of the Tell-el-Amarna period, Mitanni +was the most powerful kingdom in Western Asia. It was chiefly on +that account that the daughters of its rulers were selected to be +the wives and mothers of great Egyptian Pharaohs. But its +numerous enemies were ever plotting to accomplish its downfall. +Among these the foremost and most dangerous were the Hittites and +the Assyrians.</p> +<p>The ascendancy of the Hittites was achieved in northern Syria +with dramatic suddenness. There arose in Asia Minor a great +conqueror, named Subbi-luliuma, the successor of Hattusil I, who +established a strong Hittite empire which endured for about two +centuries. His capital was at Boghaz-Köi. Sweeping through +Cappadocia, at the head of a finely organized army, remarkable +for its mobility, he attacked the buffer states which owed +allegiance to Mitanni and Egypt. City after city fell before him, +until at length he invaded Mitanni; but it is uncertain whether +or not Tushratta met him in battle. Large numbers of the +Mitannians were, however, evicted and transferred to the land of +the Hittites, where the Greeks subsequently found them, and where +they are believed to be represented by the modern Kurds, the +hereditary enemies of the Armenians.</p> +<p>In the confusion which ensued, Tushratta was murdered by +Sutarna II, who was recognized by Subbi-luliuma. The crown +prince, Mattiuza, fled to Babylon, <a id="page.anchor.284" name= +"page.anchor.284"></a>where he found protection, but was unable +to receive any assistance. Ultimately, when the Hittite emperor +had secured his sway over northern Syria, he deposed Sutarna II +and set Mattiuza as his vassal on the throne of the shrunken +Mitanni kingdom.</p> +<p>Meanwhile the Egyptian empire in Asia had gone to pieces. When +Akhenaton, the dreamer king, died in his palace at +Tell-el-Amarna, the Khabiri were conquering the Canaanite cities +which had paid him tribute, and the Hittite ruler was the +acknowledged overlord of the Amorites.</p> +<p>The star of Assyria was also in the ascendant. Its king, +Ashur-uballit, who had corresponded with Akhenaton, was, like the +Hittite king, Subbi-luliuma, a distinguished statesman and +general, and similarly laid the foundations of a great empire. +Before or after Subbi-luliuma invaded Tushratta's domains, he +drove the Mitannians out of Nineveh, and afterwards overcame the +Shubari tribes of Mitanni on the north-west, with the result that +he added a wide extent of territory to his growing empire.</p> +<p>He had previously thrust southward the Assyro-Babylonian +frontier. In fact, he had become so formidable an opponent of +Babylonia that his daughter had been accepted as the wife of +Karakhardash, the Kassite king of that country. In time his +grandson, Kadashman-Kharbe, ascended the Babylonian throne. This +young monarch co-operated with his grandfather in suppressing the +Suti, who infested the trade routes towards the west, and +plundered the caravans of merchants and the messengers of great +monarchs with persistent impunity.</p> +<p>A reference to these bandits appears in one of the +Tell-el-Amarna letters. Writing to Akhenaton, Ashur-uballit said: +"The lands (of Assyria and Egypt) are <a id="page.anchor.285" +name="page.anchor.285"></a>remote, therefore let our messengers +come and go. That your messengers were late in reaching you, (the +reason is that) if the Suti had waylaid them, they would have +been dead men. For if I had sent them, the Suti would have sent +bands to waylay them; therefore I have retained them. My +messengers (however), may they not (for this reason) be +delayed."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1301" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1301" id="fnrex1301">301</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ashur-uballit's grandson extended his Babylonian frontier into +Amurru, where he dug wells and erected forts to protect traders. +The Kassite aristocracy, however, appear to have entertained +towards him a strong dislike, perhaps because he was so closely +associated with their hereditary enemies the Assyrians. He had +not reigned for long when the embers of rebellion burst into +flame and he was murdered in his palace. The Kassites then +selected as their king a man of humble origin, named Nazibugash, +who was afterwards referred to as "the son of nobody". +Ashur-uballit deemed the occasion a fitting one to interfere in +the affairs of Babylonia. He suddenly appeared at the capital +with a strong army, overawed the Kassites, and seized and slew +Nazibugash. Then he set on the throne his great grandson the +infant Kurigalzu II, who lived to reign for fifty-five years.</p> +<p>Ashur-uballit appears to have died soon after this event. He +was succeeded by his son Bel-nirari, who carried on the policy of +strengthening and extending the Assyrian empire. For many years +he maintained excellent relations with his kinsman Kurigalzu II, +but ultimately they came into conflict apparently over disputed +territory. A sanguinary battle was fought, in which the +Babylonians suffered heavily and were put to rout. A treaty of +peace was afterwards arranged, which secured for the Assyrians a +further extension of their frontier "from <a id="page.anchor.286" +name="page.anchor.286"></a>the borders of Mitanni as far as +Babylonia". The struggle of the future was to be for the +possession of Mesopotamia, so as to secure control over the trade +routes.</p> +<p>Thus Assyria rose from a petty state in a comparatively brief +period to become the rival of Babylonia, at a time when Egypt at +the beginning of its Nineteenth Dynasty was endeavouring to win +back its lost empire in Syria, and the Hittite empire was being +consolidated in the north.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1282" href="#fnrex1282" id= +"ftn.fnrex1282">282</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Land of the Hittites</em></span>, John Garstang, pp. 312 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>. and 315 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1283" href="#fnrex1283" id= +"ftn.fnrex1283">283</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Ancient Egyptian</em></span>, pp. 106 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1284" href="#fnrex1284" id= +"ftn.fnrex1284">284</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, p. 130.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1285" href="#fnrex1285" id= +"ftn.fnrex1285">285</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Struggle of the Nations</em></span> (1896), p. +19.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1286" href="#fnrex1286" id= +"ftn.fnrex1286">286</a>]</span> Note contributed to <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Land of the Hittites</em></span>, J. Garstang, +p. 324.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1287" href="#fnrex1287" id= +"ftn.fnrex1287">287</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxvi, 34, 35.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1288" href="#fnrex1288" id= +"ftn.fnrex1288">288</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xvi, 45.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1289" href="#fnrex1289" id= +"ftn.fnrex1289">289</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxvii, 46.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1290" href="#fnrex1290" id= +"ftn.fnrex1290">290</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxviii, 1, 2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1291" href="#fnrex1291" id= +"ftn.fnrex1291">291</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, xxiv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1292" href="#fnrex1292" id= +"ftn.fnrex1292">292</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Syrian Goddess</em></span>, John Garstang (London, 1913), pp. +17-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1293" href="#fnrex1293" id= +"ftn.fnrex1293">293</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic +Index of Names and Subjects</em></span>, Macdonald & Keith, +vol. i, pp. 64-5 (London, 1912).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1294" href="#fnrex1294" id= +"ftn.fnrex1294">294</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Wanderings of Peoples</em></span>, p. 21.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1295" href="#fnrex1295" id= +"ftn.fnrex1295">295</a>]</span> Breasted's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>History of Egypt</em></span>, pp. 219-20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1296" href="#fnrex1296" id= +"ftn.fnrex1296">296</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Egypt</em></span>, W.M. Flinders Petrie, vol. ii, p. +146 <span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span> (1904 +ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1297" href="#fnrex1297" id= +"ftn.fnrex1297">297</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Egypt</em></span>, W.M. Flinders Petrie, vol. ii, p. +147 (1904 ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1298" href="#fnrex1298" id= +"ftn.fnrex1298">298</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia,</em></span> pp. 126 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1299" href="#fnrex1299" id= +"ftn.fnrex1299">299</a>]</span> His connection with Anu is +discussed in chapter xiv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1300" href="#fnrex1300" id= +"ftn.fnrex1300">300</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ancient Assyria</em></span>, C.H.W. Johns, p. 11 +(London, 1912).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1301" href="#fnrex1301" id= +"ftn.fnrex1301">301</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Tell-el-Amarna Letters</em></span>, Hugo Winckler, p. 31.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2535270" name= +"id2535270"></a>Chapter XIII. Astrology and Astronomy</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Culture and Superstition--Primitive Star Myths--Naturalism, +Totemism, and Animism--Stars as Ghosts of Men, Giants, and Wild +Animals--Gods as Constellations and Planets--Babylonian and +Egyptian Mysticism--Osiris, Tammuz, and Merodach--Ishtar and Isis +as Bisexual Deities--The Babylonian Planetary Deities--Planets as +Forms of Tammuz and Ghosts of Gods--The Signs of the Zodiac--The +"Four Quarters"--Cosmic Periods in Babylonia, India, Greece, and +Ireland--Babylonian System of Calculation--Traced in Indian Yuga +System--Astrology--Beliefs of the Masses--Rise of +Astronomy--Conflicting Views of Authorities--Greece and +Babylonia--Eclipses Foretold--The Dial of Ahaz--Omens of Heaven +and Air--Biblical References to Constellations--The Past in the +Present.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.287" name="page.anchor.287"></a> The empire +builders of old who enriched themselves with the spoils of war +and the tribute of subject States, not only satisfied personal +ambition and afforded protection for industrious traders and +workers, but also incidentally promoted culture and endowed +research. When a conqueror returned to his capital laden with +treasure, he made generous gifts to the temples. He believed that +his successes were rewards for his piety, that his battles were +won for him by his god or goddess of war. It was necessary, +therefore, that he should continue to find favour in the eyes of +the deity who had been proved to be more powerful than the god of +his enemies. Besides, he had to make provision during his absence +on long campaigns, or while absorbed in administrative work, for +the constant performance of religious rites, so that the various +deities of water, earth, weather, and corn might be <a id= +"page.anchor.288" name="page.anchor.288"></a>sustained or +propitiated with sacrificial offerings, or held in magical +control by the performance of ceremonial rites. Consequently an +endowed priesthood became a necessity in all powerful and +well-organized states.</p> +<p>Thus came into existence in Babylonia, as elsewhere, as a +result of the accumulation of wealth, a leisured official class, +whose duties tended to promote intellectual activity, although +they were primarily directed to perpetuate gross superstitious +practices. Culture was really a by-product of temple activities; +it flowed forth like pure gold from furnaces of thought which +were walled up by the crude ores of magic and immemorial +tradition.</p> +<p>No doubt in ancient Babylonia, as in Europe during the Middle +Ages, the men of refinement and intellect among the upper classes +were attracted to the temples, while the more robust types +preferred the outdoor life, and especially the life of the +soldier.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1302" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1302" id="fnrex1302">302</a>]</span> The permanent +triumphs of Babylonian civilization were achieved either by the +priests, or in consequence of the influence they exercised. They +were the grammarians and the scribes, the mathematicians and the +philosophers of that ancient country, the teachers of the young, +and the patrons of the arts and crafts. It was because the +temples were centres of intellectual activity that the Sumerian +language remained the language of culture for long centuries +after it ceased to be the everyday speech of the people.</p> +<p>Reference has already been made to the growth of art, and the +probability that all the arts had their origin in magical +practices, and to the growth of popular education necessitated by +the centralization of business in the <a id="page.anchor.289" +name="page.anchor.289"></a>temples. It remains with us to deal +now with priestly contributions to the more abstruse sciences. In +India the ritualists among the Brahmans, who concerned themselves +greatly regarding the exact construction and measurements of +altars, gave the world algebra; the pyramid builders of Egypt, +who erected vast tombs to protect royal mummies, had perforce to +lay the groundwork of the science of geometry; and the Babylonian +priests who elaborated the study of astrology became great +astronomers because they found it necessary to observe and record +accurately the movements of the heavenly bodies.</p> +<p>From the earliest times of which we have knowledge, the +religious beliefs of the Sumerians had vague stellar +associations. But it does not follow that their myths were star +myths to begin with. A people who called constellations "the +ram", "the bull", "the lion", or "the scorpion", did not do so +because astral groups suggested the forms of animals, but rather +because the animals had an earlier connection with their +religious life.</p> +<p>At the same time it should be recognized that the mystery of +the stars must ever have haunted the minds of primitive men. +Night with all its terrors appealed more strongly to their +imaginations than refulgent day when they felt more secure; they +were concerned most regarding what they feared most. Brooding in +darkness regarding their fate, they evidently associated the +stars with the forces which influenced their lives--the ghosts of +ancestors, of totems, the spirits that brought food or famine and +controlled the seasons. As children see images in a fire, so they +saw human life reflected in the starry sky. To the simple minds +of early folks the great moon seemed to be the parent of the +numerous twinkling and moving orbs. In Babylon, indeed, the moon +was regarded as the father not only of the stars but of the sun +<a id="page.anchor.290" name="page.anchor.290"></a>also; there, +as elsewhere, lunar worship was older than solar worship.</p> +<p>Primitive beliefs regarding the stars were of similar +character in various parts of the world. But the importance which +they assumed in local mythologies depended in the first place on +local phenomena. On the northern Eur-Asian steppes, for instance, +where stars vanished during summer's blue nights, and were often +obscured by clouds in winter, they did not impress men's minds so +persistently and deeply as in Babylonia, where for the greater +part of the year they gleamed in darkness through a dry +transparent atmosphere with awesome intensity. The development of +an elaborate system of astral myths, besides, was only possible +in a country where the people had attained to a high degree of +civilization, and men enjoyed leisure and security to make +observations and compile records. It is not surprising, +therefore, to find that Babylonia was the cradle of astronomy. +But before this science had destroyed the theory which it was +fostered to prove, it lay smothered for long ages in the debris +of immemorial beliefs. It is necessary, therefore, in dealing +with Babylonian astral myths to endeavour to approach within +reasonable distance of the point of view, or points of view, of +the people who framed them.</p> +<p>Babylonian religious thought was of highly complex character. +Its progress was ever hampered by blended traditions. The +earliest settlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley no doubt imported +many crude beliefs which they had inherited from their +Palaeolithic ancestors--the modes of thought which were the +moulds of new theories arising from new experiences. When +consideration is given to the existing religious beliefs of +various peoples throughout the world, in low stages of culture, +it is found that the highly developed creeds of Babylonia, <a id= +"page.anchor.291" name="page.anchor.291"></a>Egypt and other +countries where civilization flourished were never divested +wholly of their primitive traits.</p> +<p>Among savage peoples two grades of religious ideas have been +identified, and classified as Naturalism and Animism. In the +plane of Naturalism the belief obtains that a vague impersonal +force, which may have more than one manifestation and is yet +manifested in everything, controls the world and the lives of +human beings. An illustration of this stage of religious +consciousness is afforded by Mr. Risley, who, in dealing with the +religion of the jungle dwellers of Chota Nagpur, India, says that +"in most cases the indefinite something which they fear and +attempt to propitiate is not a person at all in any sense of the +word; if one must state the case in positive terms, I should say +that the idea which lies at the root of their religion is that of +a power rather than many powers".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1303" href="#ftn.fnrex1303" id= +"fnrex1303">303</a>]</span></p> +<p>Traces of Naturalism appear to have survived in Sumeria in the +belief that "the spiritual, the Zi, was that which manifested +life.... The test of the manifestation of life was +movement."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1304" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1304" id="fnrex1304">304</a>]</span> All things that +moved, it was conceived in the plane of Naturalism, possessed +"self power"; the river was a living thing, as was also the +fountain; a stone that fell from a hill fell of its own accord; a +tree groaned because the wind caused it to suffer pain. This idea +that inanimate objects had conscious existence survived in the +religion of the Aryo-Indians. In the Nala story of the Indian +epic, the <span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, the +disconsolate wife Damayanti addresses a mountain when searching +for her lost husband:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"This, the monarch of all mountains, +ask I of the king of men;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O all-honoured Prince of Mountains, +with thy heavenward soaring peaks ...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.292" name= +"page.anchor.292"></a>Hast thou seen the kingly Nala in this dark +and awful wood....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Why repliest thou not, O +Mountain?"</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>She similarly addresses the Asoka tree:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Hast thou seen Nishadha's monarch, +hast thou seen my only love?...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That I may depart ungrieving, fair +Asoka, answer me...."</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Many a tree she stood and gazed +on....<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1305" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1305" id="fnrex1305">305</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>It will be recognized that when primitive men gave names to +mountains, rivers, or the ocean, these possessed for them a +deeper significance than they do for us at the present day. The +earliest peoples of Indo-European speech who called the sky +"dyeus", and those of Sumerian speech who called it "ana", +regarded it not as the sky "and nothing more", but as something +which had conscious existence and "self power". Our remote +ancestors resembled, in this respect, those imaginative children +who hold conversations with articles of furniture, and administer +punishment to stones which, they believe, have tripped them up +voluntarily and with desire to commit an offence.</p> +<p>In this early stage of development the widespread totemic +beliefs appear to have had origin. Families or tribes believed +that they were descended from mountains, trees, or wild +animals.</p> +<p>Aesop's fable about the mountain which gave birth to a mouse +may be a relic of Totemism; so also may be the mountain symbols +on the standards of Egyptian ships which appear on pre-dynastic +pottery; the black dwarfs of Teutonic mythology were earth +children.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1306" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1306" id="fnrex1306">306</a>]</span></p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.293" name="page.anchor.293"></a>Adonis +sprang from a tree; his mother may have, according to primitive +belief, been simply a tree; Dagda, the patriarchal Irish corn +god, was an oak; indeed, the idea of a "world tree", which occurs +in Sumerian, Vedic-Indian, Teutonic, and other mythologies, was +probably a product of Totemism.</p> +<p>Wild animals were considered to be other forms of human beings +who could marry princes and princesses as they do in so many +fairy tales. Damayanti addressed the tiger, as well as the +mountain and tree, saying:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I approach him without fear.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>"Of the beasts art thou the monarch, +all this forest thy domain;...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou, O king of beasts, console me, if +my Nala thou hast seen."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1307" +href="#ftn.fnrex1307" id="fnrex1307">307</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>A tribal totem exercised sway over a tribal district. In +Egypt, as Herodotus recorded, the crocodile was worshipped in one +district and hunted down in another. Tribes fought against tribes +when totemic animals were slain. The Babylonian and Indian myths +about the conflicts between eagles and serpents may have +originated as records of battles between eagle clans and serpent +clans. Totemic animals were tabooed. The Set pig of Egypt and the +devil pig of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales were not eaten except +sacrificially. Families were supposed to be descended from swans +and were named Swans, or from seals and were named Seals, like +the Gaelic "Mac Codrums", whose surname signifies "son of the +seal"; the nickname of the Campbells, "sons of the pig", may +refer to their totemic boar's head crest, which commemorated the +slaying, perhaps the sacrificial slaying, of the boar by their +ancestor Diarmid. Mr. Garstang, in <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Syrian Goddess</em></span>, thinks it possible that the boar +which killed <a id="page.anchor.294" name= +"page.anchor.294"></a>Adonis was of totemic origin. So may have +been the fish form of the Sumerian god Ea. When an animal totem +was sacrificed once a year, and eaten sacrificially so that the +strength of the clan might be maintained, the priest who wrapped +himself in its skin was supposed to have transmitted to him +certain magical powers; he became identified with the totem and +prophesied and gave instruction as the totem. Ea was depicted +clad in the fish's skin.</p> +<p>Animism, the other early stage of human development, also +produced distinctive modes of thought. Men conceived that the +world swarmed with spirits, that a spirit groaned in the +wind-shaken tree, that the howling wind was an invisible spirit, +that there were spirits in fountains, rivers, valleys, hills, and +in ocean, and in all animals; and that a hostile spirit might +possess an individual and change his nature. The sun and the moon +were the abodes of spirits, or the vessels in which great spirits +sailed over the sea of the sky; the stars were all spirits, the +"host of heaven". These spirits existed in groups of seven, or +groups of three, and the multiple of three, or in pairs, or +operated as single individuals.</p> +<p>Although certain spirits might confer gifts upon mankind, they +were at certain seasons and in certain localities hostile and +vengeful, like the grass-green fairies in winter, or the +earth-black elves when their gold was sought for in forbidden and +secret places. These spirits were the artisans of creation and +vegetation, like the Egyptian Khnumu and the Indian Rhibus; they +fashioned the grass blades and the stalks of corn, but at times +of seasonal change they might ride on their tempest steeds, or +issue forth from flooding rivers and lakes. Man was greatly +concerned about striking <a id="page.anchor.295" name= +"page.anchor.295"></a>bargains with them to secure their +services, and about propitiating them, or warding off their +attacks with protective charms, and by performing "ceremonies of +riddance". The ghosts of the dead, being spirits, were similarly +propitious or harmful on occasion; as emissaries of Fate they +could injure the living.</p> +<p>Ancestor worship, the worship of ghosts, had origin in the +stage of Animism. But ancestor worship was not developed in +Babylonia as in China, for instance, although traces of it +survived in the worship of stars as ghosts, in the deification of +kings, and the worship of patriarchs, who might be exalted as +gods or identified with a supreme god. The Egyptian Pharaoh Unas +became the sun god and the constellation of Orion by devouring +his predecessors<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1308" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1308" id="fnrex1308">308</a>]</span>. He ate his god +as a tribe ate its animal totem; he became the "bull of +heaven".</p> +<p>There were star totems as well as mountain totems. A St. +Andrew's cross sign, on one of the Egyptian ship standards +referred to, may represent a star. The Babylonian goddess Ishtar +was symbolized as a star, and she was the "world mother". Many +primitive currents of thought shaped the fretted rocks of ancient +mythologies.</p> +<p>In various countries all round the globe the belief prevailed +that the stars were ghosts of the mighty dead--of giants, kings, +or princes, or princesses, or of pious people whom the gods +loved, or of animals which were worshipped. A few instances may +be selected at random. When the Teutonic gods slew the giant +Thjasse, he appeared in the heavens as Sirius. In India the +ghosts of the "seven Rishis", who were semi-divine Patriarchs, +formed the constellation of the Great Bear, which in Vedic times +was called the "seven bears". The wives of the seven Rishis were +the stars of the Pleiades. In Greece <a id="page.anchor.296" +name="page.anchor.296"></a>the Pleiades were the ghosts of the +seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, and in Australia they were +and are a queen and six handmaidens. In these countries, as +elsewhere, stories were told to account for the "lost Pleiad", a +fact which suggests that primitive men were more constant +observers of the heavenly bodies than might otherwise be +supposed. The Arcadians believed that they were descended, as +Hesiod recorded, from a princess who was transformed by Zeus into +a bear; in this form Artemis slew her and she became the "Great +Bear" of the sky. The Egyptian Isis was the star Sirius, whose +rising coincided with the beginning of the Nile inundation. Her +first tear for the dead Osiris fell into the river on "the night +of the drop". The flood which ensued brought the food supply. +Thus the star was not only the Great Mother of all, but the +sustainer of all.</p> +<p>The brightest stars were regarded as being the greatest and +most influential. In Babylonia all the planets were identified +with great deities. Jupiter, for instance, was Merodach, and one +of the astral forms of Ishtar was Venus. Merodach was also +connected with "the fish of Ea" (Pisces), so that it is not +improbable that Ea worship had stellar associations. +Constellations were given recognition before the planets were +identified.</p> +<p>A strange blending of primitive beliefs occurred when the +deities were given astral forms. As has been shown (Chapter III) +gods were supposed to die annually. The Egyptian priests pointed +out to Herodotus the grave of Osiris and also his star. There are +"giants' graves" also in those countries in which the gods were +simply ferocious giants. A god might assume various forms; he +might take the form of an insect, like Indra, and hide in a +plant, or become a mouse, or a serpent, like the gods of Erech in +the Gilgamesh epic. The further theory that a god <a id= +"page.anchor.297" name="page.anchor.297"></a>could exist in +various forms at one and the same time suggests that it had its +origin among a people who accepted the idea of a personal god +while yet in the stage of Naturalism. In Egypt Osiris, for +instance, was the moon, which came as a beautiful child each +month and was devoured as the wasting "old moon" by the demon +Set; he was the young god who was slain in his prime each year; +he was at once the father, husband, and son of Isis; he was the +Patriarch who reigned over men and became the Judge of the Dead; +he was the earth spirit, he was the bisexual Nile spirit, he was +the spring sun; he was the Apis bull of Memphis, and the ram of +Mendes; he was the reigning Pharaoh. In his fusion with Ra, who +was threefold--Khepera, Ra, and Tum--he died each day as an old +man; he appeared in heaven at night as the constellation Orion, +which was his ghost, or was, perhaps, rather the Sumerian Zi, the +spiritual essence of life. Osiris, who resembled Tammuz, a god of +many forms also, was addressed as follows in one of the Isis +chants:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>There proceedeth from thee the strong +Orion in heaven at evening, at the resting of every +day!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Lo it is I (Isis), at the approach of +the Sothis (Sirius) period, who doth watch for him (the child +Osiris),</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Nor will I leave off watching for him; +for that which proceedeth from thee (the living Osiris) is +revered.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>An emanation from thee causeth life to +gods and men, reptiles and animals, and they live by means +thereof.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Come thou to us from thy chamber, in +the day when thy soul begetteth emanations,--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The day when offerings upon offerings +are made to thy spirit, which causeth the gods and men likewise +to live.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1309" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1309" id="fnrex1309">309</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>This extract emphasizes how unsafe it is to confine certain +deities within narrow limits by terming them simply <a id= +"page.anchor.298" name="page.anchor.298"></a>"solar gods", "lunar +gods", "astral gods", or "earth gods". One deity may have been +simultaneously a sun god and moon god, an air god and an earth +god, one who was dead and also alive, unborn and also old. The +priests of Babylonia and Egypt were less accustomed to concrete +and logical definitions than their critics and expositors of the +twentieth century. Simple explanations of ancient beliefs are +often by reason of their very simplicity highly improbable. +Recognition must ever be given to the puzzling complexity of +religious thought in Babylonia and Egypt, and to the possibility +that even to the priests the doctrines of a particular cult, +which embraced the accumulated ideas of centuries, were +invariably confusing and vague, and full of inconsistencies; they +were mystical in the sense that the understanding could not grasp +them although it permitted their acceptance. A god, for instance, +might be addressed at once in the singular and plural, perhaps +because he had developed from an animistic group of spirits, or, +perhaps, for reasons we cannot discover. This is shown clearly by +the following pregnant extract from a Babylonian tablet: +"<span class="emphasis"><em>Powerful, O Sevenfold, one are +ye</em></span>". Mr. L.W. King, the translator, comments upon it +as follows: "There is no doubt that the name was applied to a +group of gods who were so closely connected that, though +addressed in the plural, they could in the same sentence be +regarded as forming a single personality".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1310" href="#ftn.fnrex1310" id= +"fnrex1310">310</a>]</span></p> +<p>Like the Egyptian Osiris, the Babylonian Merodach was a highly +complex deity. He was the son of Ea, god of the deep; he died to +give origin to human life when he commanded that his head should +be cut off so that the first human beings might be fashioned by +mixing his blood with the earth; he was the wind god, who gave +<a id="page.anchor.299" name="page.anchor.299"></a>"the air of +life"; he was the deity of thunder and the sky; he was the sun of +spring in his Tammuz character; he was the daily sun, and the +planets Jupiter and Mercury as well as Sharru (Regulus); he had +various astral associations at various seasons. Ishtar, the +goddess, was Iku (Capella), the water channel star, in +January-February, and Merodach was Iku in May-June. This strange +system of identifying the chief deity with different stars at +different periods, or simultaneously, must not be confused with +the monotheistic identification of him with other gods. Merodach +changed his forms with Ishtar, and had similarly many forms. This +goddess, for instance, was, even when connected with one +particular heavenly body, liable to change. According to a tablet +fragment she was, as the planet Venus, "a female at sunset and a +male at sunrise<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1311" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1311" id="fnrex1311">311</a>]</span>"--that is, a +bisexual deity like Nannar of Ur, the father and mother deity +combined, and Isis of Egypt. Nannar is addressed in a famous +hymn:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Father Nannar, Lord, God Sin, ruler +among the gods....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><span class="emphasis"><em>Mother body +which produceth all things</em></span>....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Merciful, gracious Father, in whose +hand the life of the whole land is contained.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>One of the Isis chants of Egypt sets forth, addressing +Osiris:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>There cometh unto thee Isis, lady of +the horizon, who hath begotten herself alone in the image of the +gods....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>She hath taken vengeance before Horus, +<span class="emphasis"><em>the woman who was made a male by her +father Osiris</em></span>.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1312" +href="#ftn.fnrex1312" id="fnrex1312">312</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Merodach, like Osiris-Sokar, was a "lord of many existences", +and likewise "the mysterious one, he who is unknown to +mankind<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1313" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1313" id="fnrex1313">313</a>]</span>". It was +impossible for the human mind "a greater than itself to +know".</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.300" name="page.anchor.300"></a>Evidence +has not yet been forthcoming to enable us to determine the period +at which the chief Babylonian deities were identified with the +planets, but it is clear that Merodach's ascendancy in astral +form could not have occurred prior to the rise of that city god +of Babylon as chief of the pantheon by displacing Enlil. At the +same time it must be recognized that long before the Hammurabi +age the star-gazers of the Tigro-Euphrates valley must have been +acquainted with the movements of the chief planets and stars, +and, no doubt, they connected them with seasonal changes as in +Egypt, where Isis was identified with Sirius long before the +Ptolemaic age, when Babylonian astronomy was imported. Horus was +identified not only with the sun but also with Saturn, Jupiter, +and Mars.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1314" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1314" id="fnrex1314">314</a>]</span> Even the +primitive Australians, as has been indicated, have their star +myths; they refer to the stars Castor and Pollux as two young +men, like the ancient Greeks, while the African Bushmen assert +that these stars are two girls. It would be a mistake, however, +to assume that the prehistoric Sumerians were exact astronomers. +Probably they were, like the Aryo-Indians of the Vedic period, +"not very accurate observers".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1315" href="#ftn.fnrex1315" id= +"fnrex1315">315</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is of special interest to find that the stars were grouped +by the Babylonians at the earliest period in companies of seven. +The importance of this magical number is emphasized by the group +of seven demons which rose from the deep to rage over the land +(p. <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>). Perhaps the sanctity of +Seven was suggested by Orion, the Bears, and the Pleiad, one of +which constellations may have been the "Sevenfold" deity +addressed as "one". At any rate arbitrary groupings of other +stars into companies of seven took place, for references are made +to <a id="page.anchor.301" name="page.anchor.301"></a>the seven +Tikshi, the seven Lumashi, and the seven Mashi, which are older +than the signs of the Zodiac; so far as can be ascertained these +groups were selected from various constellations. When the five +planets were identified, they were associated with the sun and +moon and connected with the chief gods of the Hammurabi pantheon. +A bilingual list in the British Museum arranges the sevenfold +planetary group in the following order:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The moon, Sin.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The sun, Shamash.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Jupiter, Merodach.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Venus, Ishtar.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Saturn, Ninip (Nirig).</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Mercury, Nebo.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Mars, Nergal.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>An ancient name of the moon was Aa, Â, or Ai, which +recalls the Egyptian Aâh or Ah. The Sumerian moon was Aku, +"the measurer", like Thoth of Egypt, who in his lunar character +as a Fate measured out the lives of men, and was a god of +architects, mathematicians, and scribes. The moon was the parent +of the sun or its spouse; and might be male, or female, or both +as a bisexual deity.</p> +<p>As the "bull of light" Jupiter had solar associations; he was +also the shepherd of the stars, a title shared by Tammuz as +Orion; Nin-Girsu, a developed form of Tammuz, was identified with +both Orion and Jupiter.</p> +<p>Ishtar's identification with Venus is of special interest. +When that planet was at its brightest phase, its rays were +referred to as "the beard" of the goddess; she was the "bearded +Aphrodite"--a bisexual deity evidently. The astrologers regarded +the bright Venus as lucky and the rayless Venus as unlucky.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.302" name="page.anchor.302"></a>Saturn was +Nirig, who is best known as Ninip, a deity who was displaced by +Enlil, the elder Bel, and afterwards regarded as his son. His +story has not been recovered, but from the references made to it +there is little doubt that it was a version of the widespread +myth about the elder deity who was slain by his son, as Saturn +was by Jupiter and Dyaus by Indra. It may have resembled the lost +Egyptian myth which explained the existence of the two +Horuses--Horus the elder, and Horus, the posthumous son of +Osiris. At any rate, it is of interest to find in this connection +that in Egypt the planet Saturn was Her-Ka, "Horus the Bull". +Ninip was also identified with the bull. Both deities were also +connected with the spring sun, like Tammuz, and were terrible +slayers of their enemies. Ninip raged through Babylonia like a +storm flood, and Horus swept down the Nile, slaying the followers +of Set. As the divine sower of seed, Ninip may have developed +from Tammuz as Horus did from Osiris. Each were at once the +father and the son, different forms of the same deity at various +seasons of the year. The elder god was displaced by the son +(spring), and when the son grew old his son slew him in turn. As +the planet Saturn, Ninip was the ghost of the elder god, and as +the son of Bel he was the solar war god of spring, the great wild +bull, the god of fertility. He was also as Ber "lord of the wild +boar", an animal associated with Rimmon<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1316" href="#ftn.fnrex1316" id= +"fnrex1316">316</a>]</span>.</p> +<p>Nebo (Nabu), who was identified with Mercury, was a god of +Borsippa. He was a messenger and "announcer" of the gods, as the +Egyptian Horus in his connection with Jupiter was Her-ap-sheta, +"Horus the opener of that which is secret<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1317" href="#ftn.fnrex1317" id= +"fnrex1317">317</a>]</span>". Nebo's original character is +obscure. <a id="page.anchor.303" name="page.anchor.303"></a>He +appears to have been a highly developed deity of a people well +advanced in civilization when he was exalted as the divine patron +of Borsippa. Although Hammurabi ignored him, he was subsequently +invoked with Merodach, and had probably much in common with +Merodach. Indeed, Merodach was also identified with the planet +Mercury. Like the Greek Hermes, Nebo was a messenger of the gods +and an instructor of mankind. Jastrow regards him as "a +counterpart of Ea", and says: "Like Ea, he is the embodiment and +source of wisdom. The art of writing--and therefore of all +literature--is more particularly associated with him. A common +form of his name designates him as the 'god of the +stylus'."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1318" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1318" id="fnrex1318">318</a>]</span> He appears also +to have been a developed form of Tammuz, who was an incarnation +of Ea. Professor Pinches shows that one of his names, Mermer, was +also a non-Semitic name of Ramman.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1319" href="#ftn.fnrex1319" id="fnrex1319">319</a>]</span> +Tammuz resembled Ramman in his character as a spring god of war. +It would seem that Merodach as Jupiter displaced at Babylon Nebo +as Saturn, the elder god, as Bel Enlil displaced the elder Ninip +at Nippur.</p> +<p>The god of Mars was Nergal, the patron deity of +Cuthah,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1320" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1320" id="fnrex1320">320</a>]</span> who descended +into the Underworld and forced into submission Eresh-ki-gal +(Persephone), with whom he was afterwards associated. His "name", +says Professor Pinches, "is supposed to mean 'lord of the great +habitation', which would be a parallel to that of his spouse, +Eresh-ki-gal".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1321" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1321" id="fnrex1321">321</a>]</span> At Erech he +symbolized the destroying influence of the sun, and was +accompanied by the demons of pestilence. Mars was a planet of +evil, plague, and death; its animal form was the wolf. In Egypt +it was <a id="page.anchor.304" name="page.anchor.304"></a>called +Herdesher, "the Red Horus", and in Greece it was associated with +Ares (the Roman Mars), the war god, who assumed his boar form to +slay Adonis (Tammuz).</p> +<p>Nergal was also a fire god like the Aryo-Indian Agni, who, as +has been shown, links with Tammuz as a demon slayer and a god of +fertility. It may be that Nergal was a specialized form of +Tammuz, who, in a version of the myth, was reputed to have +entered the Underworld as a conqueror when claimed by +Eresh-ki-gal, and to have become, like Osiris, the lord of the +dead. If so, Nergal was at once the slayer and the slain.</p> +<p>The various Babylonian deities who were identified with the +planets had their characters sharply defined as members of an +organized pantheon. But before this development took place +certain of the prominent heavenly bodies, perhaps all the +planets, were evidently regarded as manifestations of one deity, +the primeval Tammuz, who was a form of Ea, or of the twin deities +Ea and Anu. Tammuz may have been the "sevenfold one" of the +hymns. At a still earlier period the stars were manifestations of +the Power whom the jungle dwellers of Chota Nagpur attempt to +propitiate--the "world soul" of the cultured Brahmans of the +post-Vedic Indian Age. As much is suggested by the resemblances +which the conventionalized planetary deities bear to Tammuz, +whose attributes they symbolized, and by the Egyptian conception +that the sun, Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars were manifestations of +Horus. Tammuz and Horus may have been personifications of the +Power or World Soul vaguely recognized in the stage of +Naturalism.</p> +<p>The influence of animistic modes of thought may be traced in +the idea that the planets and stars were the ghosts of gods who +were superseded by their sons. These sons were identical with +their fathers; they became, as <a id="page.anchor.305" name= +"page.anchor.305"></a>in Egypt, "husbands of their mothers". This +idea was perpetuated in the Aryo-Indian <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Laws of Manu</em></span>, in which it is set forth +that "the husband, after conception by his wife, becomes an +embryo and is born again of her<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1322" href="#ftn.fnrex1322" id= +"fnrex1322">322</a>]</span>". The deities died every year, but +death was simply change. Yet they remained in the separate forms +they assumed in their progress round "the wide circle of +necessity". Horus was remembered as various planets--as the +falcon, as the elder sun god, and as the son of Osiris; and +Tammuz was the spring sun, the child, youth, warrior, the deity +of fertility, and the lord of death (Orion-Nergal), and, as has +been suggested, all the planets.</p> +<p>The stars were also the ghosts of deities who died daily. When +the sun perished as an old man at evening, it rose in the heavens +as Orion, or went out and in among the stars as the shepherd of +the flock, Jupiter, the planet of Merodach in Babylonia, and +Attis in Asia Minor. The flock was the group of heavenly spirits +invisible by day, the "host of heaven"--manifestations or ghosts +of the emissaries of the controlling power or powers.</p> +<p>The planets presided over various months of the year. Sin (the +moon) was associated with the third month; it also controlled the +calendar; Ninip (Saturn) was associated with the fourth month, +Ishtar (Venus) with the sixth, Shamash (the sun) with the +seventh, Merodach (Jupiter) with the eighth, Nergal (Mars) with +the ninth, and a messenger of the gods, probably Nebo (Mercury), +with the tenth.</p> +<p>Each month was also controlled by a zodiacal constellation. In +the Creation myth of Babylon it is stated that when Merodach +engaged in the work of setting the Universe in order he "set all +the great gods in their <a id="page.anchor.306" name= +"page.anchor.306"></a>several stations", and "also created their +images, the stars of the Zodiac,<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1323" href="#ftn.fnrex1323" id="fnrex1323">323</a>]</span> +and fixed them all" (p. <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>).</p> +<p>Our signs of the Zodiac are of Babylonian origin. They were +passed on to the Greeks by the Phoenicians and Hittites. "There +was a time", says Professor Sayce, "when the Hittites were +profoundly affected by Babylonian civilization, religion, and +art...." They "carried the time-worn civilizations of Babylonia +and Egypt to the furthest boundary of Egypt, and there handed +them over to the West in the grey dawn of European history.... +Greek traditions affirmed that the rulers of Mykenae had come +from Lydia, bringing with them the civilization and treasures of +Asia Minor. The tradition has been confirmed by modern research. +While certain elements belonging to the prehistoric culture of +Greece, as revealed at Mykenae and elsewhere, were derived from +Egypt and Phoenicia, there are others which point to Asia Minor +as their source. And the culture of Asia Minor was +Hittite."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1324" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1324" id="fnrex1324">324</a>]</span></p> +<p>The early Babylonian astronomers did not know, of course, that +the earth revolved round the sun. They believed that the sun +travelled across the heavens flying like a bird or sailing like a +boat.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1325" href="#ftn.fnrex1325" +id="fnrex1325">325</a>]</span> In studying its movements they +observed that it always travelled from west to east along a broad +path, swinging from side to side of it in the course of the year. +This path is the Zodiac--the celestial "circle of necessity". The +middle <a id="page.anchor.307" name="page.anchor.307"></a>line of +the sun's path is the Ecliptic. The Babylonian scientists divided +the Ecliptic into twelve equal parts, and grouped in each part +the stars which formed their constellations; these are also +called "Signs of the Zodiac". Each month had thus its sign or +constellation.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2536676" name="id2536676"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIII.1. SYMBOLS OF DEITIES AS +ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Sculptured on a stone recording privileges granted to +Ritti-Marduk by Nebuchadnezzar I (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/27.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2536696" name="id2536696"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIII.2. ASHUR SYMBOLS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The two symbols with feather-robed archers, shown on the left, +are described on page 335. The winged disk on the right appears +on a Babylonian "boundary stone" which dates from the reign of +Marduk-batatsu-ikbi. (See pages <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>,<a href= +"#page.anchor.416">416</a>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/28.jpg" /></div> +<p>The names borne at the present day by the signs of the Zodiac +are easily remembered even by children, who are encouraged to +repeat the following familiar lines:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ram</em></span>, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Bull</em></span>, the heavenly <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Twins</em></span>,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And next the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Crab</em></span>, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Lion</em></span> shines.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Virgin</em></span> and the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Scales</em></span>;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Scorpion, Archer</em></span>, and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sea goat</em></span>,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The man that holds the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>water pot</em></span>,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> And <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Fish</em></span> with glitt'ring<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1326" href="#ftn.fnrex1326" id= +"fnrex1326">326</a>]</span> tails.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The table on p. <a href="#page.anchor.308">308</a> shows that +our signs are derived from ancient Babylonia.</p> +<p>The celestial regions were also divided into three or more +parts. Three "fields" were allotted to the ancient triad formed +by Ea, Anu, and Bel. The zodiacal "path" ran through these +"fields". Ea's field was in the west, and was associated with +Amurru, the land of the Amorites; Anu's field was in the south, +and was associated with Elam; and Bel's central "field" was +associated with the land of Akkad. When the rulers of Akkad +called themselves "kings of the four quarters", the reference was +to the countries associated with the three divine fields and to +Gutium<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1327" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1327" id="fnrex1327">327</a>]</span>(east = our +north-east). Was Gutium associated with demons, as in Scandinavia +the north-east was associated with the giants against whom Thor +waged war?</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.308" name="page.anchor.308"></a></p> +<div class="table"><a id="id2536859" name="id2536859"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Table XIII.1. </b></p> +<table summary="" border="1"> +<colgroup> +<col /> +<col /> +<col /></colgroup> +<thead> +<tr> +<th>Constellations.</th> +<th>Date of Sun's Entry (Babylonian Month in brackets).</th> +<th>Babylonian Equivalent.</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td>Aries (the Ram).</td> +<td>20th March (Nisan = March-April)</td> +<td>The Labourer or Messenger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Taurus (the Bull).</td> +<td>20th April (Iyyar = April-May)</td> +<td>A divine figure and the "bull of heaven".</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Gemini (the Twins).</td> +<td>21st May (Sivan = May-June).</td> +<td>The Faithful Shepherd and Twins side by side, or head to head +and feet to teet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Cancer (the Crab).</td> +<td>21st June (Tammuz = June-July).</td> +<td>Crab or Scorpion.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Leo (the Lion).</td> +<td>22nd July (Ab = July-August).</td> +<td>The big dog (Lion).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Virgo (the Virgin).</td> +<td>23rd August (Elul = August-Sept.).</td> +<td>Ishtar, the Virgin's ear of corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Libra (the Balance).</td> +<td>23rd September (Tisri = Sept.-Oct.).</td> +<td>The Balance.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Scorpio (the Scorpion).</td> +<td>23rd October (Marcheswan = Oct.-Nov.).</td> +<td>Scorpion of darkness.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Sagittarius (the Archer).</td> +<td>22nd November (Chisleu = Nov.-Dec.).</td> +<td>Man or man-horse with bow, or an arrow symbol.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Capricornus (the Goat).</td> +<td>21st December (Tebet = Dec.-Jan.).</td> +<td>Ea's goat-fish.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Aquarius (the Water Carrier).</td> +<td>19th January (Sebat = Jan.-Feb.).</td> +<td>God with water urn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Pisces (the Fishes).</td> +<td>18th February (Adar = Feb.-March).</td> +<td>Fish tails in canal.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> +<p>The Babylonian Creation myth states that Merodach, having +fixed the stars of the Zodiac, made three stars for each month +(p. <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>). Mr. Robert Brown, jun., +who has dealt as exhaustively with the astronomical problems of +Babylonia as the available data permitted him, is of opinion that +the leading stars of three constellations are referred <a id= +"page.anchor.309" name="page.anchor.309"></a>to, viz.: (1) the +central or zodiacal constellations, (2) the northern +constellations, and (3) the southern constellations. We have thus +a scheme of thirty-six constellations. The "twelve zodiacal stars +were flanked on either side by twelve non-zodiacal stars". Mr. +Brown quotes Diodorus, who gave a résumé of +Babylonian astronomico-astrology, in this connection. He said +that "the five planets were called 'Interpreters'; and in +subjection to these were marshalled 'Thirty Stars', which were +styled 'Divinities of the Council'.... The chiefs of the +Divinities are twelve in number, to each of whom they assign a +month and one of the twelve signs of the Zodiac." Through these +twelve signs sun, moon, and planets run their courses. "And with +the zodiacal circle they mark out twenty-four stars, half of +which they say are arranged in the north and half in the +south."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1328" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1328" id="fnrex1328">328</a>]</span> Mr. Brown shows +that the thirty stars referred to "constituted the original +Euphratean Lunar Zodiac, the parent of the seven ancient lunar +zodiacs which have come down to us, namely, the Persian, Sogdian, +Khorasmian, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and Coptic schemes".</p> +<p>The three constellations associated with each month had each a +symbolic significance: they reflected the characters of their +months. At the height of the rainy season, for instance, the +month of Ramman, the thunder god, was presided over by the +zodiacal constellation of the water urn, the northern +constellation "Fish of the Canal", and the southern "the Horse". +In India the black horse was sacrificed at rain-getting and +fertility ceremonies. The months of growth, pestilence, and +scorching sun heat were in turn symbolized. The "Great Bear" was +the "chariot" = "Charles's Wain", and the "Milky Way" the "river +of the high cloud", the Celestial Euphrates, as in Egypt it was +the Celestial Nile.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.310" name="page.anchor.310"></a>Of special +interest among the many problems presented by Babylonian +astronomical lore is the theory of Cosmic periods or Ages of the +Universe. In the Indian, Greek, and Irish mythologies there are +four Ages--the Silvern (white), Golden (yellow), the Bronze +(red), and the Iron (black). As has been already indicated, Mr. +R. Brown, jun., shows that "the Indian system of Yugas, or ages +of the world, presents many features which forcibly remind us of +the Euphratean scheme". The Babylonians had ten antediluvian +kings, who were reputed to have reigned for vast periods, the +total of which amounted to 120 saroi, or 432,000 years. These +figures at once recall the Indian Maha-yuga of 4,320,000 years = +432,000 x 10. Apparently the Babylonian and Indian systems of +calculation were of common origin. In both countries the +measurements of time and space were arrived at by utilizing the +numerals 10 and 6.</p> +<p>When primitive man began to count he adopted a method which +comes naturally to every schoolboy; he utilized his fingers. +Twice five gave him ten, and from ten he progressed to twenty, +and then on to a hundred and beyond. In making measurements his +hands, arms, and feet were at his service. We are still measuring +by feet and yards (standardized strides) in this country, while +those who engage in the immemorial art of knitting, and, in doing +so, repeat designs found on neolithic pottery, continue to +measure in finger breadths, finger lengths, and hand breadths as +did the ancient folks who called an arm length a cubit. Nor has +the span been forgotten, especially by boys in their games with +marbles; the space from the end of the thumb to the end of the +little finger when the hand is extended must have been an +important measurement from the earliest times.</p> +<p>As he made progress in calculations, the primitive <a id= +"page.anchor.311" name="page.anchor.311"></a>Babylonian appears +to have been struck by other details in his anatomy besides his +sets of five fingers and five toes. He observed, for instance, +that his fingers were divided into three parts and his thumb into +two parts only;<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1329" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1329" id="fnrex1329">329</a>]</span> four fingers +multiplied by three gave him twelve, and multiplying 12 by 3 he +reached 36. Apparently the figure 6 attracted him. His body was +divided into 6 parts--2 arms, 2 legs, the head, and the trunk; +his 2 ears, 2 eyes, and mouth, and nose also gave him 6. The +basal 6, multiplied by his 10 fingers, gave him 60, and 60 x 2 +(for his 2 hands) gave him 120. In Babylonian arithmetic 6 and 60 +are important numbers, and it is not surprising to find that in +the system of numerals the signs for 1 and 10 combined represent +60.</p> +<p>In fixing the length of a mythical period his first great +calculation of 120 came naturally to the Babylonian, and when he +undertook to measure the Zodiac he equated time and space by +fixing on 120 degrees. His first zodiac was the Sumerian lunar +zodiac, which contained thirty moon chambers associated with the +"Thirty Stars" of the tablets, and referred to by Diodorus as +"Divinities of the Council". The chiefs of the Thirty numbered +twelve. In this system the year began in the winter solstice. Mr. +Hewitt has shown that the chief annual <a id="page.anchor.312" +name="page.anchor.312"></a>festival of the Indian Dravidians +begins with the first full moon after the winter festival, and +Mr. Brown emphasizes the fact that the list of Tamil (Dravidian) +lunar and solar months are named like the Babylonian +constellations.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1330" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1330" id="fnrex1330">330</a>]</span> "Lunar +chronology", wrote Professor Max Mailer, "seems everywhere to +have preceded solar chronology."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1331" href="#ftn.fnrex1331" id="fnrex1331">331</a>]</span> +The later Semitic Babylonian system had twelve solar chambers and +the thirty-six constellations.</p> +<p>Each degree was divided into sixty minutes, and each minute +into sixty seconds. The hours of the day and night each numbered +twelve.</p> +<p>Multiplying 6 by 10 (pur), the Babylonian arrived at 60 +(soss); 60x10 gave him 600 (ner), and 600x6, 3600 (sar), while +3600x10 gave him 36,000, and 36,000x12, 432,000 years, or 120 +saroi, which is equal to the "sar" multiplied by the "soss"x2. +"Pur" signifies "heap"--the ten fingers closed after being +counted; and "ner" signifies "foot". Mr. George Bertin suggests +that when 6x10 fingers gave 60 this number was multiplied by the +ten toes, with the result that 600 was afterwards associated with +the feet (ner). The Babylonian sign for 10 resembles the +impression of two feet with heels closed and toes apart. This +suggests a primitive record of the first round of finger +counting.</p> +<p>In India this Babylonian system of calculation was developed +during the Brahmanical period. The four Yugas or Ages, +representing the four fingers used by the primitive +mathematicians, totalled 12,000 divine years, a period which was +called a Maha-yuga; it equalled the Babylonian 120 saroi, +multiplied by 100. Ten times a hundred of these periods gave a +"Day of Brahma".</p> +<p>Each day of the gods, it was explained by the <a id= +"page.anchor.313" name="page.anchor.313"></a>Brahmans, was a year +to mortals. Multiplied by 360 days, 12,000 divine years equalled +4,320,000 human years. This Maha-yuga, multiplied by 1000, gave +the "Day of Brahma" as 4,320,000,000 human years.</p> +<p>The shortest Indian Yuga is the Babylonian 120 saroi +multiplied by 10=1200 divine years for the Kali Yuga; twice that +number gives the Dvapara Yuga of 2400 divine years; then the +Treta Yuga is 2400 + 1200 = 3600 divine years, and Krita Yuga +3600 + 1200 = 4800 divine years.</p> +<p>The influence of Babylonia is apparent in these calculations. +During the Vedic period "Yuga" usually signified a "generation", +and there are no certain references to the four Ages as such. The +names "Kali", "Dvapara", "Treta", and "Krita" "occur as the +designations of throws of dice".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1332" href="#ftn.fnrex1332" id="fnrex1332">332</a>]</span> +It was after the arrival of the "late comers", the post-Vedic +Aryans, that the Yuga system was developed in India.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1333" href="#ftn.fnrex1333" id= +"fnrex1333">333</a>]</span></p> +<p>In <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and +Legend<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1334" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1334" id="fnrex1334">334</a>]</span></em></span> it is +shown that the Indian and Irish Ages have the same colour +sequence: (1) White or Silvern, (2) Red or Bronze, (3) Yellow or +Golden, and (4) Black or Iron. The Greek order is: (1) Golden, +(2) Silvern, (3) Bronze, and (4) Iron.</p> +<p>The Babylonians coloured the seven planets as follows: the +moon, silvern; the sun, golden; Mars, red; Saturn, black; +Jupiter, orange; Venus, yellow; and Mercury, blue.</p> +<p>As the ten antediluvian kings who reigned for 120 saroi had an +astral significance, their long reigns corresponding "with the +distances separating certain of the principal stars in or near +the ecliptic",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1335" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1335" id="fnrex1335">335</a>]</span>) it seems highly +<a id="page.anchor.314" name="page.anchor.314"></a>probable that +the planets were similarly connected with mythical ages which +were equated with the "four quarters" of the celestial regions +and the four regions of the earth, which in Gaelic story are +called "the four red divisions of the world".</p> +<p>Three of the planets may have been heralds of change. Venus, +as "Dilbat", was the "Proclaimer", and both Jupiter and Mercury +were called "Face voices of light", and "Heroes of the rising +sun" among other names. Jupiter may have been the herald of the +"Golden Age" as a morning star. This planet was also associated +with bronze, as "Kakkub Urud", "the star of bronze", while Mars +was "Kakkub Aban Kha-urud," "the star of the bronze fish stone". +Mercury, the lapis lazuli planet, may have been connected with +the black Saturn, the ghost of the dead sun, the demoniac elder +god; in Egypt lapis lazuli was the hair colour of Ra when he grew +old, and Egyptologists translate it as black.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1336" href="#ftn.fnrex1336" id= +"fnrex1336">336</a>]</span> The rare and regular appearances of +Mercury may have suggested the planet's connection with a +recurring Age. Venus as an evening star might be regarded as the +herald of the lunar or silver age; she was propitious as a +bearded deity and interchanged with Merodach as a seasonal +herald.</p> +<p>Connecting Jupiter with the sun as a propitious planet, and +with Mars as a destroying planet, Venus with the moon, and +Mercury with Saturn, we have left four colour schemes which +suggest the Golden, Silvern, Bronze, and Iron Ages. The Greek +order of mythical ages may have had a solar significance, +beginning as it does with the "golden" period. On the other hand +the Indian and Irish systems begin with the Silvern or white +lunar period. <a id="page.anchor.315" name= +"page.anchor.315"></a>In India the White Age (Treta Yuga) was the +age of perfect men, and in Greece the Golden Age was the age of +men who lived like gods. Thus the first ages in both cases were +"Perfect" Ages. The Bronze Age of Greece was the age of notorious +fighters and takers of life; in Babylonia the bronze planet Mars +was the symbol of the destroying Nergal, god of war and +pestilence, while Jupiter was also a destroyer as Merodach, the +slayer of Tiamat. In India the Black Age is the age of +wickedness. The Babylonian Saturn, as we have seen, is black, and +its god, Ninip, was the destroying boar, which recalls the black +boar of the Egyptian demon (or elder god) Set. The Greek Cronos +was a destroyer even of his own children. All the elder gods had +demoniac traits like the ghosts of human beings.</p> +<p>As the Babylonian lunar zodiac was imported into India before +solar worship and the solar zodiac were developed, so too may +have been the germs of the Yuga doctrine, which appears to have a +long history. Greece, on the other hand, came under the influence +of Babylon at a much later period. In Egypt Ra, the sun god, was +an antediluvian king, and he was followed by Osiris. Osiris was +slain by Set, who was depicted sometimes red and sometimes black. +There was also a Horus Age.</p> +<p>The Irish system of ages suggests an early cultural drift into +Europe, through Asia Minor, and along the uplands occupied by the +representatives of the Alpine or Armenoid peoples who have been +traced from Hindu Kush to Brittany. The culture of Gaul resembles +that of India in certain particulars; both the Gauls and the +post-Vedic Aryans, for instance, believed in the doctrine of +Transmigration of Souls, and practised "suttee". After the Roman +occupation of Gaul, Ireland appears to have been the refuge of +Gaulish scholars, who imported <a id="page.anchor.316" name= +"page.anchor.316"></a>their beliefs and traditions and laid the +foundations of that brilliant culture which shed lustre on the +Green Isle in late Pagan and early Christian times.</p> +<p>The part played by the Mitanni people of Aryan speech in +distributing Asiatic culture throughout Europe may have been +considerable, but we know little or nothing regarding their +movements and influence, nor has sufficient evidence been +forthcoming to connect them with the cremating invaders of the +Bronze Age, who penetrated as far as northern Scotland and +Scandinavia. On the other hand it is certain that the Hittites +adopted the planetary system of Babylonia and passed it on to +Europeans, including the Greeks. The five planets Ninip, +Merodach, Nergal, Ishtar, and Nebo were called by the Greeks +after their gods Kronos, Zeus, Ares, Aphrodite, and Hermes, and +by the Romans Saturnus, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercurius. It +must be recognized, however, that these equations were somewhat +arbitrary. Ninip resembled Kronos and Saturnus as a father, but +he was also at the same time a son; he was the Egyptian Horus the +elder and Horus the younger in one. Merodach was similarly of +complex character--a combination of Ea, Anu, Enlil, and Tammuz, +who acquired, when exalted by the Amoritic Dynasty of Babylon, +the attributes of the thunder god Adad-Ramman in the form of +Amurru, "lord of the mountains". During the Hammurabi Age Amurru +was significantly popular in personal names. It is as +Amurru-Ramman that Merodach bears comparison with Zeus. He also +links with Hercules. Too much must not be made, therefore, of the +Greek and Roman identifications of alien deities with their own. +Mulla, the Gaulish mule god, may have resembled Mars somewhat, +but it is a "far cry" from Mars-Mulla to Mars-Nergal, as it is +also from the Gaulish Moccus, the boar, called <a id= +"page.anchor.317" name="page.anchor.317"></a>"Mercury", to Nebo, +the god of culture, who was the "Mercury" of the Tigro-Euphrates +valley. Similarly the differences between "Jupiter-Amon" of Egypt +and "Jupiter-Merodach" of Babylon were more pronounced than the +resemblances.</p> +<p>The basal idea in Babylonian astrology appears to be the +recognition of the astral bodies as spirits or fates, who +exercised an influence over the gods, the world, and mankind. +These were worshipped in groups when they were yet nameless. The +group addressed, "Powerful, O sevenfold, one are ye", may have +been a constellation consisting of seven stars.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1337" href="#ftn.fnrex1337" id= +"fnrex1337">337</a>]</span> The worship of stars and planets, +which were identified and named, "seems never to have spread", +says Professor Sayce, "beyond the learned classes, and to have +remained to the last an artificial system. The mass of the people +worshipped the stars as a whole, but it was only as a whole and +not individually."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1338" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1338" id="fnrex1338">338</a>]</span> The masses +perpetuated ancient animistic beliefs, like the pre-Hellenic +inhabitants of Greece. "The Pelasgians, as I was informed at +Dodona," wrote Herodotus, "formerly offered all things +indiscriminately to the gods. They distinguished them by no name +or surname, for they were hitherto unacquainted with either; but +they called them gods, which by its etymology means disposers, +from observing the orderly disposition and distribution of the +various parts of the universe."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1339" href="#ftn.fnrex1339" id="fnrex1339">339</a>]</span> +The oldest deities are those which bore no individual names. They +were simply "Fates" or groups called "Sevenfold". The crude giant +gods of Scotland are "Fomhairean" (Fomorians), and do not have +individual names as in Ireland. Families and tribes were +controlled by the Fates or nameless gods, <a id="page.anchor.318" +name="page.anchor.318"></a>which might appear as beasts or birds, +or be heard knocking or screaming.</p> +<p>In the Babylonian astral hymns, the star spirits are +associated with the gods, and are revealers of the decrees of +Fate. "Ye brilliant stars... ye bright ones... to destroy evil +did Anu create you.... At thy command mankind was named +(created)! Give thou the Word, and with thee let the great gods +stand! Give thou my judgment, make my decision!"<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1340" href="#ftn.fnrex1340" id= +"fnrex1340">340</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Indian evidence shows that the constellations, and +especially the bright stars, were identified before the planets. +Indeed, in Vedic literature there is no certain reference to a +single planet, although constellations are named. It seems highly +probable that before the Babylonian gods were associated with the +astral bodies, the belief obtained that the stars exercised an +influence over human lives. In one of the Indian "Forest Books", +for instance, reference is made to a man who was "born under the +Nakshatra Rohini".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1341" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1341" id="fnrex1341">341</a>]</span> "Nakshatras" are +stars in the <span class="emphasis"><em>Rigveda</em></span> and +later, and "lunar mansions" in Brahmanical +compositions.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1342" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1342" id="fnrex1342">342</a>]</span> "Rohini, 'ruddy', +is the name of a conspicuously reddish star, ɑ Tauri or +Aldebaran, and denotes the group of the Hyades."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1343" href="#ftn.fnrex1343" id= +"fnrex1343">343</a>]</span> This reference may be dated before +600 B.C., perhaps 800 B.C.</p> +<p>From Greece comes the evidence of Plutarch regarding the +principles of Babylonian astrology. "Respecting the planets, +which they call <span class="emphasis"><em>the birth-ruling +divinities</em></span>, the Chaldeans", he wrote, "lay down that +two (Venus and Jupiter) are propitious, and two (Mars and Saturn) +malign, and three (Sun, Moon, and Mercury) of a middle nature, +and one common." "That is," Mr. Brown comments, <a id= +"page.anchor.319" name="page.anchor.319"></a>"an astrologer would +say, these three are propitious with the good, and may be malign +with the bad."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1344" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1344" id="fnrex1344">344</a>]</span></p> +<p>Jastrow's views in this connection seem highly controversial. +He holds that Babylonian astrology dealt simply with national +affairs, and had no concern with "the conditions under which the +individual was born"; it did not predict "the fate in store for +him". He believes that the Greeks transformed Babylonian +astrology and infused it with the spirit of individualism which +is a characteristic of their religion, and that they were the +first to give astrology a personal significance.</p> +<p>Jastrow also perpetuates the idea that astronomy began with +the Greeks. "Several centuries before the days of Alexander the +Great," he says, "the Greeks had begun to cultivate the study of +the heavens, not for purposes of divination, but prompted by a +scientific spirit as an intellectual discipline that might help +them to solve the mysteries of the universe." It is possible, +however, to overrate the "scientific spirit" of the Greeks, who, +like the Japanese in our own day, were accomplished borrowers +from other civilizations. That astronomy had humble beginnings in +Greece as elsewhere is highly probable. The late Mr. Andrew Lang +wrote in this connection: "The very oddest example of the +survival of the notion that the stars are men and women is found +in the <span class="emphasis"><em>Pax</em></span> of +Aristophanes. Trygaeus in that comedy has just made an expedition +to heaven. A slave meets him, and asks him: 'Is not the story +true, then, that we become stars when we die?' The answer is, +'Certainly'; and Trygaeus points out the star into which Ion of +Chios has just been metamorphosed." Mr. Lang added: "Aristophanes +is making fun of some popular Greek superstition". The Eskimos, +Persians, Aryo-Indians, <a id="page.anchor.320" name= +"page.anchor.320"></a>Germans, New Zealanders, and others had a +similar superstition.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1345" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1345" id="fnrex1345">345</a>]</span></p> +<p>Jastrow goes on to say that the Greeks "imparted their +scientific view of the Universe to the East. They became the +teachers of the East in astronomy as in medicine and other +sciences, and the credit of having discovered the law of the +precession of the equinoxes belongs to Hipparchus, the Greek +astronomer, who announced this important theory about the year +130 B.C."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1346" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1346" id="fnrex1346">346</a>]</span> Undoubtedly the +Greeks contributed to the advancement of the science of +astronomy, with which, as other authorities believe, they became +acquainted after it had become well developed as a science by the +Assyrians and Babylonians.</p> +<p>"In return for improved methods of astronomical calculation +which," Jastrow says, "<span class="emphasis"><em>it may be +assumed</em></span> (the italics are ours), contact with Greek +science gave to the Babylonian astronomers, the Greeks accepted +from the Babylonians the names of the constellations of the +ecliptic."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1347" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1347" id="fnrex1347">347</a>]</span> This is a +grudging admission; they evidently accepted more than the mere +names.</p> +<p>Jastrow's hypothesis is certainly interesting, especially as +he is an Oriental linguist of high repute. But it is not +generally accepted. The sudden advance made by the +Tigro-Euphratean astronomers when Assyria was at the height of +its glory, may have been due to the discoveries made by great +native scientists, the Newtons and the Herschels of past ages, +who had studied the data accumulated by generations of +astrologers, the earliest recorders of the movements of the +heavenly bodies. It is hard to believe that the Greeks made much +progress <a id="page.anchor.321" name="page.anchor.321"></a>as +scientists before they had identified the planets, and become +familiar with the Babylonian constellations through the medium of +the Hittites or the Phoenicians. What is known for certain is +that long centuries before the Greek science was heard of, there +were scientists in Babylonia. During the Sumerian period "the +forms and relations of geometry", says Professor Goodspeed, "were +employed for purposes of augury. The heavens were mapped out, and +the courses of the heavenly bodies traced to determine the +bearing of their movements upon human destinies."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1348" href="#ftn.fnrex1348" id= +"fnrex1348">348</a>]</span></p> +<p>Several centuries before Hipparchus was born, the Assyrian +kings had in their palaces official astronomers who were able to +foretell, with varying degrees of accuracy, when eclipses would +take place. Instructions were sent to various observatories, in +the king's name, to send in reports of forthcoming eclipses. A +translation of one of these official documents sent from the +observatory of Babylon to Nineveh, has been published by +Professor Harper. The following are extracts from it: "As for the +eclipse of the moon about which the king my lord has written to +me, a watch was kept for it in the cities of Akkad, Borsippa, and +Nippur. We observed it ourselves in the city of Akkad.... And +whereas the king my lord ordered me to observe also the eclipse +of the sun, I watched to see whether it took place or not, and +what passed before my eyes I now report to the king my lord. It +was an eclipse of the moon that took place.... It was total over +Syria, and the shadow fell on the land of the Amorites, the land +of the Hittites, and in part on the land of the Chaldees." +Professor Sayce comments: "We gather from this letter that there +were no less than three observatories in Northern Babylonia: one +at Akkad, <a id="page.anchor.322" name="page.anchor.322"></a>near +Sippara; one at Nippur, now Niffer; and one at Borsippa, within +sight of Babylon. As Borsippa possessed a university, it was +natural that one of the three observatories should be established +there."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1349" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1349" id="fnrex1349">349</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is evident that before the astronomers at Nineveh could +foretell eclipses, they had achieved considerable progress as +scientists. The data at their disposal probably covered nearly +two thousand years. Mr. Brown, junior, calculates that the signs +of the Zodiac were fixed in the year 2084 B.C.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1350" href="#ftn.fnrex1350" id= +"fnrex1350">350</a>]</span> These star groups do not now occupy +the positions in which they were observed by the early +astronomers, because the revolving earth is rocking like a top, +with the result that the pole does not always keep pointing at +the same spot in the heavens. Each year the meeting-place of the +imaginary lines of the ecliptic and equator is moving westward at +the rate of about fifty seconds. In time--ages hence--the pole +will circle round to the point it spun at when the constellations +were named by the Babylonians. It is by calculating the period +occupied by this world-curve that the date 2084 B.C. has been +arrived at.</p> +<p>As a result of the world-rocking process, the present-day +"signs of the Zodiac" do not correspond with the constellations. +In March, for instance, when the sun crosses the equator it +enters the sign of the Ram (Aries), but does not reach the +constellation till the 20th, as the comparative table shows on p. +<a href="#page.anchor.308">308</a>.</p> +<p>When "the ecliptic was marked off into the twelve regions" and +the signs of the Zodiac were designated, "the year of three +hundred sixty-five and one-fourth days was known", says +Goodspeed, "though the common year was reckoned according to +twelve months of thirty <a id="page.anchor.323" name= +"page.anchor.323"></a>days each<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1351" href="#ftn.fnrex1351" id="fnrex1351">351</a>]</span>, +and equated with the solar year by intercalating a month at the +proper times.... The month was divided into weeks of seven +days.... The clepsydra and the sundial were Babylonian inventions +for measuring time."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1352" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1352" id="fnrex1352">352</a>]</span></p> +<p>The sundial of Ahaz was probably of Babylonian design. When +the shadow went "ten degrees backward" (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>2 Kings</em></span>, xx, II) ambassadors were sent +from Babylon "to enquire of the wonder that was done in the land" +(<span class="emphasis"><em>2 Chron.</em></span> xxxii, 31). It +was believed that the king's illness was connected with the +incident. According to astronomical calculation there was a +partial eclipse of the sun which was visible at Jerusalem on 11th +January, 689 B.C, about 11.30 a.m. When the upper part of the +solar disc was obscured, the shadow on the dial was strangely +affected.</p> +<p>The Babylonian astrologers in their official documents were +more concerned regarding international omens than those which +affected individuals. They made observations not only of the +stars, but also the moon, which, as has been shown, was one of +their planets, and took note of the clouds and the wind +likewise.</p> +<p>As portions of the heavens were assigned to various countries, +so was the moon divided into four quarters for the same +purpose--the upper part for the north, Gutium, the lower for the +south, Akkad or Babylonia, the eastern part for Elam, and the +western for Amurru. The crescent was also divided in like manner; +looking southward the astrologers assigned the right horn to the +west and the left to the east. In addition, certain days and +certain months were connected with the different regions. Lunar +astrology was therefore of complicated character. When <a id= +"page.anchor.324" name="page.anchor.324"></a>the moon was dim at +the particular phase which was connected with Amurru, it was +believed that the fortunes of that region were in decline, and if +it happened to shine brightly in the Babylonian phase the time +was considered auspicious to wage war in the west. Great +importance was attached to eclipses, which were fortunately +recorded, with the result that the ancient astronomers were +ultimately enabled to forecast them.</p> +<p>The destinies of the various states in the four quarters were +similarly influenced by the planets. When Venus, for instance, +rose brightly in the field of Anu, it was a "prosperor" for Elam; +if it were dim it foretold misfortune. Much importance was also +attached to the positions occupied by the constellations when the +planets were propitious or otherwise; no king would venture forth +on an expedition under a "yoke of inauspicious stars".</p> +<p>Biblical references to the stars make mention of well-known +Babylonian constellations:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the +bands of Orion? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth (? the Zodiac) +in his season? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? +Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? canst thou set the +dominion thereof in the earth? <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Job</em></span>, xxxviii, 31-33. Which maketh +Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south. +<span class="emphasis"><em>Job</em></span>, ix, 9. Seek him that +maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow of death +into the morning, and maketh the day dark with night. +<span class="emphasis"><em>Amos</em></span>, v, 8.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The so-called science of astrology, which had origin in +ancient Babylonia and spread eastward and west, is not yet +extinct, and has its believers even in our own country at the +present day, although they are not nearly so numerous as when +Shakespeare made Malvolio read:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><a id="page.anchor.325" name="page.anchor.325"></a>In my stars +I am above thee; but be not afraid of greatness: some are born +great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust +upon 'em. Thy Fates open their hands....<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1353" href="#ftn.fnrex1353" id= +"fnrex1353">353</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>or when Byron wrote:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Ye stars! which are the poetry of +heaven!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>If in your bright leaves we would read +the fate</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of men and empires--'t is to be +forgiven</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That in our aspirations to be +great,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Our destinies o'erleap their mortal +state</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And claim a kindred with +you....<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1354" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1354" id="fnrex1354">354</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Our grave astronomers are no longer astrologers, but they +still call certain constellations by the names given them in +Babylonia. Every time we look at our watches we are reminded of +the ancient mathematicians who counted on their fingers and +multiplied 10 by 6, to give us minutes and seconds, and divided +the day and the night into twelve hours by multiplying six by the +two leaden feet of Time. The past lives in the present.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1302" href="#fnrex1302" id= +"ftn.fnrex1302">302</a>]</span> "It may be worth while to note +again", says Beddoe, "how often finely developed skulls are +discovered in the graveyards of old monasteries, and how likely +seems Galton's conjecture, that progress was arrested in the +Middle Ages, because the celibacy of the clergy brought about the +extinction of the best strains of blood." <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Anthropological History of Europe</em></span>, +p. 161 (1912).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1303" href="#fnrex1303" id= +"ftn.fnrex1303">303</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Census +of India</em></span>, vol. I, part i, pp. 352 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1304" href="#fnrex1304" id= +"ftn.fnrex1304">304</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Hibbert Lectures</em></span>, Professor Sayce, p. +328.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1305" href="#fnrex1305" id= +"ftn.fnrex1305">305</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Story of Nala</em></span>, Monier Williams, pp. 68-9 and +77.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1306" href="#fnrex1306" id= +"ftn.fnrex1306">306</a>]</span> "In Ymer's flesh (the earth) the +dwarfs were engendered and began to move and live.... The dwarfs +had been bred in the mould of the earth, just as worms are in a +dead body." <span class="emphasis"><em>The Prose +Edda</em></span>. "The gods ... took counsel whom they should +make the lord of dwarfs out of Ymer's blood (the sea) and his +swarthy limbs (the earth)." <span class="emphasis"><em>The Elder +Edda (Voluspa</em></span>, stanza 9).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1307" href="#fnrex1307" id= +"ftn.fnrex1307">307</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Story of Nala</em></span>, Monier Williams, p. 67.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1308" href="#fnrex1308" id= +"ftn.fnrex1308">308</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 168 +<span class="emphasis"><em>it seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1309" href="#fnrex1309" id= +"ftn.fnrex1309">309</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, Dennis, p. 24.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1310" href="#fnrex1310" id= +"ftn.fnrex1310">310</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian Magic and Sorcery</em></span>, p. +117.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1311" href="#fnrex1311" id= +"ftn.fnrex1311">311</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Religion</em></span>, T.G. +Pinches, p. l00.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1312" href="#fnrex1312" id= +"ftn.fnrex1312">312</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Burden of Isis</em></span>, J.T. Dennis, p. 49.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1313" href="#fnrex1313" id= +"ftn.fnrex1313">313</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., p. 52.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1314" href="#fnrex1314" id= +"ftn.fnrex1314">314</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, A. +Wiedemann, p. 30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1315" href="#fnrex1315" id= +"ftn.fnrex1315">315</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic +Index</em></span>, Macdonell & Keith, vol. i, pp. 423 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1316" href="#fnrex1316" id= +"ftn.fnrex1316">316</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Babylonians</em></span>, +Sayce, p. 153, n. 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1317" href="#fnrex1317" id= +"ftn.fnrex1317">317</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, A. +Wiedemann, p. 30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1318" href="#fnrex1318" id= +"ftn.fnrex1318">318</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 95.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1319" href="#fnrex1319" id= +"ftn.fnrex1319">319</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Religion</em></span>, pp. +63 and 83.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1320" href="#fnrex1320" id= +"ftn.fnrex1320">320</a>]</span> When the King of Assyria +transported the Babylonians, &c., to Samaria "the men of Cuth +made Nergal", <span class="emphasis"><em>2 Kings</em></span>, +xvii, 30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1321" href="#fnrex1321" id= +"ftn.fnrex1321">321</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Religion</em></span>, p. +80.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1322" href="#fnrex1322" id= +"ftn.fnrex1322">322</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1323" href="#fnrex1323" id= +"ftn.fnrex1323">323</a>]</span> Derived from the Greek zōon, +an animal.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1324" href="#fnrex1324" id= +"ftn.fnrex1324">324</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Hittites</em></span>, pp. 116, 119, 120, 272.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1325" href="#fnrex1325" id= +"ftn.fnrex1325">325</a>]</span> "The sun... is as a bridegroom +coming out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a strong man to run a +race." (<span class="emphasis"><em>Psalm</em></span> xix, 4 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.) The marriage of +the sun bridegroom with the moon bride appears to occur in +Hittite mythology. In Aryo-Indian Vedic mythology the bride of +the sun (Surya) is Ushas, the Dawn. The sun maiden also married +the moon god. The Vedic gods ran a race and Indra and Agni were +the winners. The sun was "of the nature of Agni". <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 14, 36, +37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1326" href="#fnrex1326" id= +"ftn.fnrex1326">326</a>]</span> Or golden.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1327" href="#fnrex1327" id= +"ftn.fnrex1327">327</a>]</span> The later reference is to +Assyria. There was no Assyrian kingdom when these early beliefs +were developed.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1328" href="#fnrex1328" id= +"ftn.fnrex1328">328</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, R. Brown, +jun., vol. ii, p. 1 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1329" href="#fnrex1329" id= +"ftn.fnrex1329">329</a>]</span> In India "finger counting" (Kaur +guna) is associated with prayer or the repeating of mantras. The +counting is performed by the thumb, which, when the hand is drawn +up, touches the upper part of the third finger. The two upper +"chambers" of the third finger are counted, then the two upper +"chambers" of the little finger; the thumb then touches the tip +of each finger from the little finger to the first; when it comes +down into the upper chamber of the first finger 9 is counted. By +a similar process each round of 9 on the right hand is recorded +by the left up to 12; 12 X 9 = 108 repetitions of a mantra. The +upper "chambers" of the fingers are the "best" or "highest" +(uttama), the lower (adhama) chambers are not utilized in the +prayer-counting process. When Hindus sit cross-legged at prayers, +with closed eyes, the right hand is raised from the elbow in +front of the body, and the thumb moves each time a mantra is +repeated; the left hand lies palm upward on the left knee, and +the thumb moves each time nine mantras have been counted.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1330" href="#fnrex1330" id= +"ftn.fnrex1330">330</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, R. Brown, +jun., vol. ii, p. 61; and <span class="emphasis"><em>Early +History of Northern India,</em></span> J.F. Hewitt, pp. +551-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1331" href="#fnrex1331" id= +"ftn.fnrex1331">331</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Rigveda-Samhita,</em></span> vol. iv (1892), p. +67.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1332" href="#fnrex1332" id= +"ftn.fnrex1332">332</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic +Index</em></span>, Macdonell & Keith, vol. ii, pp. 192 +<span class="emphasis"><em>el seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1333" href="#fnrex1333" id= +"ftn.fnrex1333">333</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1334" href="#fnrex1334" id= +"ftn.fnrex1334">334</a>]</span> Pp. 107 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1335" href="#fnrex1335" id= +"ftn.fnrex1335">335</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellation</em></span>, R. Brown, +jun., vol. i, 1. 333. A table is given showing how 120 saroi +equals 360 degrees, each king being identified with a star.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1336" href="#fnrex1336" id= +"ftn.fnrex1336">336</a>]</span> "Behold, his majesty the god Ra +is grown old; his bones are become silver, his limbs gold, and +his hair pure lapis lazuli." <span class="emphasis"><em>Religion +of the Ancient Egyptians,</em></span> A. Wiedemann, p. 58. Ra +became a destroyer after completing his reign as an earthly +king.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1337" href="#fnrex1337" id= +"ftn.fnrex1337">337</a>]</span> As Nin-Girau, Tammuz was +associated with "sevenfold" Orion.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1338" href="#fnrex1338" id= +"ftn.fnrex1338">338</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Life</em></span>, pp. 61, +62.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1339" href="#fnrex1339" id= +"ftn.fnrex1339">339</a>]</span> Herodotus (ii, 52) as quoted in +<span class="emphasis"><em>Egypt and Scythia</em></span> (London, +1886), p. 49.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1340" href="#fnrex1340" id= +"ftn.fnrex1340">340</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian Magic and Sorcery</em></span>, L.W. +King (London, 1896), pp. 43 and 115.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1341" href="#fnrex1341" id= +"ftn.fnrex1341">341</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic +Index</em></span>, Macdonell & Keith, vol. ii, p. 229.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1342" href="#fnrex1342" id= +"ftn.fnrex1342">342</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span> vol. i, pp. 409, 410.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1343" href="#fnrex1343" id= +"ftn.fnrex1343">343</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span> vol. i, p. 415.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1344" href="#fnrex1344" id= +"ftn.fnrex1344">344</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, vol. i, p. +343.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1345" href="#fnrex1345" id= +"ftn.fnrex1345">345</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Custom +and Myth</em></span>, pp. 133 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1346" href="#fnrex1346" id= +"ftn.fnrex1346">346</a>]</span> Dr. Alfred Jeremias gives very +forcible reasons for believing that the ancient Babylonians were +acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Das Alter der Babylonischen Astronomie</em></span> +(Hinrichs, Leipzig, 1908), pp. 47 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1347" href="#fnrex1347" id= +"ftn.fnrex1347">347</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, pp. 207 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1348" href="#fnrex1348" id= +"ftn.fnrex1348">348</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of the Babylonians and Assyrians</em></span>, p. +93.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1349" href="#fnrex1349" id= +"ftn.fnrex1349">349</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and +Customs</em></span>, pp. 219, 220.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1350" href="#fnrex1350" id= +"ftn.fnrex1350">350</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, vol. ii, pp. +147 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1351" href="#fnrex1351" id= +"ftn.fnrex1351">351</a>]</span> The Aryo-Indians had a lunar year +of 360 days (<span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic Index</em></span>, +ii, 158).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1352" href="#fnrex1352" id= +"ftn.fnrex1352">352</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of the Babylonians and Assyrians</em></span>, p. +94.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1353" href="#fnrex1353" id= +"ftn.fnrex1353">353</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Twelfth Night</em></span>, act ii, scene 5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1354" href="#fnrex1354" id= +"ftn.fnrex1354">354</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Childe +Harold</em></span>, canto iii, v, 88.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2538332" name= +"id2538332"></a>Chapter XIV. Ashur the National God of +Assyria</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Derivation of Ashur--Ashur as Anshar and Anu--Animal forms of +Sky God--Anshar as Star God on the Celestial Mount--Isaiah's +Parable--Symbols of World God and World Hill--Dance of the +Constellations and Dance of Satyrs--Goat Gods and Bull +Gods--Symbols of Gods as "High Heads"--The Winged Disc--Human +Figure as Soul of the Sun--Ashur as Hercules and Gilgamesh--Gods +differentiated by Cults--Fertility Gods as War Gods--Ashur's Tree +and Animal forms--Ashur as Nisroch--Lightning Symbol in +Disc--Ezekiel's Reference to Life Wheel--Indian Wheel and +Discus--Wheels of Shamash and Ahura-Mazda--Hittite Winged +Disc--Solar Wheel causes Seasonal Changes--Bonfires to stimulate +Solar Deity--Burning of Gods and Kings--Magical Ring and other +Symbols of Scotland--Ashur's Wheel of Life and Eagle Wings--King +and Ashur--Ashur associated with Lunar, Fire, and Star Gods--The +Osirian Clue--Hittite and Persian Influences.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.326" name="page.anchor.326"></a> The rise +of Assyria brings into prominence the national god Ashur, who had +been the city god of Asshur, the ancient capital. When first met +with, he is found to be a complex and mystical deity, and the +problem of his origin is consequently rendered exceedingly +difficult. Philologists are not agreed as to the derivation of +his name, and present as varied views as they do when dealing +with the name of Osiris. Some give Ashur a geographical +significance, urging that its original form was Aushar, "water +field"; others prefer the renderings "Holy", "the Beneficent +One", or "the Merciful One"; while not a few regard Ashur as +simply a dialectic form of the name of Anshar, the god who, in +the Assyrian version, or copy, of the Babylonian Creation myth, +is chief of the "host of heaven", and the father of Anu, Ea, and +Enlil.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.327" name="page.anchor.327"></a>If Ashur is +to be regarded as an abstract solar deity, who was developed from +a descriptive place name, it follows that he had a history, like +Anu or Ea, rooted in Naturalism or Animism. We cannot assume that +his strictly local character was produced by modes of thought +which did not obtain elsewhere. The colonists who settled at +Asshur no doubt imported beliefs from some cultural area; they +must have either given recognition to a god, or group of gods, or +regarded the trees, hills, rivers, sun, moon, and stars, and the +animals as manifestations of the "self power" of the Universe, +before they undertook the work of draining and cultivating the +"water field" and erecting permanent homes. Those who settled at +Nineveh, for instance, believed that they were protected by the +goddess Nina, the patron deity of the Sumerian city of Nina. As +this goddess was also worshipped at Lagash, and was one of the +many forms of the Great Mother, it would appear that in ancient +times deities had a tribal rather than a geographical +significance.</p> +<p>If the view is accepted that Ashur is Anshar, it can be urged +that he was imported from Sumeria. "Out of that land (Shinar)", +according to the Biblical reference, "went forth Asshur, and +builded Nineveh."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1355" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1355" id="fnrex1355">355</a>]</span> Asshur, or Ashur +(identical, Delitzsch and Jastrow believe, with +Ashir),<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1356" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1356" id="fnrex1356">356</a>]</span> may have been an +eponymous hero--a deified king like Etana, or Gilgamesh, who was +regarded as an incarnation of an ancient god. As Anshar was an +astral or early form of Anu, the Sumerian city of origin may have +been Erech, <a id="page.anchor.328" name= +"page.anchor.328"></a>where the worship of the mother goddess was +also given prominence.</p> +<p>Damascius rendered Anshar's name as "Assōros", a fact +usually cited to establish Ashur's connection with that deity. +This writer stated that the Babylonians passed over +"Sige,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1357" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1357" id="fnrex1357">357</a>]</span> the mother, that +has begotten heaven and earth", and made two--Apason (Apsu), the +husband, and Tauthe (Tiawath or Tiamat), whose son was Moymis +(Mummu). From these another progeny came forth--Lache and Lachos +(Lachmu and Lachamu). These were followed by the progeny Kissare +and Assōros (Kishar and Anshar), "from which were produced +Anos (Anu), Illillos (Enlil) and Aos (Ea). And of Aos and Dauke +(Dawkina or Damkina) was born Belos (Bel Merodach), whom they say +is the Demiurge"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1358" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1358" id="fnrex1358">358</a>]</span> (the world +artisan who carried out the decrees of a higher being).</p> +<p>Lachmu and Lachamu, like the second pair of the ancient group +of Egyptian deities, probably symbolized darkness as a +reproducing and sustaining power. Anshar was apparently an +impersonation of the night sky, as his son Anu was of the day +sky. It may have been believed that the soul of Anshar was in the +moon as Nannar (Sin), or in a star, or that the moon and the +stars were manifestations of him, and that the soul of Anu was in +the sun or the firmament, or that the sun, firmament, and the +wind were forms of this "self power".</p> +<p>If Ashur combined the attributes of Anshar and Anu, his early +mystical character may be accounted for. Like the Indian Brahma, +he may have been in his highest form an impersonation, or symbol, +of the "self power" or "world soul" of developed Naturalism--the +"creator", "preserver", and "destroyer" in one, a god of water, +earth, <a id="page.anchor.329" name="page.anchor.329"></a>air, +and sky, of sun, moon, and stars, fire and lightning, a god of +the grove, whose essence was in the fig, or the fir cone, as it +was in all animals. The Egyptian god Amon of Thebes, who was +associated with water, earth, air, sky, sun and moon, had a ram +form, and was "the hidden one", was developed from one of the +elder eight gods; in the Pyramid Texts he and his consort are the +fourth pair. When Amon was fused with the specialized sun god Ra, +he was placed at the head of the Ennead as the Creator. "We have +traces", says Jastrow, "of an Assyrian myth of Creation in which +the sphere of creator is given to Ashur."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1359" href="#ftn.fnrex1359" id= +"fnrex1359">359</a>]</span></p> +<p>Before a single act of creation was conceived of, however, the +early peoples recognized the eternity of matter, which was +permeated by the "self power" of which the elder deities were +vague phases. These were too vague, indeed, to be worshipped +individually. The forms of the "self power" which were +propitiated were trees, rivers, hills, or animals. As indicated +in the previous chapter, a tribe worshipped an animal or natural +object which dominated its environment. The animal might be the +source of the food supply, or might have to be propitiated to +ensure the food supply. Consequently they identified the self +power of the Universe with the particular animal with which they +were most concerned. One section identified the spirit of the +heavens with the bull and another with the goat. In India Dyaus +was a bull, and his spouse, the earth mother, Prithivi, was a +cow. The Egyptian sky goddess Hathor was a cow, and other +goddesses were identified with the hippopotamus, the serpent, the +cat, or the vulture. Ra, the sun god, was identified in turn with +the cat, the ass, the bull, the ram, and the crocodile, the +various animal forms of the local deities he had absorbed. The +eagle in <a id="page.anchor.330" name= +"page.anchor.330"></a>Babylonia and India, and the vulture, +falcon, and mysterious Phoenix in Egypt, were identified with the +sun, fire, wind, and lightning. The animals associated with the +god Ashur were the bull, the eagle, and the lion. He either +absorbed the attributes of other gods, or symbolized the "Self +Power" of which the animals were manifestations.</p> +<p>The earliest germ of the Creation myth was the idea that night +was the parent of day, and water of the earth. Out of darkness +and death came light and life. Life was also motion. When the +primordial waters became troubled, life began to be. Out of the +confusion came order and organization. This process involved the +idea of a stable and controlling power, and the succession of a +group of deities--passive deities and active deities. When the +Babylonian astrologers assisted in developing the Creation myth, +they appear to have identified with the stable and controlling +spirit of the night heaven that steadfast orb the Polar Star. +Anshar, like Shakespeare's Caesar, seemed to say:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>I am constant as the northern star, Of whose true-fixed and +resting quality There is no fellow in the firmament. The skies +are painted with unnumbered sparks; They are all fire, and every +one doth shine; But there's but one in all doth hold his +place.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1360" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1360" id="fnrex1360">360</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Associated with the Polar Star was the constellation Ursa +Minor, "the Little Bear", called by the Babylonian astronomers, +"the Lesser Chariot". There were chariots before horses were +introduced. A patesi of Lagash had a chariot which was drawn by +asses.</p> +<p>The seemingly steadfast Polar Star was called "Ilu Sar", "the +god Shar", or Anshar, "star of the height", <a id= +"page.anchor.331" name="page.anchor.331"></a>or "Shar the most +high". It seemed to be situated at the summit of the vault of +heaven. The god Shar, therefore, stood upon the Celestial +mountain, the Babylonian Olympus. He was the ghost of the elder +god, who in Babylonia was displaced by the younger god, Merodach, +as Mercury, the morning star, or as the sun, the planet of day; +and in Assyria by Ashur, as the sun, or Regulus, or Arcturus, or +Orion. Yet father and son were identical. They were phases of the +One, the "self power".</p> +<p>A deified reigning king was an incarnation of the god; after +death he merged in the god, as did the Egyptian Unas. The +eponymous hero Asshur may have similarly merged in the universal +Ashur, who, like Horus, an incarnation of Osiris, had many phases +or forms.</p> +<p>Isaiah appears to have been familiar with the Tigro-Euphratean +myths about the divinity of kings and the displacement of the +elder god by the younger god, of whom the ruling monarch was an +incarnation, and with the idea that the summit of the Celestial +mountain was crowned by the "north star", the symbol of Anshar. +"Thou shalt take up this parable", he exclaimed, making use of +Babylonian symbolism, "against the king of Babylon and say, How +hath the oppressor ceased! the golden city ceased!... How art +thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art +thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations! For +thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend unto heaven, I will +exalt my throne above the stars of God; I will sit also upon the +mount of the congregation, <span class="emphasis"><em>in the +sides of the north</em></span>; I will ascend above the heights +of the clouds; I will be like the most High."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1361" href="#ftn.fnrex1361" id= +"fnrex1361">361</a>]</span> The king is identified with Lucifer +as the deity of fire and the morning star; he is the younger god +who aspired to occupy the <a id="page.anchor.332" name= +"page.anchor.332"></a>mountain throne of his father, the god +Shar--the Polar or North Star.</p> +<p>It is possible that the Babylonian idea of a Celestial +mountain gave origin to the belief that the earth was a mountain +surrounded by the outer ocean, beheld by Etana when he flew +towards heaven on the eagle's back. In India this hill is Mount +Meru, the "world spine", which "sustains the earth"; it is +surmounted by Indra's Valhal, or "the great city of Brahma". In +Teutonic mythology the heavens revolve round the Polar Star, +which is called "Veraldar nagli",<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1362" href="#ftn.fnrex1362" id="fnrex1362">362</a>]</span> +the "world spike"; while the earth is sustained by the "world +tree". The "ded" amulet of Egypt symbolized the backbone of +Osiris as a world god: "ded" means "firm", +"established";<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1363" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1363" id="fnrex1363">363</a>]</span> while at burial +ceremonies the coffin was set up on end, inside the tomb, "on a +small sandhill intended to represent the Mountain of the +West--the realm of the dead".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1364" href="#ftn.fnrex1364" id="fnrex1364">364</a>]</span> +The Babylonian temple towers were apparently symbols of the +"world hill". At Babylon, the Du-azaga, "holy mound", was +Merodach's temple E-sagila, "the Temple of the High Head". E-kur, +rendered "the house or temple of the Mountain", was the temple of +Bel Enlil at Nippur. At Erech, the temple of the goddess Ishtar +was E-anna, which connects her, as Nina or Ninni, with Anu, +derived from "ana", "heaven". Ishtar was "Queen of heaven".</p> +<p>Now Polaris, situated at the summit of the celestial mountain, +was identified with the sacred goat, "the highest of the flock of +night".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1365" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1365" id="fnrex1365">365</a>]</span> Ursa Minor (the +"Little Bear" constellation) may have been "the goat with six +heads", <a id="page.anchor.333" name= +"page.anchor.333"></a>referred to by Professor Sayce.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1366" href="#ftn.fnrex1366" id= +"fnrex1366">366</a>]</span> The six astral goats or goat-men were +supposed to be dancing round the chief goat-man or Satyr +(Anshar). Even in the dialogues of Plato the immemorial belief +was perpetuated that the constellations were "moving as in a +dance". Dancing began as a magical or religious practice, and the +earliest astronomers saw their dancing customs reflected in the +heavens by the constellations, whose movements were rhythmical. +No doubt, Isaiah had in mind the belief of the Babylonians +regarding the dance of their goat-gods when he foretold: "Their +houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls (ghosts) +shall dwell there, and <span class="emphasis"><em>satyrs shall +dance there</em></span>".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1367" +href="#ftn.fnrex1367" id="fnrex1367">367</a>]</span> In other +words, there would be no people left to perform religious dances +beside the "desolate houses"; the stars only would be seen +dancing round Polaris.</p> +<p>Tammuz, like Anshar, as sentinel of the night heaven, was a +goat, as was also Nin-Girsu of Lagash. A Sumerian reference to "a +white kid of En Mersi (Nin-Girsu)" was translated into Semitic, +"a white kid of Tammuz". The goat was also associated with +Merodach. Babylonians, having prayed to that god to take away +their diseases or their sins, released a goat, which was driven +into the desert. The present Polar Star, which was not, of +course, the Polar star of the earliest astronomers, the world +having rocked westward, is called in Arabic Al-Jedy, "the kid". +In India, the goat was connected with Agni and Varuna; it was +slain at funeral ceremonies to inform the gods that a soul was +about to enter heaven. Ea, the Sumerian lord of water, earth, and +heaven, was symbolized as a "goat fish". Thor, the <a id= +"page.anchor.334" name="page.anchor.334"></a>Teutonic fertility +and thunder god, had a chariot drawn by goats. It is of interest +to note that the sacred Sumerian goat bore on its forehead the +same triangular symbol as the Apis bull of Egypt.</p> +<p>Ashur was not a "goat of heaven", but a "bull of heaven", like +the Sumerian Nannar (Sin), the moon god of Ur, Ninip of Saturn, +and Bel Enlil. As the bull, however, he was, like Anshar, the +ruling animal of the heavens; and like Anshar he had associated +with him "six divinities of council".</p> +<p>Other deities who were similarly exalted as "high heads" at +various centres and at various periods, included Anu, Bel Enlil, +and Ea, Merodach, Nergal, and Shamash. A symbol of the first +three was a turban on a seat, or altar, which may have +represented the "world mountain". Ea, as "the world spine", was +symbolized as a column, with ram's head, standing on a throne, +beside which crouched a "goat fish". Merodach's column terminated +in a lance head, and the head of a lion crowned that of Nergal. +These columns were probably connected with pillar worship, and +therefore with tree worship, the pillar being the trunk of the +"world tree". The symbol of the sun god Shamash was a disc, from +which flowed streams of water; his rays apparently were +"fertilizing tears", like the rays of the Egyptian sun god Ra. +Horus, the Egyptian falcon god, was symbolized as the winged +solar disc.</p> +<p>It is necessary to accumulate these details regarding other +deities and their symbols before dealing with Ashur. The symbols +of Ashur must be studied, because they are one of the sources of +our knowledge regarding the god's origin and character. These +include (1) a winged disc with horns, enclosing four circles +revolving round a middle circle; rippling rays fall down from +either <a id="page.anchor.335" name="page.anchor.335"></a>side of +the disc; (2) a circle or wheel, suspended from wings, and +enclosing a warrior drawing his bow to discharge an arrow; and +(3) the same circle; the warrior's bow, however, is carried in +his left hand, while the right hand is uplifted as if to bless +his worshippers. These symbols are taken from seal cylinders.</p> +<p>An Assyrian standard, which probably represented the "world +column", has the disc mounted on a bull's head with horns. The +upper part of the disc is occupied by a warrior, whose head, part +of his bow, and the point of his arrow protrude from the circle. +The rippling water rays are <b class="b">V</b>-shaped, and two +bulls, treading river-like rays, occupy the divisions thus +formed. There are also two heads--a lion's and a man's--with +gaping mouths, which may symbolize tempests, the destroying power +of the sun, or the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates.</p> +<p>Jastrow regards the winged disc as "the purer and more genuine +symbol of Ashur as a solar deity". He calls it "a sun disc with +protruding rays", and says: "To this symbol the warrior with the +bow and arrow was added--a despiritualization that reflects the +martial spirit of the Assyrian empire".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1368" href="#ftn.fnrex1368" id= +"fnrex1368">368</a>]</span></p> +<p>The sun symbol on the sun boat of Ra encloses similarly a +human figure, which was apparently regarded as the soul of the +sun: the life of the god was in the "sun egg". In an Indian prose +treatise it is set forth: "Now that man in yonder orb (the sun) +and that man in the right eye truly are no other than Death (the +soul). His feet have stuck fast in the heart, and having pulled +them out he comes forth; and when he comes forth then that man +dies; whence they say of him who has passed <a id= +"page.anchor.336" name="page.anchor.336"></a>away, 'he has been +cut off (his life or life string has been severed)'."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1369" href="#ftn.fnrex1369" id= +"fnrex1369">369</a>]</span> The human figure did not indicate a +process of "despiritualization" either in Egypt or in India. The +Horus "winged disc" was besides a symbol of destruction and +battle, as well as of light and fertility. Horus assumed that +form in one legend to destroy Set and his followers.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1370" href="#ftn.fnrex1370" id= +"fnrex1370">370</a>]</span> But, of course, the same symbols may +not have conveyed the same ideas to all peoples. As Blake put +it:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>What to others a trifle appears Fills me full of smiles and +tears.... With my inward Eye, 't is an old Man grey, With my +outward, a Thistle across my way.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Indeed, it is possible that the winged disc meant one thing to +an Assyrian priest, and another thing to a man not gifted with +what Blake called "double vision".</p> +<p>What seems certain, however, is that the archer was as truly +solar as the "wings" or "rays". In Babylonia and Assyria the sun +was, among other things, a destroyer from the earliest times. It +is not surprising, therefore, to find that Ashur, like Merodach, +resembled, in one of his phases, Hercules, or rather his +prototype Gilgamesh. One of Gilgamesh's mythical feats was the +slaying of three demon birds. These may be identical with the +birds of prey which Hercules, in performing his sixth labour, +hunted out of Stymphalus.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1371" +href="#ftn.fnrex1371" id="fnrex1371">371</a>]</span> In the Greek +Hipparcho-Ptolemy star list Hercules was the constellation of the +"Kneeler", and in Babylonian-Assyrian astronomy he was (as +Gilgamesh or Merodach) "Sarru", "the king". The astral "Arrow" +(constellation of Sagitta) <a id="page.anchor.337" name= +"page.anchor.337"></a>was pointed against the constellations of +the "Eagle", "Vulture", and "Swan". In Phoenician astronomy the +Vulture was "Zither" (Lyra), a weapon with which Hercules +(identified with Melkarth) slew Linos, the musician. Hercules +used a solar arrow, which he received from Apollo. In various +mythologies the arrow is associated with the sun, the moon, and +the atmospheric deities, and is a symbol of lightning, rain, and +fertility, as well as of famine, disease, war, and death. The +green-faced goddess Neith of Libya, compared by the Greeks to +Minerva, carries in one hand two arrows and a bow.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1372" href="#ftn.fnrex1372" id= +"fnrex1372">372</a>]</span> If we knew as little of Athena +(Minerva), who was armed with a lance, a breastplate made of the +skin of a goat, a shield, and helmet, as we do of Ashur, it might +be held that she was simply a goddess of war. The archer in the +sun disc of the Assyrian standard probably represented Ashur as +the god of the people--a deity closely akin to Merodach, with +pronounced Tammuz traits, and therefore linking with other local +deities like Ninip, Nergal, and Shamash, and partaking also like +these of the attributes of the elder gods Anu, Bel Enlil, and +Ea.</p> +<p>All the other deities worshipped by the Assyrians were of +Babylonian origin. Ashur appears to have differed from them just +as one local Babylonian deity differed from another. He reflected +Assyrian experiences and aspirations, but it is difficult to +decide whether the sublime spiritual aspect of his character was +due to the beliefs of alien peoples, by whom the early Assyrians +were influenced, or to the teachings of advanced Babylonian +thinkers, whose doctrines found readier acceptance in a "new +country" than among the conservative ritualists <a id= +"page.anchor.338" name="page.anchor.338"></a>of ancient Sumerian +and Akkadian cities. New cults were formed from time to time in +Babylonia, and when they achieved political power they gave a +distinctive character to the religion of their city states. +Others which did not find political support and remained in +obscurity at home, may have yet extended their influence far and +wide. Buddhism, for instance, originated in India, but now +flourishes in other countries, to which it was introduced by +missionaries. In the homeland it was submerged by the revival of +Brahmanism, from which it sprung, and which it was intended +permanently to displace. An instance of an advanced cult suddenly +achieving prominence as a result of political influence is +afforded by Egypt, where the fully developed Aton religion was +embraced and established as a national religion by Akhenaton, the +so-called "dreamer". That migrations were sometimes propelled by +cults, which sought new areas in which to exercise religious +freedom and propagate their beliefs, is suggested by the invasion +of India at the close of the Vedic period by the "later comers", +who laid the foundations of Brahmanism. They established +themselves in Madhyadesa, "the Middle Country", "the land where +the Brahmanas and the later Samhitas were produced". From this +centre went forth missionaries, who accomplished the +Brahmanization of the rest of India.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1373" href="#ftn.fnrex1373" id= +"fnrex1373">373</a>]</span></p> +<p>It may be, therefore, that the cult of Ashur was influenced in +its development by the doctrines of advanced teachers from +Babylonia, and that Persian Mithraism was also the product of +missionary efforts extended from that great and ancient cultural +area. Mitra, as has been stated, was one of the names of the +Babylonian sun god, who was also a god of fertility. But Ashur +could not have been to <a id="page.anchor.339" name= +"page.anchor.339"></a>begin with merely a battle and solar deity. +As the god of a city state he must have been worshipped by +agriculturists, artisans, and traders; he must have been +recognized as a deity of fertility, culture, commerce, and law. +Even as a national god he must have made wider appeal than to the +cultured and ruling classes. Bel Enlil of Nippur was a "world +god" and war god, but still remained a local corn god.</p> +<p>Assyria's greatness was reflected by Ashur, but he also +reflected the origin and growth of that greatness. The +civilization of which he was a product had an agricultural basis. +It began with the development of the natural resources of +Assyria, as was recognized by the Hebrew prophet, who said: +"Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair +branches.... The waters made him great, the deep set him up on +high with her rivers running round about his plants, and sent out +her little rivers unto all the trees of the field. Therefore his +height was exalted above all the trees of the field, and his +boughs were multiplied, and his branches became long because of +the multitude of waters when he shot forth. All the fowls of +heaven made their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did +all the beasts of the field bring forth their young, and under +his shadow dwelt all great nations. Thus was he fair in his +greatness, in the length of his branches; for his root was by +great waters. The cedars in the garden of God could not hide him: +the fir trees were not like his boughs, and the chestnut trees +were not like his branches; nor any tree in the garden of God was +like unto him in his beauty."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1374" href="#ftn.fnrex1374" id= +"fnrex1374">374</a>]</span></p> +<p>Asshur, the ancient capital, was famous for its merchants. It +is referred to in the Bible as one of the cities which traded +with Tyre "in all sorts of things, in blue <a id= +"page.anchor.340" name="page.anchor.340"></a>clothes, and +broidered work, and in chests of rich apparel, bound with cords, +and made of cedar".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1375" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1375" id="fnrex1375">375</a>]</span></p> +<p>As a military power, Assyria's name was dreaded. "Behold," +Isaiah said, addressing King Hezekiah, "thou hast heard what the +kings of Assyria have done to all lands by destroying them +utterly."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1376" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1376" id="fnrex1376">376</a>]</span> The same prophet, +when foretelling how Israel would suffer, exclaimed: "O Assyrian, +the rod of mine anger, and the staff in their hand is mine +indignation. I will send him against an hypocritical nation, and +against the people of my wrath will I give him a charge, to take +the spoil, and to take the prey, and to tread them down like the +mire of the streets."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1377" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1377" id="fnrex1377">377</a>]</span></p> +<p>We expect to find Ashur reflected in these three phases of +Assyrian civilization. If we recognize him in the first place as +a god of fertility, his other attributes are at once included. A +god of fertility is a corn god and a water god. The river as a +river was a "creator" (p. <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>), and +Ashur was therefore closely associated with the "watery place", +with the canals or "rivers running round about his plants". The +rippling water-rays, or fertilizing tears, appear on the solar +discs. As a corn god, he was a god of war. Tammuz's first act was +to slay the demons of winter and storm, as Indra's in India was +to slay the demons of drought, and Thor's in Scandinavia was to +exterminate the frost giants. The corn god had to be fed with +human sacrifices, and the people therefore waged war against +foreigners to obtain victims. As the god made a contract with his +people, he was a deity of commerce; he provided them with food +and they in turn fed him with offerings.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2539353" name="id2539353"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIV.1. WINGED DEITIES KNEELING BESIDE +A SACRED TREE</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Marble Slab from N.W. Palace of +Nimroud; now in British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/29.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2539371" name="id2539371"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIV.2. EAGLE-HEADED WINGED DEITY +(ASHUR)</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Marble Slab, British +Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/30.jpg" /></div> +<p>In Ezekiel's comparison of Assyria to a mighty tree, there is +no doubt a mythological reference. The Hebrew <a id= +"page.anchor.341" name="page.anchor.341"></a>prophets invariably +utilized for their poetic imagery the characteristic beliefs of +the peoples to whom they made direct reference. The "owls", +"satyrs", and "dragons" of Babylon, mentioned by Isaiah, were +taken from Babylonian mythology, as has been indicated. When, +therefore, Assyria is compared to a cedar, which is greater than +fir or chestnut, and it is stated that there are nesting birds in +the branches, and under them reproducing beasts of the field, and +that the greatness of the tree is due to "the multitude of +waters", the conclusion is suggested that Assyrian religion, +which Ashur's symbols reflect, included the worship of trees, +birds, beasts, and water. The symbol of the Assyrian +tree--probably the "world tree" of its religion--appears to be +"the rod of mine anger ... the staff in their hand"; that is, the +battle standard which was a symbol of Ashur. Tammuz and Osiris +were tree gods as well as corn gods.</p> +<p>Now, as Ashur was evidently a complex deity, it is futile to +attempt to read his symbols without giving consideration to the +remnants of Assyrian mythology which are found in the ruins of +the ancient cities. These either reflect the attributes of Ashur, +or constitute the material from which he evolved.</p> +<p>As Layard pointed out many years ago, the Assyrians had a +sacred tree which became conventionalized. It was "an elegant +device, in which curved branches, springing from a kind of scroll +work, terminated in flowers of graceful form. As one of the +figures last described<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1378" +href="#ftn.fnrex1378" id="fnrex1378">378</a>]</span> was turned, +as if in act of adoration, towards this device, it was evidently +a sacred emblem; and I recognized in it the holy tree, or tree of +life, so universally adored at the remotest period in the East, +and which was preserved in the religious systems of the Persians +to the final overthrow <a id="page.anchor.342" name= +"page.anchor.342"></a>of their Empire.... The flowers were formed +by seven petals."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1379" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1379" id="fnrex1379">379</a>]</span></p> +<p>This tree looks like a pillar, and is thrice crossed by +conventionalized bull's horns tipped with ring symbols which may +be stars, the highest pair of horns having a larger ring between +them, but only partly shown as if it were a crescent. The tree +with its many "sevenfold" designs may have been a symbol of the +"Sevenfold-one-are-ye" deity. This is evidently the Assyrian tree +which was called "the rod" or "staff".</p> +<p>What mythical animals did this tree shelter? Layard found that +"the four creatures continually introduced on the sculptured +walls", were "a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1380" href="#ftn.fnrex1380" id= +"fnrex1380">380</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Sumeria the gods were given human form, but before this +stage was reached the bull symbolized Nannar (Sin), the moon god, +Ninip (Saturn, the old sun), and Enlil, while Nergal was a lion, +as a tribal sun god. The eagle is represented by the Zu bird, +which symbolized the storm and a phase of the sun, and was also a +deity of fertility. On the silver vase of Lagash the lion and +eagle were combined as the lion-headed eagle, a form of Nin-Girsu +(Tammuz), and it was associated with wild goats, stags, lions, +and bulls. On a mace head dedicated to Nin-Girsu, a lion slays a +bull as the Zu bird slays serpents in the folk tale, suggesting +the wars of totemic deities, according to one "school", and the +battle of the sun with the storm clouds according to another. +Whatever the explanation may be of one animal deity of fertility +slaying another, it seems certain that the conflict was +associated with the idea of sacrifice to procure the food +supply.</p> +<p>In Assyria the various primitive gods were combined as a +winged bull, a winged bull with human head (the <a id= +"page.anchor.343" name="page.anchor.343"></a>king's), a winged +lion with human head, a winged man, a deity with lion's head, +human body, and eagle's legs with claws, and also as a deity with +eagle's head and feather headdress, a human body, wings, and +feather-fringed robe, carrying in one hand a metal basket on +which two winged men adored the holy tree, and in the other a fir +cone.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1381" href="#ftn.fnrex1381" +id="fnrex1381">381</a>]</span></p> +<p>Layard suggested that the latter deity, with eagle's head, was +Nisroch, "the word Nisr signifying, in all Semitic languages, an +eagle".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1382" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1382" id="fnrex1382">382</a>]</span> This deity is +referred to in the Bible: "Sennacherib, king of Assyria, ... was +worshipping in the house of Nisroch, his god".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1383" href="#ftn.fnrex1383" id= +"fnrex1383">383</a>]</span> Professor Pinches is certain that +Nisroch is Ashur, but considers that the "ni" was attached to +"Ashur" (Ashuraku or Ashurachu), as it was to "Marad" (Merodach) +to give the reading Ni-Marad = Nimrod. The names of heathen +deities were thus made "unrecognizable, and in all probability +ridiculous as well.... Pious and orthodox lips could pronounce +them without fear of defilement."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1384" href="#ftn.fnrex1384" id="fnrex1384">384</a>]</span> +At the same time the "Nisr" theory is probable: it may represent +another phase of this process. The names of heathen gods were not +all treated in like manner by the Hebrew teachers. +Abed-<span class="emphasis"><em>nebo</em></span>, for instance, +became Abed-<span class="emphasis"><em>nego</em></span>, +<span class="emphasis"><em>Daniel</em></span>, i, 7), as +Professor Pinches shows.</p> +<p>Seeing that the eagle received prominence in the mythologies +of Sumeria and Assyria, as a deity of fertility with solar and +atmospheric attributes, it is highly probable that the Ashur +symbol, like the Egyptian Horus solar disk, is a winged symbol of +life, fertility, and destruction. The idea that it represents the +sun in eclipse, with protruding <a id="page.anchor.344" name= +"page.anchor.344"></a>rays, seems rather far-fetched, because +eclipses were disasters and indications of divine +wrath;<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1385" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1385" id="fnrex1385">385</a>]</span> it certainly does +not explain why the "rays" should only stretch out sideways, like +wings, and downward like a tail, why the "rays" should be double, +like the double wings of cherubs, bulls, &c, and divided into +sections suggesting feathers, or why the disk is surmounted by +conventionalized horns, tipped with star-like ring symbols, +identical with those depicted in the holy tree. What particular +connection the five small rings within the disk were supposed to +have with the eclipse of the sun is difficult to discover.</p> +<p>In one of the other symbols in which appears a feather-robed +archer, it is significant to find that the arrow he is about to +discharge has a head shaped like a trident; it is evidently a +lightning symbol.</p> +<p>When Ezekiel prophesied to the Israelitish captives at +Tel-abib, "by the river of Chebar" in Chaldea (Kheber, near +Nippur), he appears to have utilized Assyrian symbolism. Probably +he came into contact in Babylonia with fugitive priests from +Assyrian cities.</p> +<p>This great prophet makes interesting references to "four +living creatures", with "four faces"--the face of a man, the face +of a lion, the face of an ox, and the face of an eagle; "they had +the hands of a man under their wings, ... their wings were joined +one to another; ... their wings were stretched upward: two wings +of every one were joined one to another.... Their appearance was +like burning coals of fire and like the appearance of lamps.... +The living creatures ran and returned as the appearance of a +flash of lightning."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1386" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1386" id="fnrex1386">386</a>]</span></p> +<p>Elsewhere, referring to the sisters, Aholah and Aholibah, who +had been in Egypt and had adopted unmoral ways of <a id= +"page.anchor.345" name="page.anchor.345"></a>life Ezekiel tells +that when Aholibah "doted upon the Assyrians" she "saw men +pourtrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans pourtrayed +with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their +loins".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1387" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1387" id="fnrex1387">387</a>]</span> Traces of the red +colour on the walls of Assyrian temples and palaces have been +observed by excavators. The winged gods "like burning coals" were +probably painted in vermilion.</p> +<p>Ezekiel makes reference to "ring" and "wheel" symbols. In his +vision he saw "one wheel upon the earth by the living creatures, +with his four faces. The appearance of the wheels and their work +was like unto the colour of beryl; and they four had one +likeness; and their appearance and their work was as it were a +wheel in the middle of a wheel.... As for their rings, they were +so high that they were dreadful; and their rings were full of +eyes round about them four. And when the living creatures went, +the wheels went by them; and when the living creatures were +lifted up from the earth, the wheels were lifted up. +Whithersoever the spirit was to go, they went, thither was their +spirit to go; and the wheels were lifted up over against them; +<span class="emphasis"><em>for the spirit of the living creature +was in the wheels....</em></span><span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1388" href="#ftn.fnrex1388" id="fnrex1388">388</a>]</span> +And the likeness of the firmament upon the heads of the living +creature was as the colour of terrible crystal, stretched forth +over their heads above.... And when they went I heard the noise +of their wings, like the noise of great waters, as the voice of +the Almighty, the voice of speech, as the noise of an host; when +they stood they let down their wings...."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1389" href="#ftn.fnrex1389" id= +"fnrex1389">389</a>]</span></p> +<p>Another description of the cherubs states: "Their whole body, +and their backs, and their hands, and their wings, and the +wheels, were full of eyes (? stars) round <a id="page.anchor.346" +name="page.anchor.346"></a>about, even the wheels that they four +had. As for the wheels, it was cried unto them in my hearing, O +wheel!" --or, according to a marginal rendering, "they were +called in my hearing, wheel, or Gilgal," i.e. move round.... "And +the cherubims were lifted up."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1390" href="#ftn.fnrex1390" id= +"fnrex1390">390</a>]</span></p> +<p>It would appear that the wheel (or hoop, a variant rendering) +was a symbol of life, and that the Assyrian feather-robed figure +which it enclosed was a god, not of war only, but also of +fertility. His trident-headed arrow resembles, as has been +suggested, a lightning symbol. Ezekiel's references are +suggestive in this connection. When the cherubs "ran and +returned" they had "the appearance of a flash of lightning", and +"the noise of their wings" resembled "the noise of great waters". +Their bodies were "like burning coals of fire". Fertility gods +were associated with fire, lightning, and water. Agni of India, +Sandan of Asia Minor, and Melkarth of Phoenicia were highly +developed fire gods of fertility. The fire cult was also +represented in Sumeria (pp. <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>).</p> +<p>In the Indian epic, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, the revolving ring or +wheel protects the Soma<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1391" +href="#ftn.fnrex1391" id="fnrex1391">391</a>]</span> (ambrosia) +of the gods, on which their existence depends. The eagle giant +Garuda sets forth to steal it. The gods, fully armed, gather +round to protect the life-giving drink. Garuda approaches +"darkening the worlds by the dust raised by the hurricane of his +wings". The celestials, "overwhelmed by that dust", swoon away. +Garuda afterwards assumes a fiery shape, then looks "like masses +of black clouds", and in the end its body becomes golden and +bright "as the rays of the sun". The Soma is protected by fire, +which the bird quenches after "drinking in many rivers" with the +numerous mouths it has assumed. Then Garuda finds that right +above the Soma is "a wheel of steel, keen <a id="page.anchor.347" +name="page.anchor.347"></a>edged, and sharp as a razor, revolving +incessantly. That fierce instrument, of the lustre of the blazing +sun and of terrible form, was devised by the gods for cutting to +pieces all robbers of the Soma." Garuda passes "through the +spokes of the wheel", and has then to contend against "two great +snakes of the lustre of blazing fire, of tongues bright as the +lightning flash, of great energy, of mouth emitting fire, of +blazing eyes". He slays the snakes.... The gods afterwards +recover the stolen Soma.</p> +<p>Garuda becomes the vehicle of the god Vishnu, who carries the +discus, another fiery wheel which revolves and returns to the +thrower like lightning. "And he (Vishnu) made the bird sit on the +flagstaff of his car, saying: 'Even thus thou shalt stay above +me'."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1392" href="#ftn.fnrex1392" +id="fnrex1392">392</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Persian god Ahura Mazda hovers above the king in +sculptured representations of that high dignitary, enclosed in a +winged wheel, or disk, like Ashur, grasping a ring in one hand, +the other being lifted up as if blessing those who adore him.</p> +<p>Shamash, the Babylonian sun god; Ishtar, the goddess of +heaven; and other Babylonian deities carried rings as the +Egyptian gods carried the ankh, the symbol of life. Shamash was +also depicted sitting on his throne in a pillar-supported +pavilion, in front of which is a sun wheel. The spokes of the +wheel are formed by a star symbol and threefold rippling "water +rays".</p> +<p>In Hittite inscriptions there are interesting winged emblems; +"the central portion" of one "seems to be composed of two +crescents underneath a disk (which is also divided like a +crescent). Above the emblem there appear the symbol of sanctity +(the divided oval) and the hieroglyph which Professor Sayce +interprets as the name of the god Sandes." In another instance +"the centre of <a id="page.anchor.348" name= +"page.anchor.348"></a>the winged emblem may be seen to be a +rosette, with a curious spreading object below. Above, two dots +follow the name of Sandes, and a human arm bent 'in adoration' is +by the side...." Professor Garstang is here dealing with sacred +places "on rocky points or hilltops, bearing out the suggestion +of the sculptures near Boghaz-Keui<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1393" href="#ftn.fnrex1393" id="fnrex1393">393</a>]</span>, +in which there may be reasonably suspected the surviving traces +of mountain cults, or cults of mountain deities, underlying the +newer religious symbolism". Who the deity is it is impossible to +say, but "he was identified at some time or other with +Sandes".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1394" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1394" id="fnrex1394">394</a>]</span> It would appear, +too, that the god may have been "called by a name which was that +used also by the priest". Perhaps the priest king was believed to +be an incarnation of the deity.</p> +<p>Sandes or Sandan was identical with Sandon of Tarsus, "the +prototype of Attis",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1395" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1395" id="fnrex1395">395</a>]</span> who links with +the Babylonian Tammuz. Sandon's animal symbol was the lion, and +he carried the "double axe" symbol of the god of fertility and +thunder. As Professor Frazer has shown in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Golden Bough</em></span>, he links with +Hercules and Melkarth.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1396" +href="#ftn.fnrex1396" id="fnrex1396">396</a>]</span></p> +<p>All the younger gods, who displaced the elder gods as one year +displaces another, were deities of fertility, battle, lightning, +fire, and the sun; it is possible, therefore, that Ashur was like +Merodach, son of Ea, god of the deep, a form of Tammuz in origin. +His spirit was in the solar wheel which revolved at times of +seasonal change. In Scotland it was believed that on the morning +of May Day (Beltaine) the rising sun revolved three times. The +younger god was a spring sun god and fire god. Great <a id= +"page.anchor.349" name="page.anchor.349"></a>bonfires were lit to +strengthen him, or as a ceremony of riddance; the old year was +burned out. Indeed the god himself might be burned (that is, the +old god), so that he might renew his youth. Melkarth was burned +at Tyre. Hercules burned himself on a mountain top, and his soul +ascended to heaven as an eagle.</p> +<p>These fiery rites were evidently not unknown in Babylonia and +Assyria. When, according to Biblical narrative, Nebuchadnezzar +"made an image of gold" which he set up "in the plain of Dura, in +the province of Babylon", he commanded: "O people, nations, and +languages... at the time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, +harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick... +fall down and worship the golden image". Certain Jews who had +been "set over the affairs of the province of Babylonia", namely, +"Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego", refused to adore the idol. +They were punished by being thrown into "a burning fiery +furnace", which was heated "seven times more than it was wont to +be heated". They came forth uninjured.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1397" href="#ftn.fnrex1397" id= +"fnrex1397">397</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the Koran it is related that Abraham destroyed the images +of Chaldean gods; he "brake them all in pieces except the biggest +of them; that they might lay the blame on that".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1398" href="#ftn.fnrex1398" id= +"fnrex1398">398</a>]</span> According to the commentators the +Chaldaeans were at the time "abroad in the fields, celebrating a +great festival". To punish the offender Nimrod had a great pyre +erected at Cuthah. "Then they bound Abraham, and putting him into +an engine, shot him into the midst of the fire, from which he was +preserved by the angel Gabriel, who was sent to his assistance." +Eastern Christians were wont to set apart in the Syrian calendar +the <a id="page.anchor.350" name="page.anchor.350"></a>25th of +January to commemorate Abraham's escape from Nimrod's +pyre.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1399" href="#ftn.fnrex1399" +id="fnrex1399">399</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is evident that the Babylonian fire ceremony was observed +in the spring season, and that human beings were sacrificed to +the sun god. A mock king may have been burned to perpetuate the +ancient sacrifice of real kings, who were incarnations of the +god.</p> +<p>Isaiah makes reference to the sacrificial burning of kings in +Assyria: "For through the voice of the Lord shall the Assyrian be +beaten down, which smote with a rod. And in every place where the +grounded staff shall pass, which the Lord shall lay upon him, it +shall be with tabrets and harps: and in battles of shaking will +he fight with it. For Tophet is ordained of old; yea, for the +king it is prepared: he hath made it deep and large: the pile +thereof is fire and much wood: the breath of the Lord, like a +stream of brimstone, doth kindle it."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1400" href="#ftn.fnrex1400" id="fnrex1400">400</a>]</span> +When Nineveh was about to fall, and with it the Assyrian Empire, +the legendary king, Sardanapalus, who was reputed to have founded +Tarsus, burned himself, with his wives, concubines, and eunuchs, +on a pyre in his palace. Zimri, who reigned over Israel for seven +days, "burnt the king's house over him with fire"<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1401" href="#ftn.fnrex1401" id= +"fnrex1401">401</a>]</span>. Saul, another fallen king, was +burned after death, and his bones were buried "under the oak in +Jabesh".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1402" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1402" id="fnrex1402">402</a>]</span> In Europe the oak +was associated with gods of fertility and lightning, including +Jupiter and Thor. The ceremony of burning Saul is of special +interest. Asa, the orthodox king of Judah, was, after death, +"laid in the bed which was filled with sweet odours and divers +kinds of spices prepared by the apothecaries' art: and they made +a very great burning for him" (<span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, <a id="page.anchor.351" name= +"page.anchor.351"></a>xvi, 14). Jehoram, the heretic king of +Judah, who "walked in the way of the kings of Israel", died of +"an incurable disease. And his people made no burning for him +like the burning of his fathers" (<span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxi, 18, 19).</p> +<p>The conclusion suggested by the comparative study of the +beliefs of neighbouring peoples, and the evidence afforded by +Assyrian sculptures, is that Ashur was a highly developed form of +the god of fertility, who was sustained, or aided in his +conflicts with demons, by the fires and sacrifices of his +worshippers.</p> +<p>It is possible to read too much into his symbols. These are +not more complicated and vague than are the symbols on the +standing stones of Scotland--the crescent with the "broken" +arrow; the trident with the double rings, or wheels, connected by +two crescents; the circle with the dot in its centre; the +triangle with the dot; the large disk with two small rings on +either side crossed by double straight lines; the so-called +"mirror", and so on. Highly developed symbolism may not indicate +a process of spiritualization so much, perhaps, as the +persistence of magical beliefs and practices. There is really no +direct evidence to support the theory that the Assyrian winged +disk, or disk "with protruding rays", was of more spiritual +character than the wheel which encloses the feather-robed archer +with his trident-shaped arrow.</p> +<p>The various symbols may have represented phases of the god. +When the spring fires were lit, and the god "renewed his life +like the eagle", his symbol was possibly the solar wheel or disk +with eagle's wings, which became regarded as a symbol of life. +The god brought life and light to the world; he caused the crops +to grow; he gave increase; he sustained his worshippers. But he +was also the god who slew the demons of darkness and storm. +<a id="page.anchor.352" name="page.anchor.352"></a>The Hittite +winged disk was Sandes or Sandon, the god of lightning, who stood +on the back of a bull. As the lightning god was a war god, it was +in keeping with his character to find him represented in Assyria +as "Ashur the archer" with the bow and lightning arrow. On the +disk of the Assyrian standard the lion and the bull appear with +"the archer" as symbols of the war god Ashur, but they were also +symbols of Ashur the god of fertility.</p> +<p>The life or spirit of the god was in the ring or wheel, as the +life of the Egyptian and Indian gods, and of the giants of folk +tales, was in "the egg". The "dot within the circle", a +widespread symbol, may have represented the seed within "the egg" +of more than one mythology, or the thorn within the egg of more +than one legendary story. It may be that in Assyria, as in India, +the crude beliefs and symbols of the masses were spiritualized by +the speculative thinkers in the priesthood, but no literary +evidence has survived to justify us in placing the Assyrian +teachers on the same level as the Brahmans who composed the +Upanishads.</p> +<p>Temples were erected to Ashur, but he might be worshipped +anywhere, like the Queen of Heaven, who received offerings in the +streets of Jerusalem, for "he needed no temple", as Professor +Pinches says. Whether this was because he was a highly developed +deity or a product of folk religion it is difficult to decide. +One important fact is that the ruling king of Assyria was more +closely connected with the worship of Ashur than the king of +Babylonia was with the worship of Merodach. This may be because +the Assyrian king was regarded as an incarnation of his god, like +the Egyptian Pharaoh. Ashur accompanied the monarch on his +campaigns: he was their conquering war god. Where the king was, +there was Ashur also. No images were made of him, <a id= +"page.anchor.353" name="page.anchor.353"></a>but his symbols were +carried aloft, as were the symbols of Indian gods in the great +war of the <span class="emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span> +epic.</p> +<p>It would appear that Ashur was sometimes worshipped in the +temples of other gods. In an interesting inscription he is +associated with the moon god Nannar (Sin) of Haran. Esarhaddon, +the Assyrian king, is believed to have been crowned in that city. +"The writer", says Professor Pinches, "is apparently addressing +Assur-bani-apli, 'the great and noble Asnapper':</p> +<p>"When the father of my king my lord went to Egypt, he was +crowned (?) in the <span class="emphasis"><em>ganni</em></span> +of Harran, the temple (lit. 'Bethel') of cedar. The god Sin +remained over the (sacred) standard, two crowns upon his head, +(and) the god Nusku stood beside him. The father of the king my +lord entered, (and) he (the priest of Sin) placed (the crown?) +upon his head, (saying) thus: 'Thou shalt go and capture the +lands in the midst'. (He we)nt, he captured the land of Egypt. +The rest of the lands not submitting (?) to Assur (Ashur) and +Sin, the king, the lord of kings, shall capture +(them)."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1403" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1403" id="fnrex1403">403</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ashur and Sin are here linked as equals. Associated with them +is Nusku, the messenger of the gods, who was given prominence in +Assyria. The kings frequently invoked him. As the son of Ea he +acted as the messenger between Merodach and the god of the deep. +He was also a son of Bel Enlil, and like Anu was guardian or +chief of the Igigi, the "host of heaven". Professor Pinches +suggests that he may have been either identical with the Sumerian +fire god Gibil, or a brother of the fire god, and an +impersonation of the light of fire and sun. In Haran he +accompanied the moon god, and may, therefore, have symbolized the +light of the moon also. Professor <a id="page.anchor.354" name= +"page.anchor.354"></a>Pinches adds that in one inscription "he is +identified with Nirig or En-reshtu" (Nin-Girsu = +Tammuz).<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1404" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1404" id="fnrex1404">404</a>]</span> The Babylonians +and Assyrians associated fire and light with moisture and +fertility.</p> +<p>The astral phase of the character of Ashur is highly probable. +As has been indicated, the Greek rendering of Anshar as +"Assoros", is suggestive in this connection. Jastrow, however, +points out that the use of the characters Anshar for Ashur did +not obtain until the eighth century B.C. "Linguistically", he +says, "the change of Ashir to Ashur can be accounted for, but not +the transformation of An-shar to Ashur or Ashir; so that we must +assume the 'etymology' of Ashur, proposed by some learned scribe, +to be the nature of a play upon the name."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1405" href="#ftn.fnrex1405" id= +"fnrex1405">405</a>]</span> On the other hand, it is possible +that what appears arbitrary to us may have been justified in +ancient Assyria on perfectly reasonable, or at any rate +traditional, grounds. Professor Pinches points out that as a sun +god, and "at the same time not Shamash", Ashur resembled +Merodach. "His identification with Merodach, if that was ever +accepted, may have been due to the likeness of the word to Asari, +one of the deities' names."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1406" +href="#ftn.fnrex1406" id="fnrex1406">406</a>]</span> As Asari, +Merodach has been compared to the Egyptian Osiris, who, as the +Nile god, was Asar-Hapi. Osiris resembles Tammuz and was +similarly a corn deity and a ruler of the living and the dead, +associated with sun, moon, stars, water, and vegetation. We may +consistently connect Ashur with Aushar, "water field", Anshar, +"god of the height", or "most high", and with the eponymous King +Asshur who went out on the land of Nimrod and "builded Nineveh", +if we regard him as of common origin with Tammuz, Osiris, <a id= +"page.anchor.355" name="page.anchor.355"></a>and Attis--a +developed and localized form of the ancient deity of fertility +and corn.</p> +<p>Ashur had a spouse who is referred to as Ashuritu, or Beltu, +"the lady". Her name, however, is not given, but it is possible +that she was identified with the Ishtar of Nineveh. In the +historical texts Ashur, as the royal god, stands alone. Like the +Hittite Great Father, he was perhaps regarded as the origin of +life. Indeed, it may have been due to the influence of the +northern hillmen in the early Assyrian period, that Ashur was +developed as a father god--a Baal. When the Hittite inscriptions +are read, more light may be thrown on the Ashur problem. Another +possible source of cultural influence is Persia. The supreme god +Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd) was, as has been indicated, represented, +like Ashur, hovering over the king's head, enclosed in a winged +disk or wheel, and the sacred tree figured in Persian mythology. +The early Assyrian kings had non-Semitic and non-Sumerian names. +It seems reasonable to assume that the religious culture of the +ethnic elements they represented must have contributed to the +development of the city god of Asshur.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1355" href="#fnrex1355" id= +"ftn.fnrex1355">355</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Genesis</em></span>, x, 11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1356" href="#fnrex1356" id= +"ftn.fnrex1356">356</a>]</span> "A number of tablets have been +found in Cappadocia of the time of the Second Dynasty of Ur which +show marked affinities with Assyria. The divine name Ashir, as in +early Assyrian texts, the institution of eponyms and many +personal names which occur in Assyria, are so characteristic that +we must assume kinship of peoples. But whether they witness to a +settlement in Cappadocia from Assyria, or vice versa, is not yet +clear." <span class="emphasis"><em>Ancient Assyria</em></span>, +C.H.W. Johns (Cambridge, 1912), pp. 12-13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1357" href="#fnrex1357" id= +"ftn.fnrex1357">357</a>]</span> Sumerian Ziku, apparently derived +from Zi, the spiritual essence of life, the "self power" of the +Universe.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1358" href="#fnrex1358" id= +"ftn.fnrex1358">358</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Peri +Archon</em></span>, cxxv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1359" href="#fnrex1359" id= +"ftn.fnrex1359">359</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. +197 et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1360" href="#fnrex1360" id= +"ftn.fnrex1360">360</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Julius +Caesar</em></span>, act iii, scene I.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1361" href="#fnrex1361" id= +"ftn.fnrex1361">361</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xiv, 4-14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1362" href="#fnrex1362" id= +"ftn.fnrex1362">362</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Eddubrott</em></span>, ii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1363" href="#fnrex1363" id= +"ftn.fnrex1363">363</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</em></span>, A. +Wiedemann, pp. 289-90.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1364" href="#fnrex1364" id= +"ftn.fnrex1364">364</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., p. 236. Atlas was also believed +to be in the west.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1365" href="#fnrex1365" id= +"ftn.fnrex1365">365</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Primitive Constellations</em></span>, vol. ii, p. +184.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1366" href="#fnrex1366" id= +"ftn.fnrex1366">366</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western +Asia,</em></span> xxx, II.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1367" href="#fnrex1367" id= +"ftn.fnrex1367">367</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xiii, 21. For "Satyrs" the +Revised Version gives the alternative translation, "or +he-goats".</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1368" href="#fnrex1368" id= +"ftn.fnrex1368">368</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 120, plate 18 and +note.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1369" href="#fnrex1369" id= +"ftn.fnrex1369">369</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Satapatha Brahmana</em></span>, translated by +Professor Eggeling, part iv, 1897, p. 371. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>(Sacred Books of the East</em></span>.)</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1370" href="#fnrex1370" id= +"ftn.fnrex1370">370</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 165 et +seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1371" href="#fnrex1371" id= +"ftn.fnrex1371">371</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Classic Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 105. The +birds were called "Stymphalides".</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1372" href="#fnrex1372" id= +"ftn.fnrex1372">372</a>]</span> The so-called "shuttle" of Neith +may be a thunderbolt. Scotland's archaic thunder deity is a +goddess. The bow and arrows suggest a lightning goddess who was a +deity of war because she was a deity of fertility.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1373" href="#fnrex1373" id= +"ftn.fnrex1373">373</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Vedic +Index</em></span>, Macdonell & Keith, vol. ii, pp. 125-6, and +vol. i, 168-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1374" href="#fnrex1374" id= +"ftn.fnrex1374">374</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xxxi, 3-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1375" href="#fnrex1375" id= +"ftn.fnrex1375">375</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xxvii, 23, 24.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1376" href="#fnrex1376" id= +"ftn.fnrex1376">376</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxxvii, 11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1377" href="#fnrex1377" id= +"ftn.fnrex1377">377</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., x, 5, 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1378" href="#fnrex1378" id= +"ftn.fnrex1378">378</a>]</span> A winged human figure, carrying +in one hand a basket and in another a fir cone.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1379" href="#fnrex1379" id= +"ftn.fnrex1379">379</a>]</span> Layard's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nineveh</em></span> (1856), p. 44.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1380" href="#fnrex1380" id= +"ftn.fnrex1380">380</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., p. 309.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1381" href="#fnrex1381" id= +"ftn.fnrex1381">381</a>]</span> The fir cone was offered to Attis +and Mithra. Its association with Ashur suggests that the great +Assyrian deity resembled the gods of corn and trees and +fertility.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1382" href="#fnrex1382" id= +"ftn.fnrex1382">382</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nineveh</em></span>, p. 47.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1383" href="#fnrex1383" id= +"ftn.fnrex1383">383</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxxvii, 37-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1384" href="#fnrex1384" id= +"ftn.fnrex1384">384</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia,</em></span> pp. 129-30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1385" href="#fnrex1385" id= +"ftn.fnrex1385">385</a>]</span> An eclipse of the sun in Assyria +on June 15, 763 B.C., was followed by an outbreak of civil +war.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1386" href="#fnrex1386" id= +"ftn.fnrex1386">386</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, i, 4-14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1387" href="#fnrex1387" id= +"ftn.fnrex1387">387</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel,</em></span> xxiii, 1-15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1388" href="#fnrex1388" id= +"ftn.fnrex1388">388</a>]</span> As the soul of the Egyptian god +was in the sun disk or sun egg.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1389" href="#fnrex1389" id= +"ftn.fnrex1389">389</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel,</em></span>, i, 15-28.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1390" href="#fnrex1390" id= +"ftn.fnrex1390">390</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, x, 11-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1391" href="#fnrex1391" id= +"ftn.fnrex1391">391</a>]</span> Also called "Amrita".</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1392" href="#fnrex1392" id= +"ftn.fnrex1392">392</a>]</span> The <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span> (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Adi Parva</em></span>), Sections xxxiii-iv.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1393" href="#fnrex1393" id= +"ftn.fnrex1393">393</a>]</span> Another way of spelling the +Turkish name which signifies "village of the pass". The deep "gh" +guttural is not usually attempted by English speakers. A common +rendering is "Bog-haz' Kay-ee", a slight "oo" sound being given +to the "a" in "Kay"; the "z" sound is hard and hissing.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1394" href="#fnrex1394" id= +"ftn.fnrex1394">394</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Land of the Hittites</em></span>, J. Garstang, pp. 178 +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1395" href="#fnrex1395" id= +"ftn.fnrex1395">395</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., p. 173.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1396" href="#fnrex1396" id= +"ftn.fnrex1396">396</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</em></span>, chaps. v and +vi.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1397" href="#fnrex1397" id= +"ftn.fnrex1397">397</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Daniel</em></span>, iii, 1-26.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1398" href="#fnrex1398" id= +"ftn.fnrex1398">398</a>]</span> The story that Abraham hung an +axe round the neck of Baal after destroying the other idols is of +Jewish origin.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1399" href="#fnrex1399" id= +"ftn.fnrex1399">399</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Koran</em></span>, George Sale, pp. 245-6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1400" href="#fnrex1400" id= +"ftn.fnrex1400">400</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxx, 31-3. See also for Tophet +customs <span class="emphasis"><em>2 Kings</em></span>, xxiii, +10; <span class="emphasis"><em>Jeremiah</em></span>, vii, 31, 32 +and xix, 5-12.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1401" href="#fnrex1401" id= +"ftn.fnrex1401">401</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 18.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1402" href="#fnrex1402" id= +"ftn.fnrex1402">402</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Samuel</em></span>, xxxi, 12, 13 and <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Chronicles</em></span>, x, 11, 12.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1403" href="#fnrex1403" id= +"ftn.fnrex1403">403</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia,</em></span> pp. 201-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1404" href="#fnrex1404" id= +"ftn.fnrex1404">404</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Religion</em></span>, pp. +57-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1405" href="#fnrex1405" id= +"ftn.fnrex1405">405</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, p. 121.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1406" href="#fnrex1406" id= +"ftn.fnrex1406">406</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian and Assyrian Religion</em></span>, p. +86.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2540528" name= +"id2540528"></a>Chapter XV. Conflicts for Trade and +Supremacy</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Modern Babylonia--History repeating itself--Babylonian Trade +Route in Mesopotamia--Egyptian Supremacy in Syria--Mitanni and +Babylonia--Bandits who plundered Caravans--Arabian Desert Trade +Route opened--Assyrian and Elamite Struggles with +Babylonia--Rapid Extension of Assyrian Empire--Hittites control +Western Trade Routes--Egypt's Nineteenth Dynasty +Conquests--Campaigns of Rameses II--Egyptians and Hittites become +Allies--Babylonian Fears of Assyria--Shalmaneser's +Triumphs--Assyria Supreme in Mesopotamia--Conquest of +Babylonia--Fall of a Great King--Civil War in Assyria--Its Empire +goes to pieces--Babylonian Wars with Elam--Revival of Babylonian +Power--Invasions of Assyrians and Elamites--End of the Kassite +Dynasty--Babylonia contrasted with Assyria.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.356" name="page.anchor.356"></a> It is +possible that during the present century Babylonia may once again +become one of the great wheat-producing countries of the world. A +scheme of land reclamation has already been inaugurated by the +construction of a great dam to control the distribution of the +waters of the Euphrates, and, if it is energetically promoted on +a generous scale in the years to come, the ancient canals, which +are used at present as caravan roads, may yet be utilized to make +the whole country as fertile and prosperous as it was in ancient +days. When that happy consummation is reached, new cities may +grow up and flourish beside the ruins of the old centres of +Babylonian culture.</p> +<p>With the revival of agriculture will come the revival of +commerce. Ancient trade routes will then be reopened, and the +slow-travelling caravans supplanted by <a id="page.anchor.357" +name="page.anchor.357"></a>speedy trains. A beginning has already +been made in this direction. The first modern commercial highway +which is crossing the threshold of Babylonia's new Age is the +German railway through Asia Minor, North Syria, and Mesopotamia +to Baghdad.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1407" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1407" id="fnrex1407">407</a>]</span> It brings the +land of Hammurabi into close touch with Europe, and will solve +problems which engaged the attention of many rival monarchs for +long centuries before the world knew aught of "the glory that was +Greece and the grandeur that was Rome".</p> +<p>These sudden and dramatic changes are causing history to +repeat itself. Once again the great World Powers are evincing +much concern regarding their respective "spheres of influence" in +Western Asia, and pressing together around the ancient land of +Babylon. On the east, where the aggressive Elamites and Kassites +were followed by the triumphant Persians and Medes, Russia and +Britain have asserted themselves as protectors of Persian +territory, and the influence of Britain is supreme in the Persian +Gulf. Turkey controls the land of the Hittites, while Russia +looms like a giant across the Armenian highlands; Turkey is also +the governing power in Syria and Mesopotamia, which are being +crossed by Germany's Baghdad railway. France is constructing +railways in Syria, and will control the ancient "way of the +Philistines". Britain occupies Cyprus on the Mediterranean coast, +and presides over the destinies of the ancient land of Egypt, +which, during the brilliant Eighteenth Dynasty, extended its +sphere of influence to the borders of Asia Minor. Once again, +after the lapse of many centuries, international <a id= +"page.anchor.358" name="page.anchor.358"></a>politics is being +strongly influenced by the problems connected with the +development of trade in Babylonia and its vicinity.</p> +<p>The history of the ancient rival States, which is being pieced +together by modern excavators, is, in view of present-day +political developments, invested with special interest to us. We +have seen Assyria rising into prominence. It began to be a great +Power when Egypt was supreme in the "Western Land" (the land of +the Amorites) as far north as the frontiers of Cappadocia. Under +the Kassite regime Babylonia's political influence had declined +in Mesopotamia, but its cultural influence remained, for its +language and script continued in use among traders and +diplomatists.</p> +<p>At the beginning of the Pharaoh Akhenaton period, the supreme +power in Mesopotamia was Mitanni. As the ally of Egypt it +constituted a buffer state on the borders of North Syria, which +prevented the southern expansion from Asia Minor of the Hittite +confederacy and the western expansion of aggressive Assyria, +while it also held in check the ambitions of Babylonia, which +still claimed the "land of the Amorites". So long as Mitanni was +maintained as a powerful kingdom the Syrian possessions of Egypt +were easily held in control, and the Egyptian merchants enjoyed +preferential treatment compared with those of Babylonia. But when +Mitanni was overcome, and its territories were divided between +the Assyrians and the Hittites, the North Syrian Empire of Egypt +went to pieces. A great struggle then ensued between the nations +of western Asia for political supremacy in the "land of the +Amorites".</p> +<p>Babylonia had been seriously handicapped by losing control of +its western caravan road. Prior to the Kassite period its +influence was supreme in Mesopotamia and <a id="page.anchor.359" +name="page.anchor.359"></a>middle Syria; from the days of Sargon +of Akkad and of Naram-Sin until the close of the Hammurabi Age +its merchants had naught to fear from bandits or petty kings +between the banks of the Euphrates and the Mediterranean coast. +The city of Babylon had grown rich and powerful as the commercial +metropolis of Western Asia.</p> +<p>Separated from the Delta frontier by the broad and perilous +wastes of the Arabian desert, Babylonia traded with Egypt by an +indirect route. Its caravan road ran northward along the west +bank of the Euphrates towards Haran, and then southward through +Palestine. This was a long detour, but it was the only possible +way.</p> +<p>During the early Kassite Age the caravans from Babylon had to +pass through the area controlled by Mitanni, which was therefore +able to impose heavy duties and fill its coffers with Babylonian +gold. Nor did the situation improve when the influence of Mitanni +suffered decline in southern Mesopotamia. Indeed the difficulties +under which traders operated were then still further increased, +for the caravan roads were infested by plundering bands of +"Suti", to whom references are made in the Tell-el-Amarna +letters. These bandits defied all the great powers, and became so +powerful that even the messengers sent from one king to another +were liable to be robbed and murdered without discrimination. +When war broke out between powerful States they harried live +stock and sacked towns in those areas which were left +unprotected.</p> +<p>The "Suti" were Arabians of Aramaean stock. What is known as +the "Third Semitic Migration" was in progress during this period. +The nomads gave trouble to Babylonia and Assyria, and, +penetrating Mesopotamia and Syria, sapped the power of Mitanni, +until it was unable to resist the onslaughts of the Assyrians and +the Hittites.</p> +<p>The Aramaean tribes are referred to, at various periods <a id= +"page.anchor.360" name="page.anchor.360"></a>and by various +peoples, not only as the "Suti", but also as the "Achlame", the +"Arimi", and the "Khabiri". Ultimately they were designated +simply as "Syrians", and under that name became the hereditary +enemies of the Hebrews, although Jacob was regarded as being of +their stock: "A Syrian ready to perish", runs a Biblical +reference, "was my father (ancestor), and he went down into Egypt +and sojourned there with a few, and became there a nation, great, +mighty, and populous".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1408" +href="#ftn.fnrex1408" id="fnrex1408">408</a>]</span></p> +<p>An heroic attempt was made by one of the Kassite kings of +Babylonia to afford protection to traders by stamping out +brigandage between Arabia and Mesopotamia, and opening up a new +and direct caravan road to Egypt across the Arabian desert. The +monarch in question was Kadashman-Kharbe, the grandson of +Ashur-uballit of Assyria. As we have seen, he combined forces +with his distinguished and powerful kinsman, and laid a heavy +hand on the "Suti". Then he dug wells and erected a chain of +fortifications, like "block-houses", so that caravans might come +and go without interruption, and merchants be freed from the +imposts of petty kings whose territory they had to penetrate when +travelling by the Haran route.</p> +<p>This bold scheme, however, was foredoomed to failure. It was +shown scant favour by the Babylonian Kassites. No record survives +to indicate the character of the agreement between +Kadashman-Kharbe and Ashur-uballit, but there can be little doubt +that it involved the abandonment by Babylonia of its historic +claim upon Mesopotamia, or part of it, and the recognition of an +Assyrian sphere of influence in that region. It was probably on +account of his pronounced pro-Assyrian tendencies that the +Kassites murdered Kadashman-Kharbe, <a id="page.anchor.361" name= +"page.anchor.361"></a>and set the pretender, known as "the son of +nobody", on the throne for a brief period.</p> +<p>Kadashman-Kharbe's immediate successors recognized in Assyria +a dangerous and unscrupulous rival, and resumed the struggle for +the possession of Mesopotamia. The trade route across the Arabian +desert had to be abandoned. Probably it required too great a +force to keep it open. Then almost every fresh conquest achieved +by Assyria involved it in war with Babylonia, which appears to +have been ever waiting for a suitable opportunity to cripple its +northern rival.</p> +<p>But Assyria was not the only power which Babylonia had to +guard itself against. On its eastern frontier Elam was also +panting for expansion. Its chief caravan roads ran from Susa +through Assyria towards Asia Minor, and through Babylonia towards +the Phoenician coast. It was probably because its commerce was +hampered by the growth of Assyrian power in the north, as +Servia's commerce in our own day has been hampered by Austria, +that it cherished dreams of conquering Babylonia. In fact, as +Kassite influence suffered decline, one of the great problems of +international politics was whether Elam or Assyria would enter +into possession of the ancient lands of Sumer and Akkad.</p> +<p>Ashur-uballit's vigorous policy of Assyrian expansion was +continued, as has been shown, by his son Bel-nirari. His +grandson, Arik-den-ilu, conducted several successful campaigns, +and penetrated westward as far as Haran, thus crossing the +Babylonian caravan road. He captured great herds of cattle and +flocks of sheep, which were transported to Asshur, and on one +occasion carried away 250,000 prisoners.</p> +<p>Meanwhile Babylonia waged war with Elam. It is related that +Khur-batila, King of Elam, sent a challenge <a id= +"page.anchor.362" name="page.anchor.362"></a>to Kurigalzu III, a +descendant of Kadashman-Kharbe, saying: "Come hither; I will +fight with thee". The Babylonian monarch accepted the challenge, +invaded the territory of his rival, and won a great victory. +Deserted by his troops, the Elamite king was taken prisoner, and +did not secure release until he had ceded a portion of his +territory and consented to pay annual tribute to Babylonia.</p> +<p>Flushed with his success, the Kassite king invaded Assyria +when Adad-nirari I died and his son Arik-den-ilu came to the +throne. He found, however, that the Assyrians were more powerful +than the Elamites, and suffered defeat. His son, +Na´zi-mar-ut´tash<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1409" href="#ftn.fnrex1409" id="fnrex1409">409</a>]</span>, +also made an unsuccessful attempt to curb the growing power of +the northern Power.</p> +<p>These recurring conflicts were intimately associated with the +Mesopotamian question. Assyria was gradually expanding westward +and shattering the dreams of the Babylonian statesmen and traders +who hoped to recover control of the caravan routes and restore +the prestige of their nation in the west.</p> +<p>Like his father, Adad-nirari I of Assyria had attacked the +Aramaean "Suti" who were settling about Haran. He also acquired a +further portion of the ancient kingdom of Mitanni, with the +result that he exercised sway over part of northern Mesopotamia. +After defeating Na´zi-mar-ut´tash, he fixed the +boundaries of the Assyrian and Babylonian spheres of influence +much to the advantage of his own country.</p> +<p>At home Adad-nirari conducted a vigorous policy. He developed +the resources of the city state of Asshur by constructing a great +dam and quay wall, while he contributed to the prosperity of the +priesthood and the <a id="page.anchor.363" name= +"page.anchor.363"></a>growth of Assyrian culture by extending the +temple of the god Ashur. Ere he died, he assumed the proud title +of "Shar Kishshate", "king of the world", which was also used by +his son Shalmaneser I. His reign extended over a period of thirty +years and terminated about 1300 B.C.</p> +<p>Soon after Shalmaneser came to the throne his country suffered +greatly from an earthquake, which threw down Ishtar's temple at +Nineveh and Ashur's temple at Asshur. Fire broke out in the +latter building and destroyed it completely.</p> +<p>These disasters did not dismay the young monarch. Indeed, they +appear to have stimulated him to set out on a career of conquest, +to secure treasure and slaves, so as to carry out the work of +reconstructing the temples without delay. He became as great a +builder, and as tireless a campaigner as Thothmes III of Egypt, +and under his guidance Assyria became the most powerful nation in +Western Asia. Ere he died his armies were so greatly dreaded that +the Egyptians and Assyrians drew their long struggle for +supremacy in Syria to a close, and formed an alliance for mutual +protection against their common enemy.</p> +<p>It is necessary at this point to review briefly the history of +Palestine and north Syria after the period of Hittite expansion +under King Subbi-luliuma and the decline of Egyptian power under +Akhenaton. The western part of Mitanni and the most of northern +Syria had been colonized by the Hittites.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1410" href="#ftn.fnrex1410" id= +"fnrex1410">410</a>]</span> Farther south, their allies, the +Amorites, formed a buffer State on the borders of Egypt's limited +sphere of influence in southern Palestine, and of Babylonia's +sphere in southern Mesopotamia. Mitanni <a id="page.anchor.364" +name="page.anchor.364"></a>was governed by a subject king who was +expected to prevent the acquisition by Assyria of territory in +the north-west.</p> +<p>Subbi-luliuma was succeeded on the Hittite throne by his son, +King Mursil, who was known to the Egyptians as "Meraser", or +"Maurasar". The greater part of this monarch's reign appears to +have been peaceful and prosperous. His allies protected his +frontiers, and he was able to devote himself to the work of +consolidating his empire in Asia Minor and North Syria. He +erected a great palace at Boghaz Köi, and appears to have +had dreams of imitating the splendours of the royal Courts of +Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon.</p> +<p>At this period the Hittite Empire was approaching the zenith +of its power. It controlled the caravan roads of Babylonia and +Egypt, and its rulers appear not only to have had intimate +diplomatic relations with both these countries, but even to have +concerned themselves regarding their internal affairs. When +Rameses I came to the Egyptian throne, at the beginning of the +Nineteenth Dynasty, he sealed an agreement with the Hittites, and +at a later date the Hittite ambassador at Babylon, who +represented Hattusil II, the second son of King Mursil, actually +intervened in a dispute regarding the selection of a successor to +the throne.</p> +<p>The closing years of King Mursil's reign were disturbed by the +military conquests of Egypt, which had renewed its strength under +Rameses I. Seti I, the son of Rameses I, and the third Pharaoh of +the powerful Nineteenth Dynasty, took advantage of the inactivity +of the Hittite ruler by invading southern Syria. He had first to +grapple with the Amorites, whom he successfully defeated. Then he +pressed northward as far as Tunip, and won a decisive victory +over a Hittite army, which <a id="page.anchor.365" name= +"page.anchor.365"></a>secured to Egypt for a period the control +of Palestine as far north as Phoenicia.</p> +<p>When Mursil died he was succeeded on the Hittite throne by his +son Mutallu, whom the Egyptians referred to as "Metella" or +"Mautinel". He was a vigorous and aggressive monarch, and appears +to have lost no time in compelling the Amorites to throw off +their allegiance to Egypt and recognize him as their overlord. As +a result, when Rameses II ascended the Egyptian throne he had to +undertake the task of winning back the Asiatic possessions of his +father.</p> +<p>The preliminary operations conducted by Rameses on the +Palestinian coast were attended with much success. Then, in his +fifth year, he marched northward with a great army, with purpose, +it would appear, to emulate the achievements of Thothmes III and +win fame as a mighty conqueror. But he underestimated the +strength of his rival and narrowly escaped disaster. Advancing +impetuously, with but two of his four divisions, he suddenly +found himself surrounded by the army of the wily Hittite, King +Mutallu, in the vicinity of the city of Kadesh, on the Orontes. +His first division remained intact, but his second was put to +flight by an intervening force of the enemy. From this perilous +position Rameses extricated himself by leading a daring charge +against the Hittite lines on the river bank, which proved +successful. Thrown into confusion, his enemies sought refuge in +the city, but the Pharaoh refrained from attacking them +there.</p> +<p>Although Rameses boasted on his return home of having achieved +a great victory, there is nothing more certain than that this +campaign proved a dismal failure. He was unable to win back for +Egypt the northern territories which had acknowledged the +suzerainty of Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty. Subsequently +he was <a id="page.anchor.366" name="page.anchor.366"></a>kept +fully engaged in maintaining his prestige in northern Palestine +and the vicinity of Phoenicia. Then his Asiatic military +operations, which extended altogether over a period of about +twenty years, were brought to a close in a dramatic and +unexpected manner. The Hittite king Mutallu had died in battle, +or by the hand of an assassin, and was succeeded by his brother +Hattusil II (Khetasar), who sealed a treaty of peace with the +great Rameses.</p> +<p>An Egyptian copy of this interesting document can still be +read on the walls of a Theban temple, but it is lacking in +certain details which interest present-day historians. No +reference, for instance, is made to the boundaries of the +Egyptian Empire in Syria, so that it is impossible to estimate +the degree of success which attended the campaigns of Rameses. An +interesting light, however, is thrown on the purport of the +treaty by a tablet letter which has been discovered by Professor +Hugo Winckler at Boghaz Köi. It is a copy of a communication +addressed by Hattusil II to the King of Babylonia, who had made +an enquiry regarding it. "I will inform my brother," wrote the +Hittite monarch; "the King of Egypt and I have made an alliance, +and made ourselves brothers. Brothers we are and will [unite +against] a common foe, and with friends in common."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1411" href="#ftn.fnrex1411" id= +"fnrex1411">411</a>]</span> The common foe could have been no +other than Assyria, and the Hittite king's letter appears to +convey a hint to Kadashman-turgu of Babylon that he should make +common cause with Rameses II and Hattusil.</p> +<p>Shalmaneser I of Assyria was pursuing a determined policy of +western and northern expansion. He struck boldly at the eastern +Hittite States and conquered Malatia, where he secured great +treasure for the god Ashur. He even founded colonies within the +Hittite sphere of influence <a id="page.anchor.367" name= +"page.anchor.367"></a>on the borders of Armenia. Shalmaneser's +second campaign was conducted against the portion of ancient +Mitanni which was under Hittite control. The vassal king, +Sattuari, apparently a descendant of Tushratta's, endeavoured to +resist the Assyrians with the aid of Hittites and Aramaeans, but +his army of allies was put to flight. The victorious Shalmaneser +was afterwards able to penetrate as far westward as Carchemish on +the Euphrates.</p> +<p>Having thus secured the whole of Mitanni, the Assyrian +conqueror attacked the Aramaean hordes which were keeping the +territory round Haran in a continuous state of unrest, and forced +them to recognize him as their overlord.</p> +<p>Shalmaneser thus, it would appear, gained control of northern +Mesopotamia and consequently of the Babylonian caravan route to +Haran. As a result Hittite prestige must have suffered decline in +Babylon. For a generation the Hittites had had the Babylonian +merchants at their mercy, and apparently compelled them to pay +heavy duties. Winckler has found among the Boghaz Köi +tablets several letters from the king of Babylon, who made +complaints regarding robberies committed by Amoritic bandits, and +requested that they should be punished and kept in control. Such +a communication is a clear indication that he was entitled, in +lieu of payment, to have an existing agreement fulfilled.</p> +<p>Shalmaneser found that Asshur, the ancient capital, was +unsuitable for the administration of his extended empire, so he +built a great city at Kalkhi (Nimrud), the Biblical Calah, which +was strategically situated amidst fertile meadows on the angle of +land formed by the Tigris and the Upper Zab. Thither to a new +palace he transferred his brilliant Court.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.368" name="page.anchor.368"></a>He was +succeeded by his son, Tukulti-Ninip I, who was the most powerful +of the Assyrian monarchs of the Old Empire. He made great +conquests in the north and east, extended and strengthened +Assyrian influence in Mesopotamia, and penetrated into Hittite +territory, bringing into subjection no fewer than forty kings, +whom he compelled to pay annual tribute. It was inevitable that +he should be drawn into conflict with the Babylonian king, who +was plotting with the Hittites against him. One of the tablet +letters found by Winckler at Boghaz Köi is of special +interest in this connection. Hattusil advises the young monarch +of Babylonia to "go and plunder the land of the foe". Apparently +he sought to be freed from the harassing attention of the +Assyrian conqueror by prevailing on his Babylonian royal friend +to act as a "cat's paw".</p> +<p>It is uncertain whether or not Kashtiliash II of Babylonia +invaded Assyria with purpose to cripple his rival. At any rate +war broke out between the two countries, and Tukulti-Ninip proved +irresistible in battle. He marched into Babylonia, and not only +defeated Kashtiliash, but captured him and carried him off to +Asshur, where he was presented in chains to the god Ashur.</p> +<p>The city of Babylon was captured, its wall was demolished, and +many of its inhabitants were put to the sword. Tukulti-Ninip was +evidently waging a war of conquest, for he pillaged E-sagila, +"the temple of the high head", and removed the golden statue of +the god Merodach to Assyria, where it remained for about sixteen +years. He subdued the whole of Babylonia as far south as the +Persian Gulf, and ruled it through viceroys.</p> +<p>Tukulti-Ninip, however, was not a popular emperor even in his +own country. He offended national susceptibilities by showing +preference for Babylonia, and founding <a id="page.anchor.369" +name="page.anchor.369"></a>a new city which has not been located. +There he built a great palace and a temple for Ashur and his +pantheon. He called the city after himself, +Kar-Tukulti-Ninip<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1412" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1412" id="fnrex1412">412</a>]</span>.</p> +<p>Seven years after the conquest of Babylonia revolts broke out +against the emperor in Assyria and Babylonia, and he was murdered +in his palace, which had been besieged and captured by an army +headed by his own son, Ashur-natsir-pal I, who succeeded him. The +Babylonian nobles meantime drove the Assyrian garrisons from +their cities, and set on the throne the Kassite prince +Adad-shum-utsur.</p> +<p>Thus in a brief space went to pieces the old Assyrian Empire, +which, at the close of Tukulti-Ninip's thirty years' reign, +embraced the whole Tigro-Euphrates valley from the borders of +Armenia to the Persian Gulf. An obscure century followed, during +which Assyria was raided by its enemies and broken up into petty +States.</p> +<p>The Elamites were not slow to take advantage of the state of +anarchy which prevailed in Babylonia during the closing years of +Assyrian rule. They overran a part of ancient Sumer, and captured +Nippur, where they slew a large number of inhabitants and +captured many prisoners. On a subsequent occasion they pillaged +Isin. When, however, the Babylonian king had cleared his country +of the Assyrians, he attacked the Elamites and drove them across +the frontier.</p> +<p>Nothing is known regarding the reign of the parricide +Ashur-natsir-pal I of Assyria. He was succeeded by +Ninip-Tukulti-Ashur and Adad-shum-lishir, who either reigned +concurrently or were father and son. After a brief period these +were displaced by another two rulers, Ashur-nirari III and +Nabu-dan.</p> +<p>It is not clear why Ninip-Tukulti-Ashur was deposed. <a id= +"page.anchor.370" name="page.anchor.370"></a>Perhaps he was an +ally of Adad-shum-utsur, the Babylonian king, and was unpopular +on that account. He journeyed to Babylon on one occasion, +carrying with him the statue of Merodach, but did not return. +Perhaps he fled from the rebels. At any rate Adad-shum-utsur was +asked to send him back, by an Assyrian dignitary who was probably +Ashur-nirari III. The king of Babylon refused this request, nor +would he give official recognition to the new ruler or +rulers.</p> +<p>Soon afterwards another usurper, Bel-kudur-utsur, led an +Assyrian army against the Babylonians, but was slain in battle. +He was succeeded by Ninip-apil-esharia, who led his forces back +to Asshur, followed by Adad-shum-utsur. The city was besieged but +not captured by the Babylonian army.</p> +<p>Under Adad-shum-utsur, who reigned for thirty years, Babylonia +recovered much of its ancient splendour. It held Elam in check +and laid a heavy hand on Assyria, which had been paralysed by +civil war. Once again it possessed Mesopotamia and controlled its +caravan road to Haran and Phoenicia, and apparently its relations +with the Hittites and Syrians were of a cordial character. The +next king, Meli-shipak, assumed the Assyrian title "Shar +Kishshati", "king of the world", and had a prosperous reign of +fifteen years. He was succeeded by Marduk-aplu-iddin I, who +presided over the destinies of Babylonia for about thirteen +years. Thereafter the glory of the Kassite Dynasty passed away. +King Zamama-shum-iddin followed with a twelvemonth's reign, +during which his kingdom was successfully invaded from the north +by the Assyrians under King Ashur-dan I, and from the east by the +Elamites under a king whose name has not been traced. Several +towns were captured and pillaged, and rich booty was carried off +to Asshur and Susa.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.371" name= +"page.anchor.371"></a>Bel-shum-iddin succeeded Zamama-shum-iddin, +but three years afterwards he was deposed by a king of Isin. So +ended the Kassite Dynasty of Babylonia, which had endured for a +period of 576 years and nine months.</p> +<p>Babylonia was called Karduniash during the Kassite Dynasty. +This name was originally applied to the district at the river +mouths, where the alien rulers appear to have first achieved +ascendancy. Apparently they were strongly supported by the +non-Semitic elements in the population, and represented a popular +revolt against the political supremacy of the city of Babylon and +its god Merodach. It is significant to find in this connection +that the early Kassite kings showed a preference for Nippur as +their capital and promoted the worship of Enlil, the elder Bel, +who was probably identified with their own god of fertility and +battle. Their sun god, Sachi, appears to have been merged in +Shamash. In time, however, the kings followed the example of +Hammurabi by exalting Merodach.</p> +<p>The Kassite language added to the "Babel of tongues" among the +common people, but was never used in inscriptions. At an early +period the alien rulers became thoroughly Babylonianized, and as +they held sway for nearly six centuries it cannot be assumed that +they were unpopular. They allowed their mountain homeland, or +earliest area of settlement in the east, to be seized and +governed by Assyria, and probably maintained as slight a +connection with it after settlement in Babylonia as did the +Saxons of England with their Continental area of origin.</p> +<p>Although Babylonia was not so great a world power under the +Kassites as it had been during the Hammurabi Dynasty, it +prospered greatly as an industrial, agricultural, and trading +country. The Babylonian language was used throughout western Asia +as the language of diplomacy and commerce, and the city of +Babylon was the most <a id="page.anchor.372" name= +"page.anchor.372"></a>important commercial metropolis of the +ancient world. Its merchants traded directly and indirectly with +far-distant countries. They imported cobalt--which was used for +colouring glass a vivid blue--from China, and may have +occasionally met Chinese traders who came westward with their +caravans, while a brisk trade in marble and limestone was +conducted with and through Elam. Egypt was the chief source of +the gold supply, which was obtained from the Nubian mines; and in +exchange for this precious metal the Babylonians supplied the +Nilotic merchants with lapis-lazuli from Bactria, enamel, and +their own wonderful coloured glass, which was not unlike the +later Venetian, as well as chariots and horses. The Kassites were +great horse breeders, and the battle steeds from the Babylonian +province of Namar were everywhere in great demand. They also +promoted the cattle trade. Cattle rearing was confined chiefly to +the marshy districts at the head of the Persian Gulf, and the +extensive steppes on the borders of the Arabian desert, so well +known to Abraham and his ancestors, which provided excellent +grazing. Agriculture also flourished; as in Egypt it constituted +the basis of national and commercial prosperity.</p> +<p>It is evident that great wealth accumulated in Karduniash +during the Kassite period. When the images of Merodach and +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> were taken back to +Babylon, from Assyria, they were clad, as has been recorded, in +garments embroidered with gold and sparkling with gems, while +E-sagila was redecorated on a lavish scale with priceless works +of art.</p> +<p>Assyria presented a sharp contrast to Babylonia, the mother +land, from which its culture was derived. As a separate kingdom +it had to develop along different lines. In fact, it was unable +to exist as a world power without the enforced co-operation of +neighbouring States. Babylonia, <a id="page.anchor.373" name= +"page.anchor.373"></a>on the other hand, could have flourished in +comparative isolation, like Egypt during the Old Kingdom period, +because it was able to feed itself and maintain a large +population so long as its rich alluvial plain was irrigated +during its dry season, which extended over about eight months in +the year.</p> +<p>The region north of Baghdad was of different geographical +formation to the southern plain, and therefore less suitable for +the birth and growth of a great independent civilization. Assyria +embraced a chalk plateau of the later Mesozoic period, with +tertiary deposits, and had an extremely limited area suitable for +agricultural pursuits. Its original inhabitants were nomadic +pastoral and hunting tribes, and there appears to be little doubt +that agriculture was introduced along the banks of the Tigris by +colonists from Babylonia, who formed city States which owed +allegiance to the kings of Sumer and Akkad.</p> +<p>After the Hammurabi period Assyria rose into prominence as a +predatory power, which depended for its stability upon those +productive countries which it was able to conquer and hold in +sway. It never had a numerous peasantry, and such as it had +ultimately vanished, for the kings pursued the short-sighted +policy of colonizing districts on the borders of their empire +with their loyal subjects, and settling aliens in the heart of +the homeland, where they were controlled by the military. In this +manner they built up an artificial empire, which suffered at +critical periods in its history because it lacked the great +driving and sustaining force of a population welded together by +immemorial native traditions and the love of country which is the +essence of true patriotism. National sentiment was chiefly +confined to the military aristocracy and the priests; the +enslaved and uncultured masses of <a id="page.anchor.374" name= +"page.anchor.374"></a>aliens were concerned mainly with their +daily duties, and no doubt included communities, like the +Israelites in captivity, who longed to return to their native +lands.</p> +<p>Assyria had to maintain a standing army, which grew from an +alliance of brigands who first enslaved the native population, +and ultimately extended their sway over neighbouring States. The +successes of the army made Assyria powerful. Conquering kings +accumulated rich booty by pillaging alien cities, and grew more +and more wealthy as they were able to impose annual tribute on +those States which came under their sway. They even regarded +Babylonia with avaricious eyes. It was to achieve the conquest of +the fertile and prosperous mother State that the early Assyrian +emperors conducted military operations in the north-west and laid +hands on Mesopotamia. There was no surer way of strangling it +than by securing control of its trade routes. What the command of +the sea is to Great Britain at the present day, the command of +the caravan roads was to ancient Babylonia.</p> +<p>Babylonia suffered less than Assyria by defeat in battle; its +natural resources gave it great recuperative powers, and the +native population was ever so intensely patriotic that centuries +of alien sway could not obliterate their national aspirations. A +conqueror of Babylon had to become a Babylonian. The Amorites and +Kassites had in turn to adopt the modes of life and modes of +thought of the native population. Like the Egyptians, the +Babylonians ever achieved the intellectual conquest of their +conquerors.</p> +<p>The Assyrian Empire, on the other hand, collapsed like a house +of cards when its army of mercenaries suffered a succession of +disasters. The kings, as we have indicated, depended on the +tribute of subject States to pay <a id="page.anchor.375" name= +"page.anchor.375"></a>their soldiers and maintain the priesthood; +they were faced with national bankruptcy when their vassals +successfully revolted against them.</p> +<p>The history of Assyria as a world power is divided into three +periods: (1) the Old Empire; (2) the Middle Empire; (3) the New +or Last Empire.</p> +<p>We have followed the rise and growth of the Old Empire from +the days of Ashur-uballit until the reign of Tukulti-Ninip, when +it flourished in great splendour and suddenly went to pieces. +Thereafter, until the second period of the Old Empire, Assyria +comprised but a few city States which had agricultural resources +and were trading centres. Of these the most enterprising was +Asshur. When a ruler of Asshur was able, by conserving his +revenues, to command sufficient capital with purpose to raise a +strong army of mercenaries as a business speculation, he set +forth to build up a new empire on the ruins of the old. In its +early stages, of course, this process was slow and difficult. It +necessitated the adoption of a military career by native +Assyrians, who officered the troops, and these troops had to be +trained and disciplined by engaging in brigandage, which also +brought them rich rewards for their services. Babylonia became +powerful by developing the arts of peace; Assyria became powerful +by developing the science of warfare.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1407" href="#fnrex1407" id= +"ftn.fnrex1407">407</a>]</span> At Carchemish a railway bridge +spans the mile-wide river ferry which Assyria's soldiers were +wont to cross with the aid of skin floats. The engineers have +found it possible to utilize a Hittite river wall about 3000 +years old--the oldest engineering structure in the world. The +ferry was on the old trade route.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1408" href="#fnrex1408" id= +"ftn.fnrex1408">408</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Deuteronomy</em></span>, xxvi, 5</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1409" href="#fnrex1409" id= +"ftn.fnrex1409">409</a>]</span> Pr. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>u</em></span> as <span class= +"emphasis"><em>oo</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1410" href="#fnrex1410" id= +"ftn.fnrex1410">410</a>]</span> The chief cities of North Syria +were prior to this period Hittite. This expansion did not change +the civilization but extended the area of occupation and +control.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1411" href="#fnrex1411" id= +"ftn.fnrex1411">411</a>]</span> Garstang's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>The Land of the Hittites,</em></span> p. +349.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1412" href="#fnrex1412" id= +"ftn.fnrex1412">412</a>]</span> "Burgh of Tukulti-Ninip."</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2541617" name= +"id2541617"></a>Chapter XVI. Race Movements that Shattered +Empires</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>The Third Semitic Migration--Achaean Conquest of Greece--Fall +of Crete--Tribes of Raiders--European Settlers in Asia Minor--The +Muski overthrow the Hittites--Sea Raids on Egypt--The Homeric +Age--Israelites and Philistines in Palestine--Culture of +Philistines--Nebuchadrezzar I of Babylonia--Wars against Elamites +and Hittites--Conquests in Mesopotamia and Syria--Assyrians and +Babylonians at War--Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria--His Sweeping +Conquests--Muski Power broken--Big-game Hunting in +Mesopotamia--Slaying of a Sea Monster--Decline of Assyria and +Babylonia--Revival of Hittite Civilization--An Important Period +in History--Philistines as Overlords of Hebrews--Kingdom of David +and Saul--Solomon's Relations with Egypt and Phoenicia--Sea Trade +with India--Aramaean Conquests--The Chaldaeans--Egyptian King +plunders Judah and Israel--Historical Importance of Race +Movements.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.376" name="page.anchor.376"></a> Great +changes were taking place in the ancient world during the period +in which Assyria rose into prominence and suddenly suffered +decline. These were primarily due to widespread migrations of +pastoral peoples from the steppe lands of Asia and Europe, and +the resulting displacement of settled tribes. The military +operations of the great Powers were also a disturbing factor, for +they not only propelled fresh movements beyond their spheres of +influence, but caused the petty States to combine against a +common enemy and foster ambitions to achieve conquests on a large +scale.</p> +<p>Towards the close of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, of which +Amenhotep III and Akhenaton were the last great kings, two +well-defined migrations were in <a id="page.anchor.377" name= +"page.anchor.377"></a>progress. The Aramaean folk-waves had +already begun to pour in increasing volume into Syria from +Arabia, and in Europe the pastoral fighting folk from the +mountains were establishing themselves along the south-eastern +coast and crossing the Hellespont to overrun the land of the +Hittites. These race movements were destined to exercise +considerable influence in shaping the history of the ancient +world.</p> +<p>The Aramaean, or Third Semitic migration, in time swamped +various decaying States. Despite the successive efforts of the +great Powers to hold it in check, it ultimately submerged the +whole of Syria and part of Mesopotamia. Aramaean speech then came +into common use among the mingled peoples over a wide area, and +was not displaced until the time of the Fourth Semitic or Moslem +migration from Arabia, which began in the seventh century of the +Christian era, and swept northward through Syria to Asia Minor, +eastward across Mesopotamia into Persia and India, and westward +through Egypt along the north African coast to Morocco, and then +into Spain.</p> +<p>When Syria was sustaining the first shocks of Aramaean +invasion, the last wave of Achaeans, "the tamers of horses" and +"shepherds of the people", had achieved the conquest of Greece, +and contributed to the overthrow of the dynasty of King Minos of +Crete. Professor Ridgeway identifies this stock, which had been +filtering southward for several centuries, with the tall, +fair-haired, and grey-eyed "Keltoi" (Celts),<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1413" href="#ftn.fnrex1413" id= +"fnrex1413">413</a>]</span> who, Dr. Haddon believes, were +representatives of "the mixed peoples of northern and Alpine +descent".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1414" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1414" id="fnrex1414">414</a>]</span> Mr. Hawes, +following Professor Sergi, holds, on the other hand, that the +Achaeans were <a id="page.anchor.378" name= +"page.anchor.378"></a>"fair in comparison with the native +(Pelasgian-Mediterranean) stock, but not necessarily +blonde".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1415" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1415" id="fnrex1415">415</a>]</span> The earliest +Achaeans were rude, uncultured barbarians, but the last wave came +from some unknown centre of civilization, and probably used iron +as well as bronze weapons.</p> +<p>The old Cretans were known to the Egyptians as the "Keftiu", +and traded on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It is +significant to find, however, that no mention is made of them in +the inscriptions of the Pharaohs after the reign of Amenhotep +III. In their place appear the Shardana, the Mykenaean people who +gave their name to Sardinia, the Danauna, believed to be +identical with the Danaoi of Homer, the Akhaivasha, perhaps the +Achaeans, and the Tursha and Shakalsha, who may have been of the +same stock as the piratical Lycians.</p> +<p>When Rameses II fought his famous battle at Kadesh the Hittite +king included among his allies the Aramaeans from Arabia, and +other mercenaries like the Dardanui and Masa, who represented the +Thraco-Phrygian peoples who had overrun the Balkans, occupied +Thrace and Macedonia, and crossed into Asia Minor. In time the +Hittite confederacy was broken up by the migrating Europeans, and +their dominant tribe, the Muski<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1416" href="#ftn.fnrex1416" id= +"fnrex1416">416</a>]</span>--the Moschoi of the Greeks and the +Meshech of the Old Testament--came into conflict with the +Assyrians. The Muski were forerunners of the Phrygians, and were +probably of allied stock.</p> +<p>Pharaoh Meneptah, the son of Rameses II, did not benefit much +by the alliance with the Hittites, to whom he had to send a +supply of grain during a time of famine. He found it necessary, +indeed, to invade Syria, where their influence had declined, and +had to beat back from the Delta region the piratical invaders of +the same tribes <a id="page.anchor.379" name= +"page.anchor.379"></a>as were securing a footing in Asia Minor. +In Syria, Meneptah fought with the Israelites, who apparently had +begun their conquest of Canaan during his reign.</p> +<p>Before the Kassite Dynasty had come to an end, Rameses III of +Egypt (1198-1167 B.C.) freed his country from the perils of a +great invasion of Europeans by land and sea. He scattered a fleet +on the Delta coast, and then arrested the progress of a strong +force which was pressing southward through Phoenicia towards the +Egyptian frontier. These events occurred at the beginning of the +Homeric Age, and were followed by the siege of Troy, which, +according to the Greeks, began about 1194 B.C.</p> +<p>The land raiders who were thwarted by Rameses III were the +Philistines, a people from Crete.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1417" href="#ftn.fnrex1417" id="fnrex1417">417</a>]</span> +When the prestige of Egypt suffered decline they overran the +coastline of Canaan, and that country was then called Palestine, +"the land of the Philistines", while the Egyptian overland trade +route to Phoenicia became known as "the way of the Philistines". +Their conflicts with the Hebrews are familiar to readers of the +Old Testament. "The only contributions the Hebrews made to the +culture of the country", writes Professor Macalister, "were their +simple desert customs and their religious organization. On the +other hand, the Philistines, sprung from one of the great homes +of art of the ancient world, had brought with them the artistic +instincts of their race: decayed no doubt, but still superior to +anything they met with in the land itself. Tombs to be ascribed +to them, found in Gezer, contained beautiful jewellery and +ornaments. The Philistines, in fact, were the only cultured or +artistic race who ever occupied the soil of Palestine, at least +until the time when the influence of classical Greece asserted +itself too strongly <a id="page.anchor.380" name= +"page.anchor.380"></a>to be withstood. Whatsoever things raised +life in the country above the dull animal existence of fellahin +were due to this people.... The peasantry of the modern villages +... still tell of the great days of old when it (Palestine) was +inhabited by the mighty race of the 'Fenish'."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1418" href="#ftn.fnrex1418" id= +"fnrex1418">418</a>]</span></p> +<p>When the Kassite Dynasty of Babylonia was extinguished, about +1140 B.C., the Amorites were being displaced in Palestine by the +Philistines and the Israelitish tribes; the Aramaeans were +extending their conquests in Syria and Mesopotamia; the Muski +were the overlords of the Hittites; Assyrian power was being +revived at the beginning of the second period of the Old Empire; +and Egypt was governed by a weakly king, Rameses VIII, a puppet +in the hands of the priesthood, who was unable to protect the +rich tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty Pharaohs against the bands +of professional robbers who were plundering them.</p> +<p>A new dynasty--the Dynasty of Pashe--had arisen at the ancient +Sumerian city of Isin. Its early kings were contemporary with +some of the last Kassite monarchs, and they engaged in conflicts +with the Elamites, who were encroaching steadily upon Babylonian +territory, and were ultimately able to seize the province of +Namar, famous for its horses, which was situated to the east of +Akkad. The Assyrians, under Ashur-dan I, were not only +reconquering lost territory, but invading Babylonia and carrying +off rich plunder. Ashur-dan inflicted a crushing defeat upon the +second-last Kassite ruler.</p> +<p>There years later Nebuchadrezzar I, of the Dynasty of Pashe, +seized the Babylonian throne. He was the most powerful and +distinguished monarch of his line--an accomplished general and a +wise statesman. His name <a id="page.anchor.381" name= +"page.anchor.381"></a>signifies: "May the god Nebo protect my +boundary". His first duty was to drive the Elamites from the +land, and win back from them the statue of Merodach which they +had carried off from E-sagila. At first he suffered a reverse, +but although the season was midsummer, and the heat overpowering, +he persisted in his campaign. The Elamites were forced to +retreat, and following up their main force he inflicted upon them +a shattering defeat on the banks of the Ula, a tributary of the +Tigris. He then invaded Elam and returned with rich booty. The +province of Namar was recovered, and its governor, Ritti +Merodach, who was Nebuchadrezzar's battle companion, was restored +to his family possessions and exempted from taxation. A second +raid to Elam resulted in the recovery of the statue of Merodach. +The Kassite and Lullume mountaineers also received attention, and +were taught to respect the power of the new monarch.</p> +<p>Having freed his country from the yoke of the Elamites, and +driven the Assyrians over the frontier, Nebuchadrezzar came into +conflict with the Hittites, who appear to have overrun +Mesopotamia. Probably the invaders were operating in conjunction +with the Muski, who were extending their sway over part of +northern Assyria. They were not content with securing control of +the trade route, but endeavoured also to establish themselves +permanently in Babylon, the commercial metropolis, which they +besieged and captured. This happened in the third year of +Nebuchadrezzar, when he was still reigning at Isin. Assembling a +strong force, he hastened northward and defeated the Hittites, +and apparently followed up his victory. Probably it was at this +time that he conquered the "West Land" (the land of the Amorites) +and penetrated to the Mediterranean coast. Egyptian power had +been long extinguished in that region.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.382" name="page.anchor.382"></a>The +possession of Mesopotamia was a signal triumph for Babylonia. As +was inevitable, however, it brought Nebuchadrezzar into conflict +some years later with the Assyrian king, Ashur-resh-ishi I, +grandson of Ashur-dan, and father of the famous Tiglath-pileser +I. The northern monarch had engaged himself in subduing the +Lullume and Akhlami hill tribes in the south-east, whose +territory had been conquered by Nebuchadrezzar. Thereafter he +crossed the Babylonian frontier. Nebuchadrezzar drove him back +and then laid siege to the border fortress of Zanki, but the +Assyrian king conducted a sudden and successful reconnaissance in +force which rendered perilous the position of the attacking +force. By setting fire to his siege train the Babylonian war lord +was able, however, to retreat in good order.</p> +<p>Some time later Nebuchadrezzar dispatched another army +northward, but it suffered a serious defeat, and its general, +Karashtu, fell into the hands of the enemy.</p> +<p>Nebuchadrezzar reigned less than twenty years, and appears to +have secured the allegiance of the nobility by restoring the +feudal system which had been abolished by the Kassites. He +boasted that he was "the sun of his country, who restored ancient +landmarks and boundaries", and promoted the worship of Ishtar, +the ancient goddess of the people. By restoring the image of +Merodach he secured the support of Babylon, to which city he +transferred his Court.</p> +<p>Nebuchadrezzar was succeeded by his son Ellil-nadin-apil, who +reigned a few years; but little or nothing is known regarding +him. His grandson, Marduk-nadin-akhe, came into conflict with +Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria, and suffered serious reverses, from +the effects of which his country did not recover for over a +century.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser I, in one of his inscriptions, recorded <a id= +"page.anchor.383" name="page.anchor.383"></a>significantly: "The +feet of the enemy I kept from my country". When he came to the +throne, northern Assyria was menaced by the Muski and their +allies, the Hittites and the Shubari of old Mitanni. The Kashiari +hill tribes to the north of Nineveh, whom Shalmaneser I subdued, +had half a century before thrown off the yoke of Assyria, and +their kings were apparently vassals of the Muski.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser first invaded Mitanni, where he routed a +combined force of Shubari hillmen and Hittites. Thereafter a +great army of the Muski and their allies pressed southward with +purpose to deal a shattering blow against the Assyrian power. The +very existence of Assyria as a separate power was threatened by +this movement. Tiglath-pileser, however, was equal to the +occasion. He surprised the invaders among the Kashiari mountains +and inflicted a crushing defeat, slaying about 14,000 and +capturing 6000 prisoners, who were transported to Asshur. In +fact, he wiped the invading army out of existence and possessed +himself of all its baggage. Thereafter he captured several +cities, and extended his empire beyond the Kashiari hills and +into the heart of Mitanni.</p> +<p>His second campaign was also directed towards the Mitanni +district, which had been invaded during his absence by a force of +Hittites, about 4000 strong. The invaders submitted to him as +soon as he drew near, and he added them to his standing army.</p> +<p>Subsequent operations towards the north restored the +pre-eminence of Assyria in the Nairi country, on the shores of +Lake Van, in Armenia, where Tiglath-pileser captured no fewer +than twenty-three petty kings. These he liberated after they had +taken the oath of allegiance and consented to pay annual +tribute.</p> +<p>In his fourth year the conqueror learned that the Aramaeans +were crossing the Euphrates and possessing <a id= +"page.anchor.384" name="page.anchor.384"></a>themselves of +Mitanni, which he had cleared of the Hittites. By a series of +forced marches he caught them unawares, scattered them in +confusion, and entered Carchemish, which he pillaged. Thereafter +his army crossed the Euphrates in boats of skin, and plundered +and destroyed six cities round the base of the mountain of +Bishru.</p> +<p>While operating in this district, Tiglath-pileser engaged in +big-game hunting. He recorded: "Ten powerful bull elephants in +the land of Haran and on the banks of the Khabour I killed; four +elephants alive I took. Their skins, their teeth, with the living +elephants, I brought to my city of Asshur."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1419" href="#ftn.fnrex1419" id= +"fnrex1419">419</a>]</span> He also claimed to have slain 920 +lions, as well as a number of wild oxen, apparently including in +his record the "bags" of his officers and men. A later king +credited him with having penetrated to the Phoenician coast, +where he put to sea and slew a sea monster called the "nakhiru". +While at Arvad, the narrative continues, the King of Egypt, who +is not named, sent him a hippopotamus (pagutu). This story, +however, is of doubtful authenticity. About this time the +prestige of Egypt was at so low an ebb that its messengers were +subjected to indignities by the Phoenician kings.</p> +<p>The conquests of Tiglath-pileser once more raised the +Mesopotamian question in Babylonia, whose sphere of influence in +that region had been invaded. Marduk-nadin-akhe, the grandson of +Nebuchadrezzar I, "arrayed his chariots" against Tiglath-pileser, +and in the first conflict achieved some success, but subsequently +he was defeated in the land of Akkad. The Assyrian army +afterwards captured several cities, including Babylon and +Sippar.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2542429" name="id2542429"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XVI.1. ASSYRIAN KING HUNTING +LIONS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/31.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2542442" name="id2542442"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XVI.2. TYRIAN GALLEY PUTTING OUT TO +SEA</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Marble slab from Kouyunjik +(Nineveh): now in the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/32.jpg" /></div> +<p>Thus once again the Assyrian Empire came into being <a id= +"page.anchor.385" name="page.anchor.385"></a>as the predominant +world Power, extending from the land of the Hittites into the +heart of Babylonia. Its cities were enriched by the immense +quantities of booty captured by its warrior king, while the +coffers of state were glutted with the tribute of subject States. +Fortifications were renewed, temples were built, and great gifts +were lavished on the priesthood. Artists and artisans were kept +fully employed restoring the faded splendours of the Old Empire, +and everywhere thousands of slaves laboured to make the neglected +land prosperous as of old. Canals were repaired and reopened; the +earthworks and quay wall of Ashur were strengthened, and its +great wall was entirely rebuilt, faced with a rampart of earth, +and protected once again by a deep moat. The royal palace was +enlarged and redecorated.</p> +<p>Meanwhile Babylonia was wasted by civil war and invasions. It +was entered more than once by the Aramaeans, who pillaged several +cities in the north and the south. Then the throne was seized by +Adad-aplu-iddina, the grandson of "a nobody", who reigned for +about ten years. He was given recognition, however, by the +Assyrian king, Ashur-bel-kala, son of Tiglath-pileser I, who +married his daughter, and apparently restored to him Sippar and +Babylon after receiving a handsome dowry. Ashur-bel-kala died +without issue, and was succeeded by his brother, +Shamshi-Adad.</p> +<p>An obscure period followed. In Babylonia there were two weak +dynasties in less than half a century, and thereafter an Elamite +Dynasty which lasted about six years. An Eighth Dynasty ensued, +and lasted between fifty and sixty years. The records of its +early kings are exceedingly meagre and their order uncertain. +During the reign of Nabu-mukin-apli, who was perhaps the fourth +monarch, the Aramaeans constantly raided the land and hovered +<a id="page.anchor.386" name="page.anchor.386"></a>about Babylon. +The names of two or three kings who succeeded Nabu-mukin-apli are +unknown.</p> +<p>A century and a half after Tiglath-pileser I conquered the +north Syrian possessions of the Hittites, the Old Assyrian Empire +reached the close of its second and last period. It had suffered +gradual decline, under a series of inert and luxury-loving kings, +until it was unable to withstand the gradual encroachment on +every side of the restless hill tribes, who were ever ready to +revolt when the authority of Ashur was not asserted at the point +of the sword.</p> +<p>After 950 B.C. the Hittites of North Syria, having shaken off +the last semblance of Assyrian authority, revived their power, +and enjoyed a full century of independence and prosperity. In +Cappadocia their kinsmen had freed themselves at an earlier +period from the yoke of the Muski, who had suffered so severely +at the hands of Tiglath-pileser I. The Hittite buildings and rock +sculptures of this period testify to the enduring character of +the ancient civilization of the "Hatti". Until the hieroglyphics +can be read, however, we must wait patiently for the detailed +story of the pre-Phrygian period, which was of great historical +importance, because the tide of cultural influence was then +flowing at its greatest volume from the old to the new world, +where Greece was emerging in virgin splendour out of the ruins of +the ancient Mykenaean and Cretan civilizations.</p> +<p>It is possible that the conquest of a considerable part of +Palestine by the Philistines was not unconnected with the revival +of Hittite power in the north. They may have moved southward as +the allies of the Cilician State which was rising into +prominence. For a period they were the overlords of the Hebrews, +who had been displacing the older inhabitants of the "Promised +Land", <a id="page.anchor.387" name="page.anchor.387"></a>and +appear to have been armed with weapons of iron. In fact, as is +indicated by a passage in the Book of Samuel, they had made a +"corner" in that metal and restricted its use among their +vassals. "Now", the Biblical narrative sets forth, "there was no +smith found throughout all the land of Israel; for the +Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords and spears; +but all the Israelites went down to the Philistines, to sharpen +every man his share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his +mattock".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1420" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1420" id="fnrex1420">420</a>]</span> "We are +inclined", says Professor Macalister, "to picture the West as a +thing of yesterday, new fangled with its inventions and its +progressive civilization, and the East as an embodiment of hoary +and unchanging traditions. But when West first met East on the +shores of the Holy Land, it was the former which represented the +magnificent traditions of the past, and the latter which looked +forward to the future. The Philistines were of the remnant of the +dying glories of Crete; the Hebrews had no past to speak of, but +were entering on the heritage they regarded as theirs, by right +of a recently ratified divine covenant."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1421" href="#ftn.fnrex1421" id= +"fnrex1421">421</a>]</span></p> +<p>Saul was the leader of a revolt against the Philistines in +northern Palestine, and became the ruler of the kingdom of +Israel. Then David, having liberated Judah from the yoke of the +Philistines, succeeded Saul as ruler of Israel, and selected +Jerusalem as his capital. He also conquered Edom and Moab, but +was unsuccessful in his attempt to subjugate Ammon. The +Philistines were then confined to a restricted area on the +seacoast, where they fused with the Semites and ultimately +suffered loss of identity. Under the famous Solomon the united +kingdom of the Hebrews reached its highest splendour and +importance among the nations.</p> +<p>If the Philistines received the support of the Hittites, +<a id="page.anchor.388" name="page.anchor.388"></a>the Hebrews +were strengthened by an alliance with Egypt. For a period of two +and a half centuries no Egyptian army had crossed the Delta +frontier into Syria. The ancient land of the Pharaohs had been +overshadowed meantime by a cloud of anarchy, and piratical and +robber bands settled freely on its coast line. At length a Libyan +general named Sheshonk (Shishak) seized the throne from the +Tanite Dynasty. He was the Pharaoh with whom Solomon "made +affinity",<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1422" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1422" id="fnrex1422">422</a>]</span> and from whom he +received the city of Gezer, which an Egyptian army had +captured.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1423" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1423" id="fnrex1423">423</a>]</span> Solomon had +previously married a daughter of Sheshonk's.</p> +<p>Phoenicia was also flourishing. Freed from Egyptian, Hittite, +and Assyrian interference, Tyre and Sidon attained to a high +degree of power as independent city States. During the reigns of +David and Solomon, Tyre was the predominant Phoenician power. Its +kings, Abibaal and his son Hiram, had become "Kings of the +Sidonians", and are believed to have extended their sway over +part of Cyprus. The relations between the Hebrews and the +Phoenicians were of a cordial character, indeed the two powers +became allies.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>And Hiram king of Tyre sent his servants unto Solomon; for he +had heard that they had anointed him king in the room of his +father: for Hiram was ever a lover of David. And Solomon sent to +Hiram, saying, Thou knowest how that David my father could not +build an house unto the name of the Lord His God for the wars +which were about him on every side, until the Lord put them under +the soles of his feet. But now the Lord my God hath given me rest +on every side, so that there is neither adversary nor evil +occurrent. And, behold, I purpose to build an house unto the name +of the Lord my God, as the Lord spake unto David my father, +saying, Thy son, whom I will set upon thy throne in thy room, he +shall build an house unto my name. Now therefore command <a id= +"page.anchor.389" name="page.anchor.389"></a>thou that they hew +me cedar trees out of Lebanon; and my servants shall be with thy +servants: and unto thee will I give hire for thy servants +according to all that thou shalt appoint: for thou knowest that +there is not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto +the Sidonians. And it came to pass, when Hiram heard the words of +Solomon, that he rejoiced greatly, and said, Blessed be the Lord +this day, which hath given unto David a wise son over this great +people. And Hiram sent to Solomon, saying, I have considered the +things which thou sentest to me for: and I will do all thy desire +concerning timber of cedar, and concerning timber of fir. My +servants shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea: and I +will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that thou shalt +appoint me, and will cause them to be discharged there, and thou +shalt receive them: and thou shalt accomplish my desire, in +giving food for my household. So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees +and fir trees according to all his desire. And Solomon gave Hiram +twenty thousand measures of wheat for food to his household, and +twenty measures of pure oil: thus gave Solomon to Hiram year by +year. And the Lord gave Solomon wisdom, as he promised him: and +there was peace between Hiram and Solomon; and they two made a +league together.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1424" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1424" id="fnrex1424">424</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Hiram also sent skilled workers to Jerusalem to assist in the +work of building the temple and Solomon's palace, including his +famous namesake, "a widow's son of the (Hebrew) tribe of +Naphtali", who, like his father, "a man of Tyre", had +"understanding and cunning to work all works in +brass".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1425" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1425" id="fnrex1425">425</a>]</span></p> +<p>Solomon must have cultivated good relations with the +Chaldaeans, for he had a fleet of trading ships on the Persian +Gulf which was manned by Phoenician sailors. "Once in three +years", the narrative runs, "came the navy of Tharshish, bringing +gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1426" href="#ftn.fnrex1426" id= +"fnrex1426">426</a>]</span> Apparently he traded with India, the +land of peacocks, during the Brahmanical period, when <a id= +"page.anchor.390" name="page.anchor.390"></a>the Sanskrit name +"Samudra", which formerly signified the "collected waters" of the +broadening Indus, was applied to the Indian Ocean.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1427" href="#ftn.fnrex1427" id= +"fnrex1427">427</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Aramaeans of the Third Semitic migration were not slow to +take advantage of the weakness of Assyria and Babylon. They +overran the whole of Syria, and entered into the possession of +Mesopotamia, thus acquiring full control of the trade routes +towards the west. From time to time they ravaged Babylonia from +the north to the south. Large numbers of them acquired permanent +settlement in that country, like the Amorites of the Second +Semitic migration in the pre-Hammurabi Age.</p> +<p>In Syria the Aramaeans established several petty States, and +were beginning to grow powerful at Damascus, an important trading +centre, which assumed considerable political importance after the +collapse of Assyria's Old Empire.</p> +<p>At this period, too, the Chaldaeans came into prominence in +Babylonia. Their kingdom of Chaldaea (Kaldu, which signifies +Sealand) embraces a wide stretch of the coast land at the head of +the Persian Gulf between Arabia and Elam. As we have seen, an +important dynasty flourished in this region in the time of +Hammurabi. Although more than one king of Babylon recorded that +he had extinguished the Sealand Power, it continued to exist all +through the Kassite period. It is possible that this obscure +kingdom embraced diverse ethnic elements, and that it was +controlled in turn by military aristocracies of Sumerians, +Elamites, Kassites, and Arabians. After the downfall of the +Kassites it had become thoroughly Semitized, perhaps as a result +of the Aramaean migration, which may have found one of its +outlets around the head <a id="page.anchor.391" name= +"page.anchor.391"></a>of the Persian Gulf. The ancient Sumerian +city of Ur, which dominated a considerable area of steppe land to +the west of the Euphrates, was included in the Sealand kingdom, +and was consequently referred to in after-time as "Ur of the +Chaldees".</p> +<p>When Solomon reigned over Judah and Israel, Babylonia was +broken up into a number of petty States, as in early Sumerian +times. The feudal revival of Nebuchadrezzar I had weakened the +central power, with the result that the nominal high kings were +less able to resist the inroads of invaders. Military +aristocracies of Aramaeans, Elamites, and Chaldaeans held sway in +various parts of the valley, and struggled for supremacy.</p> +<p>When Assyria began to assert itself again, it laid claim on +Babylonia, ostensibly as the protector of its independence, and +the Chaldaeans for a time made common cause with the Elamites +against it. The future, however, lay with the Chaldaeans, who, +like the Kassites, became the liberators of the ancient +inhabitants. When Assyria was finally extinguished as a world +power they revived the ancient glory of Babylonia, and supplanted +the Sumerians as the scholars and teachers of Western Asia. The +Chaldaeans became famous in Syria, and even in Greece, as "the +wise men from the east", and were renowned as astrologers.</p> +<p>The prestige of the Hebrew kingdom suffered sharp and serious +decline after Solomon's death. Pharaoh Sheshonk fostered the +elements of revolt which ultimately separated Israel from Judah, +and, when a favourable opportunity arose, invaded Palestine and +Syria and reestablished Egypt's suzerainty over part of the area +which had been swayed by Rameses II, replenishing his exhausted +treasury with rich booty and the tribute he imposed. Phoenicia +was able, however, to maintain its <a id="page.anchor.392" name= +"page.anchor.392"></a>independence, but before the Assyrians +moved westward again, Sidon had shaken off the yoke of Tyre and +become an independent State.</p> +<p>It will be seen from the events outlined in this chapter how +greatly the history of the ancient world was affected by the +periodic migrations of pastoral folks from the steppe lands. +These human tides were irresistible. The direction of their flow +might be diverted for a time, but they ultimately overcame every +obstacle by sheer persistency and overpowering volume. Great +emperors in Assyria and Egypt endeavoured to protect their +countries from the "Bedouin peril" by strengthening their +frontiers and extending their spheres of influence, but the +dammed-up floods of humanity only gathered strength in the +interval for the struggle which might be postponed but could not +be averted.</p> +<p>These migrations, as has been indicated, were due to natural +causes. They were propelled by climatic changes which caused a +shortage of the food supply, and by the rapid increase of +population under peaceful conditions. Once a migration began to +flow, it set in motion many currents and cross currents, but all +these converged towards the districts which offered the most +attractions to mankind. Prosperous and well-governed States were +ever in peril of invasion by barbarous peoples. The fruits of +civilization tempted them; the reward of conquest was quickly +obtained in Babylon and Egypt with their flourishing farms and +prosperous cities. Waste land was reclaimed then as now by +colonists from centres of civilization; the migrating pastoral +folks lacked the initiative and experience necessary to establish +new communities in undeveloped districts. Highly civilized men +sowed the harvest and the barbarians reaped it.</p> +<p>It must not be concluded, however, that the migrations <a id= +"page.anchor.393" name="page.anchor.393"></a>were historical +disasters, or that they retarded the general advancement of the +human race. In time the barbarians became civilized and fused +with the peoples whom they conquered. They introduced, too, into +communities which had grown stagnant and weakly, a fresh and +invigorating atmosphere that acted as a stimulant in every sphere +of human activity. The Kassite, for instance, was a unifying and +therefore a strengthening influence in Babylonia. He shook off +the manacles of the past which bound the Sumerian and the +Akkadian alike to traditional lines of policy based on +unforgotten ancient rivalries. His concern was chiefly with the +future. The nomads with their experience of desert wandering +promoted trade, and the revival of trade inaugurated new eras of +prosperity in ancient centres of culture, and brought them into +closer touch than ever before with one another. The rise of +Greece was due to the blending of the Achaeans and other pastoral +fighting folks with the indigenous Pelasgians. Into the early +States which fostered the elements of ancient Mykenaean +civilization, poured the cultural influences of the East through +Asia Minor and Phoenicia and from the Egyptian coast. The +conquerors from the steppes meanwhile contributed their genius +for organization, their simple and frugal habits of life, and +their sterling virtues; they left a deep impress on the moral, +physical, and intellectual life of Greece.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1413" href="#fnrex1413" id= +"ftn.fnrex1413">413</a>]</span> Article "Celts" in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Encyclopaedia Britannica</em></span>, eleventh +ed.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1414" href="#fnrex1414" id= +"ftn.fnrex1414">414</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Wanderings of Peoples</em></span>, p. 41.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1415" href="#fnrex1415" id= +"ftn.fnrex1415">415</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Crete, +the Forerunner of Greece</em></span>, p. 146.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1416" href="#fnrex1416" id= +"ftn.fnrex1416">416</a>]</span> Pr. Moosh´kee.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1417" href="#fnrex1417" id= +"ftn.fnrex1417">417</a>]</span> "Have I not brought up Israel out +of the land of Egypt and the Philistines from Caphtor (Crete)?" +<span class="emphasis"><em>Amos</em></span>, viii, 7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1418" href="#fnrex1418" id= +"ftn.fnrex1418">418</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Civilization in Palestine</em></span>, p. 58.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1419" href="#fnrex1419" id= +"ftn.fnrex1419">419</a>]</span> Pinches' translation.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1420" href="#fnrex1420" id= +"ftn.fnrex1420">420</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>I +Samuel</em></span>, xiii, 19.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1421" href="#fnrex1421" id= +"ftn.fnrex1421">421</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Civilization in Palestine</em></span>, p. 54.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1422" href="#fnrex1422" id= +"ftn.fnrex1422">422</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, iii, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1423" href="#fnrex1423" id= +"ftn.fnrex1423">423</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., ix, 16.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1424" href="#fnrex1424" id= +"ftn.fnrex1424">424</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, v, 1-12.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1425" href="#fnrex1425" id= +"ftn.fnrex1425">425</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., vii, 14 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1426" href="#fnrex1426" id= +"ftn.fnrex1426">426</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., x, 22-3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1427" href="#fnrex1427" id= +"ftn.fnrex1427">427</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, pp. 83-4.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2543038" name= +"id2543038"></a>Chapter XVII. The Hebrews in Assyrian +History</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Revival of Assyrian Power--The Syro-Cappadocian Hittites--The +Aramaean State of Damascus--Reign of Terror in +Mesopotamia--Barbarities of Ashur-natsir-pal III--Babylonia and +Chaldaea subdued--Glimpse of the Kalkhi Valley--The Hebrew +Kingdoms of Judah and Israel--Rival Monarchs and their Wars--How +Judah became subject to Damascus--Ahab and the Phoenician +Jezebel--Persecution of Elijah and other Prophets--Israelites +fight against Assyrians--Shalmaneser as Overlord of +Babylonia--Revolts of Jehu in Israel and Hazael in +Damascus--Shalmaneser defeats Hazael--Jehu sends Tribute to +Shalmaneser--Baal Worship Supplanted by Golden Calf Worship in +Israel--Queen Athaliah of Judah--Crowning of the Boy King +Joash--Damascus supreme in Syria and Palestine--Civil War in +Assyria--Triumphs of Shamshi-Adad VII--Babylonia becomes an +Assyrian Province.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.394" name="page.anchor.394"></a> In one of +the Scottish versions of the Seven Sleepers legend a shepherd +enters a cave, in which the great heroes of other days lie +wrapped in magic slumber, and blows two blasts on the horn which +hangs suspended from the roof. The sleepers open their eyes and +raise themselves on their elbows. Then the shepherd hears a +warning voice which comes and goes like the wind, saying: "If the +horn is blown once again, the world will be upset altogether". +Terrified by the Voice and the ferocious appearance of the +heroes, the shepherd retreats hurriedly, locking the door behind +him; he casts the key into the sea. The story proceeds: "If +anyone should find the key and open the door, and blow but a +single blast on the horn, Finn and all the Feans would come +forth. And that would be a great day in Alban."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1428" href="#ftn.fnrex1428" id= +"fnrex1428">428</a>]</span></p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.395" name="page.anchor.395"></a>After the +lapse of an obscure century the national heroes of Assyria were +awakened as if from sleep by the repeated blasts from the horn of +the triumphant thunder god amidst the northern and western +mountains--Adad or Rimmon of Syria, Teshup of Armenia, Tarku of +the western Hittites. The great kings who came forth to "upset +the world" bore the familiar names, Ashur-natsir-pal, +Shalmaneser, Shamash-Adad, Ashur-dan, Adad-nirari, and +Ashur-nirari. They revived and increased the ancient glory of +Assyria during its Middle Empire period.</p> +<p>The Syro-Cappadocian Hittites had grown once again powerful +and prosperous, but no great leader like Subbiluliuma arose to +weld the various States into an Empire, so as to ensure the +protection of the mingled peoples from the operations of the +aggressive and ambitious war-lords of Assyria. One kingdom had +its capital at Hamath and another at Carchemish on the Euphrates. +The kingdom of Tabal flourished in Cilicia (Khilakku); it +included several city States like Tarsus, Tiana, and Comana +(Kammanu). Farther west was the dominion of the Thraco-Phrygian +Muski. The tribes round the shores of Lake Van had asserted +themselves and extended their sphere of influence. The State of +Urartu was of growing importance, and the Nairi tribes had spread +round the south-eastern shores of Lake Van. The northern frontier +of Assyria was continually menaced by groups of independent hill +States which would have been irresistible had they operated +together against a common enemy, but were liable to be +extinguished when attacked in detail.</p> +<p>A number of Aramaean kingdoms had come into existence in +Mesopotamia and throughout Syria. The most influential of these +was the State of Damascus, the king of which was the overlord of +the Hebrew <a id="page.anchor.396" name= +"page.anchor.396"></a>kingdoms of Israel and Judah when +Ashur-natsir-pal III ascended the Assyrian throne about 885 B.C. +Groups of the Aramaeans had acquired a high degree of culture and +become traders and artisans. Large numbers had filtered, as well, +not only into Babylonia but also Assyria and the north Syrian +area of Hittite control. Accustomed for generations to desert +warfare, they were fearless warriors. Their armies had great +mobility, being composed mostly of mounted infantry, and were not +easily overpowered by the Assyrian forces of footmen and +charioteers. Indeed, it was not until cavalry was included in the +standing army of Assyria that operations against the Aramaeans +were attended with permanent success.</p> +<p>Ashur-natsir-pal III<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1429" +href="#ftn.fnrex1429" id="fnrex1429">429</a>]</span> was preceded +by two vigorous Assyrian rulers, Adad-nirari III (911-890 B.C.) +and Tukulti-Ninip II (890-885 B.C). The former had raided North +Syria and apparently penetrated as far as the Mediterranean +coast. In consequence he came into conflict with Babylonia, but +he ultimately formed an alliance with that kingdom. His son, +Tukulti-Ninip, operated in southern Mesopotamia, and apparently +captured Sippar. In the north he had to drive back invading bands +of the Muski. Although, like his father, he carried out great +works at Asshur, he appears to have transferred his Court to +Nineveh, a sure indication that Assyria was once again becoming +powerful in northern Mesopotamia and the regions towards +Armenia.</p> +<p>Ashur-natsir-pal III, son of Tukulti-Ninip II, inaugurated a +veritable reign of terror in Mesopotamia and northern Syria. His +methods of dealing with revolting tribes were of a most savage +character. Chiefs were skinned alive, and when he sacked their +cities, not only fighting-men but women and children were either +<a id="page.anchor.397" name="page.anchor.397"></a>slaughtered or +burned at the stake. It is not surprising to find therefore that, +on more than one occasion, the kings of petty States made +submission to him without resistance as soon as he invaded their +domains.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2543231" name="id2543231"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XVII.1. STATUE OF ASHUR-NATSIR-PAL, +WITH INSCRIPTIONS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From S.W. Palace of Nimroud: now in +British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/33.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2543249" name="id2543249"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XVII.2. DETAILS FROM SECOND SIDE OF +BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER III</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>(1) Tribute bearers of Jehu, King of Israel. (2) Tributary +Animals. (3) Tribute bearers with shawls and bags (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/34.jpg" /></div> +<p>In his first year he overran the mountainous district between +Lake Van and the upper sources of the Tigris. Bubu, the rebel son +of the governor of Nishtun, who had been taken prisoner, was +transported to Arbela, where he was skinned alive. Like his +father, Ashur-natsir-pal fought against the Muski, whose power +was declining. Then he turned southward from the borders of Asia +Minor and dealt with a rebellion in northern Mesopotamia.</p> +<p>An Aramaean pretender named Akhiababa had established himself +at Suru in the region to the east of the Euphrates, enclosed by +its tributaries the Khabar and the Balikh. He had come from the +neighbouring Aramaean State of Bit-Adini, and was preparing, it +would appear, to form a powerful confederacy against the +Assyrians.</p> +<p>When Ashur-natsir-pal approached Suru, a part of its +population welcomed him. He entered the city, seized the +pretender and many of his followers. These he disposed of with +characteristic barbarity. Some were skinned alive and some +impaled on stakes, while others were enclosed in a pillar which +the king had erected to remind the Aramaeans of his determination +to brook no opposition. Akhiababa the pretender was sent to +Nineveh with a few supporters; and when they had been flayed +their skins were nailed upon the city walls.</p> +<p>Another revolt broke out in the Kirkhi district between the +upper reaches of the Tigris and the southwestern shores of Lake +Van. It was promoted by the Nairi tribes, and even supported by +some Assyrian officials. Terrible reprisals were meted out to the +rebels. <a id="page.anchor.398" name="page.anchor.398"></a>When +the city of Kinabu was captured, no fewer than 3000 prisoners +were burned alive, the unfaithful governor being flayed. The city +of Damdamusa was set on fire. Then Tela was attacked. +Ashur-natsir-pal's own account of the operations runs as +follows:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The city (of Tello) was very strong; three walls surrounded +it. The inhabitants trusted to their strong walls and numerous +soldiers; they did not come down or embrace my feet. With battle +and slaughter I assaulted and took the city. Three thousand +warriors I slew in battle. Their booty and possessions, cattle, +sheep, I carried away; many captives I burned with fire. Many of +their soldiers I took alive; of some I cut off hands and limbs; +of others the noses, ears, and arms; of many soldiers I put out +the eyes. I reared a column of the living and a column of heads. +I hung on high their heads on trees in the vicinity of their +city. Their boys and girls I burned up in flames. I devastated +the city, dug it up, in fire burned it; I annihilated +it.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1430" href="#ftn.fnrex1430" +id="fnrex1430">430</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The Assyrian war-lord afterwards forced several Nairi kings to +acknowledge him as their overlord. He was so greatly feared by +the Syro-Cappadocian Hittites that when he approached their +territory they sent him tribute, yielding without a struggle.</p> +<p>For several years the great conqueror engaged himself in thus +subduing rebellious tribes and extending his territory. His +military headquarters were at Kalkhi, to which city the Court had +been transferred. Thither he drafted thousands of prisoners, the +great majority of whom he incorporated in the Assyrian army. +Assyrian colonies were established in various districts for +strategical purposes, and officials supplanted the petty kings in +certain of the northern city States.</p> +<p>The Aramaeans of Mesopotamia gave much trouble to +Ashur-natsir-pal. Although he had laid a heavy hand <a id= +"page.anchor.399" name="page.anchor.399"></a>on Suru, the +southern tribes, the Sukhi, stirred up revolts in Mesopotamia as +the allies of the Babylonians. On one occasion Ashur-natsir-pal +swept southward through this region, and attacked a combined +force of Sukhi Aramaeans and Babylonians. The Babylonians were +commanded by Zabdanu, brother of Nabu-aplu-iddin, king of +Babylonia, who was evidently anxious to regain control of the +western trade route. The Assyrian war-lord, however, proved to be +too powerful a rival. He achieved so complete a victory that he +captured the Babylonian general and 3000 of his followers. The +people of Kashshi (Babylonia) and Kaldu (Chaldaea) were "stricken +with terror", and had to agree to pay increased tribute.</p> +<p>Ashur-natsir-pal reigned for about a quarter of a century, but +his wars occupied less than half of that period. Having +accumulated great booty, he engaged himself, as soon as peace was +secured throughout his empire, in rebuilding the city of Kalkhi, +where he erected a great palace and made records of his +achievements. He also extended and redecorated the royal palace +at Nineveh, and devoted much attention to the temples.</p> +<p>Tribute poured in from the subject States. The mountain and +valley tribes in the north furnished in abundance wine and corn, +sheep and cattle and horses, and from the Aramaeans of +Mesopotamia and the Syro-Cappadocian Hittites came much silver +and gold, copper and lead, jewels and ivory, as well as richly +decorated furniture, armour and weapons. Artists and artisans +were also provided by the vassals of Assyria. There are traces of +Phoenician influence in the art of this period.</p> +<p>Ashur-natsir-pal's great palace at Kalkhi was excavated by +Layard, who has given a vivid description of the verdant plain on +which the ancient city was situated, as it appeared in spring. +"Its pasture lands, known as the 'Jaif', are <a id= +"page.anchor.400" name="page.anchor.400"></a>renowned", he wrote, +"for their rich and luxuriant herbage. In times of quiet, the +studs of the Pasha and of the Turkish authorities, with the +horses of the cavalry and of the inhabitants of Mosul, are sent +here to graze.... Flowers of every hue enamelled the meadows; not +thinly scattered over the grass as in northern climes, but in +such thick and gathering clusters that the whole plain seemed a +patchwork of many colours. The dogs, as they returned from +hunting, issued from the long grass dyed red, yellow, or blue, +according to the flowers through which they had last forced their +way.... In the evening, after the labour of the day, I often sat +at the door of my tent, giving myself up to the full enjoyment of +that calm and repose which are imparted to the senses by such +scenes as these.... As the sun went down behind the low hills +which separate the river from the desert--even their rocky sides +had struggled to emulate the verdant clothing of the plain--its +receding rays were gradually withdrawn, like a transparent veil +of light from the landscape. Over the pure cloudless sky was the +glow of the last light. In the distance and beyond the Zab, +Keshaf, another venerable ruin, rose indistinctly into the +evening mist. Still more distant, and still more indistinct, was +a solitary hill overlooking the ancient city of Arbela. The +Kurdish mountains, whose snowy summits cherished the dying +sunbeams, yet struggled with the twilight. The bleating of sheep +and lowing of cattle, at first faint, became louder as the flocks +returned from their pastures and wandered amongst the tents. +Girls hurried over the greensward to seek their fathers' cattle, +or crouched down to milk those which had returned alone to their +well-remembered folds. Some were coming from the river bearing +the replenished pitcher on their heads or shoulders; others, no +less graceful in their form, and erect in their <a id= +"page.anchor.401" name="page.anchor.401"></a>carriage, were +carrying the heavy loads of long grass which they had cut in the +meadows."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1431" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1431" id="fnrex1431">431</a>]</span></p> +<p>Across the meadows so beautiful in March the great armies of +Ashur-natsir-pal returned with the booty of great +campaigns--horses and cattle and sheep, bales of embroidered +cloth, ivory and jewels, silver and gold, the products of many +countries; while thousands of prisoners were assembled there to +rear stately buildings which ultimately fell into decay and were +buried by drifting sands.</p> +<p>Layard excavated the emperor's palace and dispatched to +London, among other treasures of antiquity, the sublime winged +human-headed lions which guarded the entrance, and many bas +reliefs.</p> +<p>The Assyrian sculptures of this period lack the technical +skill, the delicacy and imagination of Sumerian and Akkadian art, +but they are full of energy, dignified and massive, and strong +and lifelike. They reflect the spirit of Assyria's greatness, +which, however, had a materialistic basis. Assyrian art found +expression in delineating the outward form rather than in +striving to create a "thing of beauty" which is "a joy for +ever".</p> +<p>When Ashur-natsir-pal died, he was succeeded by his son +Shalmaneser III (860-825 B.C.), whose military activities +extended over his whole reign. No fewer than thirty-two +expeditions were recorded on his famous black obelisk.</p> +<p>As Shalmaneser was the first Assyrian king who came into +direct touch with the Hebrews, it will be of interest here to +review the history of the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah, +as recorded in the Bible, because of the light it throws on +international politics and the situation which confronted +Shalmaneser in Mesopotamia and Syria in the early part of his +reign.</p> +<p>After Solomon died, the kingdom of his son Rehoboam <a id= +"page.anchor.402" name="page.anchor.402"></a>was restricted to +Judah, Benjamin, Moab, and Edom. The "ten tribes" of Israel had +revolted and were ruled over by Jeroboam, whose capital was at +Tirzah.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1432" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1432" id="fnrex1432">432</a>]</span> "There were wars +between Rehoboam and Jeroboam continually."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1433" href="#ftn.fnrex1433" id= +"fnrex1433">433</a>]</span></p> +<p>The religious organization which had united the Hebrews under +David and Solomon was thus broken up. Jeroboam established the +religion of the Canaanites and made "gods and molten images". He +was condemned for his idolatry by the prophet Ahijah, who +declared, "The Lord shall smite Israel, as a reed is shaken in +the water; and he shall root up Israel out of this good land, +which he gave to their fathers, and shall scatter them beyond the +river, because they have made their groves, provoking the Lord to +anger. And he shall give Israel up because of the sins of +Jeroboam, who did sin, and who made Israel to sin."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1434" href="#ftn.fnrex1434" id= +"fnrex1434">434</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Judah Rehoboam similarly "did evil in the sight of the +Lord"; his subjects "also built them high places and images and +groves, on every high hill, and under every green +tree".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1435" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1435" id="fnrex1435">435</a>]</span> After the raid of +the Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk) Rehoboam repented, +however. "And when he humbled himself, the wrath of the Lord +turned from him, that he would not destroy him altogether: and +also in Judah things went well."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1436" href="#ftn.fnrex1436" id= +"fnrex1436">436</a>]</span></p> +<p>Rehoboam was succeeded by his son Abijah, who shattered the +power of Jeroboam, defeating that monarch in battle after he was +surrounded as Rameses II had been by the Hittite army. "The +children of Israel fled before Judah: and God delivered them into +their hand. And Abijah and his people slew them with a great +slaughter: so there fell down slain in Israel five hundred +thousand <a id="page.anchor.403" name= +"page.anchor.403"></a>chosen men. Thus the children of Israel +were brought under at that time, and the children of Judah +prevailed, because they relied upon the Lord God of their +fathers. And Abijah pursued after Jeroboam, and took cities from +him, Bethel with the towns thereof, and Jeshanah with the towns +thereof, and Ephraim with the towns thereof. Neither did Jeroboam +recover strength again in the days of Abijah, and the Lord struck +him and he died."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1437" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1437" id="fnrex1437">437</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ere Jeroboam died, however, "Abijah slept with his fathers, +and they buried him in the city of David: and Asa his son reigned +in his stead. In his days the land was quiet ten years. And Asa +did that which was good and right in the eyes of the Lord his +God. For he took away the altars of the strange gods, and the +high places, and brake down the images, and cut down the groves. +And commanded Judah to seek the Lord God of their fathers and to +do the law and the commandment. Also he took away out of all the +cities of Judah the high places and the images: and the kingdom +was quiet before him. And he built fenced cities in Judah: for +the land had rest, and he had no war in those years; because the +Lord had given him rest."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1438" +href="#ftn.fnrex1438" id="fnrex1438">438</a>]</span></p> +<p>Jeroboam died in the second year of Asa's reign, and was +succeeded by his son Nadab, who "did evil in the sight of the +Lord, and walked in the way of his father, and in his sin +wherewith he made Israel to sin".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1439" href="#ftn.fnrex1439" id="fnrex1439">439</a>]</span> +Nadab waged war against the Philistines, and was besieging +Gibbethon when Baasha revolted and slew him. Thus ended the First +Dynasty of the Kingdom of Israel.</p> +<p>Baasha was declared king, and proceeded to operate against +Judah. Having successfully waged war against Asa, he proceeded to +fortify Ramah, a few miles to the <a id="page.anchor.404" name= +"page.anchor.404"></a>north of Jerusalem, "that he might not +suffer any to go out or come in to Asa king of +Judah".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1440" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1440" id="fnrex1440">440</a>]</span></p> +<p>Now Israel was at this time one of the allies of the powerful +Aramaean State of Damascus, which had resisted the advance of the +Assyrian armies during the reign of Ashur-natsir-pal I, and +apparently supported the rebellions of the northern Mesopotamian +kings. Judah was nominally subject to Egypt, which, however, was +weakened by internal troubles, and therefore unable either to +assert its authority in Judah or help its king to resist the +advance of the Israelites.</p> +<p>In the hour of peril Judah sought the aid of the king of +Damascus. "Asa took all the silver and the gold that were left in +the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the +king's house, and delivered them into the hand of his servants: +and King Asa sent them to Ben-hadad, the son of Tabrimon, the son +of Hezion, king of Syria, that dwelt at Damascus, saying, There +is a league between me and thee, and between my father and thy +father: behold, I have sent unto thee a present of silver and +gold: <span class="emphasis"><em>come and break thy league with +Baasha king of Israel, that he may depart from +me</em></span>".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1441" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1441" id="fnrex1441">441</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ben-hadad accepted the invitation readily. He waged war +against Israel, and Baasha was compelled to abandon the building +of the fortifications at Ramah. "Then king Asa made a +proclamation throughout all Judah; none was exempted: and they +took away the stones of Ramah, and the timber thereof, wherewith +Baasha had builded; and king Asa built with them Geba of +Benjamin, and Mizpah."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1442" +href="#ftn.fnrex1442" id="fnrex1442">442</a>]</span></p> +<p>Judah and Israel thus became subject to Damascus, and had to +recognize the king of that city as arbiter in all their +disputes.</p> +<p>After reigning about twenty-four years, Baasha of <a id= +"page.anchor.405" name="page.anchor.405"></a>Israel died in 886 +B.C. and was succeeded by his son Elah who came to the throne "in +the twenty and sixth year of Asa". He had ruled a little over a +year when he was murdered by "his servant Zimri, captain of half +his chariots", while he was "drinking himself drunk in the house +of Arza steward of his house in Tirzah".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1443" href="#ftn.fnrex1443" id= +"fnrex1443">443</a>]</span> Thus ended the Second Dynasty of the +Kingdom of Israel.</p> +<p>Zimri's revolt was shortlived. He reigned only "seven days in +Tirzah". The army was "encamped against Gibbethon, which belonged +to the Philistines. And the people that were encamped heard say, +Zimri hath conspired and hath also slain the king; wherefore all +Israel made Omri, the captain of the host, king over Israel that +day in the camp. And Omri went up from Gibbethon and all Israel +with him, and they besieged Tirzah. And it came to pass when +Zimri saw that the city was taken, that he went into the palace +of the king's house, and burnt the king's house over him with +fire, and died."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1444" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1444" id="fnrex1444">444</a>]</span></p> +<p>Omri's claim to the throne was disputed by a rival named +Tibni. "But the people that followed Omri prevailed against the +people that followed Tibni, son of Ginath: so Tibni died, and +Omri reigned."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1445" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1445" id="fnrex1445">445</a>]</span></p> +<p>Omri was the builder of Samaria, whither his Court was +transferred from Tirzah towards the close of his six years reign. +He was followed by his son Ahab, who ascended the throne "in the +thirty and eighth year of Asa king of Judah.... And Ahab ... did +evil in the sight of the Lord above all that were before him." So +notorious indeed were father and son that the prophet Micah +declared to the backsliders of his day, "For the statutes of Omri +are kept, and all the works of the house of Ahab, and ye walk in +their counsel; that I should <a id="page.anchor.406" name= +"page.anchor.406"></a>make thee a desolation, and the inhabitants +thereof an hissing: therefore ye shall bear the reproach of my +people".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1446" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1446" id="fnrex1446">446</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ahab was evidently an ally of Sidon as well as a vassal of +Damascus, for he married the notorious princess Jezebel, the +daughter of the king of that city State. He also became a +worshipper of the Phoenician god Baal, to whom a temple had been +erected in Samaria. "And Ahab made a grove; and Ahab did more to +provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of +Israel that were before him."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1447" href="#ftn.fnrex1447" id="fnrex1447">447</a>]</span> +Obadiah, who "feared the Lord greatly", was the governor of +Ahab's house, but the outspoken prophet Elijah, whose arch enemy +was the notorious Queen Jezebel, was an outcast like the hundred +prophets concealed by Obadiah in two mountain caves.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1448" href="#ftn.fnrex1448" id= +"fnrex1448">448</a>]</span></p> +<p>Ahab became so powerful a king that Ben-hadad II of Damascus +picked a quarrel with him, and marched against Samaria. It was on +this occasion that Ahab sent the famous message to Ben-hadad: +"Let not him that girdeth on his harness (armour) boast himself +as he that putteth it off". The Israelites issued forth from +Samaria and scattered the attacking force. "And Israel pursued +them: and Ben-hadad the king of Syria escaped on a horse with the +horseman. And the king of Israel went out, and smote the horses +and chariots, and slew the Syrians with a great slaughter." +Ben-hadad was made to believe afterwards by his counsellors that +he owed his defeat to the fact that the gods of Israel were "gods +of the hills; therefore they are stronger than we". They added: +"Let us fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be +stronger than they". In the following year Ben-hadad fought +against the Israelites <a id="page.anchor.407" name= +"page.anchor.407"></a>at Aphek, but was again defeated. He then +found it necessary to make "a covenant" with Ahab.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1449" href="#ftn.fnrex1449" id= +"fnrex1449">449</a>]</span></p> +<p>In 854 B.C. Shalmaneser III of Assyria was engaged in military +operations against the Aramaean Syrians. Two years previously he +had broken the power of Akhuni, king of Bit-Adini in northern +Mesopotamia, the leader of a strong confederacy of petty States. +Thereafter the Assyrian monarch turned towards the south-west and +attacked the Hittite State of Hamath and the Aramaean State of +Damascus. The various rival kingdoms of Syria united against him, +and an army of 70,000 allies attempted to thwart his progress at +Qarqar on the Orontes. Although Shalmaneser claimed a victory on +this occasion, it was of no great advantage to him, for he was +unable to follow it up. Among the Syrian allies were Bir-idri +(Ben-hadad II) of Damascus, and Ahab of Israel ("Akhabbu of the +land of the Sir'ilites"). The latter had a force of 10,000 men +under his command.</p> +<p>Four years after Ahab began to reign, Asa died at Jerusalem +and his son Jehoshaphat was proclaimed king of Judah. "And he +walked in all the ways of Asa his father; he turned not aside +from it, doing that which was right in the eyes of the Lord: +nevertheless the high places were not taken away; for the people +offered and burnt incense yet in the high places."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1450" href="#ftn.fnrex1450" id= +"fnrex1450">450</a>]</span></p> +<p>There is no record of any wars between Israel and Judah during +this period, but it is evident that the two kingdoms had been +drawn together and that Israel was the predominating power. +Jehoshaphat "joined affinity with Ahab", and some years +afterwards visited Samaria, where he was hospitably +entertained.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1451" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1451" id="fnrex1451">451</a>]</span> The two monarchs +plotted together. Apparently Israel and Judah desired <a id= +"page.anchor.408" name="page.anchor.408"></a>to throw off the +yoke of Damascus, which was being kept constantly on the defence +by Assyria. It is recorded in the Bible that they joined forces +and set out on an expedition to attack Ramoth in Gilead, which +Israel claimed, and take it "out of the hand of the king of +Syria".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1452" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1452" id="fnrex1452">452</a>]</span> In the battle +which ensued (in 853 B.C.) Ahab was mortally wounded, "and about +the time of the sun going down he died". He was succeeded by his +son Ahaziah, who acknowledged the suzerainty of Damascus. After a +reign of two years Ahaziah was succeeded by Joram.</p> +<p>Jehoshaphat did not again come into conflict with Damascus. He +devoted himself to the development of his kingdom, and attempted +to revive the sea trade on the Persian gulf which had flourished +under Solomon. "He made ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir for +gold; but they went not; for the ships were broken (wrecked) at +Ezion-geber." Ahaziah offered him sailors--probably +Phoenicians--but they were refused.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1453" href="#ftn.fnrex1453" id="fnrex1453">453</a>]</span> +Apparently Jehoshaphat had close trading relations with the +Chaldaeans, who were encroaching on the territory of the king of +Babylon, and menacing the power of that monarch. Jehoram +succeeded Jehoshaphat and reigned eight years.</p> +<p>After repulsing the Syrian allies at Qarqar on the Orontes in +854 B.C., Shalmaneser III of Assyria found it necessary to invade +Babylonia. Soon after he came to the throne he had formed an +alliance with Nabu-aplu-iddin of that kingdom, and was thus able +to operate in the north-west without fear of complications with +the rival claimant of Mesopotamia. When Nabu-aplu-iddin died, his +two sons Marduk-zakir-shum and Marduk-bel-usate were rivals for +the throne. The former, the rightful heir, appealed for help to +Shalmaneser, and that <a id="page.anchor.409" name= +"page.anchor.409"></a>monarch at once hastened to assert his +authority in the southern kingdom. In 851 B.C. Marduk-bel-usate, +who was supported by an Aramæan army, was defeated and put +to death.</p> +<p>Marduk-zakir-shum afterwards reigned over Babylonia as the +vassal of Assyria, and Shalmaneser, his overlord, made offerings +to the gods at Babylon, Borsippa, and Cuthah. The Chaldæans +were afterwards subdued, and compelled to pay annual tribute.</p> +<p>In the following year Shalmaneser had to lead an expedition +into northern Mesopotamia and suppress a fresh revolt in that +troubled region. But the western allies soon gathered strength +again, and in 846 B.C. he found it necessary to return with a +great army, but was not successful in achieving any permanent +success, although he put his enemies to flight. The various +western kingdoms, including Damascus, Israel, and Tyre and Sidon, +remained unconquered, and continued to conspire against him.</p> +<p>The resisting power of the Syrian allies, however, was being +greatly weakened by internal revolts, which may have been stirred +up by Assyrian emissaries. Edom threw off the yoke of Judah and +became independent. Jehoram, who had married Athaliah, a royal +princess of Israel, was dead. His son Ahaziah, who succeeded him, +joined forces with his cousin and overlord, King Joram of Israel, +to assist him in capturing Ramoth-gilead from the king of +Damascus. Joram took possession of the city, but was wounded, and +returned to Jezreel to be healed.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1454" href="#ftn.fnrex1454" id="fnrex1454">454</a>]</span> +He was the last king of the Omri Dynasty of Israel. The prophet +Elisha sent a messenger to Jehu, a military leader, who was at +Ramoth-gilead, with a box of oil and the ominous message, "Thus +saith the Lord, <a id="page.anchor.410" name= +"page.anchor.410"></a>I have anointed thee king over Israel. And +thou shalt smite the house of Ahab thy master, that I may avenge +the blood of my servants the prophets, and the blood of all the +servants of the Lord, at the hand of Jezebel.... And the dogs +shall eat Jezebel in the portion of Jezreel, and there shall be +none to bury her."</p> +<p>Jehu "conspired against Joram", and then, accompanied by an +escort, "rode in a chariot and went to Jezreel", so that he might +be the first to announce the revolt to the king whom he was to +depose.</p> +<p>The watchman on the tower of Jezreel saw Jehu and his company +approaching and informed Joram, who twice sent out a messenger to +enquire, "Is it peace?" Neither messenger returned, and the +watchman informed the wounded monarch of Israel, "He came even +unto them, and cometh not again; and the driving is like the +driving of Jehu the son of Nimshi; for he driveth furiously".</p> +<p>King Joram went out himself to meet the famous charioteer, but +turned to flee when he discovered that he came as an enemy. Then +Jehu drew his bow and shot Joram through the heart. Ahaziah +endeavoured to conceal himself in Samaria, but was slain also. +Jezebel was thrown down from a window of the royal harem and +trodden under foot by the horsemen of Jehu; her body was devoured +by dogs.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1455" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1455" id="fnrex1455">455</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Syrian king against whom Joram fought at Ramoth-gilead was +Hazael. He had murdered Ben-hadad II as he lay on a bed of +sickness by smothering him with a thick cloth soaked in water. +Then he had himself proclaimed the ruler of the Aramaean State of +Damascus. The prophet Elisha had previously wept before him, +saying, "I know the evil that thou wilt do <a id= +"page.anchor.411" name="page.anchor.411"></a>unto the children of +Israel; their strongholds wilt thou set on fire, and their young +men wilt thou slay with the sword, and wilt dash their children +and rip up their women with child".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1456" href="#ftn.fnrex1456" id= +"fnrex1456">456</a>]</span></p> +<p>The time seemed ripe for Assyrian conquest. In 843 B.C. +Shalmaneser III crossed the Euphrates into Syria for the +sixteenth time. His first objective was Aleppo, where he was +welcomed. He made offerings there to Hadad, the local Thor, and +then suddenly marched southward. Hazael went out to oppose the +advancing Assyrians, and came into conflict with them in the +vicinity of Mount Hermon. "I fought with him", Shalmaneser +recorded, "and accomplished his defeat; I slew with the sword +1600 of his warriors and captured 1121 chariots and 470 horses. +He fled to save his life."</p> +<p>Hazael took refuge within the walls of Damascus, which the +Assyrians besieged, but failed, however, to capture. +Shalmaneser's soldiers meanwhile wasted and burned cities without +number, and carried away great booty. "In those days", +Shalmaneser recorded, "I received tribute from the Tyrians and +Sidonians and from Yaua (Jehu) son (successor) of Khumri (Omri)." +The following is a translation from a bas relief by Professor +Pinches of a passage detailing Jehu's tribute:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The tribute of Yaua, son of Khumri: silver, gold, a golden +cup, golden vases, golden vessels, golden buckets, lead, a staff +for the hand of the king (and) sceptres, I received.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1457" href="#ftn.fnrex1457" id= +"fnrex1457">457</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The scholarly translator adds, "It is noteworthy that the +Assyrian form of the name, Yaua, shows that the unpronounced +aleph at the end was at that time sounded, <a id= +"page.anchor.412" name="page.anchor.412"></a>so that the Hebrews +must have called him Yahua (Jehua)".</p> +<p>Shalmaneser did not again attack Damascus. His sphere of +influence was therefore confined to North Syria. He found it more +profitable, indeed, to extend his territories into Asia Minor. +For several years he engaged himself in securing control of the +north-western caravan road, and did not rest until he had subdued +Cilicia and overrun the Hittite kingdoms of Tabal and +Malatia.</p> +<p>Hazael of Damascus avenged himself meanwhile on his unfaithful +allies who had so readily acknowledged the shadowy suzerainty of +Assyria. "In those days the Lord began to cut Israel short: and +Hazael smote them in all the coasts of Israel; from Jordan +eastward, all the land of Gilead, the Gadites, and the +Reubenites, and the Manassites, from Aroer, which is by the river +Arnon, even Gilead and Bashan."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1458" href="#ftn.fnrex1458" id="fnrex1458">458</a>]</span> +Israel thus came completely under the sway of Damascus.</p> +<p>Jehu appears to have cherished the ambition of uniting Israel +and Judah under one crown. His revolt received the support of the +orthodox Hebrews, and he began well by inaugurating reforms in +the northern kingdom with purpose apparently to re-establish the +worship of David's God. He persecuted the prophets of Baal, but +soon became a backslider, for although he stamped out the +Phoenician religion he began to worship "the golden calves that +were in Bethel and that were in Dan.... He departed not from the +sins of Jeroboam, which made Israel to sin."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1459" href="#ftn.fnrex1459" id= +"fnrex1459">459</a>]</span> Apparently he found it necessary to +secure the support of the idolators of the ancient cult of the +"Queen of Heaven".</p> +<p>The crown of Judah had been seized by the Israelitish <a id= +"page.anchor.413" name="page.anchor.413"></a>Queen mother +Athaliah after the death of her son Ahaziah at the hands of +Jehu.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1460" href="#ftn.fnrex1460" +id="fnrex1460">460</a>]</span> She endeavoured to destroy "all +the seed royal of the house of Judah". But another woman thwarted +the completion of her monstrous design. This was Jehoshabeath, +sister of Ahaziah and wife of the priest Jehoiada, who concealed +the young prince Joash "and put him and his nurse in a +bedchamber", in "the house of God". There Joash was strictly +guarded for six years.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1461" +href="#ftn.fnrex1461" id="fnrex1461">461</a>]</span></p> +<p>In time Jehoiada stirred up a revolt against the +Baal-worshipping queen of Judah. Having secured the support of +the captains of the royal guard and a portion of the army, he +brought out from the temple the seven years old prince Joash, +"the king's son, and put upon him the crown, and gave him the +testimony, and made him king. And Jehoiada and his sons anointed +him, and said, God save the king.</p> +<p>"Now when Athaliah heard the noise of the people running and +praising the king, she came to the people into the house of the +Lord: and she looked, and, behold the king stood at his pillar at +the entering in, and the princes and the trumpets by the king: +and all the people of the land rejoiced, and sounded with +trumpets, also the singers with instruments of musick, and such +as taught to sing praise. Then Athaliah rent her clothes, and +said, Treason, Treason.</p> +<p>"Then Jehoiada the priest brought out the captains of hundreds +that were set over the host, and said unto them, Have her forth +of the ranges: and whoso followeth her, let him be slain by the +sword. For the priest said, Slay her not in the house of the +Lord. So they laid hands on her; and when she was come to the +entering of the horse gate by the king's house, they slew her +there.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.414" name="page.anchor.414"></a>"And +Jehoiada made a covenant between him, and between all the people, +and between the king, that they should be the Lord's people. Then +all the people went to the house of Baal, and brake it down, and +brake his altars and his images in pieces, and slew Mattan the +priest of Baal before the altars."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1462" href="#ftn.fnrex1462" id= +"fnrex1462">462</a>]</span></p> +<p>When Jehu of Israel died, he was succeeded by Jehoahaz. "The +Lord was kindled against Israel, and he delivered them into the +hand of Ben-hadad the son of Hazael all their days." Then +Jehoahaz repented. He "besought the Lord, and the Lord hearkened +unto him: for he saw the oppression of Israel, because the king +of Syria oppressed them. And the Lord gave Israel a saviour, so +that they went out from under the hands of the +Syrians."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1463" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1463" id="fnrex1463">463</a>]</span> The "saviour", as +will be shown, was Assyria. Not only Israel, but Judah, under +King Joash, Edom, the Philistines and the Ammonites were +compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty of Damascus.</p> +<p>Shalmaneser III swayed an extensive and powerful empire, and +kept his generals continually employed suppressing revolts on his +frontiers. After he subdued the Hittites, Kati, king of Tabal, +sent him his daughter, who was received into the royal harem. +Tribes of the Medes came under his power: the Nairi and Urartian +tribes continued battling with his soldiers on his northern +borders like the frontier tribes of India against the British +troops. The kingdom of Urartu was growing more and more +powerful.</p> +<p>In 829 B.C. the great empire was suddenly shaken to its +foundations by the outbreak of civil war. The party of rebellion +was led by Shalmaneser's son Ashur-danin-apli, who evidently +desired to supplant the crown prince Shamshi-Adad. He was a +popular hero and received <a id="page.anchor.415" name= +"page.anchor.415"></a>the support of most of the important +Assyrian cities, including Nineveh, Asshur, Arbela, Imgurbel, and +Dur-balat, as well as some of the dependencies. Shalmaneser +retained Kalkhi and the provinces of northern Mesopotamia, and it +appears that the greater part of the army also remained loyal to +him.</p> +<p>After four years of civil war Shalmaneser died. His chosen +heir, Shamshi-Adad VII, had to continue the struggle for the +throne for two more years.</p> +<p>When at length the new king had stamped out the last embers of +revolt within the kingdom, he had to undertake the reconquest of +those provinces which in the interval had thrown off their +allegiance to Assyria. Urartu in the north had grown more +aggressive, the Syrians were openly defiant, the Medes were +conducting bold raids, and the Babylonians were plotting with the +Chaldaeans, Elamites, and Aramaeans to oppose the new ruler. +Shamshi-Adad, however, proved to be as great a general as his +father. He subdued the Medes and the Nairi tribes, burned many +cities and collected enormous tribute, while thousands of +prisoners were taken and forced to serve the conqueror.</p> +<p>Having established his power in the north, Shamshi-Adad then +turned attention to Babylonia. On his way southward he subdued +many villages. He fell upon the first strong force of Babylonian +allies at Dur-papsukal in Akkad, and achieved a great victory, +killing 13,000 and taking 3000 captives. Then the Babylonian +king, Marduk-balatsu-ikbi, advanced to meet him with his mixed +force of Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Elamites, and Aramaeans, but +was defeated in a fierce battle on the banks of the Daban canal. +The Babylonian camp was captured, and the prisoners taken by the +Assyrians included 5000 footmen, 200 horsemen, and 100 +chariots.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.416" name= +"page.anchor.416"></a>Shamshi-Adad conducted in all five +campaigns in Babylonia and Chaldaea, which he completely subdued, +penetrating as far as the shores of the Persian Gulf. In the end +he took prisoner the new king, Bau-akh-iddina, the successor of +Marduk-balatsu-ikbi, and transported him to Assyria, and offered +up sacrifices as the overlord of the ancient land at Babylon, +Borsippa, and Cuthah. For over half a century after this disaster +Babylonia was a province of Assyria. During that period, however, +the influence which it exercised over the Assyrian Court was so +great that it contributed to the downfall of the royal line of +the Second Empire.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1428" href="#fnrex1428" id= +"ftn.fnrex1428">428</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Finn +and His Warrior Band</em></span>, pp. 245 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span> (London, 1911).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1429" href="#fnrex1429" id= +"ftn.fnrex1429">429</a>]</span> Also rendered +Ashur-na'sir-pal.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1430" href="#fnrex1430" id= +"ftn.fnrex1430">430</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of the Babylonians and Assyrians</em></span>, G.S. +Goodspeed, p. 197.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1431" href="#fnrex1431" id= +"ftn.fnrex1431">431</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Discoveries at Nineveh</em></span>, Sir A.H. +Layard (London, 1856), pp. 55, 56.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1432" href="#fnrex1432" id= +"ftn.fnrex1432">432</a>]</span> "Thou art beautiful, O my love, +as Tirzah, comely as Jerusalem." <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Solomon's Song</em></span>, vi, 4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1433" href="#fnrex1433" id= +"ftn.fnrex1433">433</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xii, 15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1434" href="#fnrex1434" id= +"ftn.fnrex1434">434</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xiv, 1-20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1435" href="#fnrex1435" id= +"ftn.fnrex1435">435</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 21-3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1436" href="#fnrex1436" id= +"ftn.fnrex1436">436</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xii, 1-12.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1437" href="#fnrex1437" id= +"ftn.fnrex1437">437</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xiii, 1-20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1438" href="#fnrex1438" id= +"ftn.fnrex1438">438</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, xiv, 1-6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1439" href="#fnrex1439" id= +"ftn.fnrex1439">439</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 25-6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1440" href="#fnrex1440" id= +"ftn.fnrex1440">440</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 16-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1441" href="#fnrex1441" id= +"ftn.fnrex1441">441</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 18-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1442" href="#fnrex1442" id= +"ftn.fnrex1442">442</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 20-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1443" href="#fnrex1443" id= +"ftn.fnrex1443">443</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 9-10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1444" href="#fnrex1444" id= +"ftn.fnrex1444">444</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 15-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1445" href="#fnrex1445" id= +"ftn.fnrex1445">445</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 21-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1446" href="#fnrex1446" id= +"ftn.fnrex1446">446</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Micah</em></span>, vi, 16.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1447" href="#fnrex1447" id= +"ftn.fnrex1447">447</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 29-33.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1448" href="#fnrex1448" id= +"ftn.fnrex1448">448</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, xviii, 1-4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1449" href="#fnrex1449" id= +"ftn.fnrex1449">449</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xx.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1450" href="#fnrex1450" id= +"ftn.fnrex1450">450</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, xxii, 43.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1451" href="#fnrex1451" id= +"ftn.fnrex1451">451</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xviii, 1-2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1452" href="#fnrex1452" id= +"ftn.fnrex1452">452</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xxii and <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xviii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1453" href="#fnrex1453" id= +"ftn.fnrex1453">453</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, xxii, 48-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1454" href="#fnrex1454" id= +"ftn.fnrex1454">454</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>1 +Kings</em></span>, viii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1455" href="#fnrex1455" id= +"ftn.fnrex1455">455</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, ix and <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1456" href="#fnrex1456" id= +"ftn.fnrex1456">456</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, viii, 1-15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1457" href="#fnrex1457" id= +"ftn.fnrex1457">457</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia</em></span>, pp. 337 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1458" href="#fnrex1458" id= +"ftn.fnrex1458">458</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, x, 32-3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1459" href="#fnrex1459" id= +"ftn.fnrex1459">459</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 1-31.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1460" href="#fnrex1460" id= +"ftn.fnrex1460">460</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xi, 1-3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1461" href="#fnrex1461" id= +"ftn.fnrex1461">461</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxii, 10-12.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1462" href="#fnrex1462" id= +"ftn.fnrex1462">462</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxiii, 1-17.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1463" href="#fnrex1463" id= +"ftn.fnrex1463">463</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xiii, 1-5.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2544669" name= +"id2544669"></a>Chapter XVIII. The Age of Semiramis</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Queen Sammu-rammat the original of Semiramis--"Mother-right" +among "Mother Worshippers"--Sammu-rammat compared to Queen +Tiy--Popularity of Goddess Cults--Temple Worship and Domestic +Worship--Babylonian Cultural Influence in Assyria--Ethical +Tendency in Shamash Worship--The Nebo Religious Revolt--Aton +Revolt in Egypt--The Royal Assyrian Library--Fish Goddess of +Babylonia in Assyria--The Semiramis and Shakuntala Stories--The +Mock King and Queen--Dove Goddesses of Assyria, Phoenicia, and +Cyprus--Ishtar's Dove Form--St. Valentine's Day beliefs--Sacred +Doves of Cretans, Hittites, and Egyptians--Pigeon Lore in Great +Britain and Ireland--Deities associated with various Animals--The +Totemic Theory--Common Element in Ancient Goddess +Cults--Influence of Agricultural Beliefs--Nebo a form of Ea--His +Spouse Tashmit a Love Goddess and Interceder--Traditions of +Famous Mother Deities--Adad-nirari IV the "Saviour" of +Israel--Expansion of the Urartian Empire--Its Famous +Kings--Decline and Fall of Assyria's Middle Empire Dynasty.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.417" name="page.anchor.417"></a> One of the +most interesting figures in Mesopotamian history came into +prominence during the Assyrian Middle Empire period. This was the +famous Sammu-rammat, the Babylonian wife of an Assyrian ruler. +Like Sargon of Akkad, Alexander the Great, and Dietrich von Bern, +she made, by reason of her achievements and influence, a deep +impression on the popular imagination, and as these monarchs +became identified in tradition with gods of war and fertility, +she had attached to her memory the myths associated with the +mother goddess of love and battle who presided over the destinies +of mankind. In her character as the legendary Semiramis of Greek +literature, the Assyrian queen was reputed to have been the +<a id="page.anchor.418" name="page.anchor.418"></a>daughter of +Derceto, the dove and fish goddess of Askalon, and to have +departed from earth in bird form.</p> +<p>It is not quite certain whether Sammu-rammat was the wife of +Shamshi-Adad VII or of his son, Adad-nirari IV. Before the former +monarch reduced Babylonia to the status of an Assyrian province, +he had signed a treaty of peace with its king, and it is +suggested that it was confirmed by a matrimonial alliance. This +treaty was repudiated by King Bau-akh-iddina, who was transported +with his palace treasures to Assyria.</p> +<p>As Sammu-rammat was evidently a royal princess of Babylonia, +it seems probable that her marriage was arranged with purpose to +legitimatize the succession of the Assyrian overlords to the +Babylonian throne. The principle of "mother right" was ever +popular in those countries where the worship of the Great Mother +was perpetuated if not in official at any rate in domestic +religion. Not a few Egyptian Pharaohs reigned as husbands or as +sons of royal ladies. Succession by the female line was also +observed among the Hittites. When Hattusil II gave his daughter +in marriage to Putakhi, king of the Amorites, he inserted a +clause in the treaty of alliance "to the effect that the +sovereignty over the Amorite should belong to the son and +descendants of his daughter for evermore".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1464" href="#ftn.fnrex1464" id= +"fnrex1464">464</a>]</span></p> +<p>As queen or queen-mother, Sammu-rammat occupied as prominent a +position in Assyria as did Queen Tiy of Egypt during the lifetime +of her husband, Amenhotep III, and the early part of the reign of +her son, Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). The Tell-el-Amarna letters +testify to Tiy's influence in the Egyptian "Foreign Office", and +we know that at home she was joint ruler with her husband and +took part with him in public ceremonials. During their reign a +temple was erected to the mother goddess Mut, <a id= +"page.anchor.419" name="page.anchor.419"></a>and beside it was +formed a great lake on which sailed the "barque of Aton" in +connection with mysterious religious ceremonials. After +Akhenaton's religious revolt was inaugurated, the worship of Mut +was discontinued and Tiy went into retirement. In Akhenaton's +time the vulture symbol of the goddess Mut did not appear above +the sculptured figures of royalty.</p> +<p>What connection the god Aton had with Mut during the period of +the Tiy regime remains obscure. There is no evidence that Aton +was first exalted as the son of the Great Mother goddess, +although this is not improbable.</p> +<p>Queen Sammu-rammat of Assyria, like Tiy of Egypt, is +associated with social and religious innovations. She was the +first, and, indeed, the only Assyrian royal lady, to be referred +to on equal terms with her royal husband in official +inscriptions. In a dedication to the god Nebo, that deity is +reputed to be the protector of "the life of Adad-nirari, king of +the land of Ashur, his lord, and the life of Sammu-rammat, she of +the palace, his lady".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1465" +href="#ftn.fnrex1465" id="fnrex1465">465</a>]</span></p> +<p>During the reign of Adad-nirari IV the Assyrian Court radiated +Babylonian culture and traditions. The king not only recorded his +descent from the first Shalmaneser, but also claimed to be a +descendant of Bel-kap-kapu, an earlier, but, to us, unknown, +Babylonian monarch than "Sulili", i.e. Sumu-la-ilu, the +great-great-grandfather of Hammurabi. Bel-kap-kapu was reputed to +have been an overlord of Assyria.</p> +<p>Apparently Adad-nirari desired to be regarded as the +legitimate heir to the thrones of Assyria and Babylonia. His +claim upon the latter country must have had a substantial basis. +It is not too much to assume that he was a son of a princess of +its ancient royal family. Sammurammat <a id="page.anchor.420" +name="page.anchor.420"></a>may therefore have been his mother. +She could have been called his "wife" in the mythological sense, +the king having become "husband of his mother". If such was the +case, the royal pair probably posed as the high priest and high +priestess of the ancient goddess cult--the incarnations of the +Great Mother and the son who displaced his sire.</p> +<p>The worship of the Great Mother was the popular religion of +the indigenous peoples of western Asia, including parts of Asia +Minor, Egypt, and southern and western Europe. It appears to have +been closely associated with agricultural rites practised among +representative communities of the Mediterranean race. In +Babylonia and Assyria the peoples of the goddess cult fused with +the peoples of the god cult, but the prominence maintained by +Ishtar, who absorbed many of the old mother deities, testifies to +the persistence of immemorial habits of thought and antique +religious ceremonials among the descendants of the earliest +settlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley. Merodach's spouse +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> was not a shadowy deity +but a goddess who exercised as much influence as her divine +husband. As Aruru she took part with him in the creation of +mankind. In Asia Minor the mother goddess was overshadowed by the +father god during the period of Hatti predominance, but her +worship was revived after the early people along the coast and in +the agricultural valleys were freed from the yoke of the +father-god worshippers.</p> +<p>It must be recognized, in this connection, that an official +religion was not always a full reflection of popular beliefs. In +all the great civilizations of antiquity it was invariably a +compromise between the beliefs of the military aristocracy and +the masses of mingled peoples over whom they held sway. Temple +worship had therefore a political <a id="page.anchor.421" name= +"page.anchor.421"></a>aspect; it was intended, among other +things, to strengthen the position of the ruling classes. But +ancient deities could still be worshipped, and were worshipped, +in homes and fields, in groves and on mountain tops, as the case +might be. Jeremiah has testified to the persistence of the folk +practices in connection with the worship of the mother goddess +among the inhabitants of Palestine. Sacrificial fires were lit +and cakes were baked and offered to the "Queen of Heaven" in the +streets of Jerusalem and other cities. In Babylonia and Egypt +domestic religious practices were never completely supplanted by +temple ceremonies in which rulers took a prominent part. It was +always possible, therefore, for usurpers to make popular appeal +by reviving ancient and persistent forms of worship. As we have +seen, Jehu of Israel, after stamping out Phoenician Baal worship, +secured a strong following by giving official recognition to the +cult of the golden calf.</p> +<p>It is not possible to set forth in detail, or with intimate +knowledge, the various innovations which Sammu-rammat introduced, +or with which she was credited, during the reigns of Adad-nirari +IV (810-782 B.C.) and his father. No discovery has been made of +documents like the Tell-el-Amarna "letters", which would shed +light on the social and political life of this interesting +period. But evidence is not awanting that Assyria was being +suffused with Babylonian culture. Royal inscriptions record the +triumphs of the army, but suppress the details of barbarities +such as those which sully the annals of Ashur-natsir-pal, who had +boys and girls burned on pyres and the heroes of small nations +flayed alive. An ethical tendency becomes apparent in the +exaltation of the Babylonian Shamash as an abstract deity who +loved law and order, inspired the king with wisdom and ordained +the <a id="page.anchor.422" name="page.anchor.422"></a>destinies +of mankind. He is invoked on equal terms with Ashur.</p> +<p>The prominence given to Nebo, the god of Borsippa, during the +reign of Adad-nirari IV is highly significant. He appears in his +later character as a god of culture and wisdom, the patron of +scribes and artists, and the wise counsellor of the deities. He +symbolized the intellectual life of the southern kingdom, which +was more closely associated with religious ethics than that of +war-loving Assyria.</p> +<p>A great temple was erected to Nebo at Kalkhi, and four statues +of him were placed within it, two of which are now in the British +Museum. On one of these was cut the inscription, from which we +have quoted, lauding the exalted and wise deity and invoking him +to protect Adad-nirari and the lady of the palace, Sammu-rammat, +and closing with the exhortation, "Whoso cometh in after time, +let him trust in Nebo and trust in no other god".</p> +<p>The priests of Ashur in the city of Asshur must have been as +deeply stirred by this religious revolt at Kalkhi as were the +priests of Amon when Akhenaton turned his back on Thebes and the +national god to worship Aton in his new capital at +Tell-el-Amarna.</p> +<p>It would appear that this sudden stream of Babylonian culture +had begun to flow into Assyria as early as the reign of +Shalmaneser III, and it may be that it was on account of that +monarch's pro-Babylonian tendencies that his nobles and priests +revolted against him. Shalmaneser established at Kalkhi a royal +library which was stocked with the literature of the southern +kingdom. During the reign of Adad-nirari IV this collection was +greatly increased, and subsequent additions were made to it by +his successors, and especially Ashur-nirari IV, the last monarch +of the Middle Empire. The inscriptions of <a id="page.anchor.423" +name="page.anchor.423"></a>Shamshi-Adad, son of Shalmaneser III, +have literary qualities which distinguish them from those of his +predecessors, and may be accounted for by the influence exercised +by Babylonian scholars who migrated northward.</p> +<p>To the reign of Adad-nirari belongs also that important +compilation the "Synchronistic History of Assyria and Babylonia", +which deals with the relations of the two kingdoms and refers to +contemporary events and rulers.</p> +<p>The legends of Semiramis indicate that Sammu-rammat was +associated like Queen Tiy with the revival of mother worship. As +we have said, she went down to tradition as the daughter of the +fish goddess, Derceto. Pliny identified that deity with Atargatis +of Hierapolis.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1466" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1466" id="fnrex1466">466</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Babylonia the fish goddess was Nina, a developed form of +Damkina, spouse of Ea of Eridu. In the inscription on the Nebo +statue, that god is referred to as the "son of Nudimmud" (Ea). +Nina was the goddess who gave her name to Nineveh, and it is +possible that Nebo may have been regarded as her son during the +Semiramis period.</p> +<p>The story of Semiramis's birth is evidently of great +antiquity. It seems to survive throughout Europe in the nursery +tale of the "Babes in the Wood". A striking Indian parallel is +afforded by the legend of Shakuntala, which may be first referred +to for the purpose of comparative study. Shakuntala was the +daughter of the rishi, Viswamitra, and Menaka, the Apsara +(celestial fairy). Menaka gave birth to her child beside the +sacred river Malini. "And she cast the new-born infant on the +bank of that river and went away. And beholding the newborn +infant lying in that forest destitute of human beings but +abounding with lions and tigers, a number of vultures sat around +to protect it from harm." A sage discovered <a id= +"page.anchor.424" name="page.anchor.424"></a>the child and +adopted her. "Because", he said, "she was surrounded by +<span class="emphasis"><em>Shakuntas</em></span> (birds), +therefore hath she been named by me <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Shakuntala</em></span> (bird +protected)."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1467" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1467" id="fnrex1467">467</a>]</span></p> +<p>Semiramis was similarly deserted at birth by her Celestial +mother. She was protected by doves, and her Assyrian name, +Sammu-rammat, is believed to be derived from "Summat"--"dove", +and to signify "the dove goddess loveth her". Simmas, the chief +of royal shepherds, found the child and adopted her. She was of +great beauty like Shakuntala, the maiden of "perfect symmetry", +"sweet smiles", and "faultless features", with whom King +Dushyanta fell in love and married in Gandharva +fashion.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1468" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1468" id="fnrex1468">468</a>]</span></p> +<p>Semiramis became the wife of Onnes, governor of Nineveh, and +one of the generals of its alleged founder, King Ninus. She +accompanied her husband to Bactria on a military campaign, and is +said to have instructed the king how that city should be taken. +Ninus fell in love with Semiramis, and Onnes, who refused to give +her up, went and hanged himself. The fair courtesan then became +the wife of the king.</p> +<p>The story proceeds that Semiramis exercised so great an +influence over the impressionable King Ninus, that she persuaded +him to proclaim her Queen of Assyria for five <a id= +"page.anchor.425" name="page.anchor.425"></a>days. She then +ascended the throne decked in royal robes. On the first day she +gave a great banquet, and on the second thrust Ninus into prison, +or had him put to death. In this manner she secured the empire +for herself. She reigned for over forty years.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2545156" name="id2545156"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XVIII.1. THE SHEPHERD FINDS THE BABE +SEMIRAMIS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From the Painting by E. +Wallcousins</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/35.jpg" /></div> +<p>Professor Frazer inclines to the view that the legend is a +reminiscence of the custom of appointing a mock king and queen to +whom the kingdom was yielded up for five days. Semiramis played +the part of the mother goddess, and the priestly king died a +violent death in the character of her divine lover. "The mounds +of Semiramis which were pointed out all over Western Asia were +said to have been the graves of her lovers whom she buried +alive.... This tradition is one of the surest indications of the +identity of the mythical Semiramis with the Babylonian goddess +Ishtar or Astarte."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1469" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1469" id="fnrex1469">469</a>]</span> As we have seen, +Ishtar and other mother goddesses had many lovers whom they +deserted like La Belle Dame sans Merci (pp. <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.175">175</a>).</p> +<p>As Queen of Assyria, Semiramis was said to have cut roads +through mountainous districts and erected many buildings. +According to one version of the legend she founded the city of +Babylon. Herodotus, however, says in this connection: "Semiramis +held the throne for five generations before the later princess +(Nitocris).... She raised certain embankments, well worthy of +inspection, in the plain near Babylon, to control the river +(Euphrates), which, till then, used to overflow and flood the +whole country round about."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1470" +href="#ftn.fnrex1470" id="fnrex1470">470</a>]</span> Lucian, who +associates the famous queen with "mighty works in Asia", states +that she was reputed by some to be the builder of the ancient +temple of Aphrodite in the Libanus, although others credited it +to Cinyras, or Deukalion.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1471" +href="#ftn.fnrex1471" id="fnrex1471">471</a>]</span> Several +Median places bear her name, and according to ancient Armenian +tradition she was the founder of Van, which was formerly called +"Shamiramagerd". Strabo tells that unidentified mountains in +Western Asia were named after Semiramis.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1472" href="#ftn.fnrex1472" id= +"fnrex1472">472</a>]</span> Indeed, many of the great works in +the Tigro-Euphrates valley, not excepting the famous inscription +of Darius, were credited to the legendary queen of Babylonia and +<a id="page.anchor.426" name= +"page.anchor.426"></a>Assyria.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1473" href="#ftn.fnrex1473" id="fnrex1473">473</a>]</span> +She was the rival in tradition of the famous Sesostris of Egypt +as a ruler, builder, and conqueror.</p> +<p>All the military expeditions of Semiramis were attended with +success, except her invasion of India. She was supposed to have +been defeated in the Punjab. After suffering this disaster she +died, or abdicated the throne in favour of her son Ninyas. The +most archaic form of the legend appears to be that she was turned +into a dove and took flight to heaven in that form. After her +death she was worshipped as a dove goddess like "Our Lady of +Trees and Doves" in Cyprus, whose shrine at old Paphos was +founded, Herodotus says, by Phoenician colonists from +Askalon.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1474" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1474" id="fnrex1474">474</a>]</span> Fish and doves +were sacred to Derceto (Attar),<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1475" href="#ftn.fnrex1475" id="fnrex1475">475</a>]</span> +who had a mermaid form. "I have beheld", says Lucian, "the image +of Derceto in Phoenicia. A marvellous spectacle it is. One half +is a woman, but the part which extends from thighs to feet +terminates with the tail of a fish."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1476" href="#ftn.fnrex1476" id= +"fnrex1476">476</a>]</span></p> +<p>Derceto was supposed to have been a woman who threw herself in +despair into a lake. After death she was adored as a goddess and +her worshippers abstained from eating fish, except sacrificially. +A golden image of a fish was suspended in her temple. Atargatis, +who was identical with Derceto, was reputed in another form of +the legend to have been born of an egg which the sacred fishes +found in the Euphrates and thrust ashore (p. <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>). The Greek Aphrodite was born of the +froth of the sea and floated in a sea-shell. According to +Hesiod,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The wafting waves</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>First bore her to Cythera the +divine:</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To wave-encircled Cyprus came she +then,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And forth emerged, a goddess, in the +charms</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.427" name= +"page.anchor.427"></a>Of awful beauty. Where her delicate +feet</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Had pressed the sands, green herbage +flowering sprang.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Her Aphrodite gods and mortals +name,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The foam-born goddess; and her name is +known</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As Cytherea with the blooming +wreath,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For that she touched Cythera's flowery +coast;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And Cypris, for that on the Cyprian +shore</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>She rose, amid the multitude of waves. +<span class="emphasis"><em>Elton's +translation</em></span>.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The animals sacred to Aphrodite included the sparrow, the +dove, the swan, the swallow, and the wryneck.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1477" href="#ftn.fnrex1477" id= +"fnrex1477">477</a>]</span> She presided over the month of April, +and the myrtle, rose, poppy, and apple were sacred to her.</p> +<p>Some writers connect Semiramis, in her character as a dove +goddess, with Media and the old Persian mother goddess Anaitis, +and regard as arbitrary her identification with the fish goddess +Derceto or Atargatis. The dove was certainly not a popular bird +in the religious art of Babylonia and Assyria, but in one of the +hymns translated by Professor Pinches Ishtar says, "Like a lonely +dove I rest". In another the worshipper tries to touch Ishtar's +heart by crying, "Like the dove I moan". A Sumerian psalmist +makes a goddess (Gula, who presided over Larak, a part of Isin) +lament over the city after it was captured by the enemy:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>My temple E-aste, temple of +Larak,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Larak the city which Bel Enlil +gave,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.428" name= +"page.anchor.428"></a>Beneath are turned to strangeness, above +are turned to strangeness,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With wailings on the lyre my +dwelling-place is surrendered to the stranger,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><span class="emphasis"><em>The dove +cots they wickedly seized, the doves they +entrapped....</em></span></tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The ravens he (Enlil) caused to +fly.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1478" href="#ftn.fnrex1478" +id="fnrex1478">478</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Apparently there were temple and household doves in Babylonia. +The Egyptians had their household dovecots in ancient as in +modern times. Lane makes reference to the large pigeon houses in +many villages. They are of archaic pattern, "with the walls +slightly inclining inwards (like many of the ancient Egyptian +buildings)", and are "constructed upon the roofs of the huts with +crude brick, pottery, and mud.... Each pair of pigeons occupies a +separate (earthen) pot."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1479" +href="#ftn.fnrex1479" id="fnrex1479">479</a>]</span> It may be +that the dove bulked more prominently in domestic than in +official religion, and had a special seasonal significance. +Ishtar appears to have had a dove form. In the Gilgamesh epic she +is said to have loved the "brilliant Allalu bird" (the +"bright-coloured wood pigeon", according to Sayce), and to have +afterwards wounded it by breaking its wings.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1480" href="#ftn.fnrex1480" id= +"fnrex1480">480</a>]</span> She also loved the lion and the +horse, and must therefore have assumed the forms of these +animals. The goddess Bau, "she whose city is destroyed", laments +in a Sumerian psalm:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Like a dove to its dwelling-place, how +long to my dwelling-place will they pursue me,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To my sanctuary ... the sacred place +they pursue me....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>My resting place, the brick walls of my +city Isin, thou art destroyed;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>My sanctuary, shrine of my temple +Galmah, thou art destroyed.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Langdon's translation.</em></span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.429" name="page.anchor.429"></a>Here the +goddess appears to be identified with the doves which rest on the +walls and make their nests in the shrine. The Sumerian poets did +not adorn their poems with meaningless picturesque imagery; their +images were stern facts; they had a magical or religious +significance like the imagery of magical incantations; the +worshipper invoked the deity by naming his or her various +attributes, forms, &c.</p> +<p>Of special interest are the references in Sumerian psalms to +the ravens as well as the doves of goddesses. Throughout Asia and +Europe ravens are birds of ill omen. In Scotland there still +linger curious folk beliefs regarding the appearance of ravens +and doves after death. Michael Scott, the great magician, when on +his deathbed told his friends to place his body on a hillock. +"Three ravens and three doves would be seen flying towards it. If +the ravens were first the body was to be burned, but if the doves +were first it was to receive Christian burial. The ravens were +foremost, but in their hurry flew beyond their mark. So the +devil, who had long been preparing a bed for Michael, was +disappointed."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1481" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1481" id="fnrex1481">481</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Indian mythology Purusha, the chaos giant, first divided +himself. "Hence were husband and wife produced." This couple then +assumed various animal forms and thus "created every living pair +whatsoever down to the ants".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1482" href="#ftn.fnrex1482" id="fnrex1482">482</a>]</span> +Goddesses and fairies in the folk tales of many countries +sometimes assume bird forms. The "Fates" appear to Damayanti in +the Nala story as swans which carry love messages.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1483" href="#ftn.fnrex1483" id= +"fnrex1483">483</a>]</span></p> +<p>According to Aryo-Indian belief, birds were "blessed with +fecundity". The Babylonian Etana eagle and the Egyptian vulture, +as has been indicated, were deities of <a id="page.anchor.430" +name="page.anchor.430"></a>fertility. Throughout Europe birds, +which were "Fates", mated, according to popular belief, on St. +Valentine's Day in February, when lots were drawn for wives by +rural folks. Another form of the old custom is referred to by the +poet Gay:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Last Valentine, the day when birds of +kind</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Their paramours with mutual chirpings +find,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I early rose....</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thee first I spied, and the first swain +we see,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In spite of fortune, shall our true +love be.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The dove appears to have been a sacred bird in various areas +occupied by tribes of the Mediterranean race. Models of a shrine +found in two royal graves at Mycenae are surmounted by a pair of +doves, suggesting twin goddesses like Isis and Nepthys of Egypt +and Ishtar and Belitsheri of Babylonia. Doves and snakes were +associated with the mother goddess of Crete, "typifying", +according to one view, "her connection with air and earth. +Although her character was distinctly beneficent and pacific, yet +as Lady of the Wild Creatures she had a more fearful aspect, one +that was often depicted on carved gems, where lions are her +companions."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1484" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1484" id="fnrex1484">484</a>]</span> Discussing the +attributes and symbols of this mother goddess, Professor Burrows +says: "As the serpent, coming from the crevices of the earth, +shows the possession of the tree or pillar from the underworld, +so the dove, with which this goddess is also associated, shows +its possession from the world of the sky".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1485" href="#ftn.fnrex1485" id= +"fnrex1485">485</a>]</span> Professor Robertson Smith has +demonstrated that the dove was of great sanctity among the +Semites.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1486" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1486" id="fnrex1486">486</a>]</span> It figures in +Hittite sculptures and was probably connected with the goddess +cult in Asia <a id="page.anchor.431" name= +"page.anchor.431"></a>Minor. Although Egypt had no dove goddess, +the bird was addressed by lovers--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I hear thy voice, O turtle +dove--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The dawn is all aglow--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Weary am I with love, with +love,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> Oh, whither shall I go?<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1487" href="#ftn.fnrex1487" id= +"fnrex1487">487</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Pigeons, as indicated, are in Egypt still regarded as sacred +birds, and a few years ago British soldiers created a riot by +shooting them. Doves were connected with the ancient Greek oracle +at Dodona. In many countries the dove is closely associated with +love, and also symbolizes innocence, gentleness, and +holiness.</p> +<p>The pigeon was anciently, it would appear, a sacred bird in +these islands, and Brand has recorded curious folk beliefs +connected with it. In some districts the idea prevailed that no +person could die on a bed which contained pigeon feathers: "If +anybody be sick and lye a dying, if they lye upon pigeon feathers +they will be languishing and never die, but be in pain and +torment," wrote a correspondent. A similar superstition about the +feathers of different varieties of wild fowl<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1488" href="#ftn.fnrex1488" id= +"fnrex1488">488</a>]</span> obtained in other districts. Brand +traced this interesting traditional belief in Yorkshire, +Lancashire, Derbyshire, and some of the Welsh and Irish +counties.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1489" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1489" id="fnrex1489">489</a>]</span> It still lingers +in parts of the Scottish Highlands. In the old ballad of "The +Bloody Gardener" the white dove appears to a young man as the +soul of his lady love who was murdered by his mother. He first +saw the bird perched on his breast and then "sitting on a myrtle +tree".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1490" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1490" id="fnrex1490">490</a>]</span></p> +<p>The dove was not only a symbol of Semiramis, but <a id= +"page.anchor.432" name="page.anchor.432"></a>also of her mother +Derceto, the Phoenician fish goddess. The connection between bird +and fish may have been given an astral significance. In "Poor +Robin's Almanack" for 1757 a St. Valentine rhyme begins:--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>This month bright Phoebus enters +Pisces,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The maids will have good store of +kisses,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For always when the sun comes +there,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Valentine's day is drawing +near,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And both the men and maids +incline</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>To choose them each a +Valentine.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>As we have seen, the example was set by the mating birds. The +"Almanack" poet no doubt versified an old astrological belief: +when the spring sun entered the sign of the Fishes, the love +goddess in bird form returned to earth.</p> +<p>Advocates of the Totemic theory, on the other hand, may hold +that the association of doves with snake goddesses and fish +goddesses of fertility was due to the fusion of tribes who had +various animal totems. "The Pelew Islanders believed", says +Professor Frazer, "that the souls of their forefathers lived in +certain species of animals, which accordingly they held sacred +and would not injure. For this reason one man would not kill +snakes, another would not harm pigeons, and so on; but everyone +was quite ready to kill and eat the sacred animals of his +neighbours."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1491" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1491" id="fnrex1491">491</a>]</span> That the +Egyptians had similar customs is suggested by what Herodotus +tells us regarding their sacred animals: "Those who live near +Thebes and the lake Moeris hold the crocodile in religious +veneration.... Those who live in or near Elephantine, so far from +considering these beasts as sacred, make them an article of +food.... The hippopotamus is esteemed sacred in the <a id= +"page.anchor.433" name="page.anchor.433"></a>district of +Papremis, but in no other part of Egypt.... They roast and boil +... birds and fishes ... excepting those which are preserved for +sacred purposes."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1492" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1492" id="fnrex1492">492</a>]</span> Totemic animals +controlled the destinies of tribes and families. "Grose tells +us", says Brand, "that, besides general notices of death, many +families have particular warnings or notices: some by the +appearance of a bird, and others by the figure of a tall woman, +dressed all in white.... Pennant says that many of the great +families in Scotland had their demon or genius, who gave them +monitions of future events."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1493" href="#ftn.fnrex1493" id="fnrex1493">493</a>]</span> +Members of tribes which venerated the pigeon therefore invoked it +like the Egyptian love poet and drew omens from its notes, or saw +one appearing as the soul of the dead like the lover in the +ballad of "The Bloody Gardener". They refrained also from killing +the pigeon except sacrificially, and suffered agonies on a +deathbed which contained pigeon feathers, the "taboo" having been +broken.</p> +<p>Some such explanation is necessary to account for the +specialization of certain goddesses as fish, snake, cat, or bird +deities. Aphrodite, who like Ishtar absorbed the attributes of +several goddesses of fertility and fate, had attached to her the +various animal symbols which were prominent in districts or among +tribes brought into close contact, while the poppy, rose, myrtle, +&c., which were used as love charms, or for making love +potions, were also consecrated to her. Anthropomorphic deities +were decorated with the symbols and flowers of folk religion.</p> +<p>From the comparative evidence accumulated here, it will be +seen that the theory of the mythical Semiramis's Median or +Persian origin is somewhat narrow. It is possible that the dove +was venerated in Cyprus, as it certainly was in Crete, long +centuries before Assyrian and <a id="page.anchor.434" name= +"page.anchor.434"></a>Babylonian influence filtered westward +through Phoenician and Hittite channels. In another connection +Sir Arthur Evans shows that the resemblance between Cretan and +early Semitic beliefs "points rather to some remote common +element, the nature of which is at present obscure, than to any +definite borrowing by one side or another".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1494" href="#ftn.fnrex1494" id= +"fnrex1494">494</a>]</span></p> +<p>From the evidence afforded by the Semiramis legends and the +inscriptions of the latter half of the Assyrian Middle Empire +period, it may be inferred that a renascence of "mother worship" +was favoured by the social and political changes which were +taking place. In the first place the influence of Babylon must +have been strongly felt in this connection. The fact that +Adadnirari found it necessary to win the support of the +Babylonians by proclaiming his descent from one of their ancient +royal families, suggests that he was not only concerned about the +attitude assumed by the scholars of the southern kingdom, but +also that of the masses of old Sumerian and Akkadian stocks who +continued to bake cakes to the Queen of Heaven so as to ensure +good harvests. In the second place it is not improbable that even +in Assyria the introduction of Nebo and his spouse made +widespread appeal. That country had become largely peopled by an +alien population; many of these aliens came from districts where +"mother worship" prevailed, and had no traditional respect for +Ashur, while they regarded with hostility the military +aristocracy who conquered and ruled in the name of that dreaded +deity. Perhaps, too, the influence of the Aramaeans, who in +Babylonia wrecked the temples of the sun god, tended to revive +the ancient religion of the Mediterranean race. Jehu's religious +revolt in Israel, which established once again the cult of +Ashtoreth, occurred after he came under <a id="page.anchor.435" +name="page.anchor.435"></a>the sway of Damascus, and may have not +been unconnected with the political ascendancy elsewhere of the +goddess cult.</p> +<p>Nebo, whom Adad-nirari exalted at Kalkhi, was more than a +local god of Borsippa. "The most satisfactory view", says +Jastrow, "is to regard him as a counterpart of Ea. Like Ea, he is +the embodiment and source of wisdom.... The study of the heavens +formed part of the wisdom which is traced back to Nebo, and the +temple school at Borsippa became one of the chief centres for the +astrological, and, subsequently, for the astronomical lore of +Babylonia.... Like Nebo, Ea is also associated with the +irrigation of the fields and with their consequent fertility. A +hymn praises him as the one who fills the canals and the dikes, +who protects the fields and brings the crops to maturity." Nebo +links with Merodach (Marduk), who is sometimes referred to as his +father. Jastrow assumes that the close partnership between Nebo +and Merodach "had as a consequence a transfer of some of the +father Marduk's attributes as a solar deity to Nebo,<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1495" href="#ftn.fnrex1495" id= +"fnrex1495">495</a>]</span> his son, just as Ea passed his traits +on to his son, Marduk".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1496" +href="#ftn.fnrex1496" id="fnrex1496">496</a>]</span></p> +<p>As the "recorder" or "scribe" among the gods, Nebo resembles +the Egyptian god Thoth, who links with Khonsu, the lunar and +spring sun god of love and fertility, and with Osiris. In +Borsippa he had, like Merodach in Babylon, pronounced Tammuz +traits. Nebo, in fact, appears to be the Tammuz of the new age, +the son of the ancient goddess, who became "Husband of his +Mother". If Nebo had no connection with Great Mother worship, it +is unlikely that his statue would have <a id="page.anchor.436" +name="page.anchor.436"></a>borne an inscription referring to King +Adad-nirari and Queen Sammu-rammat on equal terms. The Assyrian +spouse of Nebo was called Tashmit. This "goddess of supplication +and love" had a lunar significance. A prayer addressed to her in +association with Nannar (Sin) and Ishtar, proceeds:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the evil of the eclipse of the moon +which ... has taken place,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the evil of the powers, of the +portents, evil and not good, which are in my palace and my +land,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>(I) have turned towards +thee!...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Before Nabu (Nebo) thy spouse, thy +lord, the prince, the first-born of E-sagila, intercede for +me!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>May he hearken to my cry at the word of +thy mouth; may he remove my sighing, may he learn my +supplication!</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Damkina is similarly addressed in another prayer:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O Damkina, mighty queen of all the +gods,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O wife of Ea, valiant art +thou,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O Ir-nina, mighty queen of all the gods +...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou that dwellest in the Abyss, O lady +of heaven and earth!...</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>In the evil of the eclipse of the moon, +etc.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Bau is also prayed in a similar connection as "mighty lady +that dwellest in the bright heavens", i.e. "Queen of +heaven".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1497" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1497" id="fnrex1497">497</a>]</span></p> +<p>Tashmit, whose name signifies "Obedience", according to +Jastrow, or "Hearing", according to Sayce, carried the prayers of +worshippers to Nebo, her spouse. As Isis interceded with Osiris, +she interceded with Nebo, on behalf of mankind. But this did not +signify that she was the least influential of the divine pair. A +goddess played many parts: she was at once mother, daughter, and +wife of the god; the servant of one god or the "mighty queen of +all the gods". The Great Mother <a id="page.anchor.437" name= +"page.anchor.437"></a>was, as has been indicated, regarded as the +eternal and undecaying one; the gods passed away, son succeeding +father; she alone remained. Thus, too, did Semiramis survive in +the popular memory, as the queen-goddess of widespread legends, +after kings and gods had been forgotten. To her was ascribed all +the mighty works of other days in the lands where the indigenous +peoples first worshipped the Great Mother as Damkina, Nina, Bau, +Ishtar, or Tashmit, because the goddess was anciently believed to +be the First Cause, the creatrix, the mighty one who invested the +ruling god with the powers he possessed--the god who held sway +because he was her husband, as did Nergal as the husband of +Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades.</p> +<p>The multiplication of well-defined goddesses was partly due to +the tendency to symbolize the attributes of the Great Mother, and +partly due to the development of the great "Lady" in a particular +district where she reflected local phenomena and where the +political influence achieved by her worshippers emphasized her +greatness. Legends regarding a famous goddess were in time +attached to other goddesses, and in Aphrodite and Derceto we +appear to have mother deities who absorbed the traditions of more +than one local "lady" of river and plain, forest and mountain. +Semiramis, on the other hand, survived as a link between the old +world and the new, between the country from which emanated the +stream of ancient culture and the regions which received it. As +the high priestess of the cult, she became identified with the +goddess whose bird name she bore, as Gilgamesh and Etana became +identified with the primitive culture-hero or patriarch of the +ancient Sumerians, and Sargon became identified with Tammuz. No +doubt the fame of Semiramis was specially emphasized because of +her close association, as Queen <a id="page.anchor.438" name= +"page.anchor.438"></a>Sammu-rammat, with the religious +innovations which disturbed the land of the god Ashur during the +Middle Empire period.</p> +<p>Adad-nirari IV, the son or husband of Sammu-rammat, was a +vigorous and successful campaigner. He was the Assyrian king who +became the "saviour" of Israel. Although it is not possible to +give a detailed account of his various expeditions, we find from +the list of these which survives in the Eponym Chronicle that he +included in the Assyrian Empire a larger extent of territory than +any of his predecessors. In the north-east he overcame the Median +and other tribes, and acquired a large portion of the Iranian +plateau; he compelled Edom to pay tribute, and established his +hold in Babylonia by restricting the power of the Chaldaeans in +Sealand. In the north he swayed--at least, so he claimed--the +wide domains of the Nairi people. He also confirmed his supremacy +over the Hittites.</p> +<p>The Aramaean state of Damascus, which had withstood the attack +of the great Shalmaneser and afterwards oppressed, as we have +seen, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, was completely +overpowered by Adad-nirari. The old king, Hazael, died when +Assyria's power was being strengthened and increased along his +frontiers. He was succeeded by his son Mari, who is believed to +be identical with the Biblical Ben-Hadad III.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1498" href="#ftn.fnrex1498" id= +"fnrex1498">498</a>]</span></p> +<p>Shortly after this new monarch came to the throne, Adad-nirari +IV led a great army against him. The Syrian ruler appears to have +been taken by surprise; probably his kingdom was suffering from +the three defeats which had been previously administered by the +revolting Israelites.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1499" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1499" id="fnrex1499">499</a>]</span> At any rate Mari +was unable to gather together an army of allies to resist the +Assyrian advance, and took <a id="page.anchor.439" name= +"page.anchor.439"></a>refuge behind the walls of Damascus. This +strongly fortified city was closely invested, and Mari had at +length to submit and acknowledge Adad-nirari as his overlord. The +price of peace included 23,000 talents of silver, 20 of gold, +3000 of copper, and 5000 of iron, as well as ivory ornaments and +furniture, embroidered materials, and other goods "to a countless +amount". Thus "the Lord gave Israel a saviour, so that they went +out from under the hand of the Syrians: and the children of +Israel dwelt in their tents, as beforetime". This significant +reference to the conquest of Damascus by the Assyrian king is +followed by another which throws light on the religious phenomena +of the period: "Nevertheless they departed not from the sins of +the house of Jeroboam, who made Israel sin, but walked therein: +and there remained the grove also in Samaria".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1500" href="#ftn.fnrex1500" id= +"fnrex1500">500</a>]</span> Ashtoreth and her golden calf +continued to be venerated, and doves were sacrificed to the local +Adonis.</p> +<p>It is not certain whether Adad-nirari penetrated farther than +Damascus. Possibly all the states which owed allegiance to the +king of that city became at once the willing vassals of Assyria, +their protector. The tribute received by Adad-nirari from Tyre, +Sidon, the land of Omri (Israel), Edom, and Palastu (Philistia) +may have been gifted as a formal acknowledgment of his suzerainty +and with purpose to bring them directly under Assyrian control, +so that Damascus might be prevented from taking vengeance against +them.</p> +<p>Meagre details survive regarding the reign of the next king, +Shalmaneser IV (781-772 B.C). These are, however, supplemented by +the Urartian inscriptions. Although Adad-nirari boasted that he +had subdued the kingdom of Urartu in the north, he appears to +have <a id="page.anchor.440" name="page.anchor.440"></a>done no +more than limit its southern expansion for a time.</p> +<p>The Urarti were, like the Mitanni, a military +aristocracy<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1501" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1501" id="fnrex1501">501</a>]</span> who welded +together by conquest the tribes of the eastern and northern +Highlands which several Assyrian monarchs included in their +Empire. They acquired the elements of Assyrian culture, and used +the Assyrian script for their own language. Their god was named +Khaldis, and they called their nation Khaldia. During the reign +of Ashur-natsir-pal their area of control was confined to the +banks of the river Araxes, but it was gradually extended under a +succession of vigorous kings towards the south-west until they +became supreme round the shores of Lake Van. Three of their early +kings were Lutipris, Sharduris I, and Arame.</p> +<p>During the reign of Shamshi-Adad the Assyrians came into +conflict with the Urarti, who were governed at the time by +"Ushpina of Nairi" (Ishpuinis, son of Sharduris II). The Urartian +kingdom had extended rapidly and bordered on Assyrian territory. +To the west were the tribes known as the Mannai, the northern +enemies of the Medes, a people of Indo-European speech.</p> +<p>When Adad-nirari IV waged war against the Urarti, their king +was Menuas, the son of Ishpuinis. Menuas was a great war-lord, +and was able to measure his strength against Assyria on equal +terms. He had nearly doubled by conquest the area controlled by +his predecessors. Adad-nirari endeavoured to drive his rival +northward, but all along the Assyrian frontier from the Euphrates +to the Lower Zab, Menuas forced the outposts of Adad-nirari to +retreat southward. The Assyrians, in short, were unable to hold +their own.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.441" name="page.anchor.441"></a>Having +extended his kingdom towards the south, Menuas invaded Hittite +territory, subdued Malatia and compelled its king to pay tribute. +He also conquered the Mannai and other tribes. Towards the north +and north-west he added a considerable area to his kingdom, which +became as large as Assyria.</p> +<p>Menuas's capital was the city of Turushpa or Dhuspas (Van), +which was called Khaldinas<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1502" +href="#ftn.fnrex1502" id="fnrex1502">502</a>]</span> after the +national god. For a century it was the seat of Urartian +administration. The buildings erected there by Menuas and his +successors became associated in after-time with the traditions of +Semiramis, who, as Queen Sammu-rammat of Assyria, was a +contemporary of the great Urartian conqueror. Similarly a +sculptured representation of the Hittite god was referred to by +Herodotus as a memorial of the Egyptian king Sesostris.</p> +<p>The strongest fortification at Dhuspas was the citadel, which +was erected on a rocky promontory jutting into Lake Van. A small +garrison could there resist a prolonged siege. The water supply +of the city was assured by the construction of subterranean +aqueducts. Menuas erected a magnificent palace, which rivalled +that of the Assyrian monarch at Kalkhi, and furnished it with the +rich booty brought back from victorious campaigns. He was a lover +of trees and planted many, and he laid out gardens which bloomed +with brilliant Asian flowers. The palace commanded a noble +prospect of hill and valley scenery on the south-western shore of +beautiful Lake Van.</p> +<p>Menuas was succeeded by his son Argistis, who ascended the +throne during the lifetime of Adad-nirari of Assyria. During the +early part of his reign he conducted military expeditions to the +north beyond the river <a id="page.anchor.442" name= +"page.anchor.442"></a>Araxes. He afterwards came into conflict +with Assyria, and acquired more territory on its northern +frontier. He also subdued the Mannai, who had risen in +revolt.</p> +<p>For three years (781-778 B.C.) the general of Shalmaneser IV +waged war constantly with Urartu, and again in 776 B.C. and 774 +B.C. attempts were made to prevent the southern expansion of that +Power. On more than one occasion the Assyrians were defeated and +compelled to retreat.</p> +<p>Assyria suffered serious loss of prestige on account of its +inability to hold in check its northern rival. Damascus rose in +revolt and had to be subdued, and northern Syria was greatly +disturbed. Hadrach was visited in the last year of the king's +reign.</p> +<p>Ashur-dan III (771-763 B.C.) occupied the Assyrian throne +during a period of great unrest. He was unable to attack Urartu. +His army had to operate instead on his eastern and southern +frontiers. A great plague broke out in 765 B.C., the year in +which Hadrach had again to be dealt with. On June 15, 763 B.C., +there was a total eclipse of the sun, and that dread event was +followed by a revolt at Asshur which was no doubt of priestly +origin. The king's son Adad-nirari was involved in it, but it is +not certain whether or not he displaced his father for a time. In +758 B.C. Ashur-dan again showed signs of activity by endeavouring +to suppress the revolts which during the period of civil war had +broken out in Syria.</p> +<p>Adad-nirari V came to the throne in 763 B.C. He had to deal +with revolts in Asshur in other cities. Indeed for the greater +part of his reign he seems to have been kept fully engaged +endeavouring to establish his authority within the Assyrian +borders. The Syrian provinces regained their independence.</p> +<p>During the first four years of his successor Ashurnirari +<a id="page.anchor.443" name="page.anchor.443"></a>IV (753-746 +B.C.) the army never left Assyria. Namri was visited in 749-748 +B.C., but it is not certain whether he fought against the +Urartians, or the Aramaeans who had become active during this +period of Assyrian decline. In 746 B.C. a revolt broke out in the +city of Kalkhi and the king had to leave it. Soon afterwards he +died--perhaps he was assassinated--and none of his sons came to +the throne. A year previously Nabu-natsir, known to the Greeks as +Nabonassar, was crowned king of Babylonia.</p> +<p>Ashur-nirari IV appears to have been a monarch of somewhat +like character to the famous Akhenaton of Egypt--an idealist for +whom war had no attractions. He kept his army at home while his +foreign possessions rose in revolt one after another. Apparently +he had dreams of guarding Assyria against attack by means of +treaties of peace. He arranged one with a Mesopotamian king, +Mati-ilu of Agusi, who pledged himself not to go to war without +the consent of his Assyrian overlord, and it is possible that +there were other documents of like character which have not +survived to us. During his leisure hours the king engaged himself +in studious pursuits and made additions to the royal library. In +the end his disappointed soldiers found a worthy leader in one of +its generals who seized the throne and assumed the royal name of +Tiglath-pileser.</p> +<p>Ashur-nirari IV was the last king of the Middle Empire of +Assyria. He may have been a man of high character and refinement +and worthy of our esteem, although an unsuitable ruler for a +predatory State.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1464" href="#fnrex1464" id= +"ftn.fnrex1464">464</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Land of the Hittites</em></span>, J. Garstang, p. 354.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1465" href="#fnrex1465" id= +"ftn.fnrex1465">465</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia,</em></span> T.G. Pinches, p. 343.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1466" href="#fnrex1466" id= +"ftn.fnrex1466">466</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Nat. +Hist</em></span>., v, 19 and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Strabo</em></span> xvi, 1-27.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1467" href="#fnrex1467" id= +"ftn.fnrex1467">467</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Mahabharata</em></span>: <span class="emphasis"><em>Adi +Parva</em></span>, sections lxxi and lxxii (Roy's translation, +pp. 213 216, and <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian Myth and +Legend</em></span>, pp. 157 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1468" href="#fnrex1468" id= +"ftn.fnrex1468">468</a>]</span> That is, without ceremony but +with consent.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1469" href="#fnrex1469" id= +"ftn.fnrex1469">469</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Golden Bough</em></span> (<span class="emphasis"><em>The +Scapegoat</em></span>), pp. 369 <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>, (3rd edition). Perhaps the mythic Semiramis and +legends connected were in existence long before the historic +Sammu-rammat, though the two got mixed up.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1470" href="#fnrex1470" id= +"ftn.fnrex1470">470</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, i, 184.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1471" href="#fnrex1471" id= +"ftn.fnrex1471">471</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>De dea +Syria</em></span>, 9-14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1472" href="#fnrex1472" id= +"ftn.fnrex1472">472</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Strabo</em></span>, xvi, 1, 2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1473" href="#fnrex1473" id= +"ftn.fnrex1473">473</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Diodorus Siculus</em></span>, ii, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1474" href="#fnrex1474" id= +"ftn.fnrex1474">474</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, i, 105.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1475" href="#fnrex1475" id= +"ftn.fnrex1475">475</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Diodorus Siculus</em></span>, ii, 4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1476" href="#fnrex1476" id= +"ftn.fnrex1476">476</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>De dea +Syria</em></span>, 14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1477" href="#fnrex1477" id= +"ftn.fnrex1477">477</a>]</span> This little bird allied to the +woodpecker twists its neck strangely when alarmed. It may have +symbolized the coquettishness of fair maidens. As love goddesses +were "Fates", however, the wryneck may have been connected with +the belief that the perpetrator of a murder, or a death spell, +could be detected when he approached his victim's corpse. If +there was no wound to "bleed afresh", the "death thraw" (the +contortions of death) might indicate who the criminal was. In a +Scottish ballad regarding a lady, who was murdered by her lover, +the verse occurs:</div> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>'Twas in the middle o' the +night</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The cock began to craw;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And at the middle o' the +night</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> The corpse began to thraw.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1478" href="#fnrex1478" id= +"ftn.fnrex1478">478</a>]</span> Langdon's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms</em></span>, pp. +133, 135.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1479" href="#fnrex1479" id= +"ftn.fnrex1479">479</a>]</span> Introduction to Lane's +<span class="emphasis"><em>Manners and Customs of the Modern +Egyptians.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1480" href="#fnrex1480" id= +"ftn.fnrex1480">480</a>]</span> Tammuz is referred to in a +Sumerian psalm as "him of the dovelike voice, yea, dovelike". He +may have had a dove form. Angus, the Celtic god of spring, love, +and fertility, had a swan form; he also had his seasonal period +of sleep like Tammuz.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1481" href="#fnrex1481" id= +"ftn.fnrex1481">481</a>]</span> Campbell's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Superstitions of the Scottish +Highlands</em></span>, p. 288.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1482" href="#fnrex1482" id= +"ftn.fnrex1482">482</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Indian +Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 95.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1483" href="#fnrex1483" id= +"ftn.fnrex1483">483</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., pp. 329-30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1484" href="#fnrex1484" id= +"ftn.fnrex1484">484</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>Crete, +the Forerunner of Greece</em></span>, C.H. and H.B. Hawes, p. +139</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1485" href="#fnrex1485" id= +"ftn.fnrex1485">485</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Discoveries in Crete</em></span>, pp. 137-8.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1486" href="#fnrex1486" id= +"ftn.fnrex1486">486</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Religion of the Semites</em></span>, p. 294.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1487" href="#fnrex1487" id= +"ftn.fnrex1487">487</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Egyptian Myth and Legend</em></span>, p. 59.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1488" href="#fnrex1488" id= +"ftn.fnrex1488">488</a>]</span> Including the goose, one of the +forms of the harvest goddess.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1489" href="#fnrex1489" id= +"ftn.fnrex1489">489</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Brand's Popular Antiquities</em></span>, vol. ii, +230-1 and vol. iii, 232 (1899 ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1490" href="#fnrex1490" id= +"ftn.fnrex1490">490</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid</em></span>., vol. iii, 217. The myrtle was +used for love charms.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1491" href="#fnrex1491" id= +"ftn.fnrex1491">491</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Golden Bough</em></span> (<span class="emphasis"><em>Spirits of +the Corn and of the Wild</em></span>), vol. ii, p. 293 (3rd +ed.).</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1492" href="#fnrex1492" id= +"ftn.fnrex1492">492</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, ii, 69, 71, and 77.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1493" href="#fnrex1493" id= +"ftn.fnrex1493">493</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Brand's Popular Antiquities</em></span>, vol. iii, +p. 227.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1494" href="#fnrex1494" id= +"ftn.fnrex1494">494</a>]</span> Cited by Professor Burrows in +<span class="emphasis"><em>The Discoveries in Crete</em></span>, +p. 134.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1495" href="#fnrex1495" id= +"ftn.fnrex1495">495</a>]</span> Like the Egyptian Horus, Nebo had +many phases: he was connected with the sun and moon, the planet +Mercury, water and crops; he was young and yet old--a mystical +god.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1496" href="#fnrex1496" id= +"ftn.fnrex1496">496</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in +Babylonia and Assyria</em></span>, pp. 94 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1497" href="#fnrex1497" id= +"ftn.fnrex1497">497</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Babylonian Magic and Sorcery</em></span>, L.W. +King, pp. 6-7 and 26-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1498" href="#fnrex1498" id= +"ftn.fnrex1498">498</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xiii, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1499" href="#fnrex1499" id= +"ftn.fnrex1499">499</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xiii, 14-25.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1500" href="#fnrex1500" id= +"ftn.fnrex1500">500</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>3 +Kings</em></span>, xiii, 5, 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1501" href="#fnrex1501" id= +"ftn.fnrex1501">501</a>]</span> The masses of the Urartian folk +appear to have been of Hatti stock--"broad heads", like their +descendants, the modern Armenians.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1502" href="#fnrex1502" id= +"ftn.fnrex1502">502</a>]</span> It is uncertain whether this city +or Kullani in north Syria it the Biblical Calno. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, x, 9.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2546714" name= +"id2546714"></a>Chapter XIX. Assyria's Age of Splendour</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser IV, the Biblical Pul--Babylonian +Campaign--Urartian Ambitions in North Syria--Battle of Two Kings +and Flight of Sharduris-- Conquest of Syro-Cappadocian +States--Hebrew History from Jehu to Menahem --Israel subject to +Assyria--Urartu's Power broken--Ahaz's Appeal to +Assyria--Damascus and Israel subdued--Babylonia united to +Assyria--Shalmaneser and Hoshea--Sargon deports the "Lost Ten +Tribes"--Merodach Baladan King of Babylonia--Egyptian Army of +Allies routed--Ahaz and Isaiah--Frontier Campaigns--Merodach +Baladan overthrown--Sennacherib and the Hittite States--Merodach +Baladan's second and brief Reign--Hezekiah and +Sennacherib--Destruction of Assyrian Army--Sack of Babylon-- +Esarhaddon--A Second Semiramis--Raids of Elamites, Cimmerians, +Scythians, and Medes--Sack of Sidon--Manasseh and Isaiah's +Fate--Esarhaddon conquers Lower Egypt--Revolt of Assyrian +Nobles--Ashurbanipal.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.444" name="page.anchor.444"></a> We now +enter upon the last and most brilliant phase of Assyrian +civilization--the period of the Third or New Empire during which +flourished Tiglath-pileser IV, the mighty conqueror; the +Shalmaneser of the Bible; "Sargon the Later", who transported the +"lost ten tribes" of Israel; Sennacherib, the destroyer of +Babylon, and Esarhaddon, who made Lower Egypt an Assyrian +province. We also meet with notable figures of Biblical fame, +including Ahaz, Hezekiah, Isaiah, and the idolatrous +Manasseh.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser IV, who deposed Ashur-nirari IV, was known to +the Babylonians as Pulu, which, some think, was a term of +contempt signifying "wild animal". In the Bible he is referred to +as Pul, Tiglath-pilneser, and <a id="page.anchor.445" name= +"page.anchor.445"></a>Tiglath-pileser.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1503" href="#ftn.fnrex1503" id="fnrex1503">503</a>]</span> +He came to the Assyrian throne towards the end of April in 745 +B.C. and reigned until 727 B.C. We know nothing regarding his +origin, but it seems clear that he was not of royal descent. He +appears to have been a popular leader of the revolt against +Ashur-nirari, who, like certain of his predecessors, had +pronounced pro-Babylonian tendencies. It is significant to note +in this connection that the new king was an unswerving adherent +of the cult of Ashur, by the adherents of which he was probably +strongly supported.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser combined in equal measure those qualities of +generalship and statesmanship which were necessary for the +reorganization of the Assyrian state and the revival of its +military prestige. At the beginning of his reign there was much +social discontent and suffering. The national exchequer had been +exhausted by the loss of tribute from revolting provinces, trade +was paralysed, and the industries were in a languishing +condition. Plundering bands of Aramaeans were menacing the +western frontiers and had overrun part of northern Babylonia. New +political confederacies in Syria kept the north-west regions in a +constant state of unrest, and the now powerful Urartian kingdom +was threatening the Syro-Cappadocian states as if its rulers had +dreams of building up a great world empire on the ruins of that +of Assyria.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser first paid attention to Babylonia, and +extinguished the resistance of the Aramaeans in Akkad. He appears +to have been welcomed by Nabonassar, who became his vassal, and +he offered sacrifices in the cities of Babylon, Sippar, Cuthah, +and Nippur. Sippar had been occupied by Aramaeans, as on a +previous occasion when they destroyed the temple of the sun god +Shamash which was restored by Nabu-aplu-iddina of Babylon.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.446" name= +"page.anchor.446"></a>Tiglath-pileser did not overrun Chaldaea, +but he destroyed its capital, Sarrabanu, and impaled King +Nabu-ushabshi. He proclaimed himself "King of Sumer and Akkad" +and "King of the Four Quarters". The frontier states of Elam and +Media were visited and subdued.</p> +<p>Having disposed of the Aramaeans and other raiders, the +Assyrian monarch had next to deal with his most powerful rival, +Urartu. Argistis I had been succeeded by Sharduris III, who had +formed an alliance with the north Mesopotamian king, Mati-ilu of +Agusi, on whom Ashur-nirari had reposed his faith. Ere long +Sharduris pressed southward from Malatia and compelled the north +Syrian Hittite states, including Carchemish, to acknowledge his +suzerainty. A struggle then ensued between Urartu and Assyria for +the possession of the Syro-Cappadocian states.</p> +<p>At this time the reputation of Tiglath-pileser hung in the +balance. If he failed in his attack on Urartu, his prestige would +vanish at home and abroad and Sharduris might, after establishing +himself in northern Syria, invade Assyria and compel its +allegiance.</p> +<p>Two courses lay before Tiglath-pileser. He could either cross +the mountains and invade Urartu, or strike at his rival in north +Syria, where the influence of Assyria had been completely +extinguished. The latter appeared to him to be the most feasible +and judicious procedure, for if he succeeded in expelling the +invaders he would at the same time compel the allegiance of the +rebellious Hittite states.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2546871" name="id2546871"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIX.1. STATUE OF NEBO</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Dedicated by Adad-nirari IV, and the Queen, Sammu-rammat +(<span class="emphasis"><em>British Museum</em></span>)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/36.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2546890" name="id2546890"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIX.2. TIGLATH-PLESSER IV IN HIS +CHARIOT</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"></blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/37.jpg" /></div> +<p>In the spring of 743 B.C. Tiglath-pileser led his army across +the Euphrates and reached Arpad without meeting with any +resistance. The city appears to have opened its gates to him +although it was in the kingdom of Mati-ilu, who acknowledged +Urartian sway. Its foreign garrison <a id="page.anchor.447" name= +"page.anchor.447"></a>was slaughtered. Well might Sharduris +exclaim, in the words of the prophet, "Where is the king of +Arpad? where are the gods of Arpad?"<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1504" href="#ftn.fnrex1504" id= +"fnrex1504">504</a>]</span></p> +<p>Leaving Arpad, Tiglath-pileser advanced to meet Sharduris, who +was apparently hastening southward to attack the Assyrians in the +rear. Tiglath-pileser, however, crossed the Euphrates and, moving +northward, delivered an unexpected attack on the Urartian army in +Qummukh. A fierce battle ensued, and one of its dramatic +incidents was a single combat between the rival kings. The tide +of battle flowed in Assyria's favour, and when evening was +falling the chariots and cavalry of Urartu were thrown into +confusion. An attempt was made to capture King Sharduris, who +leapt from his chariot and made hasty escape on horseback, hotly +pursued in the gathering darkness by an Assyrian contingent of +cavalry. Not until "the bridge of the Euphrates" was reached was +the exciting night chase abandoned.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser had achieved an overwhelming victory against +an army superior to his own in numbers. Over 70,000 of the enemy +were slain or taken captive, while the Urartian camp with its +stores and horses and followers fell into the hands of the +triumphant Assyrians. Tiglath-pileser burned the royal tent and +throne as an offering to Ashur, and carried Sharduris's bed to +the temple of the goddess of Nineveh, whither he returned to +prepare a new plan of campaign against his northern rival.</p> +<p>Despite the blow dealt against Urartu, Assyria did not +immediately regain possession of north Syria. The shifty Mati-ilu +either cherished the hope that Sharduris would recover strength +and again invade north Syria, or that he might himself establish +an empire in that region. Tiglath-pileser had therefore to march +westward again. <a id="page.anchor.448" name= +"page.anchor.448"></a>For three years he conducted vigorous +campaigns in "the western land", where he met with vigorous +resistance. In 740 B.C. Arpad was captured and Mati-ilu deposed +and probably put to death. Two years later Kullani and Hamath +fell, and the districts which they controlled were included in +the Assyrian empire and governed by Crown officials.</p> +<p>Once again the Hebrews came into contact with Assyria. The +Dynasty of Jehu had come to an end by this time. Its fall may not +have been unconnected with the trend of events in Assyria during +the closing years of the Middle Empire.</p> +<p>Supported by Assyria, the kings of Israel had become powerful +and haughty. Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, had achieved +successes in conflict with Damascus. In Judah the unstable +Amaziah, son of Joash, was strong enough to lay a heavy hand on +Edom, and flushed with triumph then resolved to readjust his +relations with his overlord, the king of Israel. Accordingly he +sent a communication to Jehoash which contained some proposal +regarding their political relations, concluding with the offer or +challenge, "Come, let us look one another in the face". A +contemptuous answer was returned.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Jehoash the king of Israel sent to Amaziah king of Judah, +saying, The thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that +was in Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife: and +there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, and trode down +the thistle. Thou hast indeed smitten Edom, and thine heart hath +lifted thee up: glory of this, and tarry at home, for why +shouldest thou meddle to thy hurt, that thou shouldest fall, even +thou, and Judah with thee? But Amaziah would not hear. Therefore +Jehoash king of Israel went up; and he and Amaziah king of Judah +looked one another in the face at Beth-shemesh [city of Shamash, +the sun god], which belongeth to Judah. And Judah was put to the +worse before Israel; and they fled every man to their tents.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.449" name="page.anchor.449"></a>Jehoash +afterwards destroyed a large portion of the wall of Jerusalem and +plundered the temple and palace, returning home to Samaria with +rich booty and hostages.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1505" +href="#ftn.fnrex1505" id="fnrex1505">505</a>]</span> Judah thus +remained a vassal state of Israel's.</p> +<p>Jeroboam, son of Jehoash, had a long and prosperous reign. +About 773 B.C. he appears to have co-operated with Assyria and +conquered Damascus and Hamath. His son Zachariah, the last king +of the Jehu Dynasty of Israel, came to the throne in 740 B.C. +towards the close of the reign of Azariah, son of Amaziah, king +of Judah. Six months afterwards he was assassinated by Shallum. +This usurper held sway at Samaria for only a month. "For Menahem +the son of Gadi went up from Tirzah, and came to Samaria, and +smote Shallum the son of Jabesh in Samaria, and slew him, and +reigned in his stead."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1506" +href="#ftn.fnrex1506" id="fnrex1506">506</a>]</span></p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser was operating successfully in middle Syria +when he had dealings with, among others, "Menihimme (Menahem) of +the city of the Samarians", who paid tribute. No resistance was +possible on the part of Menahem, the usurper, who was probably +ready to welcome the Assyrian conqueror, so that, by arranging an +alliance, he might secure his own position. The Biblical +reference is as follows: "And Pul the king of Assyria came +against the land: and Menahem gave Pul a thousand talents of +silver, that his hand might be with him to confirm the kingdom in +his hand. And Menahem exacted the money of Israel, even of all +the mighty men of wealth, of each man fifty shekels of silver, to +give to the king of Assyria. So the king of Assyria turned back, +and stayed not there in the land."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1507" href="#ftn.fnrex1507" id="fnrex1507">507</a>]</span> +Rezin of Damascus, Hiram of Tyre, and Zabibi, queen of the +Arabians, also sent gifts to Tiglath-pileser at this time (738 +B.C.). Aramaean revolts on the borders of Elam were suppressed by +<a id="page.anchor.450" name="page.anchor.450"></a>Assyrian +governors, and large numbers of the inhabitants were transported +to various places in Syria.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser next operated against the Median and other +hill tribes in the north-east. In 735 B.C. he invaded Urartu, the +great Armenian state which had threatened the supremacy of +Assyria in north Syria and Cappadocia. King Sharduris was unable +to protect his frontier or hamper the progress of the advancing +army, which penetrated to his capital. Dhuspas was soon captured, +but Sharduris took refuge in his rocky citadel which he and his +predecessors had laboured to render impregnable. There he was +able to defy the might of Assyria, for the fortress could be +approached on the western side alone by a narrow path between +high walls and towers, so that only a small force could find room +to operate against the numerous garrison.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser had to content himself by devastating the city +on the plain and the neighbouring villages. He overthrew +buildings, destroyed orchards, and transported to Nineveh those +of the inhabitants he had not put to the sword, with all the live +stock he could lay hands on. Thus was Urartu crippled and +humiliated: it never regained its former prestige among the +northern states.</p> +<p>In the following year Tiglath-pileser returned to Syria. The +circumstances which made this expedition necessary are of special +interest on account of its Biblical associations. Menahem, king +of Israel, had died, and was succeeded by his son Pekahiah. "But +Pekah the son of Remaliah, a captain of his, conspired against +him and smote him in Samaria, in the palace of the king's house, +... and he killed him, and reigned in his room."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1508" href="#ftn.fnrex1508" id= +"fnrex1508">508</a>]</span> When Pekah was on the throne, Ahaz +began to reign over Judah.</p> +<p>Judah had taken advantage of the disturbed conditions <a id= +"page.anchor.451" name="page.anchor.451"></a>in Israel to assert +its independence. The walls of Jerusalem were repaired by Jotham, +father of Ahaz, and a tunnel constructed to supply it with water. +Isaiah refers to this tunnel: "Go forth and meet Ahaz ... at the +end of the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of the +fuller's field" (<span class="emphasis"><em>Isaiah,</em></span> +vii, 3).</p> +<p>Pekah had to deal with a powerful party in Israel which +favoured the re-establishment of David's kingdom in Palestine. +Their most prominent leader was the prophet Amos, whose eloquent +exhortations were couched in no uncertain terms. He condemned +Israel for its idolatries, and cried:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>For thus saith the Lord unto the house of Israel, Seek ye me +and ye shall live.... Have ye offered unto me sacrifices and +offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel? But +ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your +images, the star of your god, which ye made to +yourselves.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1509" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1509" id="fnrex1509">509</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Pekah sought to extinguish the orthodox party's movement by +subduing Judah. So he plotted with Rezin, king of Damascus. Amos +prophesied,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Thus saith the Lord.... I will send a fire into the house of +Hazael, which will devour the palaces of Ben-hadad. I will break +also the bar of Damascus ... and the people of Syria shall go +into captivity unto Kir.... The remnant of the Philistines shall +perish.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tyre, Edom, and Ammon would also be punished.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1510" href="#ftn.fnrex1510" id= +"fnrex1510">510</a>]</span> Judah was completely isolated by the +allies who acknowledged the suzerainty of Damascus. Soon after +Ahaz came to the throne he found himself hemmed in on every side +by adversaries who desired to accomplish his fall. "At that time +Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah ...came up to Jerusalem to war: +and they besieged <a id="page.anchor.452" name= +"page.anchor.452"></a>Ahaz, but could not overcome +him."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1511" href="#ftn.fnrex1511" +id="fnrex1511">511</a>]</span> Judah, however, was overrun; the +city of Elath was captured and restored to Edom, while the +Philistines were liberated from the control of Jerusalem.</p> +<p>Isaiah visited Ahaz and said,</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Take heed, and be quiet; fear not, neither be faint-hearted +for the two tails of these smoking firebrands, for the fierce +anger of Rezin with Syria, and of the son of Remaliah. Because +Syria, Ephraim, and the son of Remaliah, have taken evil counsel +against thee, saying, Let us go up against Judah, and vex it, and +let us make a breach therein for us, and set a king in the midst +of it, even the son of Tabeal: Thus saith the Lord God, It shall +not stand, neither shall it come to pass.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1512" href="#ftn.fnrex1512" id= +"fnrex1512">512</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The unstable Ahaz had sought assistance from the Baal, and +"made his son to pass through the fire, according to the +abominations of the heathen".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1513" href="#ftn.fnrex1513" id="fnrex1513">513</a>]</span> +Then he resolved to purchase the sympathy of one of the great +Powers. There was no hope of assistance from "the fly that is in +the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt", for the Ethiopian +Pharaohs had not yet conquered the Delta region, so he turned to +"the bee that is in the land of Assyria".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1514" href="#ftn.fnrex1514" id= +"fnrex1514">514</a>]</span> Assyria was the last resource of the +king of Judah.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, +saying, I am thy servant and thy son: come up and save me out of +the hand of Syria and out of the hand of the king of Israel, +which rise up against me. And Ahaz took the silver and gold that +was found in the house of the Lord, and in the treasures of the +king's house, and sent it for a present to the king of Assyria. +And the king of Assyria hearkened unto him: for the king of +Assyria went up against Damascus, and took it, and carried the +people of it captive to Kir<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1515" +href="#ftn.fnrex1515" id="fnrex1515">515</a>]</span> and slew +Rezin.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1516" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1516" id="fnrex1516">516</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.453" name= +"page.anchor.453"></a>Tiglath-pileser recorded that Rezin took +refuge in his city like "a mouse". Israel was also dealt +with.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>In the days of Pekah king of Israel came Tiglath-pileser king +of Assyria, and took Ijon and Abel-beth-maachah, and Janoah and +Kedesh, and Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of +Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria. And Hoshea the son +of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah the son of Remaliah, and +smote him, and slew him, and reigned in his stead.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1517" href="#ftn.fnrex1517" id= +"fnrex1517">517</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tiglath-pileser recorded: "They overthrew Paqaha (Pekah), +their king, and placed Ausi'a (Hoshea) over them". He swept +through Israel "like a hurricane". The Philistines and the +Arabians of the desert were also subdued. Tribute was sent to the +Assyrian monarch by Phoenicia, Moab, Ammon, and Edom. It was a +proud day for Ahaz when he paid a visit to Tiglath-pileser at +Damascus.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1518" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1518" id="fnrex1518">518</a>]</span> An Assyrian +governor was appointed to rule over Syria and its subject +states.</p> +<p>Babylon next claimed the attention of Tiglath-pileser. +Nabonassar had died and was succeeded by his son Nabu-nadin-zeri, +who, after reigning for two years, was slain in a rebellion. The +throne was then seized by Nabu-shum-ukin, but in less than two +months this usurper was assassinated and the Chaldaeans had one +of their chiefs, Ukinzer, proclaimed king (732 B.C.).</p> +<p>When the Assyrian king returned from Syria in 731 B.C. he +invaded Babylonia. He was met with a stubborn resistance. Ukinzer +took refuge in his capital, Shapia, which held out successfully, +although the surrounding country was ravaged and despoiled. Two +years afterwards Tiglath-pileser returned, captured Shapia, and +restored peace throughout Babylonia. He was welcomed in Babylon, +which opened its gates to him, and he had himself <a id= +"page.anchor.454" name="page.anchor.454"></a>proclaimed king of +Sumer and Akkad. The Chaldaeans paid tribute.</p> +<p>Tiglath-pileser had now reached the height of his ambition. He +had not only extended his empire in the west from Cappadocia to +the river of Egypt, crippled Urartu and pacified his eastern +frontier, but brought Assyria into close union with Babylonia, +the mother land, the home of culture and the land of the ancient +gods. He did not live long, however, to enjoy his final triumph, +for he died a little over twelve months after he "took the hands +of Bel (Merodach)" at Babylon.</p> +<p>He was succeeded by Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), who may have +been his son, but this is not quite certain. Little is known +regarding his brief reign. In 725 B.C. he led an expedition to +Syria and Phoenicia. Several of the vassal peoples had revolted +when they heard of the death of Tiglath-pileser. These included +the Phoenicians, the Philistines, and the Israelites who were +intriguing with either Egypt or Mutsri.</p> +<p>Apparently Hoshea, king of Israel, pretended when the +Assyrians entered his country that he remained friendly. +Shalmaneser, however, was well informed, and made Hoshea a +prisoner. Samaria closed its gates against him although their +king had been dispatched to Assyria.</p> +<p>The Biblical account of the campaign is as follows: "Against +him (Hoshea) came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria; and Hoshea +became his servant, and gave him presents. And the king of +Assyria found conspiracy in Hoshea: for he had sent messengers to +So king of Egypt,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1519" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1519" id="fnrex1519">519</a>]</span> and brought no +present to the king of Assyria, <a id="page.anchor.455" name= +"page.anchor.455"></a>as he had done year by year; therefore the +king of Assyria shut him up and bound him in prison.</p> +<p>"Then the king of Assyria came up throughout all the land, and +went up to Samaria, and besieged it three years."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1520" href="#ftn.fnrex1520" id= +"fnrex1520">520</a>]</span></p> +<p>Shalmaneser died before Samaria was captured, and may have +been assassinated. The next Assyrian monarch, Sargon II (722-705 +B.C.), was not related to either of his two predecessors. He is +referred to by Isaiah,<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1521" +href="#ftn.fnrex1521" id="fnrex1521">521</a>]</span> and is the +Arkeanos of Ptolemy. He was the Assyrian monarch who deported the +"Lost Ten Tribes".</p> +<p>"In the ninth year of Hoshea" (and the first of Sargon) "the +king of Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into +Assyria, and placed them in Halah and in Habor by the river of +Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1522" href="#ftn.fnrex1522" id= +"fnrex1522">522</a>]</span> In all, according to Sargon's record, +"27,290 people dwelling in the midst of it (Samaria) I carried +off".</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>They (the Israelites) left all the commandments of the Lord +their God, and made them molten images, even two calves, and made +a grove, and worshipped all the host of heaven (the stars), and +served Baal. And they caused their sons and their daughters to +pass through the fire, and used divination and enchantments, and +sold themselves to do evil in the sight of the Lord, to provoke +him to anger. Therefore the Lord was very angry with Israel, and +removed them out of his sight: there was none left but the tribe +of Judah only. And the king of Assyria brought men from Babylon, +and from Cuthah, and from Ava, and from Hamath, and from +Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of +the children of Israel: and they possessed Samaria, and dwelt in +the cities thereof.... And the men of Babylon made +Succoth-benoth, and the men of Cuth (Cuthah) made Nergal, and the +men of Hamath made <a id="page.anchor.456" name= +"page.anchor.456"></a>Ashima, and the Avites made Nibhaz and +Tartak, and the Sepharites burnt their children in fire to +Adram-melech and Anam-melech, the gods of Sepharvaim.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>A number of the new settlers were slain by lions, and the king +of Assyria ordered that a Samaritan priest should be sent to +"teach them the manner of the God of the land". This man was +evidently an orthodox Hebrew, for he taught them "how they should +fear the Lord.... So they feared the Lord", but also "served +their own gods ... their graven images".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1523" href="#ftn.fnrex1523" id= +"fnrex1523">523</a>]</span></p> +<p>There is no evidence to suggest that the "Ten Lost Tribes", +"regarding whom so many nonsensical theories have been formed", +were not ultimately absorbed by the peoples among whom they +settled between Mesopotamia and the Median Highlands.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1524" href="#ftn.fnrex1524" id= +"fnrex1524">524</a>]</span> The various sections must have soon +lost touch with one another. They were not united like the Jews +(the people of Judah), who were transported to Babylonia a +century and a half later, by a common religious bond, for +although a few remained faithful to Abraham's God, the majority +of the Israelites worshipped either the Baal or the Queen of +Heaven.</p> +<p>The Assyrian policy of transporting the rebellious inhabitants +of one part of their empire to another was intended to break +their national spirit and compel them to become good and faithful +subjects amongst the aliens, who must have disliked them. "The +colonists," says Professor Maspero, "exposed to the same hatred +as the original Assyrian conquerors, soon forgot to look upon the +latter as the oppressors of all, and, allowing their present +grudge to efface the memory of past injuries, did <a id= +"page.anchor.457" name="page.anchor.457"></a>not hesitate to make +common cause with them. In time of peace the (Assyrian) governor +did his best to protect them against molestation on the part of +the natives, and in return for this they rallied round him +whenever the latter threatened to get out of hand, and helped him +to stifle the revolt, or hold it in check until the arrival of +reinforcements. Thanks to their help, the empire was consolidated +and maintained without too many violent outbreaks in regions far +removed from the capital, and beyond the immediate reach of the +sovereign."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1525" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1525" id="fnrex1525">525</a>]</span></p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2547724" name="id2547724"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIX.3. COLOSSAL WINGED AND +HUMAN-HEADED BULL AND MYTHOLOGICAL BEING</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>From doorway in Palace of Sargon at +Khorsabad: now in British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/38.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2547743" name="id2547743"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XIX.4. ASSAULT ON THE CITY OF +...ALAMMU (? JERUSALEM) BY THE ASSYRIANS UNDER +SENNACHERIB</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>The besieging archers are protected by wicker screens +<span class="emphasis"><em>Marble Slab from Kouyunjik (Nineveh): +now in British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/39.jpg" /></div> +<p>While Sargon was absent in the west, a revolt broke out in +Babylonia. A Chaldaean king, Merodach Baladan III, had allied +himself with the Elamites, and occupied Babylon. A battle was +fought at Dur-ilu and the Elamites retreated. Although Sargon +swept triumphantly through the land, he had to leave his rival, +the tyrannous Chaldaean, in possession of the capital, and he +reigned there for over eleven years.</p> +<p>Trouble was brewing in Syria. It was apparently fostered by an +Egyptian king--probably Bocchoris of Sais, the sole Pharaoh so +far as can be ascertained of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty, who had +allied himself with the local dynasts of Lower Egypt and +apparently sought to extend his sway into Asia, the Ethiopians +being supreme in Upper Egypt. An alliance had been formed to cast +off the yoke of Assyria. The city states involved Arpad, Simirra, +Damascus, Samaria, and Gaza. Hanno of Gaza had fled to Egypt +after Tiglath-pileser came to the relief of Judah and broke up +the league of conspirators by capturing Damascus, and punishing +Samaria, Gaza, and other cities. His return in Sargon's reign was +evidently connected with the new rising in which he took part. +The throne of Hamath had been seized by an adventurer, <a id= +"page.anchor.458" name="page.anchor.458"></a>named +Ilu-bi´di, a smith. The Philistines of Ashdod and the +Arabians being strongly pro-Egyptian in tendency, were willing +sympathizers and helpers against the hated Assyrians.</p> +<p>Sargon appeared in the west with a strong army before the +allies had matured their plans. He met the smith king of Hamath +in battle at Qarqar, and, having defeated him, had him skinned +alive. Then he marched southward. At Rapiki (Raphia) he routed an +army of allies. Shabi (?So), the Tartan (commander-in-chief) of +Pi´ru<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1526" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1526" id="fnrex1526">526</a>]</span> (Pharaoh), King +of Mutsri (an Arabian state confused, perhaps, with Misraim = +Egypt), escaped "like to a shepherd whose sheep have been taken". +Piru and other two southern kings, Samsi and Itamara, afterwards +paid tribute to Sargon. Hanno of Gaza was transported to +Asshur.</p> +<p>In 715 B.C. Sargon, according to his records, appeared with +his army in Arabia, and received gifts in token of homage from +Piru of Mutsri, Samsi of Aribi, and Itamara of Saba.</p> +<p>Four years later a revolt broke out in Ashdod which was, it +would appear, directly due to the influence of Shabaka, the +Ethiopian Pharaoh, who had deposed Bocchoris of Sais. Another +league was about to be formed against Assyria. King Azuri of +Ashdod had been deposed because of his Egyptian sympathies by the +Assyrian governor, and his brother Akhimiti was placed on the +throne. The citizens, however, overthrew Akhimiti, and an +adventurer from Cyprus was proclaimed king (711 B.C).</p> +<p>It would appear that advances were made by the anti-Assyrians +<a id="page.anchor.459" name="page.anchor.459"></a>to Ahaz of +Judah. That monarch was placed in a difficult position. He knew +that if the allies succeeded in stamping out Assyrian authority +in Syria and Palestine they would certainly depose him, but if on +the other hand he joined them and Assyria triumphed, its emperor +would show him small mercy. As Babylon defied Sargon and received +the active support of Elam, and there were rumours of risings in +the north, it must have seemed to the western kings as if the +Assyrian empire was likely once again to go to pieces.</p> +<p>Fortunately for Ahaz he had a wise counsellor at this time in +the great statesman and prophet, the scholarly Isaiah. The Lord +spake by Isaiah saying, "Go and loose the sackcloth from off thy +loins, and put off thy shoe from thy foot. And he did so, walking +naked and barefoot. And the Lord said, Like as my servant Isaiah +hath walked naked and barefoot three years for a sign and wonder +upon Egypt and upon Ethiopia; so shall the king of Assyria lead +away the Egyptians prisoners.... And they (the allies) shall be +afraid and ashamed of Ethiopia their expectation, and of Egypt +their glory."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1527" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1527" id="fnrex1527">527</a>]</span></p> +<p>Isaiah warned Ahaz against joining the league, "in the year +that Tartan<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1528" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1528" id="fnrex1528">528</a>]</span> came unto Ashdod +(when Sargon the king of Assyria sent him)". The Tartan "fought +against Ashdod and took it".<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1529" href="#ftn.fnrex1529" id="fnrex1529">529</a>]</span> +According to Sargon's record the Pretender of Ashdod fled to +Arabia, where he was seized by an Arabian chief and delivered up +to Assyria. The pro-Egyptian party in Palestine went under a +cloud for a period thereafter.</p> +<p>Before Sargon could deal with Merodach Baladan of Babylon, he +found it necessary to pursue the arduous task of breaking up a +powerful league which had been formed against him in the north. +The Syro-Cappadocian Hittite <a id="page.anchor.460" name= +"page.anchor.460"></a>states, including Tabal in Asia Minor and +Carchemish in north Syria, were combining for the last time +against Assyria, supported by Mita (Midas), king of the +Muski-Phrygians, and Rusas, son of Sharduris III, king of +Urartu.</p> +<p>Urartu had recovered somewhat from the disasters which it had +suffered at the hands of Tiglath-pileser, and was winning back +portions of its lost territory on the north-east frontier of +Assyria. A buffer state had been formed in that area by +Tiglath-pileser, who had assisted the king of the Mannai to weld +together the hill tribesmen between Lake Van and Lake Urmia into +an organized nation. Iranzu, its ruler, remained faithful to +Assyria and consequently became involved in war with Rusas of +Urartu, who either captured or won over several cities of the +Mannai. Iranzu was succeeded by his son Aza, and this king was so +pronounced a pro-Assyrian that his pro-Urartian subjects +assassinated him and set on the throne Bagdatti of Umildish.</p> +<p>Soon after Sargon began his operations in the north he +captured Bagdatti and had him skinned alive. The flag of revolt, +however, was kept flying by his brother, Ullusunu, but ere long +this ambitious man found it prudent to submit to Sargon on +condition that he would retain the throne as a faithful Assyrian +vassal. His sudden change of policy appears to have been due to +the steady advance of the Median tribes into the territory of the +Mannai. Sargon conducted a vigorous and successful campaign +against the raiders, and extended Ullusunu's area of control.</p> +<p>The way was now clear to Urartu. In 714 B.C. Sargon attacked +the revolting king of Zikirtu, who was supported by an army led +by Rusas, his overlord. A fierce battle was fought in which the +Assyrians achieved <a id="page.anchor.461" name= +"page.anchor.461"></a>a great victory. King Rusas fled, and when +he found that the Assyrians pressed home their triumph by laying +waste the country before them, he committed suicide, according to +the Assyrian records, although those of Urartu indicate that he +subsequently took part in the struggle against Sargon. The +Armenian peoples were compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty of +Assyria, and the conqueror received gifts from various tribes +between Lake Van and the Caspian Sea, and along the frontiers +from Lake Van towards the south-east as far as the borders of +Elam.</p> +<p>Rusas of Urartu was succeeded by Argistes II, who reigned over +a shrunken kingdom. He intrigued with neighbouring states against +Assyria, but was closely watched. Ere long he found himself +caught between two fires. During his reign the notorious +Cimmerians and Scythians displayed much activity in the north and +raided his territory.</p> +<p>The pressure of fresh infusions of Thraco-Phrygian tribes into +western Asia Minor had stirred Midas of the Muski to co-operate +with the Urartian power in an attempt to stamp out Assyrian +influence in Cilicia, Cappadocia, and north Syria. A revolt in +Tabal in 718 B.C. was extinguished by Sargon, but in the +following year evidences were forthcoming of a more serious and +widespread rising. Pisiris, king of Carchemish, threw off the +Assyrian yoke. Before, however, his allies could hasten to his +assistance he was overcome by the vigilant Sargon, who deported a +large proportion of the city's inhabitants and incorporated it in +an Assyrian province. Tabal revolted in 713 B.C. and was +similarly dealt with. In 712 B.C. Milid had to be overcome. The +inhabitants were transported, and "Suti" Aramaean peoples settled +in their homes. The king of Commagene, having <a id= +"page.anchor.462" name="page.anchor.462"></a>remained faithful, +received large extensions of territory. Finally in 709 B.C. Midas +of the Muski-Phrygians was compelled to acknowledge the +suzerainty of Assyria. The northern confederacy was thus +completely worsted and broken up. Tribute was paid by many +peoples, including the rulers of Cyprus.</p> +<p>Sargon was now able to deal with Babylonia, which for about +twelve years had been ruled by Merodach Baladan, who oppressed +the people and set at defiance ancient laws by seizing private +estates and transferring them to his Chaldaean kinsmen. He still +received the active support of Elam.</p> +<p>Sargon's first move was to interpose his army between those of +the Babylonians and Elamites. Pushing southward, he subdued the +Aramaeans on the eastern banks of the Tigris, and drove the +Elamites into the mountains. Then he invaded middle Babylonia +from the east. Merodach Baladan hastily evacuated Babylon, and, +moving southward, succeeded in evading Sargon's army. Finding +Elam was unable to help him, he took refuge in the Chaldaean +capital, Bit Jakin, in southern Babylonia.</p> +<p>Sargon was visited by the priests of Babylon and Borsippa, and +hailed as the saviour of the ancient kingdom. He was afterwards +proclaimed king at E-sagila, where he "took the hands of Bel". +Then having expelled the Aramaeans from Sippar, he hastened +southward, attacked Bit Jakin and captured it. Merodach Baladan +escaped into Elam. The whole of Chaldaea was subdued.</p> +<p>Thus "Sargon the Later" entered at length into full possession +of the empire of Sargon of Akkad. In Babylonia he posed as an +incarnation of his ancient namesake, and had similarly Messianic +pretensions which were no doubt inspired by the Babylonian +priesthood. Under him Assyria attained its highest degree of +splendour.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.463" name="page.anchor.463"></a>He recorded +proudly not only his great conquests but also his works of public +utility: he restored ancient cities, irrigated vast tracts of +country, fostered trade, and promoted the industries. Like the +pious Pharaohs of Egypt he boasted that he fed the hungry and +protected the weak against the strong.</p> +<p>Sargon found time during his strenuous career as a conqueror +to lay out and build a new city, called Dur-Sharrukin, "the burgh +of Sargon", to the north of Nineveh. It was completed before he +undertook the Babylonian campaign. The new palace was occupied in +708 B.C. Previous to that period he had resided principally at +Kalkhi, in the restored palace of Ashur-natsir-pal III.</p> +<p>He was a worshipper of many gods. Although he claimed to have +restored the supremacy of Asshur "which had come to an end", he +not only adored Ashur but also revived the ancient triad of Anu, +Bel, and Ea, and fostered the growth of the immemorial +"mother-cult" of Ishtar. Before he died he appointed one of his +sons, Sennacherib, viceroy of the northern portion of the empire. +He was either assassinated at a military review or in some +frontier war. As much is suggested by the following entry in an +eponym list.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Eponymy of Upahhir-belu, prefect of the city of Amedu ... +According to the oracle of the Kulummite(s).... A soldier +(entered) the camp of the king of Assyria (and killed him?), +month Ab, day 12th, Sennacherib (sat on the throne).<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1530" href="#ftn.fnrex1530" id= +"fnrex1530">530</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The fact that Sennacherib lamented his father's sins suggests +that the old king had in some manner offended <a id= +"page.anchor.464" name="page.anchor.464"></a>the priesthood. +Perhaps, like some of the Middle Empire monarchs, he succumbed to +the influence of Babylon during the closing years of his life. It +is stated that "he was not buried in his house", which suggests +that the customary religious rites were denied him, and that his +lost soul was supposed to be a wanderer which had to eat offal +and drink impure water like the ghost of a pauper or a +criminal.</p> +<p>The task which lay before Sennacherib (705-680 B.C.) was to +maintain the unity of the great empire of his distinguished +father. He waged minor wars against the Kassite and Illipi tribes +on the Elamite border, and the Muski and Hittite tribes in +Cappadocia and Cilicia. The Kassites, however, were no longer of +any importance, and the Hittite power had been extinguished, for +ere the states could recover from the blows dealt by the +Assyrians the Cimmerian hordes ravaged their territory. Urartu +was also overrun by the fierce barbarians from the north. It was +one of these last visits of the Assyrians to Tabal of the +Hittites and the land of the Muski (Meshech) which the Hebrew +prophet referred to in after-time when he exclaimed:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Asshur is there and all her company: his graves are about him: +all of them slain, fallen by the sword.... There is Meshech, +Tubal, and all her multitude: her graves are round about him: all +of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword, though they caused +their terror in the land of the living.... (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezekiel</em></span>, xxxii.)</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Sennacherib found that Ionians had settled in Cilicia, and he +deported large numbers of them to Nineveh. The metal and ivory +work at Nineveh show traces of Greek influence after this +period.</p> +<p>A great conspiracy was fomented in several states against +Sennacherib when the intelligence of Sargon's <a id= +"page.anchor.465" name="page.anchor.465"></a>death was bruited +abroad. Egypt was concerned in it. Taharka (the Biblical +Tirhakah<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1531" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1531" id="fnrex1531">531</a>]</span>), the last +Pharaoh of the Ethiopian Dynasty, had dreams of re-establishing +Egyptian supremacy in Palestine and Syria, and leagued himself +with Luli, king of Tyre, Hezekiah, king of Judah, and others. +Merodach Baladan, the Chaldaean king, whom Sargon had deposed, +supported by Elamites and Aramaeans, was also a party to the +conspiracy. "At that time Merodach Baladan, the son of Baladan, +king of Babylon, sent letters and a present to Hezekiah.... And +Hezekiah was glad of them."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1532" +href="#ftn.fnrex1532" id="fnrex1532">532</a>]</span></p> +<p>Merodach Baladan again seized the throne of Babylon. Sargon's +son, who had been appointed governor, was murdered and a +pretender sat on the throne for a brief period, but Merodach +Baladan thrust him aside and reigned for nine months, during +which period he busied himself by encouraging the kings of Judah +and Tyre to revolt. Sennacherib invaded Babylonia with a strong +army, deposed Merodach Baladan, routed the Chaldaeans and +Aramaeans, and appointed as vassal king Bel-ibni, a native +prince, who remained faithful to Assyria for about three +years.</p> +<p>In 707 B.C. Sennacherib appeared in the west. When he +approached Tyre, Luli, the king, fled to Cyprus. The city was not +captured, but much of its territory was ceded to the king of +Sidon. Askalon was afterwards reduced. At Eltekeh Sennacherib +came into conflict with an army of allies, including Ethiopian, +Egyptian, and Arabian Mutsri forces, which he routed. Then he +captured a number of cities in Judah and transported 200,150 +people. He was unable, however, to enter Jerusalem, in which +Hezekiah was compelled to remain "like a bird in a cage". It +appears that Hezekiah "bought off" the Assyrians on <a id= +"page.anchor.466" name="page.anchor.466"></a>this occasion with +gifts of gold and silver and jewels, costly furniture, musicians, +and female slaves.</p> +<p>In 689 B.C. Sennacherib found it necessary to penetrate +Arabia. Apparently another conspiracy was brewing, for Hezekiah +again revolted. On his return from the south--according to +Berosus he had been in Egypt--the Assyrian king marched against +the king of Judah.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>And when Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib was come, and that he +was purposed to fight against Jerusalem, he took counsel with the +princes and his mighty men to stop the waters of the fountains +which were without the city: and they did help him.... Why should +the kings of Assyria come and find much water?</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Sennacherib sent messengers to Jerusalem to attempt to stir up +the people against Hezekiah. "He wrote also letters to rail on +the Lord God of Israel, and to speak against him, saying, As the +gods of the nations of other lands have not delivered their +people out of mine hand, so shall not the God of Hezekiah deliver +his people out of mine hand."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1533" href="#ftn.fnrex1533" id= +"fnrex1533">533</a>]</span></p> +<p>Hezekiah sent his servants to Isaiah, who was in Jerusalem at +the time, and the prophet said to them:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Thus shall ye say to your master. Thus saith the Lord, Be not +afraid of the words which thou hast heard, with which the +servants of the king of Assyria have blasphemed me. Behold, I +will send a blast upon him, and he shall hear a rumour, and shall +return to his own land; and I will cause him to fall by the sword +in his own land.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1534" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1534" id="fnrex1534">534</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>According to Berosus, the Babylonian priestly historian, the +camp of Sennacherib was visited in the night by swarms of field +mice which ate up the quivers and bows and the (leather) handles +of shields. Next morning the army fled.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.467" name="page.anchor.467"></a>The +Biblical account of the disaster is as follows:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>And it came to pass that night, that the angel of the Lord +went out, and smote the camp of the Assyrians an hundred and four +score and five thousand: and when they arose early in the +morning, behold, they were all dead corpses. So Sennacherib king +of Assyria departed, and went and returned and dwelt at +Nineveh.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1535" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1535" id="fnrex1535">535</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>A pestilence may have broken out in the camp, the infection, +perhaps, having been carried by field mice. Byron's imagination +was stirred by the vision of the broken army of Assyria.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The Assyrian came down like a wolf on +the fold,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And his cohorts were gleaming with +purple and gold;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the sheen of their spears was like +stars of the sea,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>When the blue wave rolls nightly on +deep Galilee.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Like the leaves of the forest when +summer is green,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That host with their banners at sunset +were seen;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Like the leaves of the forest when +autumn hath blown,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>That host on the morrow lay withered +and strown.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>For the Angel of Death spread his wings +on the blast,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And breathed on the face of the foe as +he passed;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the eyes of the sleepers waxed +deadly and chill,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And their hearts but once heaved--and +forever grew still!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And there lay the steed with his +nostril all wide,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>But through it there rolled not the +breath of his pride;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the foam of his gasping lay white +on the turf,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And cold as the spray of the +rock-beating surf.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And there lay the rider distorted and +pale,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With the dew on his brow, and the rust +on his mail;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the tents were all silent--the +banners alone--</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thelances uplifted--the trumpet +unblown.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> </tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the widows of Asshur are loud in +their wail,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And the idols are broke in the temple +of Baal;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt><a id="page.anchor.468" name= +"page.anchor.468"></a>And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by +the sword,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Hath melted like snow in the glance of +the Lord.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Before this disaster occurred Sennacherib had to invade +Babylonia again, for the vassal king, Bel-ibni, had allied +himself with the Chaldaeans and raised the standard of revolt. +The city of Babylon was besieged and captured, and its unfaithful +king deported with a number of nobles to Assyria. Old Merodach +Baladan was concerned in the plot and took refuge on the Elamite +coast, where the Chaldaeans had formed a colony. He died soon +afterwards.</p> +<p>Sennacherib operated in southern Babylonia and invaded Elam. +But ere he could return to Assyria he was opposed by a strong +army of allies, including Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, +Elamites, and Persians, led by Samunu, son of Merodach Baladan. A +desperate battle was fought. Although Sennacherib claimed a +victory, he was unable to follow it up. This was in 692 B.C. A +Chaldaean named Mushezib-Merodach seized the Babylonian +throne.</p> +<p>In 691 B.C. Sennacherib again struck a blow for Babylonia, but +was unable to depose Mushezib-Merodach. His opportunity came, +however, in 689 B.C. Elam had been crippled by raids of the men +of Parsua (Persia), and was unable to co-operate with the +Chaldaean king of Babylon. Sennacherib captured the great +commercial metropolis, took Mushezib-Merodach prisoner, and +dispatched him to Nineveh. Then he wreaked his vengeance on +Babylon. For several days the Assyrian soldiers looted the houses +and temples, and slaughtered the inhabitants without mercy. +E-sagila was robbed of its treasures, images of deities were +either broken in pieces or sent to Nineveh: the statue of +Bel-Merodach was dispatched to <a id="page.anchor.469" name= +"page.anchor.469"></a>Asshur so that he might take his place +among the gods who were vassals of Ashur. "The city and its +houses," Sennacherib recorded, "from foundation to roof, I +destroyed them, I demolished them, I burned them with fire; +walls, gateways, sacred chapels, and the towers of earth and +tiles, I laid them low and cast them into the +Arakhtu."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1536" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1536" id="fnrex1536">536</a>]</span></p> +<p>"So thorough was Sennacherib's destruction of the city in 689 +B.C.," writes Mr. King, "that after several years of work, Dr. +Koldewey concluded that all traces of earlier buildings had been +destroyed on that occasion. More recently some remains of earlier +strata have been recognized, and contract-tablets have been found +which date from the period of the First Dynasty. Moreover, a +number of earlier pot-burials have been unearthed, but a careful +examination of the greater part of the ruins has added little to +our knowledge of this most famous city before the Neo-Babylonian +period."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1537" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1537" id="fnrex1537">537</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is possible that Sennacherib desired to supplant Babylon as +a commercial metropolis by Nineveh. He extended and fortified +that city, surrounding it with two walls protected by moats. +According to Diodorus, the walls were a hundred feet high and +about fifty feet wide. Excavators have found that at the gates +they were about a hundred feet in breadth. The water supply of +the city was ensured by the construction of dams and canals, and +strong quays were erected to prevent flooding. Sennacherib +repaired a lofty platform which was isolated by a canal, and +erected upon it his great palace. On another platform he had an +arsenal built.</p> +<p>Sennacherib's palace was the most magnificent building of its +kind ever erected by an Assyrian emperor. It was <a id= +"page.anchor.470" name="page.anchor.470"></a>lavishly decorated, +and its bas-reliefs display native art at its highest pitch of +excellence. The literary remains of the time also give indication +of the growth of culture: the inscriptions are distinguished by +their prose style. It is evident that men of culture and +refinement were numerous in Assyria. The royal library of Kalkhi +received many additions during the reign of the destroyer of +Babylon.</p> +<p>Like his father, Sennacherib died a violent death. According +to the Babylonian Chronicle he was slain in a revolt by his son +"on the twentieth day of Tebet" (680 B.C). The revolt continued +from the "20th of Tebet" (early in January) until the 2nd day of +Adar (the middle of February). On the 18th of Adar, Esarhaddon, +son of Sennacherib, was proclaimed king.</p> +<p>Berosus states that Sennacherib was murdered by two of his +sons, but Esarhaddon was not one of the conspirators. The +Biblical reference is as follows: "Sennacherib ... dwelt at +Nineveh. And it came to pass, as he was worshipping in the house +of Nisroch (?Ashur) his god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer +(Ashur-shar-etir) his sons smote him with the sword: and they +escaped into the land of Armenia (Urartu). And Esarhaddon his son +reigned in his stead." Ashur-shar-etir appears to have been the +claimant to the throne.</p> +<p>Esarhaddon (680-668 B.C.) was a man of different type from his +father. He adopted towards vassal states a policy of +conciliation, and did much to secure peace within the empire by +his magnanimous treatment of rebel kings who had been intimidated +by their neighbours and forced to entwine themselves in the +meshes of intrigue. His wars were directed mainly to secure the +protection of outlying provinces against aggressive raiders.</p> +<p>The monarch was strongly influenced by his mother, Naki'a, a +Babylonian princess who appears to have been <a id= +"page.anchor.471" name="page.anchor.471"></a>as distinguished a +lady as the famous Sammu-rammat. Indeed, it is possible that +traditions regarding her contributed to the Semiramis legends. +But it was not only due to her that Esarhaddon espoused the cause +of the pro-Babylonian party. He appears to be identical with the +Axerdes of Berosus, who ruled over the southern kingdom for eight +years. Apparently he had been appointed governor by Sennacherib +after the destruction of Babylon, and it may be that during his +term of office in Babylonia he was attracted by its ethical +ideals, and developed those traits of character which +distinguished him from his father and grandfather. He married a +Babylonian princess, and one of his sons, Shamash-shum-ukin, was +born in a Babylonian palace, probably at Sippar. He was a +worshipper of the mother goddess Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of +Arbela, and of Shamash, as well as of the national god Ashur.</p> +<p>As soon as Esarhaddon came to the throne he undertook the +restoration of Babylon, to which many of the inhabitants were +drifting back. In three years the city resumed its pre-eminent +position as a trading and industrial centre. Withal, he won the +hearts of the natives by expelling Chaldaeans from the private +estates which they had seized during the Merodach-Baladan regime, +and restoring them to the rightful heirs.</p> +<p>A Chaldaean revolt was inevitable. Two of Merodach Baladan's +sons gave trouble in the south, but were routed in battle. One +fled to Elam, where he was assassinated; the other sued for +peace, and was accepted by the diplomatic Esarhaddon as a vassal +king.</p> +<p>Egypt was intriguing in the west. Its Ethiopian king, Taharka +(the Biblical Tirhakah) had stirred up Hezekiah to revolt during +Sennacherib's reign. An Assyrian ambassador who had visited +Jerusalem "heard <a id="page.anchor.472" name= +"page.anchor.472"></a>say concerning Tirhakah.... He sent +messengers to Hezekiah saying.... Let not thy God, in whom thou +trustest, deceive thee saying, Jerusalem shall not be given into +the hand of the king of Assyria. Behold, thou hast heard what the +kings of Assyria have done to all lands by destroying them +utterly; and shalt thou be delivered? Have the gods of the +nations delivered them which my fathers have destroyed, as Gozan, +and Haran, and Rezeph, and the children of Eden which were in +Telassar? Where is the king of Hamath, and the king of Arphad, +and the king of the city of Sepharvaim, Hena, and +Ivah?"<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1538" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1538" id="fnrex1538">538</a>]</span> Sidon was a party +to the pro-Egyptian league which had been formed in Palestine and +Syria.</p> +<p>Early in his reign Esarhaddon conducted military operations in +the west, and during his absence the queen-mother Naki'a held the +reins of government. The Elamites regarded this innovation as a +sign of weakness, and invaded Babylon. Sippar was plundered, and +its gods carried away. The Assyrian governors, however, +ultimately repulsed the Elamite king, who was deposed soon after +he returned home. His son, who succeeded him, restored the stolen +gods, and cultivated good relations with Esarhaddon. There was +great unrest in Elam at this period: it suffered greatly from the +inroads of Median and Persian pastoral fighting folk.</p> +<p>In the north the Cimmerians and Scythians, who were constantly +warring against Urartu, and against each other, had spread +themselves westward and east. Esarhaddon drove Cimmerian invaders +out of Cappadocia, and they swamped Phrygia.</p> +<p>The Scythian peril on the north-east frontier was, however, of +more pronounced character. The fierce mountaineers had allied +themselves with Median tribes <a id="page.anchor.473" name= +"page.anchor.473"></a>and overrun the buffer State of the Mannai. +Both Urartu and Assyria were sufferers from the brigandage of +these allies. Esarhaddon's generals, however, were able to deal +with the situation, and one of the notable results of the +pacification of the north-eastern area was the conclusion of an +alliance with Urartu.</p> +<p>The most serious situation with which the emperor had to deal +was in the west. The King of Sidon, who had been so greatly +favoured by Sennacherib, had espoused the Egyptian cause. He +allied himself with the King of Cilicia, who, however, was unable +to help him much. Sidon was besieged and captured; the royal +allies escaped, but a few years later were caught and beheaded. +The famous seaport was destroyed, and its vast treasures deported +to Assyria (about 676 B.C). Esarhaddon replaced it by a new city +called Kar-Esarhaddon, which formed the nucleus of the new +Sidon.</p> +<p>It is believed that Judah and other disaffected States were +dealt with about this time. Manasseh had succeeded Hezekiah at +Jerusalem when but a boy of twelve years. He appears to have come +under the influence of heathen teachers.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>For he built up again the high places which Hezekiah his +father had destroyed; and he reared up altars for Baal, and made +a grove, as did Ahab king of Israel; and worshipped all the host +of heaven, and served them.... And he built altars for all the +host of heaven in the two courts of the house of the Lord. And he +made his son pass through the fire, and observed times, and used +enchantments, and dealt with familiar spirits and wizards: he +wrought much wickedness in the sight of the Lord, to provoke him +to anger. And he set a graven image of the grove that he had made +in the house, of which the Lord said to David, and to Solomon his +son, In this house, and in Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of +all tribes of Israel, will I put my name for ever.<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1539" href="#ftn.fnrex1539" id= +"fnrex1539">539</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.474" name="page.anchor.474"></a>Isaiah +ceased to prophesy after Manasseh came to the throne. According +to Rabbinic traditions he was seized by his enemies and enclosed +in the hollow trunk of a tree, which was sawn through. Other +orthodox teachers appear to have been slain also. "Manasseh shed +innocent blood very much, till he had filled Jerusalem from one +end to another."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1540" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1540" id="fnrex1540">540</a>]</span> It is possible +that there is a reference to Isaiah's fate in an early Christian +lament regarding the persecutions of the faithful: "Others had +trial of cruel mockings and scourgings, yea, moreover of bonds +and imprisonment: they were stoned, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>they were sawn asunder</em></span>, were tempted, +were slain with the sword".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1541" +href="#ftn.fnrex1541" id="fnrex1541">541</a>]</span> There is no +Assyrian evidence regarding the captivity of Manasseh. "Wherefore +the Lord brought upon them (the people of Judah) the captains of +the host of the king of Assyria, which took Manasseh among the +thorns, and bound him with fetters, and carried him to Babylon. +And when he was in affliction, he besought the Lord his God, and +humbled himself greatly before the God of his fathers, and prayed +unto him: and he was intreated of him, and heard his +supplication, and brought him again to Jerusalem into his +kingdom."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1542" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1542" id="fnrex1542">542</a>]</span> It was, however, +in keeping with the policy of Esarhaddon to deal in this manner +with an erring vassal. The Assyrian records include Manasseh of +Judah (Menasê of the city of Yaudu) with the kings of Edom, +Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Ashdod, Gaza, Byblos, &c, and "twenty-two +kings of Khatti" as payers of tribute to Esarhaddon, their +overlord. Hazael of Arabia was conciliated by having restored to +him his gods which Sennacherib had carried away.</p> +<p>Egypt continued to intrigue against Assyria, and Esarhaddon +<a id="page.anchor.475" name="page.anchor.475"></a>resolved to +deal effectively with Taharka, the last Ethiopian Pharaoh. In 674 +B.C. he invaded Egypt, but suffered a reverse and had to retreat. +Tyre revolted soon afterwards (673 B.C).</p> +<p>Esarhaddon, however, made elaborate preparations for his next +campaign. In 671 B.C. he went westward with a much more powerful +army. A detachment advanced to Tyre and invested it. The main +force meanwhile pushed on, crossed the Delta frontier, and swept +victoriously as far south as Memphis, where Taharka suffered a +crushing defeat. That great Egyptian metropolis was then occupied +and plundered by the soldiers of Esarhaddon. Lower Egypt became +an Assyrian province; the various petty kings, including Necho of +Sais, had set over them Assyrian governors. Tyre was also +captured.</p> +<p>When he returned home Esarhaddon erected at the +Syro-Cappadocian city of Singirli<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1543" href="#ftn.fnrex1543" id="fnrex1543">543</a>]</span> +a statue of victory, which is now in the Berlin museum. On this +memorial the Assyrian "King of the kings of Egypt" is depicted as +a giant. With one hand he pours out an oblation to a god; in the +other he grasps his sceptre and two cords attached to rings, +which pierce the lips of dwarfish figures representing the +Pharaoh Taharka of Egypt and the unfaithful King of Tyre.</p> +<p>In 668 B.C. Taharka, who had fled to Napata in Ethiopia, +returned to Upper Egypt, and began to stir up revolts. Esarhaddon +planned out another expedition, so that he might shatter the last +vestige of power possessed by his rival. But before he left home +he found it necessary to set his kingdom in order.</p> +<p>During his absence from home the old Assyrian party, who +disliked the emperor because of Babylonian sympathies, had been +intriguing regarding the succession to <a id="page.anchor.476" +name="page.anchor.476"></a>the throne. According to the +Babylonian Chronicle, "the king remained in Assyria" during 669 +B.C., "and he slew with the sword many noble men". Ashur-bani-pal +was evidently concerned in the conspiracy, and it is significant +to find that he pleaded on behalf of certain of the conspirators. +The crown prince Sinidinabal was dead: perhaps he had been +assassinated.</p> +<p>At the feast of the goddess Gula (identical with Bau, consort +of Ninip), towards the end of April in 668 B.C., Esarhaddon +divided his empire between two of his sons. Ashur-bani-pal was +selected to be King of Assyria, and Shamash-shum-ukin to be King +of Babylon and the vassal of Ashur-banipal. Other sons received +important priestly appointments.</p> +<p>Soon after these arrangements were completed Esarhaddon, who +was suffering from bad health, set out for Egypt. He died towards +the end of October, and the early incidents of his campaign were +included in the records of Ashur-bani-pal's reign. Taharka was +defeated at Memphis, and retreated southward to Thebes.</p> +<p>So passed away the man who has been eulogized as "the noblest +and most sympathetic figure among the Assyrian kings". There was +certainly much which was attractive in his character. He +inaugurated many social reforms, and appears to have held in +check his overbearing nobles. Trade flourished during his reign. +He did not undertake the erection of a new city, like his father, +but won the gratitude of the priesthood by his activities as a +builder and restorer of temples. He founded a new "house of +Ashur" at Nineveh, and reconstructed several temples in +Babylonia. His son Ashur-bani-pal was the last great Assyrian +ruler.</p> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1503" href="#fnrex1503" id= +"ftn.fnrex1503">503</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 19 and 29; <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxviii, 20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1504" href="#fnrex1504" id= +"ftn.fnrex1504">504</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xviii, 34 and xix, 13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1505" href="#fnrex1505" id= +"ftn.fnrex1505">505</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xiv, 1-14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1506" href="#fnrex1506" id= +"ftn.fnrex1506">506</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 1-14.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1507" href="#fnrex1507" id= +"ftn.fnrex1507">507</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 19, 20.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1508" href="#fnrex1508" id= +"ftn.fnrex1508">508</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 25.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1509" href="#fnrex1509" id= +"ftn.fnrex1509">509</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Amos</em></span>, v.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1510" href="#fnrex1510" id= +"ftn.fnrex1510">510</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Amos</em></span>, i.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1511" href="#fnrex1511" id= +"ftn.fnrex1511">511</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1512" href="#fnrex1512" id= +"ftn.fnrex1512">512</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, vii, 3-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1513" href="#fnrex1513" id= +"ftn.fnrex1513">513</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1514" href="#fnrex1514" id= +"ftn.fnrex1514">514</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, vii, 18.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1515" href="#fnrex1515" id= +"ftn.fnrex1515">515</a>]</span> Kir was probably on the borders +of Elam.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1516" href="#fnrex1516" id= +"ftn.fnrex1516">516</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 7-9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1517" href="#fnrex1517" id= +"ftn.fnrex1517">517</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xv, 29, 30.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1518" href="#fnrex1518" id= +"ftn.fnrex1518">518</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvi, 10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1519" href="#fnrex1519" id= +"ftn.fnrex1519">519</a>]</span> In the Hebrew text this monarch +is called Sua, Seveh, and So, says Maspero. The Assyrian texts +refer to him as Sebek, Shibahi, Shabè, &c. He has been +identified with Pharaoh Shabaka of the Twenty-fifth Egyptian +Dynasty; that monarch may have been a petty king before he +founded his Dynasty. Another theory is that he was Seve, king of +Mutsri, and still another that he was a petty king of an Egyptian +state in the Delta and not Shabaka.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1520" href="#fnrex1520" id= +"ftn.fnrex1520">520</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvii, 3-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1521" href="#fnrex1521" id= +"ftn.fnrex1521">521</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xx, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1522" href="#fnrex1522" id= +"ftn.fnrex1522">522</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvii, 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1523" href="#fnrex1523" id= +"ftn.fnrex1523">523</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xvii, 16-41.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1524" href="#fnrex1524" id= +"ftn.fnrex1524">524</a>]</span> The people carried away would not +be the whole of the inhabitants--only, one would suppose, the +more important personages, enough to make up the number 27,290 +given above.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1525" href="#fnrex1525" id= +"ftn.fnrex1525">525</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Passing of the Empires</em></span>, pp. +200-1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1526" href="#fnrex1526" id= +"ftn.fnrex1526">526</a>]</span> Those who, like Breasted, +identify "Piru of Mutsri" with "Pharaoh of Egypt" adopt the view +that Bocchoris of Sais paid tribute to Sargon. Piru, however, is +subsequently referred to with two Arabian kings as tribute payers +to Sargon apparently after Lower Egypt had come under the sway of +Shabaka, the first king of the Ethiopian or Twenty-fifth +Dynasty.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1527" href="#fnrex1527" id= +"ftn.fnrex1527">527</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xx, 2-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1528" href="#fnrex1528" id= +"ftn.fnrex1528">528</a>]</span> Commander-in-chief.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1529" href="#fnrex1529" id= +"ftn.fnrex1529">529</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xx, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1530" href="#fnrex1530" id= +"ftn.fnrex1530">530</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends +of Assyria and Babylonia,</em></span> T.G. Pinches, p. 372.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1531" href="#fnrex1531" id= +"ftn.fnrex1531">531</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxxvii, 9.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1532" href="#fnrex1532" id= +"ftn.fnrex1532">532</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxix, 1, 2.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1533" href="#fnrex1533" id= +"ftn.fnrex1533">533</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxxii, 9-17.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1534" href="#fnrex1534" id= +"ftn.fnrex1534">534</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xix, 6, 7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1535" href="#fnrex1535" id= +"ftn.fnrex1535">535</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xix, 35, 36.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1536" href="#fnrex1536" id= +"ftn.fnrex1536">536</a>]</span> Smith-Sayce, <span class= +"emphasis"><em>History of Sennacherib</em></span>, pp. +132-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1537" href="#fnrex1537" id= +"ftn.fnrex1537">537</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>A +History of Sumer and Akkad</em></span>, p. 37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1538" href="#fnrex1538" id= +"ftn.fnrex1538">538</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxxvii, 8-13.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1539" href="#fnrex1539" id= +"ftn.fnrex1539">539</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xxi, 3-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1540" href="#fnrex1540" id= +"ftn.fnrex1540">540</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xxi, 16.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1541" href="#fnrex1541" id= +"ftn.fnrex1541">541</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Hebrews</em></span>, xi, 36, 37.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1542" href="#fnrex1542" id= +"ftn.fnrex1542">542</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxxiii, 11-3. It may be that Manasseh was +taken to Babylon during Ashur-bani-pal's reign. See next +chapter.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1543" href="#fnrex1543" id= +"ftn.fnrex1543">543</a>]</span> Pronounce <span class= +"emphasis"><em>g</em></span> as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>gem</em></span>.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="chapter" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2549065" name= +"id2549065"></a>Chapter XX. The Last Days of Assyria and +Babylonia</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="abstract"> +<p class="title"><b>Abstract</b></p> +<p>Doom of Nineveh and Babylon--Babylonian +Monotheism--Ashur-banipal and his Brother, King of +Babylon--Ceremony of "Taking the Hands of Bel"--Merodach restored +to E-sagila--Assyrian Invasion of Egypt and Sack of +Thebes--Lydia's Appeal to Assyria--Elam subdued--Revolt of +Babylon--Death of Babylonian King--Sack of Susa--Psamtik of +Egypt--Cimmerians crushed--Ashur-bani-pal's Literary +Activities--The Sardanapalus Legend--Last Kings of Assyria--Fall +of Nineveh--The New Babylonian Empire--Necho of Egypt expelled +from Syria--King Jehoaikin of Judah deposed--Zedekiah's Revolt +and Punishment--Fall of Jerusalem and Hebrew Captivity--Jeremiah +laments over Jerusalem--Babylonia's Last Independent King--Rise +of Cyrus the Conqueror--The Persian Patriarch and Eagle +Legend--Cyrus conquers Lydia--Fall of Babylon--Jews return to +Judah--Babylon from Cyrus to Alexander the Great.</p> +</div> +<p><a id="page.anchor.477" name="page.anchor.477"></a> The burden +of Nineveh.... The Lord is slow to anger, and great in power, and +will not at all acquit the wicked: the Lord hath his way in the +whirlwind and in the storm, and the clouds are the dust of his +feet. He rebuketh the sea, and maketh it dry, and drieth up all +the rivers: Bashan languisheth, and Carmel, and the flower of +Lebanon languisheth.... He that dasheth in pieces is come up +before thy face.... The gates of the rivers shall be opened, and +the palace shall be dissolved. And Huzzab shall be led away +captive, she shall be brought up, and her maids shall lead her as +with the voice of doves, tabering upon their breasts.... Draw +thee waters for the siege, fortify thy strong holds: go into +clay, and tread the morter, make strong the brick-kiln. There +shall the fire devour thee; the sword shall cut thee off.... Thy +shepherds slumber, O king of Assyria: thy nobles shall dwell in +the dust: thy people is scattered upon the mountains, and no man +gathereth them. There is no healing of thy bruise; thy wound is +grievous: all that hear the bruit of thee shall clap the hands +<a id="page.anchor.478" name="page.anchor.478"></a>over thee: for +upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually?<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1544" href="#ftn.fnrex1544" id= +"fnrex1544">544</a>]</span></p> +<p>The doom of Babylon was also foretold:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth.... Come down, and sit in the +dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground: there is +no throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans.... Stand now with thine +enchantments, and with the multitude of thy sorceries, wherein +thou hast laboured from thy youth; if so be thou shalt be able to +profit, if so be thou mayest prevail. Thou art wearied in the +multitude of thy counsels. Let now the astrologers, the +star-gazers, the monthly prognosticators, stand up, and save thee +from these things that shall come upon thee. Behold, they shall +be as stubble; the fire shall burn them.... Thus shall they be +unto thee with whom thou hast laboured, even thy merchants, from +thy youth: they shall wander every one to his quarter; none shall +save thee.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1545" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1545" id="fnrex1545">545</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Against a gloomy background, dark and ominous as a +thundercloud, we have revealed in the last century of +Mesopotamian glory the splendour of Assyria and the beauty of +Babylon. The ancient civilizations ripened quickly before the end +came. Kings still revelled in pomp and luxury. Cities resounded +with "the noise of a whip, and the noise of the rattling of the +wheels, and of the prancing horses, and of the jumping chariots. +The horseman lifteth up both the bright sword and the glittering +spear.... The valiant men are in scarlet."<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1546" href="#ftn.fnrex1546" id= +"fnrex1546">546</a>]</span> But the minds of cultured men were +more deeply occupied than ever with the mysteries of life and +creation. In the libraries, the temples, and observatories, +philosophers and scientists were shattering the unsubstantial +fabric of immemorial superstition; they attained to higher +conceptions of the duties and responsibilities of mankind; they +<a id="page.anchor.479" name="page.anchor.479"></a>conceived of +divine love and divine guidance; they discovered, like +Wordsworth, that the soul has--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt> An obscure +sense</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Of possible sublimity, +whereto</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With growing faculties she doth +aspire.</tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>One of the last kings of Babylon, Nebuchadrezzar, recorded a +prayer which reveals the loftiness of religious thought and +feeling attained by men to whom graven images were no longer +worthy of adoration and reverence--men whose god was not made by +human hands--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<div class="lineset"> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>O eternal prince! Lord of all +being!</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As for the king whom thou lovest, +and</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Whose name thou hast +proclaimed</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>As was pleasing to thee,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Do thou lead aright his +life,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Guide him in a straight +path.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>I am the prince, obedient to +thee,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The creature of thy hand;</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou hast created me, and</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>With dominion over all +people</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Thou hast entrusted me.</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>According to thy grace, O +Lord,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Which thou dost bestow on</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>All people,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Cause me to love thy supreme +dominion,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And create in my heart</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>The worship of thy godhead</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>And grant whatever is pleasing to +thee,</tt></div> +<div class="pre_line"><tt>Because thou hast fashioned my +life.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1547" href="#ftn.fnrex1547" +id="fnrex1547">547</a>]</span></tt></div> +</div> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The "star-gazers" had become scientists, and foretold +eclipses: in every sphere of intellectual activity great men were +sifting out truth from the debris of superstition. It seemed as +if Babylon and Assyria were about to cross <a id= +"page.anchor.480" name="page.anchor.480"></a>the threshold of a +new age, when their doom was sounded and their power was +shattered for ever. Nineveh perished with dramatic suddenness: +Babylon died of "senile decay".</p> +<p>When, in 668 B.C., intelligence reached Nineveh that +Esarhaddon had passed away, on the march through Egypt, the +arrangements which he had made for the succession were carried +out smoothly and quickly. Naki'a, the queen mother, was acting as +regent, and completed her lifework by issuing a proclamation +exhorting all loyal subjects and vassals to obey the new rulers, +her grandsons, Ashur-bani-pal, Emperor of Assyria, and +Shamash-shum-ukin, King of Babylon. Peace prevailed in the +capital, and there was little or no friction throughout the +provinces: new rulers were appointed to administer the States of +Arvad and Ammon, but there were no changes elsewhere.</p> +<p>Babylon welcomed its new king--a Babylonian by birth and the +son of a Babylonian princess. The ancient kingdom rejoiced that +it was no longer to be ruled as a province; its ancient dignities +and privileges were being partially restored. But one great and +deep-seated grievance remained. The god Merodach was still a +captive in the temple of Ashur. No king could reign aright if +Merodach were not restored to E-sagila. Indeed he could not be +regarded as the lord of the land until he had "taken the hands of +Bel".</p> +<p>The ceremony of taking the god's hands was an act of homage. +When it was consummated the king became the steward or vassal of +Merodach, and every day he appeared before the divine one to +receive instructions and worship him. The welfare of the whole +kingdom depended on the manner in which the king acted towards +the god. If Merodach was satisfied with the king he sent +blessings to the land; if he was angry he sent calamities. <a id= +"page.anchor.481" name="page.anchor.481"></a>A pious and faithful +monarch was therefore the protector of the people.</p> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2549406" name="id2549406"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XX.1. ASHUR-BANI-PAL RECLINING IN A +BOWER</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Marble Slab from Kouyunjik +(Nineveh): now in British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/40.jpg" /></div> +<div class="figure"><a id="id2549424" name="id2549424"></a> +<p class="title"><b>Figure XX.2. PERSIANS BRINGING CHARIOTS, +RINGS, AND WREATHS</b></p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Bas-relief from Persepolis: now in +the British Museum</em></span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +</div> +<div class="graphic"><img alt="" src="img/41.jpg" /></div> +<p>This close association of the king with the god gave the +priests great influence in Babylon. They were the power behind +the throne. The destinies of the royal house were placed in their +hands; they could strengthen the position of a royal monarch, or +cause him to be deposed if he did not satisfy their demands. A +king who reigned over Babylon without the priestly party on his +side occupied an insecure position. Nor could he secure the +co-operation of the priests unless the image of the god was +placed in the temple. Where king was, there Merodach had to be +also.</p> +<p>Shamash-shum-ukin pleaded with his royal brother and overlord +to restore Bel Merodach to Babylon. Ashur-bani-pal hesitated for +a time; he was unwilling to occupy a less dignified position, as +the representative of Ashur, than his distinguished predecessor, +in his relation to the southern kingdom. At length, however, he +was prevailed upon to consult the oracle of Shamash, the solar +lawgiver, the revealer of destiny. The god was accordingly asked +if Shamash-shum-ukin could "take the hands of Bel" in Ashur's +temple, and then proceed to Babylon as his representative. In +response, the priests of Shamash informed the emperor that Bel +Merodach could not exercise sway as sovereign lord so long as he +remained a prisoner in a city which was not his own.</p> +<p>Ashur-bani-pal accepted the verdict, and then visited Ashur's +temple to plead with Bel Merodach to return to Babylon. "Let thy +thoughts", he cried, "dwell in Babylon, which in thy wrath thou +didst bring to naught. Let thy face be turned towards E-sagila, +thy lofty and divine temple. Return to the city thou hast +deserted for a house unworthy of thee. O Merodach! lord of the +<a id="page.anchor.482" name="page.anchor.482"></a>gods, issue +thou the command to return again to Babylon."</p> +<p>Thus did Ashur-bani-pal make pious and dignified submission to +the will of the priests. A favourable response was, of course, +received from Merodach when addressed by the emperor, and the +god's image was carried back to E-sagila, accompanied by a strong +force. Ashur-bani-pal and Shamash-shum-ukin led the procession of +priests and soldiers, and elaborate ceremonials were observed at +each city they passed, the local gods being carried forth to do +homage to Merodach.</p> +<p>Babylon welcomed the deity who was thus restored to his temple +after the lapse of about a quarter of a century, and the priests +celebrated with unconcealed satisfaction and pride the ceremony +at which Shamash-shum-ukin "took the hands of Bel". The public +rejoicings were conducted on an elaborate scale. Babylon believed +that a new era of prosperity had been inaugurated, and the +priests and nobles looked forward to the day when the kingdom +would once again become free and independent and powerful.</p> +<p>Ashur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.) made arrangements to complete +his father's designs regarding Egypt. His Tartan continued the +campaign, and Taharka, as has been stated, was driven from +Memphis. The beaten Pharaoh returned to Ethiopia and did not +again attempt to expel the Assyrians. He died in 666 B.C. It was +found that some of the petty kings of Lower Egypt had been +intriguing with Taharka, and their cities were severely dealt +with. Necho of Sais had to be arrested, among others, but was +pardoned after he appeared before Ashur-bani-pal, and sent back +to Egypt as the Assyrian governor.</p> +<p>Tanutamon, a son of Pharaoh Shabaka, succeeded Taharka, and in +663 B.C. marched northward from Thebes <a id="page.anchor.483" +name="page.anchor.483"></a>with a strong army. He captured +Memphis. It is believed Necho was slain, and Herodotus relates +that his son Psamtik took refuge in Syria. In 661 B.C. +Ashur-bani-pal's army swept through Lower Egypt and expelled the +Ethiopians. Tanutamon fled southward, but on this occasion the +Assyrians followed up their success, and besieged and captured +Thebes, which they sacked. Its nobles were slain or taken +captive. According to the prophet Nahum, who refers to Thebes as +No (Nu-Amon = city of Amon), "her young children also were dashed +in pieces at the top of all the streets: and they (the Assyrians) +cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were +bound in chains".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1548" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1548" id="fnrex1548">548</a>]</span> Thebes never +again recovered its prestige. Its treasures were transported to +Nineveh. The Ethiopian supremacy in Egypt was finally +extinguished, and Psamtik, son of Necho, who was appointed the +Pharaoh, began to reign as the vassal of Assyria.</p> +<p>When the kings on the seacoasts of Palestine and Asia Minor +found that they could no longer look to Egypt for help, they +resigned themselves to the inevitable, and ceased to intrigue +against Assyria. Gifts were sent to Ashur-bani-pal by the kings +of Arvad, Tyre, Tarsus, and Tabal. The Arvad ruler, however, was +displaced, and his son set on his throne. But the most +extraordinary development was the visit to Nineveh of emissaries +from Gyges, king of Lydia, who figures in the legends of Greece. +This monarch had been harassed by the Cimmerians after they +accomplished the fall of Midas of Phrygia in 676 B.C., and he +sought the help of Ashur-bani-pal. It is not known whether the +Assyrians operated against the Cimmerians in Tabal, but, as Gyges +did not send tribute, it would appear that he held his own with +<a id="page.anchor.484" name="page.anchor.484"></a>the aid of +mercenaries from the State of Caria in southwestern Asia Minor. +The Greeks of Cilicia, and the Achaeans and Phoenicians of Cyprus +remained faithful to Assyria.</p> +<p>Elam gave trouble in 665 B.C. by raiding Akkad, but the +Assyrian army repulsed the invaders at Dur-ilu and pushed on to +Susa. The Elamites received a crushing defeat in a battle on the +banks of the River Ula. King Teumman was slain, and a son of the +King of Urtagu was placed on his throne. Elam thus came under +Assyrian sway.</p> +<p>The most surprising and sensational conspiracy against +Ashur-bani-pal was fomented by his brother Shamash-shum-ukin of +Babylon, after the two had co-operated peacefully for fifteen +years. No doubt the priestly party at E-sagila were deeply +concerned in the movement, and the king may have been strongly +influenced by the fact that Babylonia was at the time suffering +from severe depression caused by a series of poor harvests. +Merodach, according to the priests, was angry; it was probably +argued that he was punishing the people because they had not +thrown off the yoke of Assyria.</p> +<p>The temple treasures of Babylon were freely drawn upon to +purchase the allegiance of allies. Ere Ashur-bani-pal had any +knowledge of the conspiracy his brother had won over several +governors in Babylonia, the Chaldaeans, Aramaeans and Elamites, +and many petty kings in Palestine and Syria: even Egypt and Libya +were prepared to help him. When, however, the faithful governor +of Ur was approached, he communicated with his superior at Erech, +who promptly informed Ashur-bani-pal of the great conspiracy. The +intelligence reached Nineveh like a bolt from the blue. The +emperor's heart was filled with sorrow and anguish. In after-time +he lamented in <a id="page.anchor.485" name= +"page.anchor.485"></a>an inscription that his "faithless brother" +forgot the favours he had shown him. "Outwardly with his lips he +spoke friendly things, while inwardly his heart plotted +murder."</p> +<p>In 652 B.C. Shamash-shum-ukin precipitated the crisis by +forbidding Ashur-bani-pal to make offerings to the gods in the +cities of Babylonia. He thus declared his independence.</p> +<p>War broke out simultaneously. Ur and Erech were besieged and +captured by the Chaldaeans, and an Elamite army marched to the +aid of the King of Babylon, but it was withdrawn before long on +account of the unsettled political conditions at home. The +Assyrian armies swept through Babylonia, and the Chaldeans in the +south were completely subjugated before Babylon was captured. +That great commercial metropolis was closely besieged for three +years, and was starved into submission. When the Assyrians were +entering the city gates a sensational happening occurred. +Shamash-shum-ukin, the rebel king, shut himself up in his palace +and set fire to it, and perished there amidst the flames with his +wife and children, his slaves and all his treasures. +Ashur-bani-pal was in 647 B.C. proclaimed King +Kandalanu<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1549" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1549" id="fnrex1549">549</a>]</span> of Babylon, and +reigned over it until his death in 626 B.C.</p> +<p>Elam was severely dealt with. That unhappy country was +terribly devastated by Assyrian troops, who besieged and captured +Susa, which was pillaged and wrecked. It was recorded afterwards +as a great triumph of this campaign that the statue of Nana of +Erech, which had been carried off by Elamites 1635 years +previously, was recovered and restored to the ancient Sumerian +city. Elam's power of resistance was finally extinguished, and +the country fell a ready prey to the Medes and Persians, who +<a id="page.anchor.486" name="page.anchor.486"></a>soon entered +into possession of it. Thus, by destroying a buffer State, +Ashur-bani-pal strengthened the hands of the people who were +destined twenty years after his death to destroy the Empire of +Assyria.</p> +<p>The western allies of Babylon were also dealt with, and it may +be that at this time Manasseh of Judah was taken to Babylon +(<span class="emphasis"><em>2 Chronicles</em></span>, xxxiii, +II), where, however, he was forgiven. The Medes and the Mannai in +the north-west were visited and subdued, and a new alliance was +formed with the dying State of Urartu.</p> +<p>Psamtik of Egypt had thrown off the yoke of Assyria, and with +the assistance of Carian mercenaries received from his ally, +Gyges, king of Lydia, extended his sway southward. He made peace +with Ethiopia by marrying a princess of its royal line. Gyges +must have weakened his army by thus assisting Psamtik, for he was +severely defeated and slain by the Cimmerians. His son, Ardys, +appealed to Assyria for help. Ashur-bani-pal dispatched an army +to Cilicia. The joint operations of Assyria and Lydia resulted in +the extinction of the kingdom of the Cimmerians about 645 +B.C.</p> +<p>The records of Ashur-bani-pal cease after 640 B.C., so that we +are unable to follow the events of his reign during its last +fourteen years. Apparently peace prevailed everywhere. The great +monarch, who was a pronounced adherent of the goddess cults, +appears to have given himself up to a life of indulgence and +inactivity. Under the name Sardanapalus he went down to tradition +as a sensual Oriental monarch who lived in great pomp and luxury, +and perished in his burning palace when the Medes revolted +against him. It is evident, however, that the memory of more than +one monarch contributed to the Sardanapalus legend, for +Ashur-bani-pal had lain nearly twenty years in his grave before +the siege of Nineveh took place.</p> +<p><a id="page.anchor.487" name="page.anchor.487"></a>In the +Bible he is referred to as "the great and noble Asnapper", and he +appears to have been the emperor who settled the Babylonian, +Elamite, and other colonists "in the cities of +Samaria".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1550" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1550" id="fnrex1550">550</a>]</span></p> +<p>He erected at Nineveh a magnificent palace, which was +decorated on a lavish scale. The sculptures are the finest +productions of Assyrian art, and embrace a wide variety of +subjects--battle scenes, hunting scenes, and elaborate Court and +temple ceremonies. Realism is combined with a delicacy of touch +and a degree of originality which raises the artistic productions +of the period to the front rank among the artistic triumphs of +antiquity.</p> +<p>Ashur-bani-pal boasted of the thorough education which he had +received from the tutors of his illustrious father, Esarhaddon. +In his palace he kept a magnificent library. It contained +thousands of clay tablets on which were inscribed and translated +the classics of Babylonia. To the scholarly zeal of this cultured +monarch is due the preservation of the Babylonian story of +creation, the Gilgamesh and Etana legends, and other literary and +religious products of remote antiquity. Most of the literary +tablets in the British Museum were taken from Ashur-bani-pal's +library.</p> +<p>There are no Assyrian records of the reigns of +Ashur-bani-pal's two sons, Ashur-etil-ilani--who erected a small +palace and reconstructed the temple to Nebo at Kalkhi--and +Sin-shar-ishkun, who is supposed to have perished in Nineveh. +Apparently Ashur-etil-ilani reigned for at least six years, and +was succeeded by his brother.</p> +<p>A year after Ashur-bani-pal died, Nabopolassar, who was +probably a Chaldaean, was proclaimed king at Babylon. According +to Babylonian legend he was an Assyrian general <a id= +"page.anchor.488" name="page.anchor.488"></a>who had been sent +southward with an army to oppose the advance of invaders from the +sea. Nabopolassar's sway at first was confined to Babylon and +Borsippa, but he strengthened himself by forming an offensive and +defensive alliance with the Median king, whose daughter he had +married to his son Nebuchadrezzar. He strengthened the +fortifications of Babylon, rebuilt the temple of Merodach, which +had been destroyed by Ashur-bani-pal, and waged war successfully +against the Assyrians and their allies in Mesopotamia.</p> +<p>About 606 B.C. Nineveh fell, and Sin-shar-ishkun may have +burned himself there in his palace, like his uncle, +Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon, and the legendary Sardanapalus. It +is not certain, however, whether the Scythians or the Medes were +the successful besiegers of the great Assyrian capital. "Woe to +the bloody city! it is all full of lies and robbery", Nahum had +cried."... The gates of the rivers shall be opened, and the +palace shall be dissolved.... Take ye the spoil of silver, take +the spoil of gold.... Behold, I am against thee, saith the Lord +of hosts<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1551" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1551" id="fnrex1551">551</a>]</span>."</p> +<p>According to Herodotus, an army of Medes under Cyaxares had +defeated the Assyrians and were besieging Nineveh when the +Scythians overran Media. Cyaxares raised the siege and went +against them, but was defeated. Then the Scythians swept across +Assyria and Mesopotamia, and penetrated to the Delta frontier of +Egypt. Psamtik ransomed his kingdom with handsome gifts. At +length, however, Cyaxares had the Scythian leaders slain at a +banquet, and then besieged and captured Nineveh.</p> +<p>Assyria was completely overthrown. Those of its nobles and +priests who escaped the sword no doubt <a id="page.anchor.489" +name="page.anchor.489"></a>escaped to Babylonia. Some may have +found refuge also in Palestine and Egypt.</p> +<p>Necho, the second Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Egyptian +Dynasty, did not hesitate to take advantage of Assyria's fall. In +609 B.C. he proceeded to recover the long-lost Asiatic +possessions of Egypt, and operated with an army and fleet. Gaza +and Askalon were captured. Josiah, the grandson of Manasseh, was +King of Judah. "In his days Pharaoh-nechoh king of Egypt went up +against the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates: and king +Josiah went against him; and he (Necho) slew him at +Megiddo."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1552" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1552" id="fnrex1552">552</a>]</span> His son, +Jehoahaz, succeeded him, but was deposed three months later by +Necho, who placed another son of Josiah, named Eliakim, on the +throne, "and turned his name to Jehoiakim".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1553" href="#ftn.fnrex1553" id= +"fnrex1553">553</a>]</span> The people were heavily taxed to pay +tribute to the Pharaoh.</p> +<p>When Necho pushed northward towards the Euphrates he was met +by a Babylonian army under command of Prince +Nebuchadrezzar.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1554" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1554" id="fnrex1554">554</a>]</span> The Egyptians +were routed at Carchemish in 605 B.C. (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah,</em></span> xvi, 2).</p> +<p>In 604 B.C. Nabopolassar died, and the famous Nebuchadrezzar +II ascended the throne of Babylon. He lived to be one of its +greatest kings, and reigned for over forty years. It was he who +built the city described by Herodotus (pp. 219 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>), and constructed its outer +wall, which enclosed so large an area that no army could invest +it. Merodach's temple was decorated with greater magnificence +than ever before. The great palace and hanging gardens were +erected by this mighty monarch, who no doubt attracted to the +city large numbers of the skilled artisans who had fled from +Nineveh. He also restored temples at other cities, and made +generous gifts to the <a id="page.anchor.490" name= +"page.anchor.490"></a>priests. Captives were drafted into +Babylonia from various lands, and employed cleaning out the +canals and as farm labourers.</p> +<p>The trade and industries of Babylon flourished greatly, and +Nebuchadrezzar's soldiers took speedy vengeance on roving bands +which infested the caravan roads. "The king of Egypt", after his +crushing defeat at Carchemish, "came not again any more out of +his land: for the king of Babylon had taken from the river of +Egypt unto the river Euphrates all that pertained to the king of +Egypt."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1555" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1555" id="fnrex1555">555</a>]</span> Jehoiakim of +Judah remained faithful to Necho until he was made a prisoner by +Nebuchadrezzar, who "bound him in fetters to carry him to +Babylon".<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1556" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1556" id="fnrex1556">556</a>]</span> He was afterwards +sent back to Jerusalem. "And Jehoiakim became his +(Nebuchadrezzar's) servant three years: then he turned and +rebelled against him."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1557" +href="#ftn.fnrex1557" id="fnrex1557">557</a>]</span></p> +<p>Bands of Chaldaeans, Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites were +harassing the frontiers of Judah, and it seemed to the king as if +the Babylonian power had collapsed. Nebuchadrezzar hastened +westward and scattered the raiders before him. Jehoiakim died, +and his son Jehoiachan, a youth of eighteen years, succeeded him. +Nebuchadrezzar laid siege to Jerusalem, and the young king +submitted to him and was carried off to Babylon, with "all the +princes, and all the mighty men of valour, even ten thousand +captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remained save +the poorest sort of the people of the land".<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1558" href="#ftn.fnrex1558" id= +"fnrex1558">558</a>]</span> Nebuchadrezzar had need of warriors +and workmen.</p> +<p>Zedekiah was placed on the throne of Judah as an Assyrian +vassal. He remained faithful for a few years, but at length began +to conspire with Tyre and Sidon, <a id="page.anchor.491" name= +"page.anchor.491"></a>Moab, Edom, and Ammon in favour of Egyptian +suzerainty. Pharaoh Hophra (Apries), the fourth king of the +Twenty-sixth Dynasty, took active steps to assist the +conspirators, and "Zedekiah rebelled against the king of +Babylon<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1559" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1559" id="fnrex1559">559</a>]</span>".</p> +<p>Nebuchadrezzar led a strong army through Mesopotamia, and +divided it at Riblah, on the Orontes River. One part of it +descended upon Judah and captured Lachish and Azekah. Jerusalem +was able to hold out for about eighteen months. Then "the famine +was sore in the city, so that there was no bread for the people +of the land. Then the city was broken up, and all the men of war +fled, and went forth out of the city by night by way of the gate +between the two walls, which was by the king's garden." Zedekiah +attempted to escape, but was captured and carried before +Nebuchadrezzar, who was at Riblah, in the land of Hamath.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>And the king of Babylon slew the sons of Zedekiah before his +eyes.... Then he put out the eyes of Zedekiah; and the king of +Babylon bound him in chains and carried him to Babylon and put +him in prison till the day of his death<span class= +"sub">[<a name="fnrex1560" href="#ftn.fnrex1560" id= +"fnrex1560">560</a>]</span>.</p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>The majority of the Jews were deported to Babylonia, where +they were employed as farm labourers. Some rose to occupy +important official positions. A remnant escaped to Egypt with +Jeremiah.</p> +<p>Jerusalem was plundered and desolated. The Assyrians "burned +the house of the Lord and the king's house, and all the houses of +Jerusalem", and "brake down all the walls of Jerusalem round +about". Jeremiah lamented:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! how +is she become as a widow! she that was great among the nations, +and <a id="page.anchor.492" name="page.anchor.492"></a>princess +among the provinces, how is she become tributary! She weepeth +sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks: among all her +lovers she hath none to comfort her: all her friends have dealt +treacherously with her, they are become her enemies. Judah is +gone into captivity because of affliction, and because of great +servitude: she dwelleth among the heathen, she findeth no rest: +all her persecutors overtook her between the straits.... +Jerusalem remembered in the days of her affliction and of her +miseries all her pleasant things that she had in the days of +old....<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1561" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1561" id="fnrex1561">561</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Tyre was besieged, but was not captured. Its king, however, +arranged terms of peace with Nebuchadrezzar.</p> +<p>Amel-Marduk, the "Evil Merodach" of the Bible, the next king +of Babylon, reigned for a little over two years. He released +Jehoiachin from prison, and allowed him to live in the royal +palace.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1562" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1562" id="fnrex1562">562</a>]</span> Berosus relates +that Amel-Marduk lived a dissipated life, and was slain by his +brother-in-law, Nergal-shar-utsur, who reigned two years (559-6 +B.C.). Labashi-Marduk, son of Nergal-shar-utsur, followed with a +reign of nine months. He was deposed by the priests. Then a +Babylonian prince named Nabu-na´id (Nabonidus) was set on +the throne. He was the last independent king of Babylonia. His +son Belshazzar appears to have acted as regent during the latter +part of the reign.</p> +<p>Nabonidus engaged himself actively during his reign (556-540 +B.C.) in restoring temples. He entirely reconstructed the house +of Shamash, the sun god, at Sippar, and, towards the end of his +reign, the house of Sin, the moon god, at Haran. The latter +building had been destroyed by the Medes.</p> +<p>The religious innovations of Nabonidus made him exceedingly +unpopular throughout Babylonia, for he carried away the gods of +Ur, Erech, Larsa, and Eridu, <a id="page.anchor.493" name= +"page.anchor.493"></a>and had them placed in E-sagila. Merodach +and his priests were displeased: the prestige of the great god +was threatened by the policy adopted by Nabonidus. As an +inscription composed after the fall of Babylon sets forth; +Merodach "gazed over the surrounding lands ... looking for a +righteous prince, one after his own heart, who should take his +hands.... He called by name Cyrus."</p> +<p>Cyrus was a petty king of the shrunken Elamite province of +Anshan, which had been conquered by the Persians. He claimed to +be an Achaemenian--that is a descendant of the semi-mythical +Akhamanish (the Achaemenes of the Greeks), a Persian patriarch +who resembled the Aryo-Indian Manu and the Germanic Mannus. +Akhamanish was reputed to have been fed and protected in +childhood by an eagle--the sacred eagle which cast its shadow on +born rulers. Probably this eagle was remotely Totemic, and the +Achaemenians were descendants of an ancient eagle tribe. +Gilgamesh was protected by an eagle, as we have seen, as the +Aryo-Indian Shakuntala was by vultures and Semiramis by doves. +The legends regarding the birth and boyhood of Cyrus resemble +those related regarding Sargon of Akkad and the Indian Karna and +Krishna.</p> +<p>Cyrus acknowledged as his overlord Astyages, king of the +Medes. He revolted against Astyages, whom he defeated and took +prisoner. Thereafter he was proclaimed King of the Medes and +Persians, who were kindred peoples of Indo-European speech. The +father of Astyages was Cyaxares, the ally of Nabopolassar of +Babylon. When this powerful king captured Nineveh he entered into +possession of the northern part of the Assyrian Empire, which +extended westward into Asia Minor to the frontier of the Lydian +kingdom; he also possessed himself of Urartu <a id= +"page.anchor.494" name="page.anchor.494"></a>(Armenia). Lydia +had, after the collapse of the Cimmerian power, absorbed Phrygia, +and its ambitious king, Alyattes, waged war against the Medes. At +length, owing to the good offices of Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon +and Syennesis of Cilicia, the Medes and Lydians made peace in 585 +B.C. Astyages then married a daughter of the Lydian ruler.</p> +<p>When Cyrus overthrew Cyaxares, king of the Medes, Croesus, +king of Lydia, formed an alliance against him with Amasis, king +of Egypt, and Nabonidus, king of Babylon. The latter was at first +friendly to Cyrus, who had attacked Cyaxares when he was +advancing on Babylon to dispute Nabonidus's claim to the throne, +and perhaps to win it for a descendant of Nebuchadrezzar, his +father's ally. It was after the fall of the Median Dynasty that +Nabonidus undertook the restoration of the moon god's temple at +Haran.</p> +<p>Cyrus advanced westward against Croesus of Lydia before that +monarch could receive assistance from the intriguing but +pleasure-loving Amasis of Egypt; he defeated and overthrew him, +and seized his kingdom (547-546 B.C.). Then, having established +himself as supreme ruler in Asia Minor, he began to operate +against Babylonia. In 539 B.C. Belshazzar was defeated near Opis. +Sippar fell soon afterwards. Cyrus's general, Gobryas, then +advanced upon Babylon, where Belshazzar deemed himself safe. One +night, in the month of Tammuz--</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his +lords, and drank wine before the thousand. Belshazzar, whiles he +tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels +which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which +was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and +his concubines, might drink therein.... They drank wine, and +praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of +<a id="page.anchor.495" name="page.anchor.495"></a>wood, and of +stone.... In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans +slain.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1563" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1563" id="fnrex1563">563</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>On the 16th of Tammuz the investing army under Gobryas entered +Babylon, the gates having been opened by friends within the city. +Some think that the Jews favoured the cause of Cyrus. It is quite +as possible, however, that the priests of Merodach had a secret +understanding with the great Achaemenian, the "King of +kings".</p> +<p>A few days afterwards Cyrus arrived at Babylon. Belshazzar had +been slain, but Nabonidus still lived, and he was deported to +Carmania. Perfect order prevailed throughout the city, which was +firmly policed by the Persian soldiers, and there was no looting. +Cyrus was welcomed as a deliverer by the priesthood. He "took the +hands" of Bel Merodach at E-sagila, and was proclaimed "King of +the world, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of +the Four Quarters".</p> +<p>Cyrus appointed his son Cambyses as governor of Babylon. +Although a worshipper of Ahura-Mazda and Mithra, Cambyses appears +to have conciliated the priesthood. When he became king, and +swept through Egypt, he was remembered as the madman who in a fit +of passion slew a sacred Apis bull. It is possible, however, that +he performed what he considered to be a pious act: he may have +sacrificed the bull to Mithra.</p> +<p>The Jews also welcomed Cyrus. They yearned for their native +land.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, +when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows in +the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away captive +required of us a song; and they that wasted us required of us +mirth, saying, Sing us one of the songs of Zion. How shall we +sing the Lord's song in a strange land? If I forget thee, O +<a id="page.anchor.496" name="page.anchor.496"></a>Jerusalem, let +my right hand forget her cunning. If I do not remember thee, let +my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth; if I prefer not +Jerusalem above my chief joy.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1564" href="#ftn.fnrex1564" id= +"fnrex1564">564</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>Cyrus heard with compassion the cry of the captives.</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p>Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word +of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord +stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a +proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in +writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, The Lord God of +heaven hath given me all kingdoms of the earth; and he hath +charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. +Who is there among you of all his people? his God be with him, +and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the +house of the Lord God of Israel (he is the God) which is in +Jerusalem.<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1565" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1565" id="fnrex1565">565</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<p>In 538 B.C. the first party of Jews who were set free saw +through tears the hills of home, and hastened their steps to +reach Mount Zion. Fifty years later Ezra led back another party +of the faithful. The work of restoring Jerusalem was undertaken +by Nehemiah in 445 B.C.</p> +<p>The trade of Babylon flourished under the Persians, and the +influence of its culture spread far and wide. Persian religion +was infused with new doctrines, and their deities were given +stellar attributes. Ahura-Mazda became identified with Bel +Merodach, as, perhaps, he had previously been with Ashur, and the +goddess Anahita absorbed the attributes of Nina, Ishtar, +Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span>, and other Babylonian +"mother deities".</p> +<p>Another "Semiramis" came into prominence. This was the wife +and sister of Cambyses. After Cambyses died she married Darius I, +who, like Cyrus, claimed to be an Achaemenian. He had to +overthrow a pretender, but submitted to the demands of the +orthodox Persian <a id="page.anchor.497" name= +"page.anchor.497"></a>party to purify the Ahura-Mazda religion of +its Babylonian innovations. Frequent revolts in Babylon had +afterwards to be suppressed. The Merodach priesthood apparently +suffered loss of prestige at Court. According to Herodotus, +Darius plotted to carry away from E-sagila a great statue of Bel +"twelve cubits high and entirely of solid gold". He, however, was +afraid "to lay his hands upon it". Xerxes, son of Darius (485-465 +B.C.), punished Babylon for revolting, when intelligence reached +them of his disasters in Greece, by pillaging and partly +destroying the temple. "He killed the priest who forbade him to +move the statue, and took it away."<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1566" href="#ftn.fnrex1566" id="fnrex1566">566</a>]</span> +The city lost its vassal king, and was put under the control of a +governor. It, however, regained some of its ancient glory after +the burning of Susa palace, for the later Persian monarchs +resided in it. Darius II died at Babylon, and Artaxerxes II +promoted in the city the worship of Anaitis.</p> +<p>When Darius III, the last Persian emperor, was overthrown by +Alexander the Great in 331 B.C., Babylon welcomed the Macedonian +conqueror as it had welcomed Cyrus. Alexander was impressed by +the wisdom and accomplishments of the astrologers and priests, +who had become known as "Chaldaeans", and added Bel Merodach to +his extraordinary pantheon, which already included Amon of Egypt, +Melkarth, and Jehovah. Impressed by the antiquity and +magnificence of Babylon, he resolved to make it the capital of +his world-wide empire, and there he received ambassadors from +countries as far east as India and as far west as Gaul.</p> +<p>The canals of Babylonia were surveyed, and building operations +on a vast scale planned out. No fewer than ten thousand men were +engaged working for two months reconstructing and decorating the +temple of Merodach, <a id="page.anchor.498" name= +"page.anchor.498"></a>which towered to a height of 607 feet. It +looked as if Babylon were about to rise to a position of +splendour unequalled in its history, when Alexander fell sick, +after attending a banquet, and died on an evening of golden +splendour sometime in June of 323 B.C.</p> +<p>One can imagine the feelings of the Babylonian priests and +astrologers as they spent the last few nights of the emperor's +life reading "the omens of the air"--taking note of wind and +shadow, moon and stars and planets, seeking for a sign, but +unable to discover one favourable. Their hopes of Babylonian +glory were suspended in the balance, and they perished completely +when the young emperor passed away in the thirty-third year of +his life. For four days and four nights the citizens mourned in +silence for Alexander and for Babylon.</p> +<p>The ancient city fell into decay under the empire of the +Seleucidae. Seleucus I had been governor of Babylon, and after +the break-up of Alexander's empire he returned to the ancient +metropolis as a conqueror. "None of the persons who succeeded +Alexander", Strabo wrote, "attended to the undertaking at +Babylon"--the reconstruction of Merodach's temple. "Other works +were neglected, and the city was dilapidated partly by the +Persians and partly by time and through the indifference of the +Greeks, particularly after Seleucus Nicator fortified Seleukeia +on the Tigris."<span class="sub">[<a name="fnrex1567" href= +"#ftn.fnrex1567" id="fnrex1567">567</a>]</span></p> +<p>Seleucus drafted to the city which bore his name the great +bulk of the inhabitants of Babylon. The remnant which was left +behind continued to worship Merodach and other gods after the +walls had crumbled and the great temple began to tumble down. +Babylon died slowly, but at length the words of the Hebrew +prophet were fulfilled:</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<blockquote class="blockquote"> +<p><a id="page.anchor.499" name="page.anchor.499"></a>The +cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the +raven shall dwell in it.... They shall call the nobles thereof to +the kingdom, but none shall be there, and all her princes shall +be nothing. And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and +brambles in the fortresses thereof: and it shall be an habitation +of dragons, and a court for owls. The wild beasts of the desert +shall also meet with the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr +shall cry to his fellow: the screech owl also shall rest there, +and find for herself a place of rest.<span class="sub">[<a name= +"fnrex1568" href="#ftn.fnrex1568" id= +"fnrex1568">568</a>]</span></p> +</blockquote> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"><br /> +<hr width="100" align="left" /> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1544" href="#fnrex1544" id= +"ftn.fnrex1544">544</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nahum</em></span>, i, ii, and iii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1545" href="#fnrex1545" id= +"ftn.fnrex1545">545</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xlvi, 1; xlvii, 1-15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1546" href="#fnrex1546" id= +"ftn.fnrex1546">546</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nahum</em></span>, iii, 2, 3; ii, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1547" href="#fnrex1547" id= +"ftn.fnrex1547">547</a>]</span> Goodspeed's <span class= +"emphasis"><em>A History of the Babylonians and +Assyrians</em></span>, p. 348.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1548" href="#fnrex1548" id= +"ftn.fnrex1548">548</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nahum</em></span>, iii, 8-11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1549" href="#fnrex1549" id= +"ftn.fnrex1549">549</a>]</span> Ptolemy's Kineladanus.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1550" href="#fnrex1550" id= +"ftn.fnrex1550">550</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezra</em></span>, iv, 10.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1551" href="#fnrex1551" id= +"ftn.fnrex1551">551</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nahum</em></span>, iii and ii.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1552" href="#fnrex1552" id= +"ftn.fnrex1552">552</a>]</span> 2 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Kings</em></span>, xxiii, 29.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1553" href="#fnrex1553" id= +"ftn.fnrex1553">553</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ibid.</em></span>, 33-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1554" href="#fnrex1554" id= +"ftn.fnrex1554">554</a>]</span> Nebuchadrezzar is more correct +than Nebuchadnezzar.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1555" href="#fnrex1555" id= +"ftn.fnrex1555">555</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xxiv, 7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1556" href="#fnrex1556" id= +"ftn.fnrex1556">556</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Chronicles</em></span>, xxxvi, 6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1557" href="#fnrex1557" id= +"ftn.fnrex1557">557</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xxiv, 1.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1558" href="#fnrex1558" id= +"ftn.fnrex1558">558</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>2 +Kings</em></span>, xxiv, 8-15.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1559" href="#fnrex1559" id= +"ftn.fnrex1559">559</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah</em></span>, lii, 3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1560" href="#fnrex1560" id= +"ftn.fnrex1560">560</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah</em></span>, lii, 4-11.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1561" href="#fnrex1561" id= +"ftn.fnrex1561">561</a>]</span> <span class="emphasis"><em>The +Laminations of Jeremiah</em></span>, i, 1-7.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1562" href="#fnrex1562" id= +"ftn.fnrex1562">562</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Jeremiah</em></span>, lii, 31-4.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1563" href="#fnrex1563" id= +"ftn.fnrex1563">563</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Daniel</em></span>, v, I et seq.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1564" href="#fnrex1564" id= +"ftn.fnrex1564">564</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Psalms</em></span>, cxxxvii, 1-6.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1565" href="#fnrex1565" id= +"ftn.fnrex1565">565</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ezra</em></span>, i, 1-3.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1566" href="#fnrex1566" id= +"ftn.fnrex1566">566</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Herodotus</em></span>, i, 183; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Strabo</em></span>, xvi, 1, 5; and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Arrian</em></span>, vii, 17.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1567" href="#fnrex1567" id= +"ftn.fnrex1567">567</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Strabo</em></span>, xvi, 1-5.</div> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<div class="footnote"><span class="footnote">[<a name= +"ftn.fnrex1568" href="#fnrex1568" id= +"ftn.fnrex1568">568</a>]</span> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>, xxiiv, 11-4.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="index"> +<div class="titlepage"> +<div> +<div> +<h2 class="title"><a id="id2550638" name= +"id2550638"></a>Index</h2> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p>Vowel Sounds:--<span class="emphasis"><em>ä</em></span>, +as in <span class="emphasis"><em>palm</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ā</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>late</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ă</em></span>, almost like <span class= +"emphasis"><em>u</em></span> in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>fur</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>, like <span class= +"emphasis"><em>a</em></span> in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>fate</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ē</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>he</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>i</em></span>, as <span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span> in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>me</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ī</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>sigh</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ō</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>shore</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ü</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>pull</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>u</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>sun</em></span>; <span class= +"emphasis"><em>ȳ</em></span>, as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>dye</em></span>.</p> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">A</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Ä, Āä, Äi, Sumerian names of moon, +<a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ää, the goddess, consort of Shamash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Aäh, Egyptian name of moon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>.</dt> +<dt>Abijah (a-bī´jah), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.403">403</a>.</dt> +<dt>Abraham, <a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>; the Isaac +sacrifice, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>; period of migration +from Ur, <a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.245">245</a>; association of with Amorites, +<a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; conflict with Amraphel +(Hammurabi) and his allies, <a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>; Babylonian monotheism in age +of, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; Nimrod and in +<span class="emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.167">167</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.349">349</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Achaeans (a-kē´ans), the Celts and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.377">377</a>; in Crete and Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.378">378</a>; Pelasgians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.393">393</a>; the Cyprian and Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>.</dt> +<dt>Achaemenian (a-k<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>-m<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>n´ian), Cyrus called an, +<a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Darius I claims to be an, +<a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Akhamanish</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Adad (äd´äd), deities that link with, +<a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adad-nirari I (äd´äd-ni-rä´ri), of +Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.362">362</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.363">363</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adad-nirari III, <a href="#page.anchor.396">396</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adad-nirari IV, King of Assyria, Babylonian influence in +court of, <a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>; as "husband of his +mother", <a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>; innovations of, +<a href="#page.anchor.421">421</a>; Kalkhi library, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>; "synchronistic history", <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>; Nebo worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.435">435</a>,436; as "saviour" of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.438">438</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>; +Urartu problem, <a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adad-nirari V, <a href="#page.anchor.442">442</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adad-shum-utsur +(äd´ad-shüm-ü´tsur), King of +Babylonia, as overlord of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.370">370</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adam, "first wife" of a demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>; the shining jewel of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adapa (ä´dä-pä), the Babylonian Thor, +<a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>.</dt> +<dt>Addu (äd´dü), as form of Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.160">160</a>.</dt> +<dt>Adonis (ä-dō´nis), Tammuz and myth of, +<a href="#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.84">84</a>; antiquity of myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.84">84</a>; blood of in river, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; the boat or chest of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>; +"the Garden of", <a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; slain by boar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>.</dt> +<dt>Afghans, skull forms of, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ages, the mythical, Tammuz as ruler of one of the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; Greek +flood legend and, <a href="#page.anchor.195">195</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>; the Indian and Celtic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>; in American myths, <a href= +"#page.anchor.198">198</a>; Babylonian and Indian links, <a href= +"#page.anchor.199">199</a>; in Persian and Germanic mythologies, +<a href="#page.anchor.202">202</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>; various systems compared, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Agni (ăg´nee), Indian fire and fertility god, +<a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>; Nusku and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; links with Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.94">94</a>; eagle as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; +Nergal and, <a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>; the goat and, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; Melkarth and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>.</dt> +<dt>Agriculture, mother worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.xxx">xxx</a>; +cults of Osiris-Isis and Tammuz-Ishtar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; early Sumerians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>; in Turkestan and Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.6">6</a>; early civilizations and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.14">14</a>; Herodotus on Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.21">21</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>; +irrigation and river floods, <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.26">26</a>; deities and water supply, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; Tammuz-Adonis myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; weeping ceremonies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Nimrod myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>; demand for harvesters in Babylonia, +<a href="#page.anchor.256">256</a>.</dt> +<dt>Agum (ä´güm), Kassite kings named, <a href= +"#page.anchor.272">272</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Agum the Great, Kassite king, recovers from Mitanni Merodach +and his spouse, <a href="#page.anchor.272">272</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ahab, King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a> , +<a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.473">473</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ahaz, King of Judah, fire ceremony practised by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; sundial of and eclipse record, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.450">450</a>; +relations with Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.452">452</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.459">459</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ahaziah (a-ha-zī´ah), King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.408">408</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Ahür´ă Măz´da, eagle and ring +symbol of, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; Ashur and, +<a href="#page.anchor.355">355</a>; Cambyses and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.495">495</a>; identified with Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>; reform of cult of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Air of Life, Breath and spirit as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Akhamanish (a-khä-măn´ish), the Persian +Patriarch, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Germanic Mannus +and Indian Manu and, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; eagle +and, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Akhenaton (a-khen-ä´ton), foreign correspondence +of, <a href="#page.anchor.280">280</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Assyrian King's relations +with, <a href="#page.anchor.285">285</a>; Aton cult of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.338">338</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.422">422</a>; +attitude of to mother worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>.</dt> +<dt>Akkad (ak´kad). Its racial and geographical +significance, <a href="#page.anchor.1">1</a>; early name of Uri +or Kiuri, <a href="#page.anchor.2">2</a>; early history of, +<a href="#page.anchor.109">109</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Akkad, City of, Sargon of, <a href="#page.anchor.125">125</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Naram-Sin and, +<a href="#page.anchor.128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.129">129</a>; in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>; observatory at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.321">321</a>. Also rendered Agadé.</dt> +<dt>Akkadians, characteristics of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>; culture of Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.13">13</a>; the conquerors of Sumerians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.12">12</a>.</dt> +<dt>Äku, moon as the "measurer", <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>.</dt> +<dt>Akurgal (ä-kür´gal), King of Lagash, son of +Ur-Nina, <a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>.</dt> +<dt>Alban, the British ancestral giant, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>.</dt> +<dt>Aleppo (a-lep´po), Hadad worshipped at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.411">411</a>.</dt> +<dt>Alexander the Great, Southern Babylonia in age of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.22">22</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>; his +vision of Tiamat, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; myths of, +<a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; the eagle and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.167">167</a>; Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; water of life, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>; +Brahmans and, <a href="#page.anchor.207">207</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.208">208</a>; welcomed in Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>; Pantheon of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.498">498</a>.</dt> +<dt>Algebra, Brahmans formulated, <a href= +"#page.anchor.289">289</a>.</dt> +<dt>Allatu (al´lä-tü). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Eresh-ki-gal.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Alu (ä´lü), the, tempest and nightmare demon, +<a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>.</dt> +<dt>Alyät´tes, King of Lydia, war against Medes, +<a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>; Median marriage alliance, +<a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ä´mä, the mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amaziah, King of Judah, <a href="#page.anchor.448">448</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amel-marduk (ä´mel-mär´duk), "Evil +Merodach", King of Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amenhotep III (ä-men-hō´tep) of Egypt, +<a href="#page.anchor.280">280</a>; Tushratta's appeals to, +<a href="#page.anchor.282">282</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amon, wife of, <a href="#page.anchor.221">221</a>; the "world +soul" belief and, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amorites, Land of. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Amurru.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Amorites, Sargon of Akkad and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a> ; +in pre-Hammurabi Age, <a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; Sun +cult favoured by in Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.240">240</a>; +Moon cult of in Kish, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>; blend +of in Jerusalem, <a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; raids of, +<a href="#page.anchor.256">256</a>; as allies of Hittites, +<a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.363">363</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>; +Philistines and, <a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>; "mother +right" amongst, <a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amphitrite, the sea goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amraphel (äm´ra-phel), the Biblical, identified +with Hammurabi, <a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amurru (am´ür-rü), land of Amorites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.127">127</a>; Sargon and Naram Sin in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.127">127</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a> ; +Gudea of Lagash trades with, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; +Elamite overlordship of, <a href="#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Amurru, the god called, Merodach and Adad-Ramman and, +<a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>.</dt> +<dt>Anahita (ana-hi´ta), Persian goddess, identified with +Nina-Ishtar, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>An´akim, "sons of Anak", the Hittites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.11">11</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>.</dt> +<dt>Anatu (an-ä´tü), consort of Anu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a>.</dt> +<dt>Anau, Turkestan, civilization of and the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>; votive statuettes found at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ancestral totems, annual sacrifice of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>; in Babylonia and China, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>.</dt> +<dt>Andromeda (an-drom´e-da), legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.152">152</a>.</dt> +<dt>Angus, the Irish love god, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Animal forms of gods, <a href="#page.anchor.134">134</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>.</dt> +<dt>Animism, <a href="#page.anchor.xxxiii">xxxiii</a>; spirit +groups and gods, <a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; fairies and elves relics of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.79">79</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.80">80</a>; stars +and planets as ghosts, <a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>; star worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; Pelasgian gods as Fates, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Annie, Gentle", the Scottish wind hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>.</dt> +<dt>Annis, Black, Leicester wind hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>An´shan, Province of, Sargon of Akkad conquers, +<a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a>; Cyrus, King of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>An´shar, the god, in group of elder deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>; Anu becomes like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>; in Creation legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Ashur a form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.326">326</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; +as "Assoros", <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; as night sky +god, <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; identified with Polar +star, <a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.331">331</a>; as astral Satyr (goat-man), <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; Tammuz and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; his six divinities of council, +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>.</dt> +<dt>Anthat (änth´at), goddesses that link with, +<a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>.</dt> +<dt>Anthropomorphic gods, the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.134">134</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.136">136</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Anu (ä´nü), god of the sky, demons as +messengers of, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; in early triad, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>; among +early gods, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>; Brahma and, +<a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>; links with Mithra, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; other gods and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>,57; as father of demons, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>; solar and lunar attributes of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; wind +spirits and, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>; in +demon war, <a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a>; as father of Isis, +<a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; Ur-Nina and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; as father of Enlil, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>; as form of Anshar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; +high priest of and moon god, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; +during Isin Dynasty, <a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>; in +Creation legend, <a href="#page.anchor.138">138</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Merodach directs decrees of, +<a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>; Etana and eagle in heaven of, +<a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>; in Gilgamesh legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.173">173</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; in Deluge legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; planetary gods and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; zodiacal "field of", <a href= +"#page.anchor.307">307</a>; the star spirits and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>; as Anos, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>; as the "high bead", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Sargon II and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.463">463</a>.</dt> +<dt>An´zan. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Anshan</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Apep (ä´pep), the Egyptian serpent demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Aphrodite (af-rō-dī´tē), boar lover of +slays Adonis, <a href="#page.anchor.87">87</a>; lovers of, +<a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>; the "bearded" form of, +<a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; birds and plants sacred to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>; as a fate, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.433">433</a>; +legends attached to, <a href="#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>Apil-Sin (ä´pil-sin), King, grandfather of +Hammurabi, <a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>.</dt> +<dt>Apis bull (ä-pis), inspiration from breath of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>; Cambyses sacrifices to Mithra, <a href= +"#page.anchor.495">495</a>.</dt> +<dt>Apsu-Rishtu (ap´sü-rish´tü), god of the +deep, like Egyptian Nu, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; as enemy of the gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; Tiamat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; in Creation legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; reference to by Damascius, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>.</dt> +<dt>Apuatu (ä-pü´ä-tü) (Osiris) as the +Patriarch, <a href="#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arabia, moon worship in, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; +owl a mother ghost in, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>; in Zu +bird myth, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>; invaded by Naram Sin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.129">129</a>; Etana myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.167">167</a>; +water of life myth, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>; Sargon II +and kings of, <a href="#page.anchor.458">458</a>; Sennacherib in, +<a href="#page.anchor.466">466</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arabians, the, of Mediterranean race, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>; Semites of Jewish type and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; +prehistoric migrations of, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arad Ea (är-ad-e´ä), "ferryman" of Hades +water, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; Gilgamesh crosses sea of +death with, <a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Aramaeans, migrations of, <a href="#page.anchor.359">359</a>; +called "Suti", "Achlame", "Arimi", "Khabiri", and "Syrians", +<a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>; Assyria and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.367">367</a>; as allies of Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.377">377</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.378">378</a>; +state of Damascus founded by, <a href="#page.anchor.390">390</a>; +Ashur-natsir-pal III and, <a href="#page.anchor.398">398</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.399">399</a>; "mother worship" and, +<a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; as opponents of sun worship, +<a href="#page.anchor.445">445</a>; settled in Asia Minor, +<a href="#page.anchor.461">461</a>.</dt> +<dt>Archer, the Astral, Ashur, Gilgamesh, and Hercules as, +<a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>; robed with feathers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.344">344</a>; Ashur and Sandan as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ardat Lili (ar´dat li-li), a demon lover, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ardys, King of Lydia, Assyria helps, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ares, Greek war god, as boar slayer of Adonis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>.</dt> +<dt>Argistis I (ar´gist-is), King of Urartu, campaigns of, +<a href="#page.anchor.441">441</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.442">442</a>, or, Argistes.</dt> +<dt>Argistis II of Urartu, raids of Cimmerians and Scythians, +<a href="#page.anchor.461">461</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arioch (ä´ri-ok), the Biblical, Warad-Sin as, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arithmetic, finger counting in Babylonia and India, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a>; development of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.312">312</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ark, in flood legend, <a href="#page.anchor.191">191</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Arles money, Babylonian farm labourers received, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>.</dt> +<dt>Armenia, Thunder god of, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; goddess Anaitis in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>, See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Urartu</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Armenians, the use of cradle board by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; ancestors +of, <a href="#page.anchor.283">283</a>.</dt> +<dt>Armenoid Race, the, in Semitic blend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; in Asia Minor, Syria, and Europe, +<a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.262">262</a>; traces of in prehistoric Egypt, +<a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>; +in Palestine, <a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>; culture of, +<a href="#page.anchor.315">315</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arnold, Edwin, <a href="#page.anchor.xxii">xxii</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arpad (är´pad) in reign of Tiglathpileser IV, +<a href="#page.anchor.446">446</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.447">447</a>.</dt> +<dt>Arrow, a symbol of lightning and fertility, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>; Ashur's and the goddess Neith's, +<a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Archer, the Astral</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Art, magical origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.288">288</a>.</dt> +<dt>Artaxerxes, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Artemis (är´te-mis), the goddess, lovers slain by, +<a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>; as wind hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>; the "Great Bear" myth and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Artisan gods, Ea, Ptah, Khnumu, and Indra as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>.</dt> +<dt>Aruru (ar´ü-rü), the mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>; assists Merodach to create +mankind, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; in Gilgamesh legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.172">172</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Aryans (ā´ri-ans), Mitannians as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>; +Kassites and, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>.</dt> +<dt>Asa, King of Judah, burning at grave of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>; images destroyed by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.403">403</a>; appeal for aid to Damascus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.404">404</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.407">407</a>.</dt> +<dt>Asari (ä-sä´ri), Merodach as, and Osiris, +<a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ash´dod, Cyprian King of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.458">458</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.459">459</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashtoreth (äsh-tō´reth), Ishtar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>; goddesses that link with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>; worship of at Samaria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>; also rendered Ash´ta-roth.</dt> +<dt>Ashur (ä´shur), Asura theory, <a href= +"#page.anchor.278">278</a>; as Aushar, "water field", the "Holy +One", and Anshar, <a href="#page.anchor.326">326</a>; the +Biblical patriarch, <a href="#page.anchor.327">327</a>; "Ashir" +and Cappadocia, <a href="#page.anchor.327">327</a>; Brahma and, +<a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; as Creator, <a href= +"#page.anchor.329">329</a>; bull, eagle, and lion identified +with, <a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>; connected with sun, +Regulus, Arcturus, and Orion, <a href="#page.anchor.331">331</a>; +King and, <a href="#page.anchor.331">331</a>; Isaiah's parable, +<a href="#page.anchor.331">331</a>; as bull of heaven, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; winged disk or "wheel" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>; +standard of as "world spine", <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>; +the archer in "wheel", <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>; +despiritualization theory, <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; the solar archer as Merodach, +Hercules, and Gilgamesh, <a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; the +arrow of, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>; Babylonian deities +and, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>; Babylonian and Persian +influences, <a href="#page.anchor.338">338</a>; as god of +fertility, &c., <a href="#page.anchor.339">339</a>; Assyrian +civilization reflected by, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>; as +corn god and war god, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>; the +Biblical Nisroch, <a href="#page.anchor.341">341</a>; the eagle +and, <a href="#page.anchor.343">343</a>; Ezekiel's references to +life wheel, <a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; fire cult and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>; Indian wheel symbol, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; +Persian wheel or disk, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; wheels +of Shamash and Ishtar, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; the +Egyptian Ankh, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; Hittite winged +disk, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; Sandan and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>; +Attis and, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>; son of Ea like +Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>; aided by fires and +sacrifices, <a href="#page.anchor.351">351</a>; disk a symbol of +life, fertility, &c., <a href="#page.anchor.351">351</a>; the +lightning arrow, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>; temples of +and worship of, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>; close +association of with kings, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>; association of with moon god, +<a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>; astral phase of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>; Jastrow's view, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>; Pinches on Merodach and Osiris links, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; as patriarch, corn god, +&c, <a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.355">355</a>; spouse of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.355">355</a>; a Baal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.355">355</a>; earthquake destroys temple of, +<a href="#page.anchor.363">363</a>; Shalmaneser I obtains +treasure for, <a href="#page.anchor.366">366</a>; Esarhaddon +builds temple to, <a href="#page.anchor.476">476</a>; Sennacherib +murdered in temple of, <a href="#page.anchor.470">470</a>; Ahura +Mazda and, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ässhur</em></span>, the <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Biblical Patriarch</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-bani-pal (ä´shur-bän´i-pal), +discovery of library of, <a href="#page.anchor.xxii">xxii</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>; doctors and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.231">231</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.232">232</a>; +worship of Ashur and Sin, <a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>; +Merodach restored to Babylon by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.481">481</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.482">482</a>; +Egyptian campaign, <a href="#page.anchor.482">482</a>; sack of +Thebes, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>; emissaries from Gyges +of Lydia visit, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>; +Shamash-shum-ukin's revolt against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>; suicide of Shamash-shum-ukin, +<a href="#page.anchor.485">485</a>; Lydia aided by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; Sardanapalus legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; the Biblical "Asnapper", <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>; palace of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>.</dt> +<dt>A´shur-dan´ I, of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.370">370</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-dan III, reign of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.442">442</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-danin-apli(a´shur-dan-in´apli), revolt of +in Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-elit-ilani (a´shur-e´lit-il-a´ni), +King of Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.487">487</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-natsir-pal I (a´shur-na´tsir-pal) of +Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.369">369</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-natsii-pal III, his "reign of terror", <a href= +"#page.anchor.396">396</a>; conquests and atrocities of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.397">397</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.398">398</a>; +Babylonians overawed by, <a href="#page.anchor.399">399</a>; +death of, <a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-nirari IV (a´shur-ni-rä´ri), last king +of Assyria's "Middle Empire", <a href="#page.anchor.442">442</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.443">443</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ashur-uballit (a´shur-u-bäl-lit), King of Assyria, +Egypt and, <a href="#page.anchor.281">281</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.282">282</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.285">285</a>; +conquests of, <a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>; grandson of as +King of Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>; Arabian +desert trade route, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>.</dt> +<dt>Asia Minor, hill god of, <a href="#page.anchor.136">136</a>; +prehistoric alien pottery in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ass, the sun god as, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>; in +Lagash chariot, <a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Ass of the East", horse called in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>.</dt> +<dt>Äs´shur, City of, Ashur the god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>; Mitanni king plunders, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>; imported beliefs in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.327">327</a>; Biblical reference to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.339">339</a>; development of god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.355">355</a>; Merodach's statue deported to, +<a href="#page.anchor.469">469</a>.</dt> +<dt>Äs´shur, the Biblical Patriarch of Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.327">327</a>. +See <span class="emphasis"><em>Ashur</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Assyria, excavations in, <a href="#page.anchor.xix">xix</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Amorite migration +to, <a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; Hammurabi kings as +overlords of, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>; Thothmes III corresponds with king +of, <a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>; Biblical reference to +rise of, <a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>; Aryan names of early kings of, +<a href="#page.anchor.278">278</a>; Mitanni kings as overlords +of, <a href="#page.anchor.279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>; Semitized by Amorites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.279">279</a>; in Tell-el-Amarna letters, <a href= +"#page.anchor.281">281</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.282">282</a>; +rise of after fall of Mitanni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>; struggles with Babylonia for +Mesopotamia, <a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.286">286</a> ; <a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; the national god, +Ashur, <a href="#page.anchor.326">326</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Isaiah's reference to, +<a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>; Egyptians and Hittites allied +against, <a href="#page.anchor.366">366</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.368">368</a>; Old Empire Kings, <a href= +"#page.anchor.366">366</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Babylonia controls, <a href= +"#page.anchor.370">370</a>; character of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.372">372</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.375">375</a> ; +periods of history of, <a href="#page.anchor.375">375</a>; at +close of Kassite period, <a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>; end +of Old Empire, <a href="#page.anchor.386">386</a>; Second Empire +of, <a href="#page.anchor.391">391</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; sculpture of and Sumerian, +<a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a>; mother worship in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.420">420</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Urartu's struggle with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.442">442</a> ; +end of Second Empire, <a href="#page.anchor.443">443</a>; Third +Empire, <a href="#page.anchor.444">444</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Egypt becomes a province of, +<a href="#page.anchor.475">475</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; last king of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>; fall of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>; Cyaxares rules over, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Astarte (as-tär´te), lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>; animals of on Lagash vase, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; goddesses that link with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Semiramis and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>.</dt> +<dt>Astrology, basal idea in Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; Babylonian and Grecian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; literary references to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.325">325</a>.</dt> +<dt>Astrology and astronomy, <a href="#page.anchor.287">287</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span> See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Stars, Planets</em></span>, and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Constellations</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Astronomers, eclipses foretold by in late Assyrian period, +<a href="#page.anchor.321">321</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Astronomy, Merodach fixes stars, &c., in Creation legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.148">148</a>; discovery that moon is lit by sun, +<a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; Mythical Ages and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; theory of Greek origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.319">319</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; precession of the equinoxes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.320">320</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.320">320</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; Assyro-Babylonian +observatories, <a href="#page.anchor.320">320</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a> ; Hittites pass Babylonian discoveries +to Europe, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>; in late Assyrian +and neo-Babylonian period, <a href="#page.anchor.479">479</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.480">480</a>.</dt> +<dt>Astyages (as-ty´a-jēz), King of the Medes, Cyrus +displaces, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; wife of a Lydian +princess, <a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +<dt>Asura fire (ă-shoo´ra), in the sea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>.</dt> +<dt>Atargatis (ät-är-gä´tis), the goddess, +legend of origin of, <a href="#page.anchor.28">28</a>; as a +bi-sexual deity, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Derecto and, +<a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.426">426</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.427">427</a>; +Nina and, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.278">278</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ate (ä´te), mother goddess of Cilicia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>Athaliah (ath-a-lī´ah), Queen, of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.409">409</a>; reign of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.413">413</a>; Joash crowned, <a href= +"#page.anchor.413">413</a>; soldiers slay, <a href= +"#page.anchor.413">413</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>.</dt> +<dt>Athena (äth<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´na), indigenous goddess of +Athens, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; goat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>.</dt> +<dt>Athens, imported gods in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Atmospheric deities, Enlil, Indra, Ramman, &c, as, +<a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>; "air of life" from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Aton, Akhenaton's god, the goddess Mut and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>.</dt> +<dt>Attis (ät´tis), the Phrygian god, Tammuz and, +<a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; as lover of Cybele, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>; +deities that link with, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; as +Jupiter, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.355">355</a> ; +symbols of, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>.</dt> +<dt>Äü-Aä, Jah as Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>.</dt> +<dt>Australia, star myths in, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>.</dt> +<dt>Axe, the double, symbol of god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>.</dt> +<dt>Azag-Bau (ä´zag bä´ü), legendary +queen of Kish, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; humble origin +of, <a href="#page.anchor.115">115</a>.</dt> +<dt>Azariah (az-a-rī´ah), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">B</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Baal, the moon god as, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; +shadowy spouse of, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; Ashur as, +<a href="#page.anchor.355">355</a>; worship of the Phoenician in +Israel, <a href="#page.anchor.406">406</a>.</dt> +<dt>Baal-dag´on, the god, symbols of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.32">32</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bä´asha, King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.403">403</a>; Damascus aids Judah against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.404">404</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bä´ä-ü, the Phoenician mother goddess, +<a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Babbar (bäb´bar), sun god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>; Nin Girsu and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; of Sippar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.240">240</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Shamash</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Babylon, in early Christian literature, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xvii">xvii</a>; German excavations at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiv">xxiv</a>; Isaiah foretells doom of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.113">113</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.478">478</a>; sack of by Gutium, <a href= +"#page.anchor.129">129</a>; political rise of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.217">217</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; early history of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.218">218</a>; Greek descriptions of late city of, +<a href="#page.anchor.219">219</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; "hanging gardens" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.220">220</a>; date of existing ruins of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.222">222</a>; marriage market of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.224">224</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.225">225</a>; +sun worship in, <a href="#page.anchor.240">240</a>; the London of +Western Asia, <a href="#page.anchor.253">253</a>; return of +Merodach from Mitanni to, <a href="#page.anchor.272">272</a>; +observatory at, <a href="#page.anchor.321">321</a>; destruction +of by Sennacherib, <a href="#page.anchor.468">468</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.469">469</a>; restored by Esarhaddon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; Ashur-bani-pal restores Merodach to, +<a href="#page.anchor.481">481</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.482">482</a>; Shamash-sum-ukin's revolt in, +<a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.485">485</a>; Belshazzar's feast in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; +under the Persians, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>; Xerxes +pillages Merodach's temple in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>; Alexander the Great in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.498">498</a>; +under empire of Seleucidae, <a href="#page.anchor.498">498</a>; +slow death of, <a href="#page.anchor.498">498</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.499">499</a>.</dt> +<dt>Babylonia, excavations in, <a href="#page.anchor.xix">xix</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; religion of, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; debt of modern world to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxv">xxxv</a>; early divisions of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.1">1</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; harvests of, <a href="#page.anchor.21">21</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>; the two seasons of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.23">23</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>; rise +of empire of, <a href="#page.anchor.133">133</a>; Amorite +migration into, <a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; Golden Age +of, <a href="#page.anchor.253">253</a>; Hittite invasion of, +<a href="#page.anchor.259">259</a>; Tell-el-Amarna letters and, +<a href="#page.anchor.281">281</a>; early struggles with Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.286">286</a> ; star myths of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.290">290</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; ancestor worship in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; beginning of arithmetic in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Kassites and Mesopotamia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.358">358</a>,359,<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; Arabian desert +route, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>; influence of Hittites +in, <a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.366">366</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.368">368</a>; +Assyria controlled by, <a href="#page.anchor.370">370</a>; +Kassite dynasty ends, <a href="#page.anchor.370">370</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.371">371</a> ; compared with Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.371">371</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.375">375</a> ; +Tig-lath-pileser II and, <a href="#page.anchor.385">385</a>; +Ashur-natsir-pal III overawes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.399">399</a>; Shamshi-Adad VII subdues, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>,415; Tiglath-pileser IV, the "Pulu" +of, <a href="#page.anchor.444">444</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.446">446</a> ; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.476">476</a> ; +Neo-Babylonian Age, <a href="#page.anchor.478">478</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; Alexander the +Great and, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Baghdad railway, following ancient trade route, <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>, 357 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span><span class="sub">[<a href= +"#ftn.fnrex1407">407</a>]</span>.</dt> +<dt>Balder, the Germanic god, Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a>; new age of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.202">202</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bä-neb-tet´tu, Egyptian god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>Barley, husks of in Egyptian pre-Dynastic bodies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.6">6</a>.</dt> +<dt>Barleycorn, John, Nimrod and Icelandic god Barleycorn and, +<a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>.</dt> +<dt>Barque of Ra, sun as and the Babylonian "boat", <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>.</dt> +<dt>Basques, the, language of and the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>; shaving customs of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bäst, the Egyptian serpent mother, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bä´ta, the Egyptian tale of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bats, ghosts as, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>.</dt> +<dt>Battle, the Everlasting, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bau (bä´ü), mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; Gula and Ishtar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; in Kish, <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a>; associated with Nin-Girsu, +<a href="#page.anchor.115">115</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; Tiamat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; doves and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a>; creatrix and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bear, as a clan totem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bearded gods, the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.136">136</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.137">137</a>; Egyptian customs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Beare, the Old Woman of", as the eternal goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.102">102</a>.</dt> +<dt>Behistun, rock inscription at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bel, the, Merodach as, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; +Enlil as the "elder", <a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>; demons as +"beloved sons" of, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; Zu bird +strives to be, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>; in demon war, +<a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>; as son of Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.139">139</a>; decapitated to create mankind, +<a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; Etana visits heaven of, +<a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>; in Gilgamesh legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; in flood legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Zodiacal "field" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.307">307</a>; Sargon II and the "elder", <a href= +"#page.anchor.463">463</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bel´-Kap-Kä´pü, King of Babylonia, as +overlord of Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bel-nirari (bel´-ni-rä´ri), King of Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.285">285</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.286">286</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bel-shum-id´din, last Kassite king, <a href= +"#page.anchor.371">371</a>.</dt> +<dt>Beli (bā´le), "the Howler", enemy of Germanic corn +god, <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a>.</dt> +<dt>Belit-sheri (bel-it-sh<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´ri), sister of Tammuz, in +Hades, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>.</dt> +<dt>Belshaz´zar, King of Babylon, overthrow of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.495">495</a>.</dt> +<dt>Beltane Day, fire ceremony of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>.</dt> +<dt>Beltu (bāl´tü), the goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ben-ha´dad I, King of Damascus, as overlord of Judah +and Israel, <a href="#page.anchor.404">404</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ben-hadad II, Ahab defeats twice, <a href= +"#page.anchor.406">406</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a>; +murder of by Hazael, <a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ben-hadad III, Assyrians overcome, <a href= +"#page.anchor.438">438</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>.</dt> +<dt><span class="emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span> +(bā-ō-wülf), brood of Cain in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.80">80</a>; Scyld myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.92">92</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; sea +monsters, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; mother-monster in +like Sumerian and Scottish, <a href="#page.anchor.154">154</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.155">155</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ber, "lord of the wild boar", Ninip as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bero´sus, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.83">83</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.198">198</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.466">466</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.470">470</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bhima (bhee´ma), the Indian, like Gilgamesh and +Hercules, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>.</dt> +<dt>Birds, as ghosts and fates, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>; +owl as mother's ghost, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>; demons +enter the, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; Sumerian Zu bird and +Indian Garuda, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; in Germanic legends, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; as symbols of fertility, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; birth eagle, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>; imitation of and musical +culture, <a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>; associated with +goddesses, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; fairies as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.429">429</a>. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Doves, +Eagle, Raven, Swan, Vulture, Wryneck</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Birth, magical aid for, <a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>; +strawgirdles, serpent skins, eagle stones, and magical plant, +<a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bi-sexual deities, Nannar, moon god, Ishtar, Isis, and Hapi +as, <a href="#page.anchor.161">161</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.162">162</a>; Nina and Atargatis as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.278">278</a>; +Merodach and Ishtar change forms, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; Venus both male and female, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; mother body of moon father, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; Isis as a male, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bitumen, Mesopotamian wells of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>Blake, W., double vision, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>.</dt> +<dt>Blood, as vehicle of life, <a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; inspiration from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; corn stalks as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; sap of trees as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.47">47</a>.</dt> +<dt>Boann (bō´än), Irish river and corn goddess, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Boar, offered to sea god, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; +demon Set as, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Babylonian +Ninshach as, <a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>; Adonis slayer as, +<a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; Attis slain by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; Diarmid slain by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; the Irish "green boar", <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; the Totemic theory, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; +Ninip-Ber as lord of the wild, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>; Nergal as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; Ares as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; Ninip and Set as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>; the Gaulish boar god and Mercury, +<a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +<dt>Boghaz-Köi (bog-häz´-keüi), prehistoric +pottery at, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; Hittite capital, +<a href="#page.anchor.262">262</a>; mythological sculptures near, +<a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>; Winckler cuneiform tablets +from, <a href="#page.anchor.280">280</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.367">367</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bones, why taken from graves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>; Shakespeare's curse, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>.</dt> +<dt>Borsippa (bor´sip-pa), observatory at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.321">321</a>.</dt> +<dt>Botta, P. C, excavations of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xix">xix</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bracelet, the wedding, Ishtar's, <a href= +"#page.anchor.98">98</a>; the Hindu, 98 <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span><span class="sub">[<a href= +"#ftn.fnrex1123">123</a>]</span>.</dt> +<dt>Brahmä, the Indian god, like Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>; Anu and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; wife of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; eagle as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>.</dt> +<dt>Brähmans, algebra formulated by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.289">289</a>; Assyrian teachers and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Breath of Apis bull, inspiration from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Britain, the ancestral giant of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>; Tammuz myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; birth girdles in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>; "Island of the Blessed" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>; in Egypt and Persia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>.</dt> +<dt>Brood of Tiamat, in Creation legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.141">141</a>.</dt> +<dt>Brown, Robert, on Babylonian culture in India, <a href= +"#page.anchor.199">199</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.200">200</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.308">308</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.310">310</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Brown Race, the. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Mediterranean +Race</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Buddha (büd´hă), Babylonian teachers like, +<a href="#page.anchor.42">42</a>.</dt> +<dt>Budge, E. Wallis, on oldest companies of Babylonian and +Egyptian gods, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>.</dt> +<dt>Bull, offered to sea god, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; +Ninip as the, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; +of Mithra, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; the winged, <a href= +"#page.anchor.41">41</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>; +Osiris as, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.89">89</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>; +Tammuz as, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Attis and the, +<a href="#page.anchor.89">89</a>; Enlil as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; of Ishtar in Gilgamesh myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; seers wrapped in skin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>; Horus as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +as sky god, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>; Ashur as, +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; the lunar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>.</dt> +<dt>Burial customs, cremation ceremony, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>; "house of clay", <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; "houses" and charms for dead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.207">207</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>; Palaeolithic and Neolithic, +<a href="#page.anchor.207">207</a>; the Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>; religious need for ceremonies, +<a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>; Sumerian like early Egyptian, +<a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>; priestly fees, <a href= +"#page.anchor.210">210</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>; +food, fishhooks and weapons in graves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.212">212</a>; why dead were clothed, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>; honey in coffins, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>; disturbance of bones, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.215">215</a>; +burnings at Hebrew graves, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.351">351</a>.</dt> +<dt>Buriats, the, "calling back" of ghosts by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>; earth +and air elves of, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Burkans (boor´kans), "the masters", spirits or elves of +Siberians, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Burnaburiash I (bür´na-bür´i-ash), +Kassite king, <a href="#page.anchor.274">274</a>.</dt> +<dt>Burns, Robert, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>; the John +Barleycorn myth, <a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>.</dt> +<dt>Burrows, Professor, Cretan snake and dove goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>.</dt> +<dt>Byron, star lore, <a href="#page.anchor.325">325</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">C</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Cailleach (käl´yăk), the Gaelic, a wind hag, +<a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; as eternal goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Calah (kä´lah), the Biblical. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Kalkhi</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Calendar, the early Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.14">14</a>; the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cambyses (kam-bī´sēz), as King of Babylon, +<a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; sacrifice of Apis bull to +Mithra by, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; wife of a +Semiramis, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Canaan, Abraham arrives in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.245">245</a>; tribes in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.245">245</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; +Elamite conquest of, <a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.249">249</a>; +first reference to Israelites in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.379">379</a>.</dt> +<dt>Canaanites, Hittites identified with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>.</dt> +<dt>Canals of Ancient Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.22">22</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cappadocia, Cimmerians in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>.</dt> +<dt>Captivity, the Hebrew, Chebar river (Kheber canal) at Nippur, +<a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a>.</dt> +<dt>Carchemish (kär´k<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>-mish), German railway bridge and +Hittite wall at, <a href="#page.anchor.357">357</a>(<span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span><span class="sub">[<a href= +"#ftn.fnrex1407">407</a>]</span>.); Hittite city state of, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; revolt of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>; Nebuchadrezzar defeats Pharaoh Necho +at, <a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>.</dt> +<dt>Caria (kär´i-ä), assists Lydia against +Cimmerians, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>; mercenaries from +in Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cat, sun god as, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>Caucasus, the, skull forms in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cave dwellers, the Palestinian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Celtic goddesses, of Iberian origin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Celtic water demon myths, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>.</dt> +<dt>Celts, Achaeans and, <a href="#page.anchor.377">377</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ceres (sē-rēz), <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>.</dt> +<dt>Chaldae´ans, Babylonian priests called, <a href= +"#page.anchor.222">222</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>; +in Hammurabi Age, <a href="#page.anchor.257">257</a>; history of, +<a href="#page.anchor.390">390</a>; Aramaeans and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.390">390</a>; Judah's relations with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.408">408</a>; Merodach Baladan King of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.457">457</a> et seq.; revolt of against Esarhaddon, +<a href="#page.anchor.471">471</a>; revolt of against +Ashur-bani-pal, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>; Nabo-polassar +King of Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.487">487</a>.</dt> +<dt>Charms, the burial, <a href="#page.anchor.206">206</a>; +ornaments as, <a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>; the metrical +and poetic development, <a href= +"#page.anchor.237">237</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.239">239</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Chedor-laomer (ched´or-lä´o-mer), the +Biblical, <a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Chellean (shel´le-an) flints, in Palestine, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cherubs, the four-faced, <a href= +"#page.anchor.344">344</a>.</dt> +<dt>Child god, Tammuz and Osiris as the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.89">89</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>; +Sargon of Akkad as, <a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>; Germanic +Scyld or Sceaf as, <a href="#page.anchor.92">92</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.93">93</a>.</dt> +<dt>Children, stolen by hags and fairies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>; in mother worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.107">107</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.108">108</a>.</dt> +<dt>China, spitting customs in, <a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>; +dragons of, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; ancestor worship +in, <a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>.</dt> +<dt>Chinese, language of and the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>.</dt> +<dt>Chronology, inflated dating and Berlin system, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cilicia, thunder god of, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; +Ate, goddess of, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Hittite +Kingdom of, <a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; Ionians in, +<a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>; in anti-Assyrian league, +<a href="#page.anchor.473">473</a>; Ashur-bani-pal expels +Cimmerians from, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cimmerians, raids of in Asia Minor, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>; +Esarhaddon and, <a href="#page.anchor.472">472</a>; Gyges of +Lydia and, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>; +Lydians break power of, <a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Clans, Totemic names and symbols of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>.</dt> +<dt>Clepsydra, a Babylonian invention, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>.</dt> +<dt>Clothing, magical significance of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.212">212</a>; the reed mats and sheepskins in +graves, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; the bull skin, +<a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; the ephod and prophet's +mantle, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>.</dt> +<dt>Comana (kō-mä´na), Hittite city of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Constellations, the Zu bird, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; why animal forms were adopted, <a href= +"#page.anchor.289">289</a>; the "Great Bear" in various +mythologies, <a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; +the Pleiades, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; Pisces as "fish of Ea", <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; the "sevenfold one", <a href= +"#page.anchor.298">298</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; +Merodach's forms, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; Castor and +Pollux myths in Australia, Africa, and Greece, <a href= +"#page.anchor.300">300</a>; Tammuz and Orion, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; months controlled by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; signs of Zodiac, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Babylonian and modern signs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.308">308</a>; the central, northern, and southern, +<a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; "Fish of the Canal" and "the +Horse", <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; the "Milky Way", +<a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; identified before planets, +<a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; Biblical and literary +references to, <a href="#page.anchor.324">324</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.325">325</a>; the "Arrow", "Eagle", "Vulture", +"Swan", and "Lyra", <a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>.</dt> +<dt>Copper, Age of in Palestine, <a href= +"#page.anchor.11">11</a>; first use of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.12">12</a>; in Northern Mesopotamia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>; Gudea of Lagash takes from Elam, +<a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>.</dt> +<dt>Corn child god, Tammuz and Osiris as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.89">89</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>; +Sargon as, <a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>; the Germanic Scyld +or Scef, <a href="#page.anchor.92">92</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.93">93</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>; Frey +and Heimdal as, <a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>.</dt> +<dt>Corn Deities, as river and fish gods and goddesses, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Corn god, moon god as, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; +Mithra as, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; the thunder god as, +<a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>; Tammuz and Osiris as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.81">81</a> et seq.; Khonsu as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>; Frey and Agni as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.94">94</a>; fed with sacrificed children, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>.</dt> +<dt>Corn goddess, Isis as, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>; fish +goddess as, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cow goddesses, Isis, Nepthys, and Hathor as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>Creation, local character of Babylonian conception, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxix">xxix</a>; of mankind at Eridu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.134">134</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.138">138</a> et +seq.; night as parent of day, <a href= +"#page.anchor.330">330</a>.</dt> +<dt>Creative tears, <a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Creator gods, Ea and Ptah as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>; eagle god as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>.</dt> +<dt>Creatress, the goddess Mama as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Aruru as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; +forms of, <a href="#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cremation, traces of in Gezer caves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.11">11</a>; the ceremony of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>; not Persian or Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; in European Bronze Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>; Saul burned, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>; Sardanapalus legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Crete, chronology of, <a href="#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; no temples, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; women's high social status in, +<a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>; Dagon's connection with, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; prehistoric pottery in, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>; Hyksos trade with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.273">273</a>; Achaeans invade, <a href= +"#page.anchor.376">376</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.377">377</a>; +Philistine raiders from, <a href="#page.anchor.379">379</a>; dove +and snake sacred in, <a href="#page.anchor.430">430</a>; dove +goddess not Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.433">433</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>.</dt> +<dt>Crocodile god of Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>; sun +god as, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>Croesus of Lydia, Cyrus defeats, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cromarty, the south-west wind hag or, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cronos, as the Destroyer, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; +Ninip and Set and, <a href="#page.anchor.315">315</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cuneiform writing, earliest use of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cushites, Biblical reference to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.276">276</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cuthah (kü´thah), Nergal, god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>; annual fires at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>; the Underworld city of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.205">205</a>; demon legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.216">216</a>; +men of in Samaria, <a href="#page.anchor.455">455</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.456">456</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Cuthean Legend of Creation", <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.216">216</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cyaxares (sy-ax´är-es), Median King, Nineveh +captured by, <a href="#page.anchor.488">488</a>; ally of +Nabopolassar, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cybele (ky-b<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´le), Attis lover of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cyprus, dove goddess not Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; +dove goddess of, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.433">433</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>.</dt> +<dt>Cyrus, Merodach calls, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; +the Patriarch of, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; the eagle +tribe of, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Astyages defeated +by, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Egypto-Lydian alliance +against, <a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>; Nabonidus and, +<a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>; Croesus of Lydia overthrown +by, <a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>; fell of Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; +the King of Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; +welcomed by Jews, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; rebuilding +of Jerusalem temple, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">D</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Dadu (dä´dü), Ramman as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dagan (däg´an), the Babylonian, identical with Ea, +<a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; Nippur temple of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.131">131</a>; under Isin Dynasty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dagda (dag´da), the Irish corn god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>. <a href= +"#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dagon (dag´on), Jah and Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>; Dagan and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; as a +fish and corn deity, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; Baal-dagon +and, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; offering of mice to, +<a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Daguna (däg´ü-na), Dagon and Dagan and, +<a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>.</dt> +<dt>Daityas (dait´yăs), the Indian, like Babylonian +demons, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>Damascius, on Babylonian deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>.</dt> +<dt>Damascus, Aramaean state of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.390">390</a>; Israel and Judah subject to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.396">396</a>; +Asa's appeal to, <a href="#page.anchor.404">404</a>; conflict +with Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a>; Judah and +Israel allied against, <a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>; murder +of Ben-hadad II, <a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a>; Palestine +subject to, <a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>; Israel overcomes, +<a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>; conquered by Adad-nirari IV, +<a href="#page.anchor.438">438</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>.</dt> +<dt>Damik-ilishu (dam-ik-il-i´shü), last king of Isin +Dynasty, <a href="#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>Damkina (dam´ki-na), wife of Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; demon +attendants of, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; as mother of Ea, +<a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; as mother of Enlil, <a href= +"#page.anchor.139">139</a>; Zerpanitu<span class= +'phonetic'>m</span> and, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; +association of with moon, <a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; +creatrix and, <a href="#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>Damu (dä´mü), the fairy goddess of dreams, +<a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.78">78</a>.</dt> +<dt>Danavas (dän´ăvas), the Indian, like +Babylonian demons, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dancing, the constellations, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>.</dt> +<dt>Danes, harvest god as patriarch of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.92">92</a>.</dt> +<dt>Daniel, Nebuchadrezzar's "fiery furnace", <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>.</dt> +<dt>Danu (dä-nü), the Irish goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>.</dt> +<dt>Daonus or Daos, the shepherd, Tammuz as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dari´us I, claims to be Achaemenian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>; plots against Merodach cult, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Darius II, death of at Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Darius III, Alexander the Great overthrows, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dasa (dä'să), the Indian, as "foreign devil", +<a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dasyu (däsh´yoo), the Indian, as "foreign devil", +<a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Date palm, in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>David, the ephod used by, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.388">388</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dead, the, Nergal lord of, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; +ghosts of searching for food, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; Osiris lord of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.86">86</a>; charms, weapons, and food for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>; "houses" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.208">208</a> ; +spirits of as warriors and fishermen, <a href= +"#page.anchor.212">212</a>.</dt> +<dt>Death, eagle of, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>; the +Roman, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Hercules and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>.</dt> +<dt>Death, the sea of, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Death, the stream of, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>.</dt> +<dt>Deer, associated with Lagash goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>.</dt> +<dt>Deities, the local, <a href="#page.anchor.43">43</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>; food and water required by, +<a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>; the mead of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; early groups of in Egypt and Sumeria, +<a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; made drunk at banquet, <a href= +"#page.anchor.144">144</a>.</dt> +<dt>Deluge Legend, Smith translates, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxii">xxii</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Flood Legends</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Demeter (d<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>-m<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´ter), the goddess, Poseidon as +lover of, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>.</dt> +<dt>Demons, the Babylonian Ocean, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>; gods as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.62">62</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>; Enlil lord of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; +Tiamat and Apsu as, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; +Tiamat's brood, <a href="#page.anchor.140">140</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.141">141</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.215">215</a>; "ceremonies of riddance", +<a href="#page.anchor.58">58</a>; as sources of misfortune, +<a href="#page.anchor.60">60</a>; in images, <a href= +"#page.anchor.61">61</a>; the winged bull, &c., <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>; the "will-o'-the-wisp", <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>; Anu +as father of, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>; as lovers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>; +Adam's first wife Lilith, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>; +ghosts as, <a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>; penetrate everywhere, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>; as +pigs, horses, goats, &c., <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; +Set pig of Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; as wind hags, +<a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>; the Zu bird, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; Indian eagle, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>; association of with gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; the serpent mother one of the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a> ; the +Jinn, <a href="#page.anchor.78">78</a>; as composite monsters, +<a href="#page.anchor.79">79</a>; the Teutonic Beli, <a href= +"#page.anchor.95">95</a>; in mythology and folk lore, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; the Gorgons, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; King of Cuthah's battle against, +<a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>; disease germs as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.234">234</a>.</dt> +<dt>De Morgan, pottery finds by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Derceto (der-k<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´to), fish goddess, Semiramis +and, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>; +mermaid form of, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>; Atargatis +legend, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>; dove symbol of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.432">432</a>; legends attached to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>De Sarzec, M., <a href="#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Descent of Ishtar", poem, <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Destroyer, the, "World Mother" as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxx">xxx</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; +Ninip as, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; goddess Ninsun as, +<a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Enlil and Nergal as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.62">62</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; Egyptian and Indian deities +as, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.157">157</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; Cronos as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>; "Shedu" bull as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>; Set boar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Babylonian boar god as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.86">86</a>; eagle as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; +"winged disk" as, <a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; sun as, +<a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; Thor, Ashur, Tammuz, and +Indra each as, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>.</dt> +<dt>Diarmid, the Celtic, Tammuz-Adonis and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.84">84</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.87">87</a>; water +of life myth, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.187">187</a>; Totemic boar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dietrich (dēt´rēch: 'ch' as in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>loch</em></span>) as the thunder god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Diodo´rus, on Babylonian star lore, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>.</dt> +<dt>Disease, Nergal the god of, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; demons of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.60">60</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Divorce, in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.227">227</a>.</dt> +<dt>Doctors, laws regarding, <a href="#page.anchor.230">230</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.231">231</a>; Herodotus on, <a href= +"#page.anchor.231">231</a>; Assyrian king and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.231">231</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.232">232</a>.</dt> +<dt>Doves, goddesses and, <a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>; +Semiramis protected after birth by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.424">424</a>; goddess of Cyprus and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.426">426</a>; Aphrodite and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>; Ishtar and Gula and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.428">428</a>; +associated with temples and homes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a>; in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a>; deities identified with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.429">429</a>; ravens and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.429">429</a>; sacred at Mycenae, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>; snakes and in Crete, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>; sacred among Semites and Hittites, +<a href="#page.anchor.430">430</a>; Egyptian lovers and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.431">431</a>; pigeon lore in England, Ireland, and +Scotland, <a href="#page.anchor.431">431</a>; fish and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.432">432</a>; Totemic theory, <a href= +"#page.anchor.432">432</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; antiquity of veneration of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; +sacrificed in Israel, <a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>; the +Persian eagle legend and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dragon, the, of Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.62">62</a>; in +group of seven spirits, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; Tiamat +as the female, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>; Tiamat as ocean, <a href= +"#page.anchor.15">15</a>, as "fire drake", "worm", &c., +<a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; "Ku-pu" of Tiamat, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>; heart of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; liver vulnerable part of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.153">153</a>; the male, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a> (see <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Apsu</em></span>); Biblical references to, +<a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>; +Eur-Asian variations of myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; +well of at Jerusalem, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; the +Egyptian, <a href="#page.anchor.156">156</a>; Sutekh as slayer +of, <a href="#page.anchor.157">157</a>; Merodach as slayer of +(see <span class="emphasis"><em>Merodach</em></span>).</dt> +<dt>Drake, the Fire, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>; +dragon as, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dreams, the fairy goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.78">78</a>.</dt> +<dt>Drink traffic, women monopolized in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.229">229</a>.</dt> +<dt>Drinking customs, religious aspect of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; inspiration from blood, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; the gods drunk at Anshar's banquet, +<a href="#page.anchor.144">144</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dungi (dün´gi), King of Ur, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; daughters of as rulers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; an Ea worshipper, <a href= +"#page.anchor.131">131</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dyaus (rhymes with "mouse"), displaced by Indra, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>.</dt> +<dt>Dying gods, the eternal goddess and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; death a change of form, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">E</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Ea (ā´ä), god of the deep, Ashur-banipal and, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxii">xxii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>; a typical Babylonian god, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>; +Oannes and, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>; as world artisan like Ptah and Indra, +<a href="#page.anchor.30">30</a>; connection of with sea and +Euphrates, <a href="#page.anchor.28">28</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>; as +sea-demon, <a href="#page.anchor.62">62</a>; names of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>; as +fish and corn god, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; Dagon, +Poseidon, Neptune, Frey, Shony, &c., and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; Dagon +and Dagan, <a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; Ea as Dagan at +Nippur, <a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>; as Ya, or Jah, of +Hebrews, <a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; Totemic fish of, +<a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; Indian Varuna and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>; wife of as earth lady, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; wife of as mother, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; Anu and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>; Enlil and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>; demons of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; in +early triad, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>; +Indian Vishnu and, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>; as dragon +slayer, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.140">140</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.153">153</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.157">157</a>; Adapa, son of, a demon +slayer, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; as "great magician", <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>; moon +god and, <a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; solar attributes of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; food supply and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.43">43</a>; beliefs connected with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.44">44</a>; Nusku as messenger of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; Nebo a form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.435">435</a>; +gods that link with, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.58">58</a>; as form of Anshar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>; family of including Merodach and +Tammuz, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.82">82</a>; +daughter of, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>; Merodach +supplants, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>; Enlil as son of, +<a href="#page.anchor.139">139</a>; Ashur as son of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; planetary gods and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; worshipped at Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; earliest form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.134">134</a>; under Isin Dynasty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; in Creation legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; astral "field" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.307">307</a>; +constellations and, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>; Merodach +directs decrees of, <a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>; Etana and +eagle visit heaven of, <a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>; in +flood legend, <a href="#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; as Aos, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>; the goat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; as "high head", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Sargon II and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.463">463</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ea-bani (ā´ä-bä´ni), <a href= +"#page.anchor.41">41</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.42">42</a>; ghost +of as "wind gust", <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>; goat demi-god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>; lured from the wilds, <a href= +"#page.anchor.173">173</a>; as ally of Gilgamesh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>; Ishtar's wooing, <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.175">175</a>; +slaying of Ishtar's bull, <a href="#page.anchor.176">176</a>; +death of, <a href="#page.anchor.176">176</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.177">177</a>; ghost of invoked by Gilgamesh, +<a href="#page.anchor.183">183</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eagle, the, Sumerian Zu bird and Indian Garuda eagle, +<a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; +the lion headed as Nin-Girsu (Tammuz), <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>; +in Etana myth, <a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>; in Nimrod +myth, <a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.167">167</a>; in Alexander the Great legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.167">167</a>; in Scottish folk tale, +<a href="#page.anchor.167">167</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; as soul carrier, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; Roman Emperor's soul and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Hercules and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.349">349</a>; +Gilgamesh protected at birth by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>; Persian patriarch protected at birth +by, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; the Totemic theory, +<a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>; wheel of life and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>; +Ashur and Horus and, <a href="#page.anchor.343">343</a>; wings of +on Ashur disk, <a href="#page.anchor.351">351</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eagle stone, as a birth charm, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eagle tribe, the ancient, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eannatum (ā´än-nä´tum), King of +Lagash, a great conqueror, <a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>; rules Ur and Erech, <a href= +"#page.anchor.119">119</a>; works of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.119">119</a>; mound burial in period of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>.</dt> +<dt>Earth children, elves and dwarfs as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.292">292</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.292">292</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Earth spirits, males among father worshippers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; the Egyptian, Teutonic, Aryan, and +Siberian, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; elves and fairies +as, <a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>.</dt> +<dt>Earth worship, moon and stone worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>.</dt> +<dt><span class="emphasis"><em>Ecclesiastes</em></span>, "Lay of +the Harper", "Song of the Sea Lady" and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.179">179</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.180">180</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ecke (eck-ā), Tyrolese storm demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eclipse foretold by Assyrian and Babylonian astronomers, +<a href="#page.anchor.321">321</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>; the Ahaz sundial record, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>; Babylonian records of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.324">324</a>; in reign of Ashurdan III, <a href= +"#page.anchor.442">442</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ecliptic, when divided, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Edinburgh, the giant Arthur of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Edom, Judah and, <a href="#page.anchor.402">402</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.409">409</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.448">448</a>; +tribute from to Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>.</dt> +<dt>Education, in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.251">251</a>.</dt> +<dt>Egg, the, goddess Atargatis born of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>; +thorn as life in, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Egypt, agricultural festivals in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; debt of modern world to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxv">xxxv</a>; prehistoric agriculture in, +<a href="#page.anchor.6">6</a>; Mediterranean race in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>; early shaving customs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; theory copper first used in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.12">12</a>; social status of women in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.16">16</a>; early gods of and Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.26">26</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>; creative tears of deities of, +<a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>; lunar worship in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>; god and goddess cults in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; Great Mother Nut of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; at dawn of Sumerian history, <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>; bearded deities of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>; dragon of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>; "Lay of Harper" and Sumerian "Song of +Sea Lady", <a href="#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.179">179</a>; flood legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.197">197</a>; feast of dead in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>; burial customs and Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a> ; +Hyksos invasion and Hittite raid on Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.259">259</a>; culture debt of to Syria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.275">275</a>; prehistoric Armenoid invasion of, +<a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>; prehistoric black foreign pottery, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>; Totemism in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.292">292</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a> , +<a href="#page.anchor.432">432</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a> ; Syrian empire of lost, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>; fairies and elves of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>; Pharaoh displaces gods in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; doctrine of mythical ages in, +<a href="#page.anchor.315">315</a>; the phoenix, <a href= +"#page.anchor.330">330</a>; the "man in the sun", <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>; Neith as a thunder goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; Ankh symbol, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>; influence of Hittites in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.364">364</a>; wars with Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.365">365</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.366">366</a>; +Cretans and sea raiders,<a href="#page.anchor.378">378</a>; +Hebrews and, <a href="#page.anchor.388">388</a>; "mother right" +in, <a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>; sacred pigeons in, +<a href="#page.anchor.428">428</a>; fosters revolt against Sargon +II, <a href="#page.anchor.457">457</a>; Pharaoh and Piru of +Mutsri, <a href="#page.anchor.458">458</a> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; Sennacherib defeats army of, +<a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; intrigues against Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; as Assyrian province, <a href= +"#page.anchor.475">475</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.482">482</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>; +Assyrian yoke shaken off, <a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>; +Scythians on frontier of, <a href="#page.anchor.488">488</a>; +after Assyria's fall, <a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>; Hophra +plots against Nebuchadrezzar II, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>.</dt> +<dt>El´ah, King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>.</dt> +<dt>Elam, prehistoric pottery of, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>; copper from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; British influence in <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>; caravan routes of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.361">361</a>.</dt> +<dt>Elamites, relations with early Sumerians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.111">111</a>; defeated by Eannatum of Lagash, +<a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>; raid on Lagash by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.121">121</a>; Sargon of Akkad defeats, <a href= +"#page.anchor.127">127</a>; Ur dynasty overthrown by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.131">131</a>; in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.217">217</a>; conquests of Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin, +<a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; King Sin-mubal-lit's struggle +with, <a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>; Medes and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.244">244</a>; King of and Abraham, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>; in Syria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>; driven from Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.249">249</a>; in Kassite period, <a href= +"#page.anchor.274">274</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.370">370</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.381">381</a>; connection of with early Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.278">278</a>; struggle for trade expansion, +<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Babylonian raid, <a href= +"#page.anchor.369">369</a>; during Solomon period, <a href= +"#page.anchor.391">391</a>; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; Ashur-bani-pal subdues, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.485">485</a>.</dt> +<dt>Elisha, call of Jehu, <a href="#page.anchor.409">409</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a>; call of Hazael, <a href= +"#page.anchor.410">410</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.411">411</a>.</dt> +<dt>Elves, the Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>; as +lovers, <a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>; origin of conception +of, <a href="#page.anchor.79">79</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.80">80</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.292">292</a>; +like Indian Ribhus and Siberian "masters", <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; the European, Egyptian, and Indian, +<a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; human bargains with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>.</dt> +<dt>Enannatum I (en-an-nä´tum) of Lagash, defeats Umma +force, <a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>.</dt> +<dt>Enannatum II, King of Lagash, last of Ur-Nina's line, +<a href="#page.anchor.120">120</a>.</dt> +<dt>England, the ancestral giant of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>; spitting customs in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.47">47</a>; return of dead dreaded in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a><span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>; +Black Annis, the wind hag, <a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>; fairies and elves of, +<a href="#page.anchor.80">80</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; the "fire drake" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; "Long Meg" a hag of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>; "Long Tom" a giant of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>; pigeon lore in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.431">431</a>.</dt> +<dt>Enki (än´ki), "lord of the world", Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ea</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>En´lil, god of Nippur and elder Bel, lord of demons, +<a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>; spouse of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>; in early group of deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>; like Indian Shiva, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; deities that link with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.272">272</a>; as destroyer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.62">62</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; +"fates" as sons of, <a href="#page.anchor.80">80</a>; Ur Nina +worshipped, <a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>; as son of Anu, +<a href="#page.anchor.124">124</a>; as son of Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.139">139</a>; Ninip as son and father of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; during Isis Dynasty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; astral "field" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>; Merodach directs decrees of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.149">149</a>; as corn god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; monotheism of cult of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>; temple of as "world house", <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.332">332</a>; as +bull and "high head", <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Etana +in heaven of, <a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>; also rendered +Ellil. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Bel</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Enlil-bani (en´lil-bä´ni), King of Isin, a +usurper like Sargon, <a href="#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>En-Mersi (en-m<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>r´si), a form of Tammuz, +<a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>.</dt> +<dt>Enneads, the Babylonian and Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>.</dt> +<dt>Entemena(en-te´men-a), King of Lagash, Umma subdued by, +<a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; famous silver vase of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; worshipped as a god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.257">257</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.258">258</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ephod, the, used by David, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ephron the Hittite, <a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>.</dt> +<dt>Equinoxes, precession of, where law of discovered: Greece or +Babylonia? <a href="#page.anchor.320">320</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.320">320</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Erech, Anu god of, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; gods of +become flies and mice, <a href="#page.anchor.41">41</a>; +destroying sun goddess of, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; +Ur-Nina and, <a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>; under Lagash, +<a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>; an ancient capital, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.125">125</a>; +rise of after Akkad, <a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a>; moon god +at, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; in Gilgamesh epic, +<a href="#page.anchor.172">172</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; in revolt against Ashur-bani-pal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>; Nabonidus and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eresh-ki-gal (eresh-ki´gäl), goddess of death, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Nergal husband and conqueror +of, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.204">204</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.205">205</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>; as a Norn, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; "Fates" as sons of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.80">80</a>; as wife of Enlil, <a href= +"#page.anchor.80">80</a>; Germanic hag like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.95">95</a>; punishment of Ishtar by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.96">96</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.97">97</a>; as +destroyer, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eridu (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´ri-dü), once a seaport, +<a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>; Ea +the god of, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>; sanctity of, +<a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.39">39</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eros, Greek love god, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>.</dt> +<dt>E-sagila (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>-säg´i-la), Merodach's +temple, <a href="#page.anchor.221">221</a>; Hammurabi and, +<a href="#page.anchor.252">252</a>; in Kassite Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.274">274</a>; as symbol of world hill, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; sacked by Sennacherib, <a href= +"#page.anchor.468">468</a>; gods of Ur, Erech, Larsa, and Eridu +in, <a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Xerxes pillages, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>; Alexander the Great repairs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>; decay of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.498">498</a>.</dt> +<dt>Esarhaddon (e´sar-had´don), character of, +<a href="#page.anchor.470">470</a>; Babylonian wife of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; Egypto-Syrian league against, +<a href="#page.anchor.471">471</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; Queen Nakia regent of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; alliance with Urartu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.473">473</a>; sack of Sidon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.473">473</a>; Manasseh's revolt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.474">474</a>; invasion of Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.475">475</a>; revolt in Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.476">476</a>; successors chosen by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.476">476</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.476">476</a>.</dt> +<dt>Esau, Hittite wives of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>.</dt> +<dt>Etana (<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>-tä´nä), Zu bird myth +and, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a> ; quest of the "Plant of Birth", +<a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>; flight with eagle to heavens, +<a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>.</dt> +<dt>Eternal goddess, the, husbands of die annually, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Ethnology, folk beliefs and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>.</dt> +<dt>Euphrates, the river, <a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>; as +"the soul of the land", <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>; rise +and fall of, <a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>; as the creator, +<a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>Europe, lunar worship in, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; +Armenoid invasion of, <a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>.</dt> +<dt>Evans, Sir Arthur, pottery finds by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Evil eye, the, <a href="#page.anchor.235">235</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.236">236</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Evil Merodach", King of Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Evolution, in Babylonian religion, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxiv">xxxiv</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ezekiel, on fire-worshipping ceremony, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; Tammuz weeping, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a>; on ethnics of Jerusalem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>; on Hittite characteristics, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>; Assyria the cedar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.341">341</a>; +the wheel of life symbol, <a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Ezra, return of Jewish captives with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">F</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Face paint, for the dead, <a href="#page.anchor.206">206</a>; +why used for dead, living, and gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.212">212</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fafner dragon, <a href="#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fairies, the Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>; +origin of, <a href="#page.anchor.79">79</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.80">80</a>; green like other spirits, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; the European, Egyptian, and Indian, +<a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; human bargains with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>; +birds as, <a href="#page.anchor.429">429</a>.</dt> +<dt>Farm labourers, scarcity of in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>.</dt> +<dt>Farnell, Dr., on pre-Hellenic religion, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>; on racial gods in Greece, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fates, the birds as, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>, <a href="#page.anchor.427">427</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>; as servants of Anu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; moon as chief of the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; oldest deities as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; on St. Valentine's Day, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>; Aphrodite and Ishtar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>.</dt> +<dt>Father, the Great, Anu as, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>; +Ramman-Hadad as, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Apsu, the +chaos demon as, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; Osiris as, +<a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>; shadowy spouse of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; nomadic people and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; worshipped by Hatti, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxx">xxx</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>.</dt> +<dt>Father and son conflict; younger god displaces elder, Ninip +and Enlil, Merodach and Ea, Indra and Dyaus myths, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>; Osiris and Horus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; in astral myths, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>.</dt> +<dt>Feast of Dead, <a href="#page.anchor.206">206</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fig tree, in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>Finger counting, in Babylonia and India, <a href= +"#page.anchor.311">311</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Finn-mac-Coul (finn´mac-cool), as hero and god, +<a href="#page.anchor.87">87</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>, <a href="#page.anchor.88">88</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; as mother monster +slayer, <a href="#page.anchor.153">153</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.154">154</a>; Beowulf and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.155">155</a>; as a "sleeper", <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.394">394</a>; +water of life myth, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.187">187</a>.</dt> +<dt>Finns, language of and the Sumerians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>; of Ural-Altaic stock, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fire, as vital principle, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; fire and water ceremonies, +<a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.51">51</a>; the everlasting fire in the sea, +<a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.51">51</a>; the Babylonian "Will-o'-the-wisp", +<a href="#page.anchor.66">66</a>; Eagle and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; the May Day, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; ceremony of riddance, <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>; Babylonian burnings, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; Nimrod's pyre, <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>; +Tophet, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>; royal burnings in +Israel and Judah, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.351">351</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fire drake, the Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.66">66</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fire gods, the Babylonian and Indian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>First born, sacrifice of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fish deities, Sumerian Ea and Indian Brahma and Vishnu as, +<a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>; in Eur-Asian legends, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>; Sumerian and Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>; connection of with corn, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; +goddess of Lagash, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>; Western +Asian fish goddesses, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>; +dove symbol of, <a href="#page.anchor.431">431</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.432">432</a>; Totemism and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>.</dt> +<dt>Flies, gods turn to, <a href="#page.anchor.41">41</a>.</dt> +<dt>Flood legend, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.24">24</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; the Greek, <a href="#page.anchor.195">195</a>; +the Indian, <a href="#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>; the Irish, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>; the Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.197">197</a>; the American, <a href= +"#page.anchor.197">197</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.198">198</a>; +the Biblical, <a href="#page.anchor.198">198</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.199">199</a>.</dt> +<dt>Folk cures, the ancient, <a href="#page.anchor.61">61</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.231">231</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.232">232</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.234">234</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Folk lore, mythology and, <a href="#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxiv">xxxiv</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.189">189</a>; ethnology in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>.</dt> +<dt>Food of death, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>.</dt> +<dt>Food of the gods, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>.</dt> +<dt>Food supply, religion and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.43">43</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Foreign devils", the Babylonian and Indian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Four quarters, the, in astronomy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.307">307</a>; lunar divisions, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>.</dt> +<dt>Fowl, inspiration from blood of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>.</dt> +<dt>France, skull forms in Dordogne valley, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>; Syrian railways of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>.</dt> +<dt>Frazer, Professor, <a href="#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>; +"homogeneity of beliefs", <a href="#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>; +Adonis garden, <a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; Hercules and Melkarth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; on Semiramis legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.424">424</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>.</dt> +<dt>Frey (fri), the Germanic patriarch and corn god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>; links with Tammuz myth, +<a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.204">204</a>.</dt> +<dt>Freyja (frī´ya), the Germanic eternal goddess, +<a href="#page.anchor.102">102</a>; lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.102">102</a>.</dt> +<dt>Frigg, Germanic goddess, lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>.</dt> +<dt>Frode (frō´dē). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Frey</em></span>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">G</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Gabriel, Abraham rescued from Nimrod's pyre by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gaga (gä´ga), messenger of Anshar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.143">143</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gallu (gäl´lü), as "foreign devil", <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a> .</dt> +<dt>Gandash (gän´dash), Kassite king, <a href= +"#page.anchor.271">271</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ganga (găng´ä), the Indian goddess, as king's +lover, <a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Garden of Adonis", <a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.172">172</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gardens, the Hanging, of Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.220">220</a>.</dt> +<dt>Garstang, Professor, on fall of Hatti and god cult, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>; on Totemic Adonis boar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; +Hittite Sandan disk, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>.</dt> +<dt>Garuda (găr-ood´ă), Indian eagle god, Zu bird +and, <a href="#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>; myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.75">75</a>; Etana +eagle and, <a href="#page.anchor.165">165</a>; sons of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>; identified with Agni, Brahma, Indra, +Yama, &c, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; wheel of life and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gauls, Hittite raiders like the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>; gods of and the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +<dt>Germ theory, anticipatedby Babylonians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.61">61</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.234">234</a>.</dt> +<dt>Germany, double-headed eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; the Baghdad railway, <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gezer cave dwellings, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; +cremation practised in, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ghosts, "wind gusts" as, <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>; associated with demons, +<a href="#page.anchor.60">60</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.216">216</a>; +as birds, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>; as death bringers, +<a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; the terrible mothers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.69">69</a>; where dreaded and where invoked, +<a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>; Babylonian "night prowlers", <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>; food required by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; Ishtar's threat to raise, +<a href="#page.anchor.215">215</a>; King of Cuthah and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.216">216</a>; +as "Fates" and enemies of the living, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; worship of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; Orion and Jupiter as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>.</dt> +<dt>Giants, the British Alban, <a href="#page.anchor.42">42</a>; +the Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; graves of, +<a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gibil (gi´bil), fire god, Nusku and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.353">353</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gilgamesh (gil´gä-mesh), the Babylonian Hercules, +<a href="#page.anchor.41">41</a>; revelation of ghost to, +<a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.183">183</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.184">184</a>; quest of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>; birth legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>; eagle rescues, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>; lord of Erech, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; coming of Ea-bani, <a href= +"#page.anchor.173">173</a>; Ishtar's fatal love of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>; "La Belle Dame Sans Merci", <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.175">175</a>; +Ishtar spurned by, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; Ishtar's bull slain, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; death of Ea-bani, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; quest of Water of Life and Plant of +Life, <a href="#page.anchor.177">177</a>; the mountain tunnel and +Sea of Death, <a href="#page.anchor.178">178</a>; song of the Sea +Lady, <a href="#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.179">179</a>; reaches Pir-napishtim's island, +<a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a>; ancestor's revelation to and +magic food, <a href="#page.anchor.182">182</a>; plant of life, +<a href="#page.anchor.183">183</a>; Earth Lion robs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.183">183</a>; Germanic gods and heroes and, +<a href="#page.anchor.184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>; flood legend revealed to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Tammuz and, <a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>; +Ashur and, <a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; Persian eagle and, +<a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gillies, Dr. Cameron, on Scottish folk cures, <a href= +"#page.anchor.232">232</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.233">233</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gira (gi´ra), the god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>.</dt> +<dt>Girru (gir´rü), the fire god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gish Bär, the fire god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Goat, inspiration from blood of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; demons enter the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>; on Lagash vase, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; the six-headed, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; the satyr or astral goat man, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; the white kid of Tammuz, +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; the Arabic "kid" star, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; associated with Anshar, Agni, Varuna, +Ea, and Thor, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; +forehead symbol of like Apis symbol, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Minerva's shield has skin of, +<a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>.</dt> +<dt>Goblin, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>.</dt> +<dt>God, the Dead, grave of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; also alive and in various forms, +<a href="#page.anchor.297">297</a>.</dt> +<dt>God cult, fusion of with goddess cult, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Goddesses, at once mothers, wives, and daughters of gods, +<a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; +husbands of die annually, <a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; lovers of +various, <a href="#page.anchor.102">102</a>; of Mediterranean +racial tribes, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; Ishtar as "La +Belle Dame Sans Merci", <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.176">176</a>; +the Semiramis legend, <a href="#page.anchor.417">417</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Gods, Babylonian and Egyptian groups, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>; the +younger and elder, <a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>; why +Sumerian were bearded, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.137">137</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Goodspeed, Professor, on early astronomy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.321">321</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gorgons, the, Tiamat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>.</dt> +<dt>Graves, charms and weapons in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>; as houses of dead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.208">208</a>; +of gods and giants, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Great Mother, the, forms of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>; Hittite and Sumerian forms, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Anaitis, Ate, Cybele, Ishtar, Isis, +Astarte, Ashtoreth, and Atargatis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Kadesh, Anthat, and Danu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>.</dt> +<dt>Greece, spitting customs in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>; blood +drinking in, <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>; wanton goddesses +of, <a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>; imported gods in, +<a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; dragon myths of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; +eagle connected with birth and death in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; flood legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.195">195</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.196">196</a>; +"Island of Blessed", <a href="#page.anchor.203">203</a>; star +myths of, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; Babylonian culture +reached through Hittites, <a href="#page.anchor.306">306</a>; +doctrine of world's ages, <a href="#page.anchor.310">310</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; pre-Hellenic +beliefs in, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.317">317</a>; +astrology in, <a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; astronomy in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.319">319</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; in pre-Phrygian +period, <a href="#page.anchor.386">386</a>; fusion of races in, +<a href="#page.anchor.393">393</a>.</dt> +<dt>Greeks of Cilicia, Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.484">484</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ionians</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Green, a supernatural colour, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Grey Eyebrows", a Gaelic hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gudea (gü´de-a), King of Lagash, sculptures, +buildings, and trade of, <a href="#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; bearded gods of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gula (goo´lä), mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; Bau and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; feast of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.476">476</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gungunu (gün´gün-ü), King of Ur, +<a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>.</dt> +<dt>Guns, called after giants "Long Meg" nd "Long Tom", <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gutium (gü´tium), northern mountaineers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.128">128</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>; demons and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.307">307</a>.</dt> +<dt>Gyges (gȳ´jes), King of Lydia, emissaries of visit +Nineveh, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">H</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Hadad, Ramman as, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.411">411</a>.</dt> +<dt>Haddon, Dr., Achaean racial affinities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.377">377</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hades, Ishtar receives water of life in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.44">44</a>; Tammuz spends winter in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; +Indian "land of fathers", <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; land +of no return, <a href="#page.anchor.58">58</a>; descent of Ishtar +to, <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; "Island of the Blessed", +<a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Babylonian conception of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>; the Celtic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>; the Greek, Germanic, Indian, and +Egyptian, <a href="#page.anchor.204">204</a>; the grave as, +<a href="#page.anchor.206">206</a>; the Japanese, <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>; the Roman, <a href= +"#page.anchor.207">207</a>; Babylonian king and queen of. See +<span class="emphasis"><em>Nergal</em></span> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Eresh-ki-gal.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Hags, of storm, marsh and mountain as primitive goddesses: +the Scottish, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.185">185</a>; the +Germanic, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a>. See +<span class="emphasis"><em>Annie, Annis, Beowulf, +Mothers</em></span>, and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Tiamat</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Hair, evidence from early graves and sculptures, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hamath, Hittite city of, <a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; +Israel overcomes, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>; Ilu-bi-di, +the smith king of, <a href="#page.anchor.457">457</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.458">458</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hamites, Biblical reference to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.276">276</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hammurabi (häm´mü-rä´bi), Dagan as +creator of, <a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; Sin-muballit father +of, <a href="#page.anchor.133">133</a>; pantheon of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.134">134</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.254">254</a>; +the Biblical Amraphel, <a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>; "Khammurabi" and "Ammurapi" forms of, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>; Rim Sin, the Elamite, and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.249">249</a>; character of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.249">249</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.255">255</a> ; +god Nebo ignored by, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; legal +code of, <a href="#page.anchor.2">2</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.222">222</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.223">223</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Hammurabi Dynasty, the, Amorites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.217">217</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.218">218</a>; +early Amorite kings of Sippar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.241">241</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>; +schools and correspondence during, <a href= +"#page.anchor.252">252</a>; Kassites first appear during, +<a href="#page.anchor.255">255</a>; Sealand Dynasty in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.257">257</a>; late kings of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.257">257</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.258">258</a>; +Hittite raid at close of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.258">258</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.260">260</a> ; +Assyria during, <a href="#page.anchor.279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>; astronomy in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.300">300</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hanuman (hăn´u-män), the Indian monkey god, +Bhima and, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>; like Gilgamesh, +<a href="#page.anchor.188">188</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.189">189</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hapi (hä´pi), Nile god, a bi-sexual deity, +<a href="#page.anchor.161">161</a>.</dt> +<dt>Haran, Abraham's migration from Ur to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.131">131</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>; +Ashur and Sin worshipped at, <a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>; +Nabonidus's temple to Sin at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +<dt>Harper, Professor, <a href="#page.anchor.321">321</a>.</dt> +<dt>Harvest deities, fish forms of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.32">32</a>; river +and ocean gods as, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; the +pre-Hellenic, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; the Egyptian, +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>.</dt> +<dt>Harvest moon, the, crops ripened by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hathor (hät´hor), the fish goddess and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>; Ishtar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hathor-Sekhet, the destroyer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.197">197</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hatshepsut (hat-shep´soot), Queen of Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.16">16</a>; Sumerian queen earlier than, <a href= +"#page.anchor.115">115</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hatti (hät´ti), dominant tribe of Hittites, +<a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; of Armenoid race, <a href= +"#page.anchor.262">262</a>; as Great Father worshippers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.260">260</a>; Mitannians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hattusil I (hat-too´sil), King of Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.283">283</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hattusil II, Hittite king, Egyptian treaty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.366">366</a>; influence of in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.364">364</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.368">368</a>; +marriage treaty with Amorite king, <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hawes, Mr., on Cretan chronology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>; Cretan racial types, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hawk, demons enter the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hazael (haz´ā-el), King of Damascus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.410">410</a>; Shalmaneser III defeats, <a href= +"#page.anchor.411">411</a>; Israel oppressed by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.412">412</a>.</dt> +<dt>Heaven, Queen of, Hebrews offer cakes to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; women prominent in worship of, +<a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.107">107</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hebrews, in Canaan, <a href="#page.anchor.379">379</a>; +Philistines as overlords of, <a href="#page.anchor.379">379</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.386">386</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.387">387</a>; +as allies of Egypt and Tyre, <a href="#page.anchor.388">388</a>; +under David and Solomon, <a href="#page.anchor.388">388</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.389">389</a>; Pharaoh Sheshonk plunders, +<a href="#page.anchor.391">391</a>; kingdoms of Judah and Israel, +<a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; in late Assyrian period, <a href= +"#page.anchor.448">448</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span> See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Israel</em></span> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Judah</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Heimdal (hīm´dal), as patriarch and world +guardian, <a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; Tammuz and Agni like, +<a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>; Nin-Girsu of Lagash like, +<a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hercules, Gilgamesh and, <a href="#page.anchor.41">41</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>; as dragon slayer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.152">152</a>; eagle as soul of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.349">349</a>; +burning of, <a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>; of Cilicia and +deities that link with, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; +Merodach and, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>; Ashur and, +<a href="#page.anchor.336">336</a>; astral arrow of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>; Melkarth and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hermes (h<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>r´mēz), Nebo as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hermod (her´ mod), the Germanic Patriarch, <a href= +"#page.anchor.93">93</a>; Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a>.</dt> +<dt>Herodotus, on Babylonian harvests, <a href= +"#page.anchor.21">21</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>; on +Babylonian burial customs, <a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>; +description of Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.219">219</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; on Babylonian +marriage market, <a href="#page.anchor.224">224</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.225">225</a>; on doctors and folk cures, <a href= +"#page.anchor.231">231</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.232">232</a>; +on origin of Nineveh, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; on +Egyptian Totemism, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.432">432</a>; on pre-Hellenic beliefs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; on Semiramis legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>; on fall of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Heth, children of, Hittites as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hezekiah (hez-e-kī´ah), <a href= +"#page.anchor.21">21</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>; +Merodach-Balad conspiracy, <a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; +destruction of Assyrian army, <a href="#page.anchor.466">466</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.467">467</a>; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hierap´olis, Atargatis goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>"High Heads", symbols and "world spine", <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; Anshar, Anu, Enlil, Ea, Merodach, +Nergal, and Shamash as, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a></dt> +<dt>Hindus, Mediterranean race represented among, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hipparchus, the Greek astronomer, discoveries of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.320">320</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.321">321</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hiram, King of Tyre, as Solomon's ally, <a href= +"#page.anchor.388">388</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.389">389</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hit, the bitumen wells of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hittites, the father worshippers among, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxx">xxx</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>; +racial types in confederacy of, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.265">265</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.266">266</a>; double-headed eagle of, +<a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>; in ethnics of Jerusalem, +<a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; Hebrews, dealings with, +<a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; +earliest references to in Egypt and Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.258">258</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.259">259</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>; prehistoric culture of, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>; thunder god of and linking +deities, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>; Merodach carried off by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>; fusion of god and goddess cults by, +<a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>; relations with Mitannians and +Kassites, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.272">272</a> , <a href="#page.anchor.282">282</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.358">358</a>; Subbi-luliuma, the conqueror, +<a href="#page.anchor.283">283</a>; conquest of Mitanni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>; Babylonian culture passed to Greece +by, <a href="#page.anchor.306">306</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>; the winged disk of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>; +Ashur cult and, <a href="#page.anchor.355">355</a>; Syria after +expansion of, <a href="#page.anchor.363">363</a>; King Mursil, +<a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>; influence of in Egypt and +Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>; wars of Seti I and +Rameses II against, <a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.365">365</a>; alliance with Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.366">366</a>; early struggle with Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.367">367</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.368">368</a>; +Muski as overlords of, <a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>; +Nebuchadrezzar I defeats, <a href="#page.anchor.381">381</a>; +late period of Empire of, <a href="#page.anchor.386">386</a>; +city states of Hamath and Carchemish, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>; Shalmaneser III and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>; "mother right among", <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>; connection of with Urartu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; combination against Sargon II, +<a href="#page.anchor.459">459</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; Biblical reference to Tabal and +Meshech, <a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>.</dt> +<dt>Horse, sea god as a, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; demons +enter the, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; domesticated in +Turkestan, <a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>; introduction of to +Babylonia and Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.271">271</a>; sacrificed by Aryo-Indian and +Buriats, <a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>; constellation of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>.</dt> +<dt>Horus (ho´rus), god of Egypt, creative tears of, +<a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>; as the sun, Saturn, Jupiter, +and Mars, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; the "elder" and "younger", <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>; as the "opener", <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; "world soul" conception and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; has many forms like Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Ninip and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>; "winged disk" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>; the eagle and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.343">343</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hoshea (ho-she´a), King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.453">453</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.454">454</a>.</dt> +<dt>Host of heaven, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hotherus (hoth´erus), Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>.</dt> +<dt>"House of Clay", the grave called, <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; <a href= +"#page.anchor.206">206</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.208">208</a> +.</dt> +<dt>Hraesvelgur (hrā´svel-gur), Icelandic wind demon, +<a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>.</dt> +<dt>Human sacrifices, the May Day, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>. "Husband of his mother", <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; in Sumerian, Indian, and Egyptian +mythologies, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; +Kingu becomes lover of Tiamat, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; sun as offspring and spouse of the +moon, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Adad-nirari IV as, +<a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Father and son conflict</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Hydra, as Dragon, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>.</dt> +<dt>Hyksos (hik´sos), Egypt invaded by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.259">259</a>; Mitannians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>; horse introduced into Egypt by, +<a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>; theories regarding, <a href= +"#page.anchor.271">271</a>; trading relations of with Crete and +Persia, <a href="#page.anchor.273">273</a>; period of expulsion +of, <a href="#page.anchor.275">275</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">I</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Iberians, the, Sumerians and Egyptians congeners of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>; goddesses of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; folk tales of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ibis, demons enter the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>.</dt> +<dt>Iceland, wind hag of, <a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; +Barleycorn a god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Idols, spirit of god or demon in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.61">61</a>; gods of taken prisoners, <a href= +"#page.anchor.62">62</a>.</dt> +<dt>Idun(ee´doon),Germanic goddess, lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.102">102</a>.</dt> +<dt>Igigi (i´gig-i), spirits of heaven, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.149">149</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ilu-bi´di, smith king of Hamath, <a href= +"#page.anchor.457">457</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.458">458</a>.</dt> +<dt>Immortality, quest of Gilgamesh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.177">177</a>; Song of the Sea Lady, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.179">179</a>; +Lay of the Harper, <a href="#page.anchor.179">179</a>; +Pir-napishtim and Gilgamesh, <a href="#page.anchor.181">181</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>.; Ea-hani's +revelation, <a href="#page.anchor.183">183</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a> ; no Babylonian Paradise, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>; Brahmans ask Alexander the +Great for, <a href="#page.anchor.208">208</a>; Egyptian Ra and +Osirian doctrines, <a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>.</dt> +<dt>India, Sumerian myths in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxvii">xxvii</a>; Mediterranean race in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>; Brahma-Vishnu and Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>; Babylonian flood myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.28">28</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.196">196</a>; demons of and the Babylonian, +<a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; mother ghost in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.69">69</a>; Garuda eagle and Sumerian Zu bird, +<a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a> , +<a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>; wedding bracelet of and +Ishtar's, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.98">98</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; eternal "mothers" and "dying gods" +in, <a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>; Ribhus the "elves" of, +<a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; fairies of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.294">294</a>; Gilgamesh myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.187">187</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.189">189</a> ; +Babylonian culture in, <a href="#page.anchor.199">199</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.200">200</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.313">313</a>; face paint of gods in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.211">211</a>; jungle-dwellers' conception of "Self +Power", <a href="#page.anchor.291">291</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; star myths of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; early astronomers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.300">300</a>; lunar zodiac of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>; constellations identified before +planets in, <a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; horse sacrifice +in, <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; sun and moon marriages +in, <a href="#page.anchor.306">306</a>; doctrine of World's Ages +in, <a href="#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; "finger counting" at prayer +in, <a href="#page.anchor.311">311</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; deities connected with goat in, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; "man in the eye" belief, +<a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>; cult of "late invaders" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.338">338</a>; fire cult in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>; Solomon's trade with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.389">389</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.390">390</a>; +Jehoshaphat's fleet, <a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>; swans as +love messengers in, <a href="#page.anchor.429">429</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Indo-Europeans", Mitannians as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>.</dt> +<dt>Indra (ind´ră), god of India, a world artisan like +Ea and Ptah, <a href="#page.anchor.30">30</a>; Anu's messengers +like Maruts of, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>; Enlil and, +<a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>; Ramman, Hadad, Thor, &c, +and, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>; +in Garuda myth, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>; dies annually like Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; various forms of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; as slayer of father, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +eagle as, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Paradise of like +Odin's, <a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>; thunder horn of, +<a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Insects, gods as, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Inspiration, derived from sacred juice, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; from drinking blood, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; from incense and breath of Apis bull, +<a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Inundation, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.24">24</a>.</dt> +<dt>Inverness, the "sleeper" and fairy mound of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ionians, deported from Cilicia to Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.464">464</a>.</dt> +<dt>Iranian sun god, Sumerians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ireland, the corn god and river goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>; +spitting customs in, <a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>; "calling +back" of souls in, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; Anu a wind hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>; Tammuz-Diarmid myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.87">87</a>; +Angus, the love god of, <a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; the eternal goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.102">102</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>; the "morúach" (worm) +of, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; flood legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>; the Hades of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.203">203</a>; pig as devil in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>; doctrine of world's ages in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; origin of culture of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>; +giant gods of, <a href="#page.anchor.317">317</a>; pigeon lore +in, <a href="#page.anchor.431">431</a>.</dt> +<dt>Iron, in northern Mesopotamia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>; used in folk cures, <a href= +"#page.anchor.236">236</a>.</dt> +<dt>Irrigation, in early Sumeria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.23">23</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>.</dt> +<dt>Isaac, forbids Jacob to marry a Hittite, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>.</dt> +<dt>Isaiah, <a href="#page.anchor.21">21</a>; doom of Babylonia, +<a href="#page.anchor.113">113</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.499">499</a>; "worm" of, the dragon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; use of Babylonian symbolism by, +<a href="#page.anchor.331">331</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.341">341</a>; "satyrs" referred to by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>; on Assyria the Destroyer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>; on Topher, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>; reference to Jerusalem's water +supply, <a href="#page.anchor.451">451</a>; warns Ahaz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.459">459</a>; destruction of Sennacherib's army, +<a href="#page.anchor.466">466</a>; tradition of murder of, +<a href="#page.anchor.474">474</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ishbi-Urra (ish´bi-oor´ra), King of Isin, +<a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ishtar (ish´tar), Isis cult and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; hymn to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.18">18</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.20">20</a> ; Beltu +and, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>; water of life given to, +<a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>; as earth goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>; identical with Hathor, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; as "Queen of Heaven", <a href= +"#page.anchor.81">81</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.107">107</a>; lamentation of for Tammuz, +<a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.88">88</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; in +Sargon of Akkad myth, <a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>; descent +of to Hades poem, <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; magical ornaments of, +<a href="#page.anchor.96">96</a>; punishment of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.96">96</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.97">97</a>; +rescue of, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; Belit-sheri +associated with, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; as love +goddess, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>; temple women of, +<a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.107">107</a>; +absorbs other goddesses, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>; +as daughter of Anu and Nannar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; as mother of Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; the lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.174">174</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a> ; like Tiamat, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; under Isin Dynasty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; links with Indian and Egyptian +goddesses, <a href="#page.anchor.157">157</a>; Damkina and, +<a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; as a bisexual deity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>; in Etana legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>; in Gilgamesh legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.177">177</a> ; +in flood legend, <a href="#page.anchor.193">193</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.194">194</a>; Frey's bride and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.204">204</a>; threat to raise dead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>; fish goddesses and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; +Nineveh image of sent to Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>; star of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; changes star forms with Merodach, +<a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; wheel symbol of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>; Nineveh temple of destroyed, <a href= +"#page.anchor.363">363</a>; worshipped by Nebuchadrezzar I, +<a href="#page.anchor.382">382</a>; cult of in Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.420">420</a>; Semiramis and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>; as a Fate, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>; moon god and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.436">436</a>; Creatrix and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>; worshipped by Sargon II, <a href= +"#page.anchor.463">463</a>; worshipped by Esarhaddon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; Persian goddess and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ishtarate (ish-tar-ä´te), "Ishtars", goddesses in +general called, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Isin, Dynasty of, <a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>; early +kings of, <a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; last kings of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>; sun worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.240">240</a>; Dynasty of Pashe, <a href= +"#page.anchor.380">380</a>.</dt> +<dt>Isis (ī´sis), goddess of Egypt, Ishtar cult and, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>; fish goddess and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>; as Nile goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; creative tears of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; mourning of for Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>; as +daughter, wife, sister, and mother of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>; as corn goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>; as serpent goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; as bi-sexual deity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>; male form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; the star of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; +address of to different forms of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>. "Island of the Blessed", in Gilgamesh +epic, <a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; the Greek and Celtic, +<a href="#page.anchor.203">203</a>.</dt> +<dt>Israel, first Egyptian reference to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.379">379</a>; subject to Damascus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.396">396</a>; separation of from Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.401">401</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Abijah's victory over, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.403">403</a>; +first conflict with Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a>; +tribute to Shalmaneser III, <a href="#page.anchor.411">411</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.412">412</a>; Assyria as "saviour" of, +<a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.438">438</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>; +goddess cult in, <a href="#page.anchor.421">421</a>; Aramaeans +and mother worship in, <a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; war +with Judah, <a href="#page.anchor.448">448</a>; Tiglath-pileser +harries, <a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>; the lost ten tribes, +<a href="#page.anchor.455">455</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.456">456</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">J</h3> +<dl> +<dt>"Jack and Jill", the Sumerian lunar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Jack with a Lantern", the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jacob, personal ornaments as charms to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.211">211</a>; marriage of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jah, the Hebrew, Ea as, <a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; +Dagon as, <a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>; as dragon slayer, +<a href="#page.anchor.157">157</a>; monotheism, <a href= +"#page.anchor.160">160</a>.</dt> +<dt>Japan, the Hades of, <a href="#page.anchor.206">206</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jastrow, Professor, on Ea, <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.30">30</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.435">435</a>; on culture and racial fusion, +<a href="#page.anchor.42">42</a>; on fire and water ceremonies, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; on moon names, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>; on female conservatism, <a href= +"#page.anchor.107">107</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.179">179</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a>; on burial customs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.208">208</a>; on Nebo, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.435">435</a>; +on Greek and Babylonian astrology and astronomy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.319">319</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; on Anshar, Ashir, and Ashur, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoahaz (je-hō´a-haz), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>; Necho deposes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoash (je-hō´ash), King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.448">448</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoiachin (je-hoi´a-chin), King of Judah, carried to +Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.490">490</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoiakim (je-hoi´a-kim), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.490">490</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoram (je-hō´ram), King of Judah, no burning at +grave of, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehoshaphat (je-hosh´a-phat), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.407">407</a>; navy of wrecked, <a href= +"#page.anchor.408">408</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jehu (je´hü), King of Israel, Elisha calls, +<a href="#page.anchor.409">409</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.410">410</a>; tribute to Shalmaneser III, <a href= +"#page.anchor.411">411</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.412">412</a>; +mother worship in reign of, <a href="#page.anchor.421">421</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jeremiah, liver as seat of life, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; on mother worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.107">107</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.421">421</a>; Pharaoh Necho, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jeremias, Dr. Alfred, on precession of equinoxes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.320">320</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Jeroboam (jer-o-bō´am), revolt of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>; Abijah defeats, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.403">403</a>; +an ally of Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jerusalem, the "new", <a href="#page.anchor.xvii">xvii</a>; +Palaeolithic collection at, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; +"dragon well" at, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; "father" of +Amorite, "mother" of Hittite, <a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; +eclipse record from, <a href="#page.anchor.323">323</a>; "Queen +of Heaven" worshipped in, <a href="#page.anchor.421">421</a>; +wall of destroyed by Jehoash, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>; +new wall and water supply of, <a href="#page.anchor.451">451</a>; +siege of by Sennacherib, <a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.466">466</a>; Assyrian ambassador visits, +<a href="#page.anchor.471">471</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; sack of by Nebuchadrezzar II, +<a href="#page.anchor.490">490</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>; Cyrus and rebuilding of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>; return of captives to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jewellery, the magic, Ishtar's, <a href= +"#page.anchor.96">96</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jewish type, Akkadians of, <a href="#page.anchor.1">1</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.2">2</a>; Arabs not of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>; the racial blend which produced, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Jews, Cyrus welcomed in Babylon by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.495">495</a>; return of to Jerusalem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jezebel (jez´e-bel), Queen, <a href= +"#page.anchor.406">406</a>; murder of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.410">410</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jinn, the Arabian, <a href="#page.anchor.78">78</a>.</dt> +<dt>Joash (jō´ash), King of Judah, concealment of in +childhood, <a href="#page.anchor.413">413</a>; coronation of, +<a href="#page.anchor.413">413</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>.</dt> +<dt>Johns, Mr., on Aryans in early Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.278">278</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.279">279</a>.</dt> +<dt>Joram (jō´ram), King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.408">408</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.409">409</a>; +Jehu murders, <a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a>.</dt> +<dt>Josiah (jo-sī´ah), King of Judah, Necho and, +<a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jotham (jō´tham), King of Judah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.451">451</a>.</dt> +<dt>Judah, subject to Damascus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.396">396</a>; separation of from Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.401">401</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Edom revolts against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.409">409</a>; defeated by Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.448">448</a>; Damascus and Israel plot against, +<a href="#page.anchor.451">451</a>; Ahaz appeals to Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.452">452</a>; Sennacherib deports prisoners +from, <a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; in Esarhaddon's reign, +<a href="#page.anchor.474">474</a>; Pharaoh Necho in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>; the Captivity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>; return of captives, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jupiter, the planet, Ramman and Hadad as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Merodach creates, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>; Merodach as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; Horus as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +associated with sun and moon, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; +as ghost of sun, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as "bull of +light", <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Nin-Girsu (Tammuz) +as, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Attis as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as "face voice of light" and "star of +bronze", <a href="#page.anchor.314">314</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jupiter-Amon, <a href="#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +<dt>Jupiter-Belus, Merodach as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.221">221</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">K</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Kadashman-Kharbe (kad-äsh´man-khär´be), +King of Babylon, grandson of Ashur-uballit, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.285">285</a>; +opens Arabian desert trade route, <a href= +"#page.anchor.360">360</a>; murder of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.361">361</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kadesh (kä´desh), goddesses that link with, +<a href="#page.anchor.268">268</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kali (kä´lee), the Indian goddess, goat sacrificed +to, <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kalkhi (käl´khi), excavations at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xix">xix</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>; +capital of Shalmaneser I, <a href="#page.anchor.367">367</a>; +headquarters of Ashur-natsir-pal III, <a href= +"#page.anchor.398">398</a>; description of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.399">399</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.400">400</a>; +library at, <a href="#page.anchor.422">422</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.470">470</a>; religious revolt at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>; Sargon II and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.463">463</a>; temple to Nebo at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>.</dt> +<dt>Karduniash (kar-doon´i-ash), Babylonia called, <a href= +"#page.anchor.273">273</a>.</dt> +<dt>Karna (kăr´nă), Indian hero: like Sargon of +Akkad, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kässites, Nippur as capital of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.218">218</a>; in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.255">255</a>; as agriculturists, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>; Aryans associated with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>; Mitannians, Hyksos and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.272">272</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.273">273</a>; Babylonia consolidated by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.274">274</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.393">393</a>; +early Assyrian kings and, <a href="#page.anchor.279">279</a>; in +Tell-el-Amarna letters, <a href="#page.anchor.281">281</a>; and +Mesopotamian question, <a href="#page.anchor.358">358</a>; +Arabian desert trade route, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>; +dynasty of ends, <a href="#page.anchor.370">370</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.371">371</a>; Sennacherib and the mountain, +<a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>.</dt> +<dt>Keats, John, <a href="#page.anchor.112">112</a>; "La Belle +Dame Sans Merci" and Ishtar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kengi (k<span class="emphasis"><em>e</em></span>n´gi), +early name of Sumer, <a href="#page.anchor.2">2</a>.</dt> +<dt>Khammurabi (kham-mü-rä´bi), <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Hammurabi</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Khani (khä´ni). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mitanni</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Kharri (khär´ri), Mitannians called; perhaps +"Arya", <a href="#page.anchor.269">269</a>.</dt> +<dt>Khatti. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Hatti</em></span> and +<span class="emphasis"><em>Hittites</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Kheta. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Hittites</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Khnumu (knoo´moo), the Egyptian god, Ea compared to, +<a href="#page.anchor.30">30</a>.</dt> +<dt>Khonsu (kon´soo), Tammuz a healer like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kid, sacrificed to Tammuz, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; star called by Arabs, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>.</dt> +<dt>King, L.W., Creation tablets, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>; +<a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>; on "Cuthean Legend of +Creation", <a href="#page.anchor.215">215</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.216">216</a>; on seven gods as one, <a href= +"#page.anchor.298">298</a>; on Sennacherib's sack of Babylon, +<a href="#page.anchor.469">469</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kings, worship of, in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.257">257</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.258">258</a>; burning of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.351">351</a>; +Ashur's association with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kingu (kin´goo), in Creation Legend, as son and lover +of Tiamat, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>; stirs Tiamat to +avenge Apsu, <a href="#page.anchor.140">140</a>; exalted by +Tiamat, <a href="#page.anchor.140">140</a>; overcome by Merodach, +<a href="#page.anchor.145">145</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.146">146</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kish, early dynasty of, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; +legendary queen of, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.115">115</a>; Entemena's sack of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; Sargon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>; +goddess of, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.127">127</a>; kings and gods of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.241">241</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kishar (ke´shär), the god, in group of elder +deities, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kneph, the Egyptian air god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> (kō´rän), Etana +eagle myth in, <a href="#page.anchor.166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.167">167</a>; Nimrod agricultural myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>; water of life legend in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; Abraham and Nimrod's pyre, <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kudur Mabug (kü´dür mab´üg), +Elamite King of Sumer, <a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.243">243</a>; the Biblical Chedor-laomer, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kuiri (kü´i-ri), early name of Akkad, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kurds (koords), the, use of cradle board by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; of +Mediterranean race, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>; Mitannians as +ancestors of, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.283">283</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kurigalzu II (kü´ri-gäl´zü), King +of Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.285">285</a>.</dt> +<dt>Kurigalzu III, Kassite king, wars with Elam and Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.362">362</a>.</dt> +<dt>Küta and Küthä. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Cuthah</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Kutu (kü´tü), the men of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.128">128</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>. +See <span class="emphasis"><em>Gutium</em></span>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">L</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Labartu (la-bär´tü), the, a mountain hag, +<a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>; as a luck spirit, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Labashi-Marduk (la´ba-shi-mar´dük), King of +Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>"La Belle Dame Sans Merci", Ishtar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.174">174</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.175">175</a>. +Lachamu (lach-ä´mü), goddess, in Creation legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.143">143</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lachmu (lach´mü), god, in Creation legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.138">138</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.143">143</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lagash (lä´gash), city of, early rulers of, +<a href="#page.anchor.115">115</a> et seq.; deities of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a> ; +relations with Umma, <a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a> ; site of at Tello, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; revolution in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; Urukagina, the reformer of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.121">121</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.124">124</a> ; +sack of, <a href="#page.anchor.124">124</a>; Gudea, King of, +<a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a>; sculptures, buildings, and +trade of, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; bearded god of, +<a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>; burning of in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>. Also <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Shir-pür´lä</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Lakshmi (lăksh´mee), the Indian eternal mother, +<a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lamassu (la´mas-sü), the winged bull, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lamb, the sacrificed, inspiration from blood of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>.</dt> +<dt>Land laws, in early Sumeria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.26">26</a>; of Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.229">229</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.230">230</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lang, Andrew, on Cronos, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; on +father and son myth, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>; on Greek +star lore, <a href="#page.anchor.319">319</a>.</dt> +<dt>Langdon, Dr., Sumerian psalms, <a href= +"#page.anchor.96">96</a> et seq.; on Ninip and Enlil, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>; on doves and goddesses, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a>.</dt> +<dt>Language, race and, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; +Sumerians, Chinese, Turks, Magyars, Finns, and Basques compared, +<a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>.</dt> +<dt>Larsa (lär´sä), sun god chief deity of, +<a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>; revolt against Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; Rim-Sin, king of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>; rise of sun cult of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.240">240</a>; Elamite kings of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a>; the Biblical Ellasar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>; Nabonidus and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Laurin (law´reen), the Germanic elfin lover, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Law courts, in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.223">223</a>.</dt> +<dt>Layard, Sir A.H., discoveries of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xix">xix</a> et seq.; Ashur symbols, <a href= +"#page.anchor.343">343</a>; description of Kalkhi, <a href= +"#page.anchor.399">399</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a> +.</dt> +<dt>"Lay of the Harper", the Sumerian "Song of the Sea Lady" and, +<a href="#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.179">179</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lead, in northern Mesopotamia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lebanon, Gudea of Lagash gets timber from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>.</dt> +<dt>Leicestershire wind hag, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>.</dt> +<dt>Library, Shalmaneser III founded at Kalkhi, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>.</dt> +<dt>Libyans, the, shaving customs of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>.</dt> +<dt>Life, the water of, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>; the plant of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.44">44</a>; blood and sap and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; liver as seat of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; habits of and modes of thought, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>.</dt> +<dt>Light on head, Merodach's, <a href= +"#page.anchor.145">145</a>.</dt> +<dt>Li´la or Li´lu, the demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Li´lith, "Adam's first wife", <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>; Indian Surpanaka like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Linen, manufactured in prehistoric Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.14">14</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lion god, Nergal as the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lions, associated with mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>.</dt> +<dt>Liver, the, as seat of life, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; dragon's vulnerable part, <a href= +"#page.anchor.153">153</a>.</dt> +<dt>Loftus, W.K., <a href="#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>.</dt> +<dt>Loki, the Germanic god, taunts goddesses regarding lovers, +<a href="#page.anchor.102">102</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>; god Barleycorn and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Long Meg", the English giantess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.155">155</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.156">156</a>; +"Long Tom" and, <a href="#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Long Tom", the giant, guns called, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Love charms and love lyrics, <a href= +"#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Love goddess, Ishtar as, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.175">175</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; the inconstancy of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a> et seq., <a href= +"#page.anchor.102">102</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lovers, the demon, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lucian (loosh´yan), Semiramis legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lucifer, Babylonian king as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.331">331</a>.</dt> +<dt>Luck, spitting to secure, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a> et +seq.; spirits of, <a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lugal-zaggisi (lü´gal-zag´gi-si), King of +Umma, sack of Lagash by, <a href="#page.anchor.123">123</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.124">124</a>; gods of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>; Kish captured by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>; Erech capital of empire of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.125">125</a>; +supposed invasion of Syria by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lulubu (lül´ü-bü), mountaineers, +<a href="#page.anchor.128">128</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lunar chronology, solar chronology preceded by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.312">312</a>; "Four Quarters", <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.324">324</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lunar zodiac, the original, <a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lycia, god had wife in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.221">221</a>.</dt> +<dt>Lydia, emissaries from to Ashur-banipal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.483">483</a>; helps Egypt against Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; alliance with Egypt against Cyrus, +<a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">M</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Ma, the goddess, serpent form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; Tiamat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; goddess of Comana, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>Magic and poetry, <a href="#page.anchor.236">236</a> et +seq.</dt> +<dt>Magician, the great, Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>.</dt> +<dt>Magyars, language of and the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Mahabharata</em></span>, the +(măhä´bha´´rătă), <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>; the +various Indras in, <a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>; Karna myth +in, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>; eagle myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>; Bhima like Gilgamesh in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.187">187</a>; Naturalism and Totemism in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.291">291</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.292">292</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>; the "wheel of life" in, +<a href="#page.anchor.346">346</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a> ; the Shakuntala legend in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.424">424</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mama (mä´mä), the mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; as +Creatrix, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Man, creation of, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>; Ea +desired, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; Merodach sheds blood +for, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; Berosus legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.148">148</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Man bull, the winged, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>.</dt> +<dt>Manasseh, King of Judah, idolatries of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.473">473</a>; legend of Isaiah's end, <a href= +"#page.anchor.474">474</a>; captivity of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.474">474</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Manishtusu (män-ish-tü´sü), successor of +Sargon I, empire of, <a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mannai (män´nai), state of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.473">473</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Manu (măn´oo), the Indian patriarch, like +Babylonian Noah, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>; the fish and +flood myth, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.196">196</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mara (mä´ra), the European demon of nightmare, +<a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>.</dt> +<dt>Marduk (mär´duk). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Merodach</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Marduk-balatsu-ikbi +(mar´duk-bal´atsü-ik-bi), King of Babylonia, +defeat of by Shamshi-Adad VII, <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.416">416</a>.</dt> +<dt>Marduk-bel-usate (mar´duk-bel-ü-sä´te), +revolt of in Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.409">409</a>.</dt> +<dt>Marduk-zakir-shum +(mar´duk-zä-kir´shüm), King of Babylonia, +<a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>; a vassal of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.409">409</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mari (mä´ri), king of Damascus, as the Biblical +Ben Hadad III, <a href="#page.anchor.438">438</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>.</dt> +<dt>Marriage contracts, in Hammurabi code, <a href= +"#page.anchor.225">225</a> et seq.</dt> +<dt>Marriage market of Babylon, the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.224">224</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.225">225</a>.</dt> +<dt>Marriage of deities, the Hittite, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mars, Horus as, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as "bronze fish stone", <a href= +"#page.anchor.314">314</a>; the Gaulish mule god as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mars, Nergal, wolf planet of pestilence, as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mars, the planet, boar slayer of Adonis as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; in sun and moon group, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>.</dt> +<dt>Maruts (măr´oots), the Indian, like Anu's demons, +<a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mashi (mä´shi), the mountain of, in Gilgamesh +epic, <a href="#page.anchor.177">177</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>.</dt> +<dt>Maspero, Professor, on antiquity of Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>; on Assyrian colonists, <a href= +"#page.anchor.456">456</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Masters, the", Buriat earth and air spirits, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mati-ilu (ma´ti-i´lü), of Agusi, relations +of with Assyria and Urartu, <a href="#page.anchor.443">443</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.446">446</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.447">447</a>; overthrow of by Tiglath-pileser +IV.</dt> +<dt>Mattiuza (mat-ti-ü´za), King of Mitanni, flight +of, <a href="#page.anchor.283">283</a>; as Hittite vassal, +<a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>.</dt> +<dt>May Day, fire ceremonies of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mead, of the gods, <a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>; blood +as, <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>; eagle steals, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>.</dt> +<dt>Measurer, the, moon as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>.</dt> +<dt>Medes, III; in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.244">244</a>; Sargon II and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; and fall of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>; Scythians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.488">488</a>; +alliance of with Lydia, <a href="#page.anchor.494">494</a>; Cyrus +as King of, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mediterranean Race, the, Basques a variation of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>; Sumerians and proto-Egyptians of, +<a href="#page.anchor.7">7</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>; +Cretans of, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>; Ripley traces in +Asia, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>; in +Africa and Europe, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>; "cradle" of, +<a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>; Tammuz-Adonis myth and, +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; mother worship and status of +women in, <a href="#page.anchor.104">104</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.108">108</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a> et seq.; in Hittite +confederacy, <a href="#page.anchor.266">266</a>; the Biblical +Cushites and Hamites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.276">276</a>.</dt> +<dt>Medusa, Tiamat and, <a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>.</dt> +<dt>Meg, Long. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Long +Meg</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Melkarth (mel´kärth), children sacrificed to, +<a href="#page.anchor.171">171</a>; Hercules and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; burning of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.349">349</a>.</dt> +<dt>Memphis (mem´phis), Assyrians fight Ethiopians at, +<a href="#page.anchor.475">475</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.483">483</a>.</dt> +<dt>Men, in worship of mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.107">107</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.108">108</a>.</dt> +<dt>Menahem (men´ä-hem), King of Israel, pays tribute +to Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Meneptah (men-ē´tä or men´e-tä), +King of Egypt, relations of with Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.378">378</a>; sea raiders defeated by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.378">378</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.379">379</a>.</dt> +<dt>Menuas (men´ü-äs), King of Urartu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a>; conquests of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.441">441</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mercury, the planet; in sun and moon group, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Nebo as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +month of, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; the "face voice of +light", <a href="#page.anchor.314">314</a>; "lapis lazuli" star, +<a href="#page.anchor.314">314</a>; the Gaulish boar god as, +<a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mermaids, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mermer (mer´mer), a name of Nebo and Ramman, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>.</dt> +<dt>Merodach (mer´ō-dach), the god: creation of +mankind, <a href="#page.anchor.xxix">xxix</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.148">148</a>; Damkina and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>; Enlil as older Bel than, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>; Ea and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; water of life belief, <a href= +"#page.anchor.44">44</a>; Nusku as messenger of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>; brothers and sister of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a>; Zamama of Kish and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.126">126</a>; rise of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.134">134</a>; Anshar's appeal to in Creation +legend, <a href="#page.anchor.142">142</a>; the avenger, <a href= +"#page.anchor.143">143</a>; proclaimed king of the gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.144">144</a>; weapons and steeds of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.145">145</a>; Tiamat slain, and brood of captured +by, <a href="#page.anchor.146">146</a>; eats "Ku-pu" of Tiamat, +<a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a> n., <a href= +"#page.anchor.153">153</a>; forms earth and sky, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; +creates stars of Zodiac, <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>; +lunar and solar decrees of, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; +other deities and, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.38">38</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>; +hymn to, <a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.161">161</a>; +as Tammuz, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>; Osiris and, +<a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.298">298</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; +Perseus and, <a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>; Nimrod and, +<a href="#page.anchor.167">167</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.343">343</a>; +temple of, <a href="#page.anchor.221">221</a>; Hammurabi Age +kings and, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a> , <a href="#page.anchor.252">252</a>; +Hittites carry off image of, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.262">262</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.272">272</a>; +Kassites and, <a href="#page.anchor.272">272</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.274">274</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.372">372</a>; +complex character of, <a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; stars of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Jupiter form of as sun ghost, +<a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Nebo and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.435">435</a>; +month of, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; goddesses and, +<a href="#page.anchor.221">221</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.420">420</a>; world hill and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; as "high head", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>; image at Asshur, <a href= +"#page.anchor.468">468</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.469">469</a>; +restoration of, <a href="#page.anchor.481">481</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.482">482</a>; ceremony of "taking hands" of, +<a href="#page.anchor.480">480</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.481">481</a>; Cyrus and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>; +Ahura Mazda and, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>; Darius I +and, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>; Xerxes pillages temple +of, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>; Alexander the Great and, +<a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>; late worship of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.498">498</a>.</dt> +<dt>Merodach Baladan (mer´o-dach bal´adan), King of +Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.457">457</a>; second reign of, +<a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.468">468</a>; sons of and Esarhaddon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mesopotamia, present-day racial types in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>; Assyria and Babylonia struggle to +control, <a href="#page.anchor.286">286</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.381">381</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.382">382</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.384">384</a>; under Kassites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.358">358</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a>; atrocities of +Ashur-natsir-pal III in, <a href="#page.anchor.397">397</a>.</dt> +<dt>Messenger of gods, Sumerian Nusku and India Agni as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; Papsukel as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.97">97</a>; Gaga as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.143">143</a>.</dt> +<dt>Metals, the northern Mesopotamia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mexico, the terrible mother ghost of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.69">69</a>.</dt> +<dt>Meyer, Professor Kuno, <a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.102">102</a>.</dt> +<dt>Micah, the prophet, <a href="#page.anchor.405">405</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.406">406</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mice, the golden, Dagon offering of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.32">32</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; gods +as, <a href="#page.anchor.41">41</a>; as destroyers of +Sennacherib's army, <a href="#page.anchor.466">466</a>.</dt> +<dt>Midas (mī´das), King of Phrygia, Sargon II and, +<a href="#page.anchor.460">460</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.462">462</a>.</dt> +<dt>Migrations, earliest from Arabia and Asia Minor, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>; the Canaanitic or Amorite, +<a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; Median and Iranian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.244">244</a>; the Phoenician, <a href= +"#page.anchor.244">244</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>; +of Abraham and Lot, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>; of Hittites to Palestine, <a href= +"#page.anchor.246">246</a>; prehistoric pottery evidence of, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>; cults and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.338">338</a>; Aramaean, <a href= +"#page.anchor.359">359</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.376">376</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.378">378</a> ; Achaean, <a href= +"#page.anchor.376">376</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.378">378</a> ; +the Moslem, <a href="#page.anchor.377">377</a>; the "Bedouin +peril", <a href="#page.anchor.392">392</a>; effects of on old +empires, <a href="#page.anchor.393">393</a>.</dt> +<dt>Milky Way, the, <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>.</dt> +<dt>Millet, husks of in Egyptian pre-Dynastic bodies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.6">6</a>.</dt> +<dt>Minerva, Neith and, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mitanni (mitän´ni), Mitra, Indra, &c, gods of, +<a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>; rise of kingdom of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>; Kurds descendants of people of, +<a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>; Egypt and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.271">271</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.282">282</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.358">358</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.359">359</a>; Kassites and Hyksos and, +<a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.271">271</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.273">273</a>; +Assyria subject to, <a href="#page.anchor.270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.279">279</a>; Merodach's image in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.272">272</a>; in Tell-el-Amarna letters, <a href= +"#page.anchor.281">281</a>; conquered by Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.283">283</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.284">284</a>; +cultural influence of, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>; +Assyria occupies, <a href="#page.anchor.367">367</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mithra (mith´rä), the Persian god; attributes of, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; Sumerian gods and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; eagle +as, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.338">338</a>; Cambyses sacrifices Apis bull to, +<a href="#page.anchor.495">495</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mitra (mit´ră), Aryo-Indian god, Shamash and, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; association of with rain, +<a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; Sumerians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; +identified with Yama, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.201">201</a>; links with Agni and Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.94">94</a>; in Mitanni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moab, Judah and, <a href="#page.anchor.402">402</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mohammed, spitting custom of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moisture of life, gods and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moloch, the god, fire ceremony and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>; children sacrificed to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>.</dt> +<dt>Money, spat on to ensure increase, <a href= +"#page.anchor.47">47</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mongolians, the, Sumerians unlike, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>,4; elves of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; Hittites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.265">265</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>.</dt> +<dt>Monotheism, in Creation legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.149">149</a>; Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.160">160</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mons Meg, <a href="#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moon, the, water worship and worship of. <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>,51; Nannar (Sin), god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.40">40</a>; origin of in sea fire, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; as +source of fertility and growth, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; +consort and family of, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Mitra +and Varuna as regulators of, <a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; +goblet of, <a href="#page.anchor.75">75</a>; in demon war, +<a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a>; devoured by pig demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; god of as father of Isis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; bi-sexual deity of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; as a planet, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; forms of god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>; +Venus and, <a href="#page.anchor.314">314</a>; in astrology, +<a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; the "four quarters of", +<a href="#page.anchor.323">323</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.324">324</a>.-See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nannar</em></span> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sin</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Moon goddess, the, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moses, in <span class="emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> water +of life story, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mother, the Great, agriculturists and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxx">xxx</a>; as source of food supply, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; destroying goddesses as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Tiamat as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.140">140</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>; the serpent as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a> ; the +Gaelic Hag as, <a href="#page.anchor.87">87</a>; Ishtar as, +<a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>; Nut of Egypt as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>; +the Aryo-Indian Sri-Lakshmi as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; lovers of die yearly, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.)</em></span> human sacrifices to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>; worship of in Jerusalem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>; women as offerers to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.108">108</a> ; +Kish queen and, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; Lagash form +of, <a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>; lions, deer, and wild +goats of, <a href="#page.anchor.120">120</a>; at creation of +mankind, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; as star Sirius, +<a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>; Semiramis legend and, +<a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Mother +Worship</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Mother demons, in Sumerian and Anglo-Scottish folk tales, +<a href="#page.anchor.153">153</a>; Neolithic origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mother ghost, the terrible, in Western Asia, India, and +Mexico, <a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>; Buriats plead with, +<a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Mother of Mendes", the, Egyptian fish and corn deity, +<a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>; Nina and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Mother right", Hittites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>; Darius I succeeds through, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mother worship, in Mediterranean racial areas, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; +in Semiramis Age, <a href="#page.anchor.417">417</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; Queen Tiy and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.434">434</a> > goddesses as mother, wife, and +daughter of god, <a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; Sargon II +and, <a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; Artaxerxes promotes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mothers, the twin, Isis and Nepthys as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>.</dt> +<dt>Moulton, Professor, on Indian conception of conscience, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; on Mithraism, <a href= +"#page.anchor.201">201</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mountain gods, Enlil and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Mountain of the West", Olympus as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; temples as symbols of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mountains, as totems, <a href="#page.anchor.291">291</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.292">292</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mouse, god as a, <a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mulla, Gaulish mule god, as Mars, <a href= +"#page.anchor.316">316</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mulla (mül´la), the "Will-o'-the-wisp", <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Müller, Max, on lunar chronology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.312">312</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mummu (müm´mü), plots with Apsu and Tiamat, +<a href="#page.anchor.139">139</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.140">140</a>; overcome by Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.140">140</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.142">142</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mummu-Tiamat, or Tiawath. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Tiamat</em></span>,</dt> +<dt>Mursil (mür´sil), King of Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.364">364</a>; conquests of Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.364">364</a>.</dt> +<dt>Music, magical origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Muski (moosh´kee), overlords of Hittites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.380">380</a>; Hittites freed from yoke of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.386">386</a>; Thraco-Phrygian kingdom of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>; Assyrians fight with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.397">397</a>; the Biblical Meshech, <a href= +"#page.anchor.464">464</a>.</dt> +<dt>Müt, Egyptian cult of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>; +Aton and, <a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mutallu (mü´täl´lü), Hittite king, +wars of with Rameses II, <a href="#page.anchor.365">365</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.366">366</a>.</dt> +<dt>Mysticism, the "lord of many existences", <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; +Osiris as father, husband, son, &c., <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; Babylonian and Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>; +forms of Horus, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; "world soul" conception, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; father and son gods identical, +<a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Anshar and Anu and "self power", +<a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>; Ashur and Brahma, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">N</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Nabonidus (na-bo´nid-us), King of Babylonia, religious +innovations of, <a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>; relations with Cyrus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.495">495</a>.</dt> +<dt>Näbo-pol-äs´sar, King of Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>; alliance of with Medes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>; fall of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>; Cyaxares the ally of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nabu (nä´bü). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nebo.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Nabu-aplu-iddin (na´bu-ap-lu-id´din), King of +Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nabu-na´id, King of Babylonia. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nabonidus</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Nadab (na´dab), King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.403">403</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nahum, the doom of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.477">477</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.478">478</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Naki´a, queen mother of Esarhaddon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.470">470</a>; reigns in absence of Esarhaddon, +<a href="#page.anchor.472">472</a>; coronation of Ashur-bani-pal, +<a href="#page.anchor.480">480</a>.</dt> +<dt>Namtar (näm´tar), demon of disease, smites Ishtar +in Hades, <a href="#page.anchor.97">97</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nana (nä´nä), goddess of Erech, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.125">125</a>; +statue of 1635 years in Elam, <a href= +"#page.anchor.485">485</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nannar (nän´nar), moon god, origin of name of, +<a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; consort and children of, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; as father of Isis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; as a bisexual deity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.161">161</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; +cult of in Kish, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>; as bull of +heaven, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Ishtar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.436">436</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Moon</em></span> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sin</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Naram-Sin (nä´ram-sin), King of Akkad, famous +stele of, <a href="#page.anchor.128">128</a>; great empire of, +<a href="#page.anchor.129">129</a>; pigtails worn by enemies of, +<a href="#page.anchor.265">265</a>.</dt> +<dt>Naturalism, <a href="#page.anchor.xxxiii">xxxiii</a>; the +conception of "self power", <a href="#page.anchor.291">291</a>; +Sumerian and Indian beliefs, <a href="#page.anchor.291">291</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.292">292</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>; Totemism and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; various co-existing forms of deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>.</dt> +<dt>Navigation, Sumerians and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nebo (nā´bo), protector of Ashur-bani-pal's +library, <a href="#page.anchor.xxii">xxii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>; as Mercury, the messenger, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>; Merodach and Ea and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.435">435</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; as Mermer-Ramman, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Semiramis inscription, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.422">422</a>; +mother worship and, <a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; spouse +of, <a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; small Kalkhi temple of, +<a href="#page.anchor.487">487</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nebuchadrezzar I (ne-bü-chad-rez´zar) of +Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>; conquests of, +<a href="#page.anchor.381">381</a>; power of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.382">382</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nebuchadrezzar II, Hanging Gardens of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.220">220</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>; +fiery furnace of, <a href="#page.anchor.349">349</a>; +monotheistic hymn of, <a href="#page.anchor.479">479</a>; +Egyptians routed by, <a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>; King of +Judah captured by, <a href="#page.anchor.490">490</a>; takes Jews +captive, <a href="#page.anchor.491">491</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Necho, the Pharaoh, Asiatic campaigns of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>; rout of by Nebuchadrezzar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.489">489</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.490">490</a>.</dt> +<dt>Necho of Sais, Assyrian governor in Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.475">475</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.482">482</a>; slain by Ethiopians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.483">483</a>.</dt> +<dt>Neheb-Kau (ne´heb-kä´ü), Egyptian +serpent goddess, <a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nehemiah in the Susan palace, III; restoration of Jews, +<a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Neith, Egyptian cult of, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; +her arrows of fertility, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a>; +"shuttle" of a thunderbolt, <a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a> +n.</dt> +<dt>Neolithic Age. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Stone Age, the +Late.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Neolithic folk tales, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nepthys (nep´thys) mourning for Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>; laments with Isis for Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>; as joint mother of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>; as serpent goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Neptune, connection of with Ea, Dagon, &c, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; the horn of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nereids (nē´rē-ids), the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>; as demon lovers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nergal (ner´gäl), solar god of disease, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>; as King of Hades, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; Yama +and, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; as Destroyer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.62">62</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; like Teutonic Bell, <a href= +"#page.anchor.95">95</a>; as form of Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.160">160</a>; conflict with Eresh-ki-gal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.205">205</a>; as planet Mars, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>; Horus and Ares and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; like Agni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; Osiris and Tammuz and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as "high head", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; worship of in Samaria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.455">455</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nergal-shar-utsur (ü´tsür), King of +Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nidaba (ni´da-ba), goddess of Lugal-zaggisi, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nightmare, Babylonian demon of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nimrod, eagle myth regarding, <a href= +"#page.anchor.167">167</a>; agricultural myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>; John Barleycorn and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a><span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; the Biblical "mighty hunter", +<a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>; as Ni-Marad (Merodach), +<a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.343">343</a>; the fires of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>; Asshur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nimrud. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Kalkhi</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Nina (ni´na), the fish goddess, Ishtar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>; at Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.327">327</a>; Derceto and Atargatis and, +<a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; goddess of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.327">327</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>; +creatrix and, <a href="#page.anchor.437">437</a>; Persian Anahita +and, <a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nineveh, excavations at, <a href="#page.anchor.xix">xix</a>; +called after Nina, fish goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>; +King Ninus and, <a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>; Biblical +reference to origin of, <a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; Semiramis legend of origin +of, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; plundered by King of +Mitanni, <a href="#page.anchor.280">280</a>; observatory at, +<a href="#page.anchor.321">321</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>; palace of Ashur-natsir-pal III at, +<a href="#page.anchor.399">399</a>; Ionians deported from Cilicia +to, <a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>; as Babylon's rival, +<a href="#page.anchor.469">469</a>; Esarhaddon's Ashur temple at, +<a href="#page.anchor.476">476</a>; Nahum's prophecy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.477">477</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.478">478</a>; +Ashur-bani-pal's palace and library at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>; fall of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>; Scythian legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nin-Girsu (nin-gir´su), the god of Lagash, Ninip and +Tammuz and, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.115">115</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; Ur-Nina and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.118">118</a>; +Urukagina, the reformer, and, <a href="#page.anchor.121">121</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; famous silver +vase from temple of, <a href="#page.anchor.120">120</a>; +lion-headed eagle of, <a href="#page.anchor.120">120</a>; Gudea's +temple to, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; Shamash and Babbar +and, <a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>; development of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>; eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; Merodach and Zamama and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.126">126</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.241">241</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ninip (nin´ip, or Nin´ib), as Nirig and +destroying sun, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Zamama +identified with, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>; during Isin +Dynasty, <a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>; in flood legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.190">190</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; father and son myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +as bull god and boar god, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; the boar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>; as Kronos and Saturn, as elder and +younger Horus, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nin´-shach, Babylonian boar god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.86">86</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nin´-sun, as destroying goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nin´tü, the Babylonian serpent mother, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; Tiamat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ninus, king, legendary founder of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>; +Semiramis and, <a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nin´yas, son of Semiramis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.426">426</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nippur (nip´pur), Enlil god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>; Ninip the Destroyer advances against, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Ramman, Hadad or Dadu and, +<a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Ur-Nina and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>; +Lugal-zaggisi and, <a href="#page.anchor.124">124</a>; Ur moon +god at, <a href="#page.anchor.130">130</a>; Ea's temple at, +<a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>; Isin kings from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.133">133</a>; +Kassites showed preference for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.218">218</a>; observatory at, <a href= +"#page.anchor.321">321</a>; Kheber (Chebar) canal near, <a href= +"#page.anchor.344">344</a>. Nirig (ni´rig), as Ninip and +destroying sun, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>. See +<span class="emphasis"><em>Ninip</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Nisroch, the Biblical, Ashur as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.343">343</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.470">470</a>.</dt> +<dt>Njord (nyerd), the Eddic sea god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Noah, the Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nü, the Egyptian god, the crocodile as <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>; Sumerian form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>; +vaguer than Nut, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nudimmud (nü´dim-müd). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ea</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Nüsk´ü, the god, as fire deity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; as messenger of gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; +connection of with sea fire, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; association of with sun and +moon gods, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.353">353</a>; identified with Nirig and Tammuz, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>.</dt> +<dt>Nut (noo´it), the Egyptian goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>; Tiamat as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>; as mother of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; Nu vaguer than, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">O</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Oak, Saul buried under, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>; +association of with thunder gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Oannes (ō-än´nes), as Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.30">30</a>.</dt> +<dt>Odin (ō´din), <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; +lovers of wife of, <a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>; Gilgamesh +and, <a href="#page.anchor.184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>; the mythical Ages and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.202">202</a>; Paradise of like Indra's, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>.</dt> +<dt>Olympus, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>.</dt> +<dt>Omri, King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>.</dt> +<dt>Opener, the, Horus as, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>. +See <span class="emphasis"><em>Apuata</em></span> and +<span class="emphasis"><em>Patriarch</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Opis, Kish swayed by, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; +King of captured by Eannatum of Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.119">119</a>; Entemena's sack of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ops, <a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ori´on, the Constellation, as form of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; Nin-Girsu and Tammuz as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; as form of the sun, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>.</dt> +<dt>Orion, the Greek giant, origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Osiris (ō-sī´ris), Tammuz cult and cult of, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.81">81</a>. Yama and Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; as god of the Nile, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; creative tears of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; as a "dangerous god", <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>; as patriarch, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.82">82</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.84">84</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>; weeping for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, twin goddesses mourn for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>; Adonis myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; +origin of, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; blood of in Nile, +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; swine associated with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; as the lunar babe, <a href= +"#page.anchor.89">89</a>; as child, husband, brother, and father +of Isis, &c, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; as son with two mothers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.99">99</a>; Nut as mother of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; Paradise of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>; fusion of Ptah with Seb and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>; Isis star and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; the grave of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; makes Isis a male, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; Nergal and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; in star lore, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>; backbone symbol of world mountain, +<a href="#page.anchor.332">332</a>; Merodach and Ashur and, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>.</dt> +<dt>Osiris-Sokar, Merodach like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>.</dt> +<dt>Owl, as ghost of sorrowful mother, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>; Arabian belief regarding, <a href= +"#page.anchor.70">70</a>; reference to in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Isaiah</em></span>., <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ox, the wild, in eagle and serpent myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>. <a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">P</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Palaeolithic Age, skull forms of in France, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>; Palestine in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Palestine, early races in, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; +Palaeolithic finds in, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; cave +dwellers of, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.11">11</a>; in empire of Naram Sin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.129">129</a>; Abraham's wanderings in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.245">245</a>; tribes he found in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.245">245</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.246">246</a>; +Elamites in, <a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.249">249</a>; +Necho's campaigns in, <a href="#page.anchor.489">489</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pan, Ea-bani and, <a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>; the +pipes of, <a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pantheon, the National, during Isin Dynasty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pap-sukal (pap-sü´kal), messenger of gods, rescues +Ishtar from Hades, <a href="#page.anchor.97">97</a>.</dt> +<dt>Paradise, childless ghosts excluded from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>; the Indian, Germanic, and Egyptian, +<a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>; Babylonian beliefs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.210">210</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Hades</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Patesi (pa´te-si), priest king, <a href= +"#page.anchor.1">1</a>.</dt> +<dt>Patriarch, the, Apuatu as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; Sargon of Akkad as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxiii">xxxiii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.91">91</a>; Yama as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.200">200</a>; Osiris and Tammuz as, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.90">90</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; Scyld or Sceaf as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.92">92</a>; Yngve, Frey, Hermod, and Heimdal as, +<a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; the mythical "sleepers" and, +<a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; Nimrod as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; Gilgamesh as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.200">200</a>; Mitra as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.201">201</a>; the Biblical Asshur, <a href= +"#page.anchor.276">276</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.327">327</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; King Ninus of Nineveh and, +<a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>; the Persian and Cyrus, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Paul, Mars' hill sermon of, <a href="#page.anchor.59">59</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.60">60</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pekah, King of Israel, <a href="#page.anchor.450">450</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.451">451</a>; Assyrian king overthrows, +<a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pelasgians, the, Sumerian kinship with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>; Achaeans and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.393">393</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pennsylvania, University of, expedition of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiv">xxiv</a>.</dt> +<dt>Penrith, "Long Meg's" stone circle near, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Persephone (per-sef´on-ē), the Babylonian, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; as lover of Adonis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>.</dt> +<dt>Perseus, legend of, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; the +Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Persia, fire worship in, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>; +Yama of India and Gilgamesh, and Yima of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.200">200</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.201">201</a>; +the mythical Ages of, <a href="#page.anchor.202">202</a>; eagle +symbol of great god of, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; Ashur cult and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.355">355</a>; Britain and Russia in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.357">357</a>; Cyrus King of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>; religion of and Babylonian influence, +<a href="#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Persian Gulf, early Sumerians traded on, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>; Eridu once a port on, <a href= +"#page.anchor.22">22</a>.</dt> +<dt>Petrie, Professor Flinders, dating of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxv">xxv</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>; +alien pottery in Egypt found by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>; on Egypt's culture debt to Syria, +<a href="#page.anchor.275">275</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pharaoh, "Piru" theory, <a href="#page.anchor.458">458</a>, +458 <span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span><span class= +"sub">[<a href="#ftn.fnrex1526">526</a>]</span>.</dt> +<dt>Philistines, the, their god Dagon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.32">32</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; "way +of" an ancient trade route, <a href="#page.anchor.357">357</a>; +invasion of Palestine by, <a href="#page.anchor.379">379</a>; as +overlords of Hebrews, <a href="#page.anchor.379">379</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.380">380</a>; Hittites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.386">386</a>; civilization of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.387">387</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.403">403</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.405">405</a>; as vassals of Damascus, +<a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>; tribute from to Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>.</dt> +<dt>Phoenicians, Baau, mother goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; traditional racial cradle of, +<a href="#page.anchor.244">244</a>; appearance of on +Mediterranean coast, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>; +Melkarth, god of, <a href="#page.anchor.346">346</a>; as allies +of Hebrews, <a href="#page.anchor.388">388</a>.</dt> +<dt>Phrygia, thunder god of, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; +Cybele and Attis of, <a href="#page.anchor.267">267</a>; Muski +and, <a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; King Midas of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; Cimmerians overrun, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; Lydia absorbs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>.</dt> +<dt>Picts, why they painted themselves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.212">212</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pig, demon in, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; sacrificed +to Tammuz, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; associated with +Osiris, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; sacrifice of to cure +disease, <a href="#page.anchor.236">236</a>; totemic significance +of, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>; as the devil in Egypt and +Britain, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>; Ninip as boar god, +<a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pigeons. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Doves</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Pillar worship, "world tree" and "world spine", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pinches, Professor, on Ea, Ya or Jah, and Dagan, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>; on Babylonian "Will-o'-the-wisp", +<a href="#page.anchor.66">66</a>; on Babylonian boar god, +<a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>; on flocks of Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.93">93</a>; on Creation hymn, <a href= +"#page.anchor.149">149</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>; +on Babylonian monotheism, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; on +names of Hammurabi, Tidal, &c, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>; on Merodach as Nimrod, <a href= +"#page.anchor.277">277</a>; on Nebo and Ramman, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>; on Ashur worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>; +on Nusku and Tammuz, <a href="#page.anchor.353">353</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.354">354</a>; on Ashur, Merodach, and Osiris, +<a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; on the sacred doves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pir-na-pish´tim, the Babylonian Noah, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>; sun god and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; Gilgamesh's journey to island of, +<a href="#page.anchor.177">177</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.180">180</a>; +revelation of, <a href="#page.anchor.181">181</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.182">182</a>; the flood legend of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.190">190</a> et seq.; the Indian Yama and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.200">200</a>; the Persian Yima and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.201">201</a>.</dt> +<dt>Planets, deities identified with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; Merodach as Jupiter and Mercury, +<a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; Venus female at sunset and +male at sunrise, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; when gods +were first associated with, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; +Horus identified with three, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; +the seven included sun and moon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Jupiter as "bull of light", <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; the "bearded Aphrodite" and Ishtar, +<a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Ninip (Nirig) and Horus as +Saturn, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; Nebo and Merodach as +Mercury, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; Nergal and Horus as +Mars, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; in doctrine of mythical Ages, +<a href="#page.anchor.313">313</a> et seq.; the Babylonian and +Greek, <a href="#page.anchor.316">316</a>; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Plant of Birth, Etana's quest for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Plant of Life, Gilgamesh's quest for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.177">177</a>.</dt> +<dt>Plato, the dance of the stars, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pleiades (plī´a-dēz), the. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Constellations</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Pleistocene (plīst´o-sēn) Age, the, +Palestinian races of, <a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pliny, on the "Will-o'-the-wisp", <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Plutarch, the Osirian bull myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.89">89</a>; on Babylonian astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Poetry, magical origin of, <a href="#page.anchor.236">236</a> +et seq.</dt> +<dt>Poets, inspired by sacred mead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Polar star, as "world spike", <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>; Lucifer as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.331">331</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pork, tabooed by races, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>.</dt> +<dt>Poseidon (pō-sī´don), <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Postal arrangements, in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.251">251</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pottery, linking specimens of in Turkestan, Elam, Asia Minor, +and Southern Europe, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Prajapati (prăjä´păti), the Indian god, +creative tears of, <a href="#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Preservers, the, mother goddesses as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.100">100</a>.</dt> +<dt>Priests, En-we-dur-an-ki of Sippar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>; the sorcerer's spell, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>; Dudu of Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; as rulers of Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.121">121</a>; and burial ceremonies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.208">208</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>; +fees of cut down by reformer, <a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>; as patrons of culture, +<a href="#page.anchor.287">287</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.288">288</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.289">289</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pritha (preet´hä), mother of Indian Karna, +<a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>.</dt> +<dt>Prophecy, blood-drinking ceremony and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; breath of Apis bull and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Prophets, clothing of, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>.</dt> +<dt>Psamtik (sam´tik), Pharaoh of Egypt under Assyrians, +<a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>; throws off Assyrian yoke, +<a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ptah (tä), the Egyptian god, Ea compared to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.30">30</a>; cult of and mother worshippers, +<a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; deities that link with, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pül, Assyrian king called in Bible, <a href= +"#page.anchor.444">444</a>.</dt> +<dt>Pumpelly expedition, Turkestan discoveries of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.6">6</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Punt, the land of, as "cradle" of Mediterranean race, +<a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>.</dt> +<dt>Purusha (pür-üsh´ă), the Indian chaos +giant, <a href="#page.anchor.429">429</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">Q</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Quarters, the four. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Four +quarters</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Queen of Heaven, the, Ishtar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.81">81</a>; descent of to Hades, <a href= +"#page.anchor.95">95</a> et seq.; Bau-Gula as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; Etana and eagle legend and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>; Ashur worshipped like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>; Jehu worshipped, <a href= +"#page.anchor.412">412</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.421">421</a>.</dt> +<dt>Queen of Kish, the legendary Azag-Bau, <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>; humble origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.115">115</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">R</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Ra (rä <span class="emphasis"><em>or</em></span> +rā), the Egyptian god, as chief of nine gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>; creative tears of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; +creative saliva of, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>; the "Eye" +of blinded and cured, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>; as a +destroyer, <a href="#page.anchor.63">63</a>; in flood legend, +<a href="#page.anchor.197">197</a>; Paradise of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>; Osiris and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>; as old man, <a href= +"#page.anchor.314">314</a>; as cat, ass, bull, ram, and +crocodile, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>Races, languages and, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; the +Sumerian problem, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; shaving customs +of, <a href="#page.anchor.4">4</a>; the Semitic blend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; culture promoted by fusion of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>; god and goddess cults and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Armenoids, Mongolians, Mediterranean Race, +Semites, Sumerians</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Rain gods, Enlil, Ramman, Indra, &c, as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Mitra +and Varuna as, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rainy season in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.24">24</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ram, sun god as, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>; Osiris +as, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rämă, the Indian demi-god, demon lover of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>; colour of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>. <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Ramayana</em></span> +(räm-ay´ăn-ă), the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>; eagle myth in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.166">166</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rameses I (räm´e-sēz <span class= +"emphasis"><em>or</em></span> ra-mē´sēs), +Hittites and, <a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rameses II, of Egypt, wars of in Syria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.365">365</a>; the Hittite treaty, <a href= +"#page.anchor.366">366</a>; Hittites aided by Aramaeans against, +<a href="#page.anchor.378">378</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rameses III, sea raiders scattered by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.379">379</a>; Philistines and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.379">379</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ramman (räm´män), the atmospheric and thunder +god, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; in Zu bird myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; a hill god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>; Merodach and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; +in flood legend, <a href="#page.anchor.192">192</a> et seq.; +deities that link with, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; +called Mermer like Nebo, <a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; +month of, <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rams, offered to sea god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rassam, Hormuzd, <a href="#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ravens, demons enter the, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>; +in folk cures, <a href="#page.anchor.234">234</a>; as unlucky +birds, <a href="#page.anchor.429">429</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rawlinson, Sir Henry, <a href="#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxi">xxi</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rebekah, Hittite daughters-in-law of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.266">266</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>Reed hut, Ea revelation to Pir-napish-tim in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.190">190</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.191">191</a>; +and reeds in graves, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>.</dt> +<dt>Reformer, the first historic, Urukagina of Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.121">121</a> et seq.</dt> +<dt>Rehoboam (rē-ho-bō´am), subject to Egypt, +<a href="#page.anchor.402">402</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rem, the Egyptian god of fish and corn, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rephaim (reph´ā-im), the, Hittites and, II, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rezin, King of Damascus, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>; +Pekah plots with, <a href="#page.anchor.451">451</a>; +Tiglath-pileser IV and, <a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rhea, <a href="#page.anchor.103">103</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rhone, the river, dragon of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.152">152</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ribhus (rib´hüs), the elves of India, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ridgeway, Professor, on the Achaeans, <a href= +"#page.anchor.377">377</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rim-Anum (rim-an´um), revolt of in Hammurabi Age, +<a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rimmon (rim´mon), Enlil, Tarku, &c., as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rim-Sin, struggle of with Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.217">217</a>; Hammurabi reduces power of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.249">249</a>; put to death by Samsu-iluna, <a href= +"#page.anchor.249">249</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rim´ush. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Urumush</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Ripley, Professor W.Z., on Mediterranean racial types in +Asia, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>.</dt> +<dt>Risley, Mr., on Naturalism in India, <a href= +"#page.anchor.291">291</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rivers, worship of, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>; life +principle in, <a href="#page.anchor.48">48</a>; created by +Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.149">149</a>.</dt> +<dt>Robin Goodfellow, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>.</dt> +<dt>Roman burial customs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.207">207</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rome, the death eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rose Garden, the Wonderful, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, the Lilith sonnet, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rudra (rood´rä), the Indian god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>.</dt> +<dt>Rusas (rü´säs), King of Urartu, Sargon II +routs, <a href="#page.anchor.460">460</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>.</dt> +<dt>Russia, the double-headed eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; Persian and Armenian questions, +<a href="#page.anchor.357">357</a>.</dt> +<dt>Russian Turkestan, early civilization of and the Sumerian, +<a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">S</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Saliva, Isis serpent formed from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; magical qualities of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>.</dt> +<dt>Samaria, building of, <a href="#page.anchor.405">405</a>; +murder of Jezebel in, <a href="#page.anchor.410">410</a>; +Assyrians capture, <a href="#page.anchor.455">455</a>; "ten +tribes" deported, <a href="#page.anchor.455">455</a>; Babylonians +settled in, <a href="#page.anchor.456">456</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sammu-rammat (sam´mu-ram-mat), Queen of Assyria, as +Semiramis, <a href="#page.anchor.417">417</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.438">438</a>; a +Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.418">418</a>; high status of, +<a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>; relation to Adadnirari IV, +<a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.420">420</a>; innovations of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.421">421</a>; mother worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.436">436</a>; +Queen Nakia like, <a href="#page.anchor.470">470</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>.</dt> +<dt>Samsu-iluna (säm-sü-il-ü´na), King, son +of Hammurabi, slays Rim-Sin, <a href="#page.anchor.249">249</a>; +Kassites appear in reign of, <a href="#page.anchor.255">255</a>; +Erech and Ur restored by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.256">256</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sandan (sän´dän), the god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>; Agni and Melkarth and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>; winged disk of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>. Also rendered <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sandes</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Sandstorms, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.24">24</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sap of plants, vitalized by water of life, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sarah, Abraham's wife, <a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>.</dt> +<dt>Saraswati (să-răs´wă-tee), wife of +Brahma, <a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sardanapalus (sar-dan-a-pā´lus), palace burning +of, <a href="#page.anchor.350">350</a>; Ashur-bani-pal and, +<a href="#page.anchor.486">486</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sargon of Akkad, as Patriarch, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxxiii">xxxiii</a>; the Patriarch-Tammuz myth of, +<a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>; humble origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.125">125</a>; legend of like Indian Karna story, +<a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>; empire of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.127">127</a>; Enlil-bani of Isin like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>; Gilgamesh legend and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.172">172</a>; +Sargon II an incarnation of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.462">462</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sargon II, King of Assyria, excavations at city of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>; "Lost Ten Tribes" deported by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.455">455</a>; Merodach Baladan revolt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.457">457</a>; Syrian revolts against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.458">458</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.459">459</a>; +tribute from Piru of Mutsri, <a href="#page.anchor.458">458</a>; +Piru and Pharaoh, <a href="#page.anchor.458">458</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; Isaiah warns Ahaz regarding, +<a href="#page.anchor.459">459</a>; Hittites and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; Urartu crippled by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.461">461</a>; +Merodach Baladan ejected by, <a href="#page.anchor.462">462</a>; +Messianic pretensions of, <a href="#page.anchor.462">462</a>; +Dur-Sharrukin built by, <a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>; +deities worshipped by, <a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>; +assassination of, <a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.464">464</a>.</dt> +<dt>Saturn, the planet, Horus as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.300">300</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; +in sun and moon group, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Ninip +(Nirig) as, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; as ghost of elder +god, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; the "black", <a href= +"#page.anchor.314">314</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.315">315</a>; +in astrology, <a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Satyrs, the dance of at Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>.</dt> +<dt>Saul, the ephod ceremony, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.214">214</a>; cremation of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.350">350</a>.</dt> +<dt>Saushatar (sa-ü-sha´tär), King of Mitanni, +Assyria subdued by, <a href="#page.anchor.279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sayce, Professor, on Dagon-Dagan problem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.32">32</a>; on Daonus and Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>; on Hittite chronology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>; on star worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; on the goat god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; +Hittite winged disk, <a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.428">428</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sceaf or Scef, "the sheaf", Tammuz and the Germanic myth of, +<a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.92">92</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>.</dt> +<dt>Schliemann, pottery finds by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Schools, in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.251">251</a>.</dt> +<dt>Scorpion man and wife, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.177">177</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>.</dt> +<dt>Scotland, the sea god of, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; +spitting customs in, <a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>; the "Great +Mother" in, a demon, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>; return of +dead dreaded in, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>; "calling back" +belief in, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; south-west wind a hag like +Babylonian, <a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; fairies and elves +of, <a href="#page.anchor.80">80</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; Tammuz-Diarmid myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Diarmid a love god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; the eternal goddess of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; "the Yellow Muilearteach" of, +<a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; slain by Finn as Merodach +slays Tiamat, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; great eel story +of, <a href="#page.anchor.152">152</a>; mother-monster Sumerian +lore in, <a href="#page.anchor.153">153</a>; giant lore of, +<a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; Etana-like eagle myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.167">167</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>; +John Barleycorn, the Icelandic god Barleycorn and Nimrod, +<a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.170">170</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>; water of life myths of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>; +dark tunnel stories of, <a href="#page.anchor.189">189</a>; +Pictish customs in, <a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>; the +Gunna, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; seers and bull skin +ceremony, <a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; folk cures in, +<a href="#page.anchor.232">232</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.233">233</a>; pig as the devil in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>; May day solar belief in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; the "seven sleepers" in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.394">394</a>; "death thraw" belief, <a href= +"#page.anchor.427">427</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; doves and ravens, <a href= +"#page.anchor.429">429</a>; pigeon lore in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.431">431</a>.</dt> +<dt>Scott, Sir Walter, the Taghairm ceremony, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>.</dt> +<dt>Scyld. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Sceaf</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Scythians, raids of in Western Asia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>; fall of Nineveh, <a href= +"#page.anchor.488">488</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea demon, Ea as a, <a href="#page.anchor.62">62</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea fire, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.51">51</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea giants, the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea goddess, Ea's spouse as, and earth lady, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea gods, Ea, Dagon, Poseidon, Neptune, Shony, and Njord as, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Sea Lady", the, Sabitu, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.179">179</a>; +Germanic hag and, <a href="#page.anchor.184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>; the Indian Maya like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.188">188</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sea of Death, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Sealand, Dynasty of in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.257">257</a>; in Kassite Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.274">274</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.275">275</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seasonal changes, evil spirits cause, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seasons, the, of Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sebek (seb´ek), Egyptian crocodile god, as a weeping +deity, <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sekhet (se´khet), the Egyptian goddess, Ishtar and, +<a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seleucid Period, Lagash occupied in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seleucus I, <a href="#page.anchor.498">498</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seleukeia, rival city to Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.498">498</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Self power", <a href="#page.anchor.xxxiii">xxxiii</a>; +conception of in stage of Naturalism, <a href= +"#page.anchor.291">291</a>; the "world soul" conception, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; Anu a form of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>; the "world soul", <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>; gods as phases of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.329">329</a>; stars as phases of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.331">331</a>.</dt> +<dt>Semiramis (sem-ir´a-mis), Queen, as founder of Nineveh, +<a href="#page.anchor.277">277</a>; Queen Sammu-rammat as, +<a href="#page.anchor.417">417</a>; mother worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.434">434</a>; +birth legend like Shakuntala's, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>; +as representative of mother goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>; buildings and mounds of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.426">426</a>; +Persian connection, <a href="#page.anchor.427">427</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>; dove symbol of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.431">431</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.432">432</a>; +origin of legend of, <a href="#page.anchor.437">437</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.438">438</a>; Urartu and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.441">441</a>; Queen Nakia and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; wife of Cambyses like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sammu-rammat.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Semites, Akkadians were, <a href="#page.anchor.2">2</a>; the +racial blend of, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; influence of on Sumerian +gods, <a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.136">136</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.137">137</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sennacherib (sen-näk´er-ib), King of Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.463">463</a>; wars of in Elam and Asia +Minor, <a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>; Ionians deported to +Nineveh by, <a href="#page.anchor.464">464</a>; Merodach +Baladan's second reign, <a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; army +of destroyed by "angel of the Lord", <a href= +"#page.anchor.466">466</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.467">467</a>; +death of Merodach Baladan, <a href="#page.anchor.468">468</a>; +destruction of Babylon by, <a href="#page.anchor.468">468</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.469">469</a>; murder of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.470">470</a>; Nakia, Babylonian wife of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sergi, Professor, on Syrian and Asia Minor races, <a href= +"#page.anchor.11">11</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.267">267</a>.</dt> +<dt>Serpent, Isis makes from saliva of Ra, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>; in group of seven spirits, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>; the world, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; dragon as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>; +totemic theory, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; in Crete, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>.</dt> +<dt>Serpent charms, as fertility and birth charms, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>.</dt> +<dt>Serpent worship, <a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Serpents, the mother of, in Zu bird myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.75">75</a>; the +Babylonian and Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a> , +<a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sesostris (se-sōs´tris), Hittite god identified +with, <a href="#page.anchor.441">441</a>; Semiramis and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.426">426</a>.</dt> +<dt>Set, as boar demon, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>; as the dragon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>; as thunder god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seti I (set´ee), of Egypt, struggle of with Hittites, +<a href="#page.anchor.364">364</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seven, the demons in groups of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Sevenfold One", <a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>; +constellations as, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Tammuz as, +<a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Seven sleepers", the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.394">394</a>.</dt> +<dt>Seven spirits, the, dragon, &c., in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>; the daughters of Anu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>; the sexless, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shabaka (shä´bä-kä), King of Egypt, the +Biblical So and, <a href="#page.anchor.454">454</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Shakespeare, "Jack" the fairy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>; Tiamat-like imagery in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; "sea devils", <a href= +"#page.anchor.152">152</a>; grave inscription of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.215">215</a>; +astrology references, <a href="#page.anchor.324">324</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.325">325</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shakuntala (shă-koon´tă-läh), birth +legend of like Semiramis's, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>; Persian eagle legend and, +<a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shallum (shäl´lüm), revolt of at Samaria, +<a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shalmaneser I (shäl-män-<span class= +"emphasis"><em>e</em></span>´-ser), of Assyria, a great +conqueror, <a href="#page.anchor.363">363</a>; western and +northern expansion, <a href="#page.anchor.366">366</a>; Kalkhi +capital of, <a href="#page.anchor.367">367</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shalmaneser III, referred to in Bible, <a href= +"#page.anchor.401">401</a>; attacks on Aramaeans and Hittites, +<a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a>; Ahab of Israel fights +against, <a href="#page.anchor.407">407</a>; authority of in +Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.408">408</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.409">409</a>; defeat of Hazael of Damascus, +<a href="#page.anchor.411">411</a>; tribute from Jehu of Israel, +<a href="#page.anchor.411">411</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.412">412</a>; conquests of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>; revolt of son against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.414">414</a>; death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>; Babylonian culture, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>; library of at Kalkhi, <a href= +"#page.anchor.422">422</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shalmaneser IV, of Assyria, reign of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>; Urartu wars of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.442">442</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shalmaneser V, imprisons Hoshea of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.454">454</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.455">455</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shamash (shäm´ash), Semitic name of sun god, +<a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>; Babbar Sumerian name of, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.240">240</a>; Mitra and Varuna and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>; as god of destiny, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; Mithra and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>; sun +as "boat of the sky", <a href="#page.anchor.56">56</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; consort and attendants of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; +local importance of, <a href="#page.anchor.58">58</a>; in eagle +and serpent myths, <a href="#page.anchor.75">75</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>; development of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; in Gilgamesh legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.172">172</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; as an abstract deity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.240">240</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>; +oracle of pleads for Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.272">272</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as the "high head", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; "water sun" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; the wheel symbol of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>; Aramaeans destroy temple of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.445">445</a>; worshipped by Esarhaddon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.471">471</a>; oracle of and Ashur-bani-pal, +<a href="#page.anchor.481">481</a>; Nabonidus and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shamash-shum-ukin (sham´ash-shum-ü´kin), +King of Babylon, <a href="#page.anchor.471">471</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.476">476</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.480">480</a>; +restoration of Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.480">480</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.481">481</a>; revolt of against +Ashur-bani-pal, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>; burns himself +in palace, <a href="#page.anchor.485">485</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shamshi-Adad VII (sham´shi-ad´ad), King of +Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>; civil war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>; conquests of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.415">415</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.416">416</a>; +culture in reign of, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>; rise of +Urartu, <a href="#page.anchor.440">440</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shär, the god. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Anshar</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Shär Apsi, "King of the Deep", Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Shar Kishsháte", "King of the World", Assyrian title, +<a href="#page.anchor.363">363</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.370">370</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sharduris III (shar´dü-ris), of Urartu, routed by +Tiglath-pileser IV, <a href="#page.anchor.446">446</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.447">447</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shaving customs, significance of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>; of Arabians and Libyans, &c., +<a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>; why Sumerian gods were bearded, +<a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.137">137</a> .</dt> +<dt>Shedu (shā´du), the destroying bull, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>; as household fairy, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sheep, skin of in graves, <a href= +"#page.anchor.213">213</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shepherd, the divine, Tammuz as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sheshonk (shish´ak), Pharaoh of Egypt, alliance with +Solomon, <a href="#page.anchor.388">388</a>; Hebrews spoiled by, +<a href="#page.anchor.391">391</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shinar, the Biblical, <a href="#page.anchor.111">111</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>; Amraphel (Hammurabi) of, +<a href="#page.anchor.131">131</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shishak. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Sheshonk</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Shivă, the Indian god, Bel Enlil like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; the Sumerian Ninip like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Osiris and Ra like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>; in "dying Indra" myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shony (shon´ee), sea god of Scottish Hebrides, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shü, the Egyptian god, created from saliva, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>,</dt> +<dt>Shubari (shu-bä´ri) tribes, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shurippak´ or Shurruppak´, city of, in flood +legend, <a href="#page.anchor.190">190</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.191">191</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>.</dt> +<dt>Shushan. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Susa</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Siberia, elves of, <a href="#page.anchor.105">105</a>; +"calling back" of ghosts in, <a href="#page.anchor.69">69</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sidon, conspiracy against Nebuchadrezzar II, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>; tribute of to Adadnirari IV, <a href= +"#page.anchor.439">439</a>; Tyre and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.388">388</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.392">392</a>; +Israel an ally of, <a href="#page.anchor.406">406</a>; in league +against Esarhaddon, <a href="#page.anchor.472">472</a>; +destruction of, <a href="#page.anchor.473">473</a>.</dt> +<dt>Siegfried (seeg´freed), "birds of Fate" sang to, +<a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>; the "Regin" dragon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Signs of the Zodiac. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Zodiac.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Sigurd (see´goord), link with Merodach as dragon +slayer, <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n.</em></span>; the "Fafner" dragon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin, desert of, called after moon god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin, the moon god, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>; consort and children of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>; Shamash, Mitra, and Varuna chastise, +<a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>; in demon war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.76">76</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>; as +father of Isis, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; as form of +Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; month of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Ashur worshipped with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.353">353</a>; Nabonidus as worshipper of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.494">494</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Moon</em></span> and <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Nannar</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Sinai, mountains of, called after moon god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin-iksha (sin-ik´sha). King of Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin-magir (sin-mä´gir), King of Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin-muballit (sin-mü-bäl´lit), King, father +of Hammurabi, <a href="#page.anchor.132">132</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a>; struggle of with Elamites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sin-shar-ish´kun, last King of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.487">487</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sippar (sip´par), sun god chief deity of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.40">40</a>; a famous priestly teacher of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.42">42</a>; goddess of assists Merodach to create +mankind, <a href="#page.anchor.148">148</a>; rise of sun cult of, +<a href="#page.anchor.240">240</a>; first Amoritic king of, +<a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>; Esarhaddon plunders, <a href= +"#page.anchor.472">472</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sirius, the star, Teutonic giant as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; goddess Isis as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Skull forms, language and, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; of +Mongolian, Ural-Altaic, and Mediterranean peoples, <a href= +"#page.anchor.3">3</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.4">4</a>; Kurdish +and Armenian treatment, <a href="#page.anchor.4">4</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>; of early Egyptians and Sumerians, +<a href="#page.anchor.7">7</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; Palaeolithic still survive, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>; persistence of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.8">8</a>; broad heads in Western Asia, Egypt, and +India, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.9">9</a>; the Semitic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sky, conception of "Self Power" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.292">292</a>; god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>; goddesses of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.36">36</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sleeper, the divine, Angus, the Irish, and Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sleepers, the seven, the Indras as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; Thomas the Rhymer, Finn, Napoleon, +and Skobeleff as, <a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; as spirits +of fertility, <a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; Tammuz and, +<a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>.</dt> +<dt>Smith, Professor Elliot, on Sumerian origins, <a href= +"#page.anchor.7">7</a>; on origin of Semites, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; on conquest by Akkadians of Sumerians, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>; on first use of copper, +<a href="#page.anchor.12">12</a>; on early Egyptian invasion of +"broad heads", <a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>.</dt> +<dt>Smith, George, career and discoveries of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxi">xxi</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.xxiii">xxiii</a>; "Descent of Ishtar", <a href= +"#page.anchor.95">95</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Smith, Professor Robertson, on Atargatis legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.28">28</a>; on life-blood beliefs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.47">47</a>; on agricultural weeping ceremony, +<a href="#page.anchor.83">83</a>.</dt> +<dt>Snakes, doves and, Cretan goddess and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>.</dt> +<dt>So, King of Egypt, Shabaka and other kings and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.454">454</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.454">454</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Sokar, a composite monster god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sokar (sok´är), Egyptian lord of fear, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>.</dt> +<dt>Solomon, King, ally of Egypt and Tyre, <a href= +"#page.anchor.388">388</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.389">389</a>; +sea trade of with India, <a href="#page.anchor.389">389</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.390">390</a>; Babylonia during period of, +<a href="#page.anchor.391">391</a>; Judah and Israel separated +after death of, <a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.402">402</a>.</dt> +<dt>Soma (sō´mă), source of inspiration, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>.</dt> +<dt>Song of the Sea Lady, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.179">179</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Soul of the land", river Euphrates as the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.23">23</a>.</dt> +<dt>Souls, carried to Hades by eagle, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>.</dt> +<dt>Spells on water, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>; layers of +punished, <a href="#page.anchor.233">233</a>.</dt> +<dt>Spinning, in Late Stone Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.14">14</a>.</dt> +<dt>Spirits, "air" and "breath" as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.49">49</a>; gods +evolved from, <a href="#page.anchor.60">60</a>; the good and +evil, <a href="#page.anchor.58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.63">63</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.77">77</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.78">78</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.236">236</a>; the Gorgons, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; periodic liberation of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.65">65</a>; the "calling back" belief, <a href= +"#page.anchor.69">69</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.70">70</a>; +penetrate everywhere, <a href="#page.anchor.71">71</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.72">72</a>; of luck and fate, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.236">236</a>; +elves, Ribhus, and Burkans as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Spitting customs, in Asia, Africa, and Europe, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>.</dt> +<dt>Spring sun, the, Tammuz as god of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sri, the Indian eternal mother, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>.</dt> +<dt>Stars, the, great beauty of in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.24">24</a>; "Will-o'-the-wisps" as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.67">67</a>; Zu bird and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; Merodach fixes Signs of the Zodiac, +<a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>; the "stations" of Enlil and +Ea, <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>; animals and myths of the, +<a href="#page.anchor.289">289</a>; in various local mythologies, +<a href="#page.anchor.290">290</a>; the "host of heaven", +<a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; as totems, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>; as ghosts, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>; +in mythologies of Teutons, Aryo-Indians, Greeks, Egyptians, +&c., <a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.319">319</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.320">320</a>; star of Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; Ishtar myths, <a href= +"#page.anchor.295">295</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; +Merodach as Regulus and Capella, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; bi-sexual deities and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.299">299</a>; early association of Isis with, +<a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; three for each month, +<a href="#page.anchor.307">307</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.308">308</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; +the "divinities of council", <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; +the doctrine of mythical Ages and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; popular worship of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.317">317</a>; as "birth-ruling divinities", +<a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; spirits of associated with +gods, <a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; in Indian Vedas and +"Forest Books", <a href="#page.anchor.318">318</a>; Biblical +references to, <a href="#page.anchor.324">324</a>; literary +references to, <a href="#page.anchor.325">325</a>; Anshar as the +Pole star, <a href="#page.anchor.330">330</a>; Isaiah and Polar +star myth, <a href="#page.anchor.331">331</a>; Polar star as "the +kid", <a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; in Ashur ring symbol, +<a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a>.</dt> +<dt>Steer, moon god as the, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.135">135</a>.</dt> +<dt>Stone Age, the Late, pottery of in Turkestan, Elam, Asia +Minor, and Europe, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; origin of +agriculture in, <a href="#page.anchor.6">6</a>; in Palestine, +<a href="#page.anchor.10">10</a>; racial blending in Egypt in, +II; civilization in, <a href="#page.anchor.13">13</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; refined faces of +men of, <a href="#page.anchor.15">15</a>.</dt> +<dt>Stone worship, moon worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.52">52</a>; Ninip the bull god and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>.</dt> +<dt>Storm demons, the Babylonian Shutu and Adapa legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; the +European, <a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Wind +hags</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Strabo, on Babylonian works of Alexander, <a href= +"#page.anchor.498">498</a>; on Semiramis legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.425">425</a>.</dt> +<dt>Straw girdle, a birth charm, <a href= +"#page.anchor.165">165</a>.</dt> +<dt>Subbi-luliuma (süb´bi-lu-li-ü´ma), +Hittite king, conquests of, <a href="#page.anchor.283">283</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.363">363</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sumer, or Sumeria (shoo´mer <span class= +"emphasis"><em>and</em></span> sum-ā´ri-a]), its +racial and geographical significance, <a href= +"#page.anchor.1">1</a>; early name of Kengi, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>; agriculture in at earliest period, +<a href="#page.anchor.6">6</a>; culture of indigenous, <a href= +"#page.anchor.6">6</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.7">7</a>; women's +high social status in, <a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.17">17</a>; Eridu a seaport of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.22">22</a>; surplus products and trade of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.25">25</a>; gods of like Egyptian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.26">26</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.37">37</a>; modes of thought and habits of +life in, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; the Great Mother +Tiamat of, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>; early history of, +<a href="#page.anchor.109">109</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; principal cities of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.110">110</a>; the "plain of Shinar", <a href= +"#page.anchor.111">111</a>; why gods of were bearded, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.136">136</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.137">137</a>; burial customs of like early +Egyptian, <a href="#page.anchor.211">211</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.214">214</a>; cities of destroyed in Hammurabi Age, +<a href="#page.anchor.243">243</a>; the Biblical Shinar is, +<a href="#page.anchor.247">247</a>; stars in primitive religion +of, <a href="#page.anchor.289">289</a>; Naturalism and the Zi, +<a href="#page.anchor.291">291</a>; sculpture of compared with +Assyrian, <a href="#page.anchor.401">401</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sumerian goddesses, racial origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sumerians, characteristics of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>; Akkadians adopted culture of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; unlike +the Chinese, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; Mongolian affinities +of doubtful, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; language of +agglutinative like those of Chinese, Turks, Magyars, Finns, and +Basques, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>; Ural-Altaic racial +theory, <a href="#page.anchor.4">4</a>; shaving customs of, +<a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; of Mediterranean or Brown Race, +<a href="#page.anchor.7">7</a>; congeners of prehistoric +Europeans, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>; Arabs and Egyptians +and, <a href="#page.anchor.9">9</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; conquered by Akkadians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.12">12</a>; survival of culture and language of, +<a href="#page.anchor.13">13</a>; in early Copper Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.12">12</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.13">13</a>; pious +records of kings of, <a href="#page.anchor.112">112</a>; how +history of is being restored, <a href="#page.anchor.113">113</a>; +the earliest dates, <a href="#page.anchor.114">114</a>; end of +political power of, <a href="#page.anchor.217">217</a>; as early +astronomers, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sumu-abum (su´mu-a´bum), early Amoritic king, +<a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sumu-la-ilu (su-mu´la-i´lu), early King of +Hammurabi Age, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>; capture of +Kish by, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a>; Assyrian king claims descent from, +<a href="#page.anchor.419">419</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sun, origin of in sea fire, <a href="#page.anchor.50">50</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; seasonal worship of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.240">240</a>; +Mitra and Varuna as regulators of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>; as "boat of the sky", <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; as a planet, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; as bridegroom, <a href= +"#page.anchor.306">306</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.306">306</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>; the "man in" the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.335">335</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sun, god of, Ninip, Nirig, and Nergal as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.303">303</a>; Babbar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>; as Judge of living and dead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>; as seer of secret sin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; links +between Shamash, Mitra, and Varuna, <a href= +"#page.anchor.54">54</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>: Ninip +and Nin-Girsu, and Babbar and Shamash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; Tammuz as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>; forms of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.297">297</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.298">298</a>; +Horus as the, <a href="#page.anchor.300">300</a>; as offspring +and spouse of moon, <a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; Orion as +a manifestation of, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; animals +identified with, <a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.330">330</a>; symbols of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.335">335</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sundial, a Babylonian invention, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>; of Ahaz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.323">323</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sun god, Shamash as, <a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>; +centres of, <a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>. See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Shamash</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Sun goddess, the Babylonian and Hittite, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>.</dt> +<dt>Surpanakha (sür-pă´năk-hä]), the +Indian demon, like Lilith, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Susa, prehistoric pottery of, <a href="#page.anchor.5">5</a>; +capital of Elam, <a href="#page.anchor.111">111</a>; Hammurabi +Code discovered at, <a href="#page.anchor.222">222</a>; burning +of Persian palace at, <a href="#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sutarna II (sü-tär´nä), King of Mitanni, +<a href="#page.anchor.283">283</a>; deposed by rival, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>.</dt> +<dt>Sutekh (süt´ekh), as tribal god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>; as dragon slayer, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>; Hittite thunder and fertility god +and, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>.</dt> +<dt>Suti (sü´ti), the, Aramaean robbers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.285">285</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.359">359</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>; settled in Asia Minor, +<a href="#page.anchor.461">461</a>.</dt> +<dt>Svip´dag, Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>.</dt> +<dt>Swan, Irish love god as, <a href="#page.anchor.428">428</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; love messenger in +India, <a href="#page.anchor.429">429</a>.</dt> +<dt>Swan maidens, as lovers, <a href= +"#page.anchor.68">68</a>.</dt> +<dt>Swine, offerings of to sea god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.33">33</a>; demons enter, <a href= +"#page.anchor.71">71</a>; sacrificed to Tammuz, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; associated with Osiris, <a href= +"#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Gaelic Hag's herd of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; sacrifice of to cure disease, <a href= +"#page.anchor.236">236</a>; Ninip as boar god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.302">302</a>.</dt> +<dt>Symbolism, forehead symbol of Apis bull and Sumerian goat, +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; "high heads": Anshar, Anu, +Enlil, Ea, Merodach, Nergal, and Shamash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; symbols of "high heads", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>; the "world spine" and "world tree", +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; the "water sun" of Shamash, +<a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Ashur's winged disks or +"wheels", <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; "man in the sun" in Assyria, +Egypt, and India, <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>; Blake's "double vision", <a href= +"#page.anchor.336">336</a>; the arrow symbol, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>; "shuttle" of Neith a thunderbolt, +<a href="#page.anchor.337">337</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; Assyria the cedar, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.341">341</a>; +Isaiah and Ezekiel use Babylonian and Assyrian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.341">341</a>; the eagle, <a href= +"#page.anchor.343">343</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a>; +Ezekiel's wheels and four-faced cherubs, <a href= +"#page.anchor.344">344</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; wheels or disks of Hittites, Indians, &c., +<a href="#page.anchor.347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; the double axe, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; the Ashur arrow, <a href= +"#page.anchor.351">351</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>; +the "dot within the circle" and egg thorn, <a href= +"#page.anchor.352">352</a>.</dt> +<dt>Syria, broad heads in, <a href="#page.anchor.8">8</a>; early +races in, <a href="#page.anchor.11">11</a>; supposed invasion of +by Lugal-zaggisi, <a href="#page.anchor.125">125</a>; Sargon of +Akkad's empire in, <a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a>; hill god +of, <a href="#page.anchor.136">136</a>; sheepskin burials in, +<a href="#page.anchor.213">213</a>; culture of higher than Egypt +at end of Hyksos Age, <a href="#page.anchor.275">275</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">T</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Tabal (ta-bäl´), Hittite Cilician kingdom of, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>; Shalmaneser III subdues king +of, <a href="#page.anchor.414">414</a>; Sargon II conquers, +<a href="#page.anchor.460">460</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>; Biblical reference to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.464">464</a>; tribute from to Ashur-bani-pal, +<a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tablets of Destiny, the, Zu bird steals, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; Tiamat gives to Kingu in Creation +legend, <a href="#page.anchor.141">141</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.145">145</a>; Merodach takes from Kingu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.146">146</a>; Ninip receives, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>.</dt> +<dt>Taharka (tä-har´ka), King of Egypt, in +anti-Assyrian revolt, <a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; +intrigues against Esarhaddon, <a href="#page.anchor.471">471</a>; +Esarhaddon's invasion of Egypt, <a href= +"#page.anchor.475">475</a>; flight of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.475">475</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.476">476</a>; +death of, <a href="#page.anchor.482">482</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tammuz, Osiris and, <a href="#page.anchor.xxxi">xxxi</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.81">81</a>; variations of myths of, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; blood of in river, +<a href="#page.anchor.47">47</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.48">48</a>; as the shepherd and spring sun, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; spends winter in Hades, +<a href="#page.anchor.53">53</a>; links with Mithra, <a href= +"#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.94">94</a>; son +of Ea, <a href="#page.anchor.82">82</a>; Belit-sheri, sister of, +<a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; Ishtar, mother and lover of, +<a href="#page.anchor.101">101</a>; worship of among Hebrews, +<a href="#page.anchor.82">82</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.107">107</a>; +as "the man of sorrows", <a href="#page.anchor.88">88</a>; "the +true and faithful son", <a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; as the +patriarch, <a href="#page.anchor.82">82</a>; Sargon of Akkad myth +and, <a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>; links with Adonis, Attis, +Diarmid, and pre-Hellenic deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.83">83</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.84">84</a>; blood +of in river, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; kid and sucking +pig of, <a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; as "steer of heaven", +<a href="#page.anchor.85">85</a>; Nin-shach, boar god, as slayer +of, <a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>; Ishtar laments for, +<a href="#page.anchor.86">86</a>; month of wailings for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.89">89</a> ; why +Ishtar deserted, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.103">103</a>; as the love god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>; dies with vegetation, &c., <a href= +"#page.anchor.87">87</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.88">88</a>; +sacred cedar of, <a href="#page.anchor.88">88</a>; in gloomy +Hades, <a href="#page.anchor.89">89</a>; return of like Frode +(Frey), <a href="#page.anchor.95">95</a>; as the slumbering corn +child, <a href="#page.anchor.89">89</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.91">91</a>; +Teutonic Scyld or Sceaf and, <a href="#page.anchor.92">92</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; Frey, Hermod, and Heimdal like, +<a href="#page.anchor.93">93</a>; as world guardian and +demon-slayer like Heimdal and Agni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.94">94</a>; as the healer like Khonsu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.94">94</a>; Ishtar visits Hades for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.96">96</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.97">97</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; refusal to leave Hades, +<a href="#page.anchor.98">98</a>; like Kingu in Tiamat myth, +<a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>; Nin-Girsu, or En-Mersi, of +Lagash a form of, <a href="#page.anchor.116">116</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; Nina and Belitsheri and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.117">117</a>; Sargon myth like Indian Karnastory, +<a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>; Zamama, Merodach, Ninip and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.53">53</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.158">158</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.241">241</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.302">302</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; as elder god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; Etana and Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>; as patriarch and sleeper, <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>; eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>; +Nimrod myth, <a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>; John Barleycorn +and, <a href="#page.anchor.170">170</a>; Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.172">172</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>; in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.176">176</a>; Nebo and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.435">435</a>; +Adonis slain by boar god of war, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>; planetary deities and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.304">304</a>; +forms of like Horus, <a href="#page.anchor.305">305</a>; astral +links with Merodach and Attis, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.340">340</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a>; identified with Nusku, +&c., <a href="#page.anchor.354">354</a>; as Anshar, En Mersi, +and Nin-Girsu, <a href="#page.anchor.333">333</a>; doves and, 428 +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span><span class= +"sub">[<a href="#ftn.fnrex1480">480</a>]</span>.</dt> +<dt>Tanutamon (tä-nut´ämon), Ethiopian king, +Assyrians expelled from Memphis by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.482">482</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>; +defeat of, <a href="#page.anchor.483">483</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tarku (tär´kü), Asia Minor thunder god, +<a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tarsus, Hittite city of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tashmit (täsh´mit), spouse of Nebo, <a href= +"#page.anchor.436">436</a>; creatrix and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.437">437</a>.</dt> +<dt>Taylor, J.E., <a href="#page.anchor.xx">xx</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tears, agricultural weeping ceremonies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Tears of deities, the fertilizing, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>; the creative, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tefnut (tef´nut), the Egyptian goddess, created from +saliva, <a href="#page.anchor.46">46</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tell-el-Amarna letters, historical evidence from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Assyrian king's letter, <a href= +"#page.anchor.284">284</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.285">285</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tello (tello´), Lagash site, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; archaic forms of gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.135">135</a>; mound of, Lagash site, <a href= +"#page.anchor.243">243</a>.</dt> +<dt>Temples, the houses of gods, <a href= +"#page.anchor.60">60</a>.</dt> +<dt>Teshub or Teshup (tesh´ub), thunder god of Armenia, +<a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; as a Mitannian god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.269">269</a>; in Tell-el-Amarna letters, <a href= +"#page.anchor.282">282</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Teutonic sea-fire belief, <a href= +"#page.anchor.51">51</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thebes, sack of by Assyrians, <a href= +"#page.anchor.483">483</a>.</dt> +<dt>Theodoric (toyd´rik <span class= +"emphasis"><em>or</em></span> thē-od´o-rik), the Goth, +myths of, <a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thomas the Rhymer, as a "sleeper", <a href= +"#page.anchor.164">164</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thompson, R. Campbell, <a href="#page.anchor.34">34</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.39">39</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.234">234</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.235">235</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.239">239</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thor, Ramman and Dadu or Hadad as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Dietrich as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; the +hammer of, <a href="#page.anchor.238">238</a>; deities that link +with, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; the goat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; +Ashur, Tammuz, and Indra and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thorkill (thōr´kill), the Germanic, Gilgamesh and, +<a href="#page.anchor.185">185</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thoth (thōth <span class="emphasis"><em>or</em></span> +tā-hoo´tee), the Egyptian god, as chief of Ennead, +<a href="#page.anchor.36">36</a>; curative saliva of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>; Sumerian moon god like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thothmes III (thōth´mes), of Egypt, wars against +Mitanni, <a href="#page.anchor.275">275</a>; correspondence of +with Assyrian king, <a href="#page.anchor.276">276</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.279">279</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thunder god, Ramman, Hadad or Dadu, and Enlil as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.57">57</a>; Indra +as, <a href="#page.anchor.35">35</a>; Dietrich as Thor, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>; in Babylonian Zu and Indian Garuda +myths, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.169">169</a>; in +demon war, <a href="#page.anchor.76">76</a>; Merodach as, +<a href="#page.anchor.144">144</a>; Hercules as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.171">171</a>; horn and hammer of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.238">238</a>; the Hittite, <a href= +"#page.anchor.260">260</a>; the Amorite, Mitannian, Kassite, and +Aryan, <a href="#page.anchor.261">261</a>; Ptah of Egypt a, +<a href="#page.anchor.263">263</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.264">264</a>.</dt> +<dt>Thunder goddess, the Egyptian Neith a, <a href= +"#page.anchor.337">337</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Thunderstone, weapon of Merodach and Ramman, <a href= +"#page.anchor.144">144</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.159">159</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tiamat (ti´a-mat), like Egyptian Nut, <a href= +"#page.anchor.37">37</a>; in group of early deities, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>; the "brood" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.65">65</a>; as +Great Mother, <a href="#page.anchor.106">106</a>; in Creation +legend, <a href="#page.anchor.138">138</a>; plots with Apsu and +Mummu, <a href="#page.anchor.139">139</a>; as Avenger of Apsu, +<a href="#page.anchor.140">140</a>; exalts Kingu, <a href= +"#page.anchor.141">141</a>; Anu and Ea fears, <a href= +"#page.anchor.142">142</a>; Merodach goes against, <a href= +"#page.anchor.144">144</a>; slaying of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.146">146</a>; Merodach divides "Ku-pu" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a>; the dragon's heart, <a href= +"#page.anchor.147">147</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; body of forms sky and earth, +<a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>; followers of "fallen gods", +<a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>; as origin of good and evil, +<a href="#page.anchor.150">150</a>; beneficent forms of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; as the dragon of the deep, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; Gaelic sea monster and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; Alexander the Great sees, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; the Scottish "eel" and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; "brood of" in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Beowulf</em></span>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>; vulnerable part of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.153">153</a>; Ishtar and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.157">157</a>; the Gorgons and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.159">159</a>; in Germanic legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.202">202</a>; grave demons and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.215">215</a>; reference to by Damascius, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a>. (Also rendered "Tiawath".)</dt> +<dt>Tiana (ti-an´i), Hittite city of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tibni, revolt of in Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tidal (ti´dal), Saga on Hittite connections of, +<a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.265">265</a>; Tudhula of the Hittites as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tiglath-pileser I (tig´lath pi-le´ser), of +Assyria, <a href="#page.anchor.382">382</a>; conquests of, +<a href="#page.anchor.383">383</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.384">384</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tiglath-pileser IV, the Biblical "Pul", <a href= +"#page.anchor.444">444</a>; Babylonian campaign of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.445">445</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.446">446</a>; +Sharduris of Urartu defeated by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.446">446</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.447">447</a>; +Israel, Damascus, and Tyre pay tribute to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.449">449</a>; destruction of Urarti capital, +<a href="#page.anchor.450">450</a>; appeal of Ahaz to, <a href= +"#page.anchor.451">451</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.452">452</a>; +Israel punished by, <a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>; Babylon +welcomes, <a href="#page.anchor.453">453</a>; triumphs of, +<a href="#page.anchor.454">454</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tigris, the river, <a href="#page.anchor.22">22</a>; as "the +bestower of blessings", <a href="#page.anchor.23">23</a>; rise +and fall and length of, <a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tiy, Queen, in Tell-el-Amarna letters, <a href= +"#page.anchor.283">283</a>; Semiramis like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.418">418</a>; Aton and Mut worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.419">419</a>; mother worship and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.423">423</a>.</dt> +<dt>Toothache, Babylonian cure of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.234">234</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.235">235</a>.</dt> +<dt>Totems, the bear, <a href="#page.anchor.164">164</a>; +mountains, trees, and animals as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.292">292</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>; +surnames and, <a href="#page.anchor.293">293</a>; the fish of Ea +and, <a href="#page.anchor.294">294</a>; eating the in Egypt, +<a href="#page.anchor.295">295</a>; doves, snakes, crocodiles, +&c., as, <a href="#page.anchor.432">432</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.433">433</a>; Persian eagle, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Trade routes, Babylonia and Assyria struggle for, <a href= +"#page.anchor.286">286</a>; the ancient, <a href= +"#page.anchor.356">356</a>; Baghdad and other railways following, +<a href="#page.anchor.357">357</a>; ancient Powers struggled to +control, <a href="#page.anchor.358">358</a>; Babylon's route to +Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.359">359</a>; Arabian desert route +opened, <a href="#page.anchor.360">360</a>; route abandoned, +<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a>; Elam's caravan roads, +<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a>; struggle for Mesopotamia, +<a href="#page.anchor.361">361</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq</em></span>.; Babylon's trade with China, Egypt, &c., +<a href="#page.anchor.371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.372">372</a>. Transmigration of souls, <a href= +"#page.anchor.315">315</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Tree of Life", Professor Sayce on the Babylonian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.39">39</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tree worship, Tammuz, Adonis and Osiris and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.88">88</a>; Ashur and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.339">339</a>; Ezekiel on Assyria's tree, <a href= +"#page.anchor.340">340</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.341">341</a>.</dt> +<dt>Trees, in Babylonia, <a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.25">25</a>; sap as the "blood" of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.47">47</a>; as totems, <a href= +"#page.anchor.291">291</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>.</dt> +<dt>Trident, the lightning, weapon of Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.144">144</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tritons, the, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tudhula (tüd´hü-lä), a Hittite king, +identified with Biblical Tidal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.248">248</a>; +forms of name of, <a href="#page.anchor.264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.265">265</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tukulti-Ninip I (tu-kul´ti-nin´ip), of Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.368">368</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.369">369</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tukulti-Ninip III, <a href="#page.anchor.396">396</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tunnel, the dark, in Gilgamesh epic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.178">178</a>; Germanic land of darkness, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>; in Alexander the Great myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.185">185</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.186">186</a>; +in Indian legends, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.188">188</a>; in Scottish folk tales, <a href= +"#page.anchor.189">189</a>.</dt> +<dt>Turkestan, early civilization of and the Sumerian, <a href= +"#page.anchor.5">5</a>; did agriculture originate in? <a href= +"#page.anchor.6">6</a>; prehistoric painted pottery in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.263">263</a>.</dt> +<dt>Turkey, great Powers and, <a href="#page.anchor.357">357</a>; +language of and Sumerian, <a href="#page.anchor.3">3</a>.</dt> +<dt>Turks, of Ural-Altaic stock, <a href= +"#page.anchor.4">4</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tushratta (tüsh´rat-ta), King of Mitanni, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>; correspondence of with Egyptian +kings, <a href="#page.anchor.282">282</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.; murder of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.283">283</a>.</dt> +<dt>Twin goddesses, Ishtar and Belitsheri, <a href= +"#page.anchor.98">98</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>; Isis +and Nepthys, <a href="#page.anchor.99">99</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tyr, the Germanic god, mother of a demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.64">64</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tyre, relations with Sidon and Hebrews, <a href= +"#page.anchor.388">388</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.389">389</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.392">392</a>; tribute of to Adad-nirari IV, +<a href="#page.anchor.439">439</a>; gifts from to Tiglath-pileser +IV, <a href="#page.anchor.449">449</a>; King Luli and Assyria, +<a href="#page.anchor.465">465</a>; Esarhaddon and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.474">474</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.475">475</a>; +tribute from to Ashur-bani-pal, <a href= +"#page.anchor.483">483</a>; conspiracy against Nebuchadrezzar II, +<a href="#page.anchor.491">491</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Tyrol, the demon lover of, <a href="#page.anchor.68">68</a>; +wind hags of, <a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">U</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Uazit (oo´az-it), Egyptian serpent goddess, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>.</dt> +<dt>Umma (oom´ma), city of, Lagash and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.118">118</a>; captured by Eannatum, <a href= +"#page.anchor.118">118</a>; crushing defeat of by Entemena, +<a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.120">120</a>; king of destroys Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.123">123</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ur, Nannar, moon god of, <a href="#page.anchor.40">40</a>; +the moon god Baal of, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; antiquity +of, <a href="#page.anchor.52">52</a>; Lagash king sways, <a href= +"#page.anchor.119">119</a>; empire of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; moon god of supreme, <a href= +"#page.anchor.130">130</a>; Abraham migrates from, <a href= +"#page.anchor.131">131</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>; +revolt of with Larsa against Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; moon god of in Kish, <a href= +"#page.anchor.241">241</a>; under Elamite kings of Larsa in +Hammurabi Age, <a href="#page.anchor.242">242</a>; Abraham's +migration from, <a href="#page.anchor.245">245</a>; Chaldasans +and, <a href="#page.anchor.391">391</a>; revolt against +Ashur-bani-pal, <a href="#page.anchor.484">484</a>; Nabonidus +and, <a href="#page.anchor.492">492</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ura (oo´ra), god of disease, <a href= +"#page.anchor.77">77</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ural-Altaic stock, Turks and Finns of, Sumerians and, +<a href="#page.anchor.4">4</a>.</dt> +<dt>Urartu (ür-ar´tü), combines with Phrygians +and Hittites against Sargon II, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; as vassal state of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>; rise of kingdom of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.395">395</a>; god and culture of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a>; Adadnirari and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a>; ethnics of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.440">440</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.; capital of,<a href= +"#page.anchor.441">441</a>; Sharduris of routed by +Tiglath-pileser IV, <a href="#page.anchor.446">446</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.447">447</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.450">450</a>; +alliance with Hittites against Sargon II, <a href= +"#page.anchor.460">460</a>; as vassal state of Assyria, <a href= +"#page.anchor.461">461</a>; Cimmerians and Scythians raid, +<a href="#page.anchor.461">461</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.464">464</a>; Sennacherib's murderers escape to, +<a href="#page.anchor.470">470</a>; in Esarhaddon's reign, +<a href="#page.anchor.472">472</a>; Assyrian alliance with, +<a href="#page.anchor.473">473</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.486">486</a>; Cyaxares king of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.493">493</a>.</dt> +<dt>Uri (ür´i), early name of Akkad, <a href= +"#page.anchor.2">2</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ur-Nina (ür-ni´nä), King of Lagash, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>; gods worshipped by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.116">116</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>; +famous plague of, <a href="#page.anchor.117">117</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.118">118</a>.</dt> +<dt>Ur-Ninip (ür-nin´ip), King of Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.132">132</a>; mysterious death of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>Uruk (ür´uk). See <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Erech</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Urukagina (ür-u-kag´in-a), King of Lagash, first +reformer in history, <a href="#page.anchor.121">121</a>; taxes +and temple fees reduced by, <a href="#page.anchor.122">122</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.210">210</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.211">211</a>; fall of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.123">123</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.124">124</a>.</dt> +<dt>Urumush (ür´ü-müsh), Akkadian emperor, +<a href="#page.anchor.127">127</a>.</dt> +<dt>Utu (ü´tü), Sumerian name of sun god, +<a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">V</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Valentine, St., mating day of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.430">430</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vărună, the Indian god, links with Ea-Oannes, +<a href="#page.anchor.31">31</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.34">34</a>; sea fire of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.50">50</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>; +Shamash the sun god and, <a href="#page.anchor.54">54</a>; +association of with rain, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>; +Sumerian links with, <a href="#page.anchor.55">55</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; worshippers of buried dead, <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; no human beings in Paradise of, +<a href="#page.anchor.209">209</a>; attire of deities in Paradise +of, <a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>; the goat and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.333">333</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vas´olt, Tyrolese storm demon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vayu (vä´yu), Indian wind god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vedas (vay´dăs), astronomy of the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>.</dt> +<dt>Venus, the goddess, <a href="#page.anchor.17">17</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.296">296</a>; lovers of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.102">102</a>.</dt> +<dt>Venus, the planet, Ishtar as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>; female at sunset and male at sunrise, +<a href="#page.anchor.299">299</a>; in sun and moon group, +<a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>; rays of as beard, <a href= +"#page.anchor.301">301</a>; as the "Proclaimer", <a href= +"#page.anchor.314">314</a>; connection of with moon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.314">314</a>; in astrology, <a href= +"#page.anchor.318">318</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.324">324</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vestal virgins, <a href="#page.anchor.228">228</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.229">229</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vishnu (vish´noo), the Indian god, like Ea, <a href= +"#page.anchor.27">27</a>; Ea like, <a href= +"#page.anchor.38">38</a>; eagle giant as vehicle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.75">75</a>; Sri or Lakshmi wife of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.101">101</a>; sleep of on world serpent, <a href= +"#page.anchor.150">150</a>; eagle and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Vital spark", the, fire as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.49">49</a>.</dt> +<dt>Voice, the pure, in Sumerian spell, <a href= +"#page.anchor.46">46</a>.</dt> +<dt>Vulture, as deity of fertility, <a href= +"#page.anchor.429">429</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.430">430</a>; +the Persian eagle legend and, <a href="#page.anchor.493">493</a>; +goddess of Egypt, <a href="#page.anchor.168">168</a>; as +protectors of Shakuntala, <a href="#page.anchor.423">423</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.424">424</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">W</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Wales, pig as the devil in, <a href= +"#page.anchor.293">293</a>.</dt> +<dt>Warad Sin, struggle of with Babylon, <a href= +"#page.anchor.217">217</a>; the Biblical Arioch, <a href= +"#page.anchor.247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.248">248</a>.</dt> +<dt>Warka. See <span class="emphasis"><em>Erech</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Water, control and distribution of in Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.23">23</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.24">24</a>; corn +deities and, <a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; essence of life +in, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.45">45</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.51">51</a>.</dt> +<dt>Water gods and demons, <a href="#page.anchor.27">27</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span></dt> +<dt>Water of Life, Gilgamesh's quest of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.177">177</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; in Alexander the Great myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; in <span class= +"emphasis"><em>Koran</em></span> legend, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>; in Gaelic legends, <a href= +"#page.anchor.186">186</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>; +in Indian legends, <a href="#page.anchor.187">187</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.210">210</a>.</dt> +<dt>Waxen figures, in folk cures, <a href= +"#page.anchor.234">234</a>.</dt> +<dt>Weapons in graves, <a href="#page.anchor.212">212</a>.</dt> +<dt>Weaving, in Late Stone Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.14">14</a>.</dt> +<dt>Weeping ceremonies, the agricultural, <a href= +"#page.anchor.82">82</a> <span class="emphasis"><em>et +seq.</em></span>; the Egyptian god Rem, <a href= +"#page.anchor.29">29</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wells, worship of, <a href="#page.anchor.44">44</a>.</dt> +<dt>Westminster Abbey, Long Meg and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.156">156</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wheel of Life, the, Ashur, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; Ezekiel's +references to, <a href="#page.anchor.344">344</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq.</em></span>; in Babylonian, Indian, +Persian, and Hittite mythologies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.346">346</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.348">348</a> ; +in Indian mythology, <a href="#page.anchor.346">346</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.347">347</a>; the sun and the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.348">348</a>; "dot within the circle" and egg +thorn, <a href="#page.anchor.352">352</a>; Ahura Mazda's, +<a href="#page.anchor.355">355</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wife of Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.221">221</a>; Amon's +wife, <a href="#page.anchor.222">222</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wild Huntsmen, the, Asiatic gods as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.64">64</a>.</dt> +<dt>"Will-o'-the-wisp", the Babylonian and European, <a href= +"#page.anchor.66">66</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.67">67</a>.</dt> +<dt>Winckler, Dr. Hugo, Semitic migrations, <a href= +"#page.anchor.10">10</a>; on Mitannian origins, <a href= +"#page.anchor.268">268</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.269">269</a>; +Boghaz-Köi tablets found by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.280">280</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.367">367</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wind, the south-west, demon of in Babylonia and Europe, +<a href="#page.anchor.72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.73">73</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wind gods, Vayu, Enlil, Rarnman, &c, as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.35">35</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wind hags, Babylonia Shutu, Scottish Annie, English Annis, +Irish Anu, <a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; Icelandic Angerboda, +<a href="#page.anchor.73">73</a>; Tyrolese "wind brewers", +<a href="#page.anchor.74">74</a>; Artemis as one of the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.104">104</a>.</dt> +<dt>Winds, the seven, as servants of Merodach, <a href= +"#page.anchor.145">145</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wine seller who became queen, <a href= +"#page.anchor.114">114</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.115">115</a>; +the female, <a href="#page.anchor.229">229</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wolf, Nergal-Mars as the, <a href= +"#page.anchor.303">303</a>.</dt> +<dt>Women, as rulers in Egypt and Babylonia, <a href= +"#page.anchor.16">16</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.17">17</a>; +treatment of in early times, <a href="#page.anchor.15">15</a>; +Nomads oppressors of, <a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>; exalted +by Mediterranean peoples, <a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>; +Sumerian laws regarding, <a href="#page.anchor.16">16</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.17">17</a>; the Sumerian language of, +<a href="#page.anchor.17">17</a>; in goddess worship, <a href= +"#page.anchor.106">106</a>-<a href="#page.anchor.108">108</a> ; +social status of, <a href="#page.anchor.108">108</a>; position of +in Hammurabi Code, <a href="#page.anchor.224">224</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>ei seq</em></span>.; the marriage +market, <a href="#page.anchor.224">224</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.225">225</a>; drink traffic monopolized by, +<a href="#page.anchor.229">229</a>.</dt> +<dt>World hill, in Babylonian, Indian, and Egyptian mythologies, +<a href="#page.anchor.332">332</a>.</dt> +<dt>World serpent, in Eur-Asian mythologies, <a href= +"#page.anchor.151">151</a>.</dt> +<dt>World Soul, the Brahmanic, <a href= +"#page.anchor.304">304</a>, <a href="#page.anchor.328">328</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.329">329</a>.</dt> +<dt>"World spike", star called, <a href= +"#page.anchor.332">332</a>.</dt> +<dt>"World spine", the, <a href="#page.anchor.332">332</a>; the +"world tree" and, <a href="#page.anchor.334">334</a>; Ashur +standard as, <a href="#page.anchor.335">335</a>.</dt> +<dt>World tree, symbol of "world spine", <a href= +"#page.anchor.334">334</a>.</dt> +<dt>Worm, the, dragon as, <a href="#page.anchor.151">151</a>; the +legend of the, <a href="#page.anchor.234">234</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.235">235</a>.</dt> +<dt>Wryneck, goddess and the, <a href="#page.anchor.427">427</a> +<span class="emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">X</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Xerxes, Merodach's temple pillaged by, <a href= +"#page.anchor.497">497</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">Y</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Yä, the Hebrew, Ea as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.31">31</a>.</dt> +<dt>Yama (yă´mă), Osiris and Gilgamesh and, +<a href="#page.anchor.xxxii">xxxii</a>; Mitra and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.56">56</a>; eagle as, <a href= +"#page.anchor.169">169</a>; Gilgamesh and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.200">200</a>; the Paradise of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.209">209</a>.</dt> +<dt>Yng´ve, the Germanic patriarch, <a href= +"#page.anchor.93">93</a>.</dt> +<dt>Yügăs, the Indian doctrine of, Babylonian origin +of, <a href="#page.anchor.310">310</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>et seq</em></span>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +<div class="indexdiv"> +<h3 class="title">Z</h3> +<dl> +<dt>Zabium (za´bi-um), king in Hammurabi Age, <a href= +"#page.anchor.242">242</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zachariah, King of Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.449">449</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zamama (zä-mä´mä), god of Kish, Tammuz +traits of, <a href="#page.anchor.126">126</a>; identified with +Merodach, <a href="#page.anchor.241">241</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zambia (zäm´bi-a), King of Isin, <a href= +"#page.anchor.133">133</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zedekiah, King of Judah, conspiracy against Babylonia, +<a href="#page.anchor.490">490</a>; punishment of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>; the captivity, <a href= +"#page.anchor.491">491</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zerpanitu<span class='phonetic'>m</span> +(zār-pä´nit-u<span class='phonetic'>m</span>), +mother goddess, <a href="#page.anchor.100">100</a>; as "Lady of +the Abyss", <a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; as Aruru, +<a href="#page.anchor.160">160</a>; Persian goddess and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.496">496</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zeus (to rhyme with <span class= +"emphasis"><em>mouse</em></span>), the god, as sea-god's brother, +<a href="#page.anchor.33">33</a>; in Adonis myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.90">90</a>; an imported god, <a href= +"#page.anchor.105">105</a>; in father and son myth, <a href= +"#page.anchor.158">158</a>; eagle of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.168">168</a>; deities that link with, <a href= +"#page.anchor.261">261</a>; the "Great Bear" myth and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.296">296</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zi (zee´), the Sumerian manifestation of life, <a href= +"#page.anchor.291">291</a>; "Sige the mother" as Ziku, <a href= +"#page.anchor.328">328</a> <span class= +"emphasis"><em>n</em></span>.</dt> +<dt>Zimri, revolt of in Israel, <a href= +"#page.anchor.405">405</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zodiac, Signs of the, <a href="#page.anchor.147">147</a>, +<a href="#page.anchor.301">301</a>, <a href= +"#page.anchor.305">305</a>; Babylonian origin of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.306">306</a>; Hittites, Phoenicians, and Greeks +and, <a href="#page.anchor.306">306</a>; stars of as "Divinities +of Council", <a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; division of, +<a href="#page.anchor.307">307</a>; the fields of Ea, Anu, and +Bel, <a href="#page.anchor.307">307</a>; three stars for each +month, <a href="#page.anchor.307">307</a>-<a href= +"#page.anchor.309">309</a> ; the lunar in various countries, +<a href="#page.anchor.309">309</a>; when signs of were fixed, +<a href="#page.anchor.322">322</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zü bird, Garuda eagle and, <a href= +"#page.anchor.xxvi">xxvi</a>; myth of, <a href= +"#page.anchor.74">74</a>.</dt> +<dt>Zuzu (zü´zü), King of Opis, captured by +Eannatum of Lagash, <a href="#page.anchor.119">119</a>.</dt> +</dl> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Myths of Babylonia and Assyria +by Donald A. 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