initial commit of ebook 17284HEADmain

1 files changed, 5245 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/17284.txt b/17284.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b177a0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17284.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5245 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rome in 1860, by Edward Dicey
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Rome in 1860
+
+
+Author: Edward Dicey
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 11, 2005  [eBook #17284]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROME IN 1860***
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcribed by from the 1861 Macmillan and Co. edition by David Price,
+email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk
+
+
+
+
+
+ROME IN 1860.
+By
+EDWARD DICEY.
+
+
+Cambridge:
+MACMILLAN AND CO.
+AND 23, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
+London.
+1861.
+
+[The right of Translation is reserved.]
+
+* * * * *
+
+Cambridge:
+PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.
+AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+* * * * *
+
+TO
+MR. AND MRS ROBERT BROWNING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE ROME OF REAL LIFE.
+
+
+My first recollections of Rome date from too long ago, and from too early
+an age, for me to be able to recall with ease the impression caused by
+its first aspect.  It is hard indeed for any one at any time to judge of
+Rome fairly.  Whatever may be the object of our pilgrimage, we Roman
+travellers are all under some guise or other pilgrims to the Eternal
+City, and gaze around us with something of a pilgrim's reverence for the
+shrine of his worship.  The ground we tread on is enchanted ground, we
+breathe a charmed air, and are spellbound with a strange witchery.  A
+kind of glamour steals over us, a thousand memories rise up and chase
+each other.  Heroes and martyrs, sages and saints and sinners, consuls
+and popes and emperors, people the weird pageant which to our mind's eye
+hovers ever mistily amidst the scenes around us.  Here above all places
+in God's earth it is hard to forget the past and think only of the
+present.  This, however, is what I now want to do.  Laying aside all
+memory of what Rome has been, I would again describe what Rome is now.
+And thus, in my solitary wanderings about the city, I have often sought
+to picture to myself what would be the feelings of a stranger who, caring
+nothing and knowing nothing of the past, should enter Rome with only that
+listless curiosity which all travellers feel perforce, when for the first
+time they approach a great capital.  Let me fancy that such a traveller--a
+very Gallio among travellers--is standing by my side.  Let me try and
+tell him what, under my mentorship, he would mark and see.
+
+It shall not be on a bright, cloudless day that we enter Rome.  To our
+northern eyes the rich Italian sun-light gives to everything, even to
+ruins and rags and squalor, a deceptive grandeur, and a beauty which is
+not due.  No, the day shall be such a day as that on which I write; such
+a day in fact as the days are oftener than not at this dead season of the
+year, sunless and damp and dull.  The sky above is covered with
+colourless, unbroken clouds, and the outline of the Alban and the Sabine
+hills stands dimly out against the grey distance.  It matters little by
+what gate or from what quarter we enter.  On every side the scene is much
+the same.  The Campagna surrounds the city.  A wide, waste, broken,
+hillock-covered plain, half common, half pasture land, and altogether
+desolate; a few stunted trees, a deserted house or two, here and there a
+crumbling mass of shapeless brickwork: such is the foreground through
+which you travel for many a weary mile.  As you approach the city there
+is no change in the desolation, no sign of life.  Every now and then a
+string of some half-dozen peasant-carts, laden with wine-barrels or wood
+faggots, comes jingling by.  The carts so-called, rather by courtesy than
+right, consist of three rough planks and two high ricketty wheels.  The
+broken-kneed horses sway to and fro beneath their unwieldy load, and the
+drivers, clad in their heavy sheepskin jackets, crouch sleepily beneath
+the clumsy, hide-bound framework, placed so as to shelter them from the
+chill Tramontana blasts.  A solitary cart is rare, for the neighbourhood
+of Rome is not the safest of places, and those small piles of stone, with
+the wooden cross surmounting them, bear witness to the fact that a murder
+took place not long ago on the very spot you are passing now.  Then,
+perhaps, you come across a drove of wild, shaggy buffaloes, or a
+travelling carriage rattling and jilting along, or a stray priest or so,
+trudging homewards from some outlying chapel.  That red-bodied funereal-
+looking two-horse-coach, crawling at a snail's pace, belongs to his
+Excellency the Cardinal, whom Papal etiquette forbids to walk on foot
+within the city, and whom you can see a little further on pottering
+feebly along the road in his violet stockings, supported by his clerical
+secretary, and followed at a respectful distance by his two attendant
+footmen with their threadbare liveries.  At last, out of the dreary
+waste, at the end of the interminable ill-paved sloughy road, the long
+line of the grey tumble-down walls rises gloomily.  A few cannon-shot
+would batter a breach anywhere, as the events of 1849 proved only too
+well.  However, at Rome there is neither commerce to be impeded nor
+building extension of any kind to be checked; the city has shrunk up
+until its precincts are a world too wide; and the walls, if they are
+useless, are harmless also; more, by the way, than you can say for most
+things here.  There is no stir or bustle at the gates.  Two French
+soldiers, striding across a bench, are playing at picquet with a pack of
+greasy cards.  A pack-horse or two nibble the blades of grass between the
+stones, while their owners haggle with the solitary guard about the
+"octroi" duties.  A sentinel on duty stares listlessly at you as you
+pass,--and you have entered Rome.
+
+You are coming, I will suppose, from Ostia, and enter therefore by the
+"Porta San Paolo;" the gate where legends tell that Belisarius sat and
+begged.  I have chosen this out of the dozen entrances as recalling
+fewest of past memories and leading most directly to the heart of the
+living, working city.  You stand then within Rome, and look round in vain
+for the signs of a city.  Hard by a knot of dark cypress-trees waves
+above the lonely burial-ground where Shelley lies at rest.  A long,
+straight, pollard-lined road stretches before you between high walls far
+away; low hills or mounds rise on either side, covered by stunted,
+straggling vineyards.  You pass on.  A beggar, squatting by the roadside,
+calls on you for charity; and long after you have passed you can hear the
+mumbling, droning cry, "Per l'amore di Dio e della Santa Vergine," dying
+in your ears.  On the wall, from time to time, you see a rude painting of
+Christ upon the cross, and an inscription above the slit beneath bids you
+contribute alms for the souls in purgatory.  A peasant-woman it may be is
+kneeling before the shrine, and a troop of priests pass by on the other
+side.  A string of carts again, drawn by bullocks, another shrine, and
+another troop of priests, and you are come to the river's banks.  The
+dull, muddy Tiber rolls beneath you, and in front, that shapeless mass of
+dingy, weather-stained, discoloured, plaster-covered, tile-roofed
+buildings, crowded and jammed together on either side the river, is Rome
+itself.  You are at the city's port, the "Ripetta" or quay of Rome.  In
+the stream there are a dozen vessels, something between barges and
+coasting smacks, the largest possibly of fifty tons' burden, which have
+brought marble from Carrara for the sculptors' studios.  There is a
+Gravesend-looking steamer too, lying off the quay, but she belongs to the
+French government, and is employed to carry troops to and from Civita
+Vecchia.  This is all, and at this point all traffic on the Tiber ceases.
+Though the river is navigable for a long distance above Rome, yet beyond
+the bridge, now in sight, not a boat is to be seen except at rare
+intervals.  It is the Tiber surely, and not the Thames, which should be
+called the "silent highway."
+
+A few steps more and the walls on either side are replaced by houses, and
+the city has begun.  The houses do not improve on a closer acquaintance;
+one and all look as if commenced on too grand a scale, they had ruined
+their builders before their completion, had been left standing empty for
+years, and were now occupied by tenants too poor to keep them from decay.
+There are holes in the wall where the scaffolding was fixed, large
+blotches where the plaster has peeled away; stones and cornices which
+have been left unused lie in the mud before the doors.  From the window-
+sills and from ropes fastened across the streets flutter half-washed rags
+and strange apparel.  The height of the houses makes the narrow streets
+gloomy even at midday.  At night, save in a few main thoroughfares, there
+is no light of any kind; but then, after dark at Rome, nobody cares much
+about walking in out-of-the-way places.  The streets are paved with the
+most angular and slippery of stones, placed herringbone fashion, with ups
+and downs in every direction.  Foot-pavement there is none; and the
+ricketty carriages drawn by the tottering horses come swaying round the
+endless corners with an utter disregard for the limbs and lives of the
+foot-folk.  You are out of luck if you come to Rome on a "Festa" day, for
+then all the shops are shut, and the town looks drearier than ever.
+However, even here the chances are two to one, or somewhat more, in
+favour of the day of your arrival being a working-day.  When the shops
+are open there is at any rate life enough of one kind or other.  In most
+parts the shops have no window-fronts.  Glass, indeed, there is little of
+anywhere, and the very name of plate-glass is unknown.  The dark, gloomy
+shops varying in size between a coach-house and a wine-vault, have their
+wide shutter-doors flung open to the streets.  A feeble lamp hung at the
+back of every shop you pass, before a painted Madonna shrine, makes the
+darkness of their interiors visible.  The trades of Rome are primitive
+and few in number.  Those dismembered, disembowelled carcases, suspended
+in every variety of posture, denote the butchers' shops; not the
+pleasantest of sights at any time, least of all in Rome, where the custom
+of washing the meat after killing it seems never to have been introduced.
+Next door too is an open stable, crowded with mules and horses.  Those
+black, mouldy loaves, exposed in a wire-work cage, to protect them from
+the clutches of the hungry street vagabonds, stand in front of the
+bakers, where the price of bread is regulated by the pontifical tariff.
+Then comes the "Spaccio di Vino," that gloomiest among the shrines of
+Bacchus, where the sour red wine is drunk at dirty tables by the grimiest
+of tipplers.  Hard by is the "Stannaro," or hardware tinker, who is
+always re-bottoming dilapidated pans, and drives a brisk trade in those
+clumsy, murderous-looking knives.  Further on is the greengrocer, with
+the long strings of greens, and sausages, and flabby balls of cheese, and
+straw-covered oil-flasks dangling in festoons before his door.  Over the
+way is the Government depot, where the coarsest of salt and the rankest
+of tobacco are sold at monopoly prices.  Those gay, parti-coloured
+stripes of paper, inscribed with the cabalistic figures, flaunting at the
+street corner, proclaim the "Prenditoria di Lotti," or office of the
+Papal lottery, where gambling receives the sanction of the Church, and
+prospers under clerical auspices to such an extent that in the city of
+Rome alone, with a population under two hundred thousand, fifty-five
+millions of lottery tickets are said to be taken annually.  Cobblers and
+carpenters, barbers and old clothes-men, seem to me to carry on their
+trades much in the same way all the world over.  The peculiarity about
+Rome is, that all these trades seem stunted in their development.  The
+cobbler never emerges as the shoemaker, and the carpenter fails to rise
+into the upholstery line of business.  Bookselling too is a trade which
+does not thrive on Roman soil.  Altogether there is a wonderful sameness
+about the streets.  Time after time, turn after turn, the same scene is
+reproduced.  So having got used to the first strangeness of the sight you
+move on more quickly.
+
+There is no lack of life about you now, at the shop-doors whole families
+sit working at their trades, or carrying on the most private occupations
+of domestic life; at every corner groups of men stand loitering about,
+with hungry looks and ragged garments, reminding one only too forcibly of
+the "Seven Dials" on a summer Sunday; French soldiers and beggars, women
+and children and priests swarm around you.  Indeed, there are priests
+everywhere.  There with their long black coats and broad-brimmed shovel
+hats, come a score of young priests, walking two and two together, with
+downcast eyes.  How, without looking up, they manage to wend their way
+among the crowd, is a constant miracle; the carriages, however, stop to
+let them pass, for a Roman driver would sooner run over a dozen children
+than knock down a priest.  A sturdy, bare-headed, bare-footed monk, not
+over clean, nor over savoury, hustles along with his brown robe fastened
+round his waist by the knotted scourge of cord; a ghastly-looking figure,
+covered in a grey shroud from head to foot, with slits for his mouth and
+eyes, shakes a money-box in your face, with scowling importunity; a fat
+sleek abbe comes sauntering along, peeping into the open shops or (so
+scandal whispers) at the faces of the shop-girls.  If you look right or
+left, behind or in front, you see priests on every side,--Franciscan
+friars and Dominicans, Carmelites and Capuchins, priests in brown cloth
+and priests in serge, priests in red and white and grey, priests in
+purple and priests in rags, standing on the church-steps, stopping at the
+doorways, coming down the bye-streets, looking out of the windows--you
+see priests everywhere and always.  Their faces are, as a rule, not
+pleasant to look upon; and I think, at first, with something of the "old
+bogey" belief of childhood, you feel more comfortable when they are not
+too close to you; but, ere long, this feeling wears away, and you gaze at
+the priests and at the beggars with the same stolid indifference.
+
+You are getting, by this time, into the heart of the city, ever and anon
+the streets pass through some square or piazza, each like the other.  In
+the centre stands a broken fountain, moss-grown and weedy, whence the
+water spouts languidly; on the one side is a church, on the other some
+grim old palace, which from its general aspect, and the iron bars before
+its windows, bears a striking resemblance to Newgate gone to ruin.  Grass
+grows between the flag-stones, and the piazza is emptier, quieter, and
+cleaner than the street, but that is all.  You stop and enter the first
+church or two, but your curiosity is soon satisfied.  Dull and bare
+outside, the churches are gaudy and dull within.  When you have seen one,
+you have seen all.  A crippled beggar crouching at the door, a few common
+people kneeling before the candle-lighted shrines, a priest or two
+mumbling at a side-altar, half-a-dozen indifferent pictures and a great
+deal of gilt and marble everywhere, an odour of stale incense and mouldy
+cloth, and, over all, a dim dust-discoloured light.  Fancy all this, and
+you will have before you a Roman church.  On your way you pass no fine
+buildings, for to tell the honest truth, there are no fine buildings in
+Rome, except St Peter's and the Colosseum, both of which lie away from
+the town.  Fragments indeed of old ruins, porticoes built into the wall,
+bricked-up archways and old cornice-stones, catch your eye from time to
+time; and so, on and on, over broken pavements, up and down endless
+hills, through narrow streets and gloomy piazzas, by churches
+innumerable, amidst an ever-shifting motley crowd of peasants, soldiers,
+priests, and beggars, you journey onwards for two miles or so; you have
+got at last to the modern quarter, where hotels are found, and where the
+English congregate.  There in the "Corso," and in one or two streets
+leading out of it, there are foot-pavements, lamps at night, and windows
+to the shops.  A fair sprinkling of second-rate equipages roll by you,
+bearing the Roman ladies, with their gaudy dresses, ill-assorted colours,
+and their heavy, handsome, sensual features.  The young Italian nobles,
+with their English-cut attire, saunter past you listlessly.  The peasants
+are few in number now, but the soldiers and priests and beggars are never
+wanting.  These streets and shops, brilliant though they seem by contrast
+with the rest of the city, would, after all, only be third-rate ones in
+any other European capital, and will not detain you long.  On again by
+the fountain of Treves, where the water-stream flows day and night
+through the defaced and broken statue-work; a few steps more, and then
+you fall again into the narrow streets and the decayed piazzas; on again,
+between high walls, along roads leading through desolate ruin-covered
+vineyards, and you are come to another gate.  The French sentinels are
+changing guard.  The dreary Campagna lies before you, and you have passed
+through Rome.
+
+And when our stroll was over, that sceptic and incurious fellow-traveller
+of mine would surely turn to take a last look at the dark heap of roofs
+and chimney-pots and domes, which lies mouldering in the valley at his
+feet.  If I were then to tell him, that in that city of some hundred and
+seventy thousand souls, there were ten thousand persons in holy orders,
+and between three and four hundred churches, of which nearly half had
+convents and schools attached; if I were to add, that taking in novices,
+scholars, choristers, servitors, beadles, and whole tribes of clerical
+attendants, there were probably not far short of forty thousand persons,
+who in some form or other lived upon and by the church, that is, in
+plainer words, doing no labour themselves, lived on the labour of others,
+he, I think, would answer then, that a city so priest-infested, priest-
+ruled and priest-ridden, would be much such a city as he had seen with
+me; such a city as Rome is now.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE COST OF THE PAPACY.
+
+
+In foreign discussions on the Papal question it is always assumed, as an
+undisputed fact, that the maintenance of the Papal court at Rome is, in a
+material point of view, an immense advantage to the city, whatever it may
+be in a moral one.  Now my own observations have led me to doubt the
+correctness of this assumption, which, if true, forms an important item
+in the whole matter under consideration.  It is no good saying, as my
+"Papalini" friends are wont to do, Rome gains everything and indeed only
+exists by the Papacy.  The real questions are, What class at Rome gain by
+it, and what is it that they gain?  There are four classes at Rome: the
+priests, the nobles, the bourgeoisie, and the poor.  Of course if anybody
+gains it is the priesthood.  If the Pope were removed from Rome, or if a
+lay government were established (the two hypotheses are practically
+identical), the number of the Clergy would undoubtedly be much
+diminished.  A large portion of the convents and clerical endowments
+would be suppressed, and the present generation of priests would be heavy
+sufferers.  This result is inevitable.  Under no free government would or
+could a city of 170,000 inhabitants support 10,000 unproductive persons
+out of the common funds; for this is substantially the case at Rome in
+the present day.  Every sixteen lay citizens, men, women, and children,
+support out of their labour a priest between them.  The Papal question
+with the Roman priesthood is thus a question of daily bread, and it is
+surely no want of charity to suppose that the material aspect influences
+their minds quite as much as the spiritual.  Still even with regard to
+the priests there are two sides to the question.  The system of political
+and social government inseparable from the Papacy, which closes up almost
+every trade and profession, drives vast numbers into the priesthood for
+want of any other occupation.  The supply of priests is, in consequence,
+far greater than the demand, and, as the laws of political economy hold
+good even in the Papal States, priest labour is miserably underpaid.  It
+is a Protestant delusion that the priests in Rome live upon the fat of
+the land.  What fat there is is certainly theirs, but then there are too
+many mouths to eat it.  The Roman priests are relatively poorer than
+those in any other part of Italy.  It is one of the great mysteries in
+Rome how all the priests who swarm about the streets manage to live.  The
+clue to the mystery is to be found inside the churches.  In every church
+here, and there are 366 of them, some score or two of masses are said
+daily at the different altars.  The pay for performing a mass varies from
+a "Paul" to a "Scudo;" that is, in round numbers, from sixpence to a
+crown.  The "good" masses, those paid for by private persons for the
+souls of their relatives, are naturally reserved for the priests
+connected with the particular church; while the poor ones, which are paid
+for out of the funds of the church, are given to any priest who happens
+to apply for them.  So somehow or other, what with a mass or two a day,
+or by private tuition, or by charitable assistance, or in some cases by
+small handicrafts conducted secretly, the large floating population of
+unemployed priests rub on from day to day, in the hope of getting
+ultimately some piece of ecclesiastical patronage.  Yet the distress and
+want amongst them are often pitiable, and, in fact, amongst the many
+sufferers from the artificial preponderance given to the priesthood by
+the Papal system, the poorer class of priests are not among the least or
+lightest.
+
+The nobility as a body are sure to be more or less supporters of the
+established order of things.  Their interests too are very much mixed up
+with those of the Papacy.  There is not a noble Roman family which has
+not one or more of its members among the higher ranks of the priesthood,
+and to a considerable degree their distinctions, such as they are, and
+their temporal prospects are bound up with the Popedom.  Moreover, in
+this rank of the social scale the private and personal influence of the
+priests, through the women of the family, is very powerful.  The more
+active, however, and ambitious amongst the aristocracy feel deeply the
+exclusion from public life, the absence of any opening for ambition, and
+the gradual impoverishment of their property, which are the necessary
+evils of an absolute ecclesiastical government.
+
+The "Bourgeoisie" stand on a very different footing.  They have neither
+the moral influence of the priesthood nor the material wealth of the
+nobility to console them for the loss of liberty; they form indeed the
+"Pariahs" of Roman society.  "In other countries," a Roman once said to
+me, "you have one man who lives in wealth and a thousand who live in
+comfort.  Here the one man lives in comfort, and the thousand live in
+misery."  I believe this picture is only too true.  The middle classes,
+who live by trade or mental labour, must have a hard time of it.  The
+professions of Rome are overstocked and underpaid.  The large class of
+government officials or "impiegati," to whom admirers of the Papacy point
+with such pride as evidence of the secular character of the
+administration, are paid on the most niggardly scale; while all the
+lucrative and influential posts are reserved for the priestly
+administrators.  The avowed venality of the courts of justice is a proof
+that lawyers are too poorly remunerated to find honesty their best
+policy, while the extent to which barbers are still employed as surgeons
+shows that the medical profession is not of sufficient repute to be
+prosperous.  There is no native patronage for art, no public for
+literature.  The very theatres, which flourish in other despotic states,
+are here but losing speculations, owing to the interference of clerical
+regulations.  There are no commerce and no manufactures in the Eternal
+city.  In a back street near the Capitol, over a gloomy, stable-looking
+door, you may see written up "Borsa di Roma," but I never could discover
+any credible evidence of business being transacted on the Roman change.
+There is but one private factory in Rome, the Anglo-Roman Gas Company.
+What trade there is is huckstering, not commerce.  In fact, so Romans
+have told me, you may safely conclude that every native you meet walking
+in the streets here, in a broadcloth coat, lives from hand to mouth, and
+you may pretty surely guess that his next month's salary is already
+overdrawn.  The crowds of respectably-dressed persons, clerks and
+shopkeepers and artizans, whom you see in the lottery offices the night
+before the drawing, prove the general existence not only of improvidence
+but of distress.
+
+The favourite argument in support of the Papal rule in Rome, is that the
+poor gain immensely by it.  I quite admit that the argument contains a
+certain amount of truth.  The priests, the churches, and the convents
+give a great deal of employment to the working classes.  There are
+probably some 30,000 persons who live on the priests, or rather out of
+the funds which support them.  Then, too, the system of clerical charity
+operates favourably for the very poor.  Any Roman in distress can get
+from his priest a "buono," or certificate, that he is in want of food,
+and on presenting this at one of the convents belonging to the mendicant
+orders, he will obtain a wholesome meal.  No man in Rome therefore need
+be reduced to absolute starvation as long as he stands well with his
+priest; that is, as long as he goes to confession, never talks of
+politics, and kneels down when the Pope passes.  Now the evil moral
+effects of such a system, its tendency to destroy independent
+self-respect and to promote improvidence are obvious enough, and I doubt
+whether even the positive gain to the poor is unmixed.  The wages paid to
+the servants of the Church, and the amount given away in charity, must
+come out of somebody's pockets.  In fact, the whole country and the poor
+themselves indirectly, if not directly, are impoverished by supporting
+these unproductive classes out of the produce of labour.  If prevention
+is better than cure, work is any day better than charity.  After all,
+too, the proof of the pudding is in the eating, and nowhere are the poor
+more poverty-stricken and needy than in Rome.  The swarms of beggars
+which infest the town are almost the first objects that strike a stranger
+here, though strangers have no notion of the distress of Rome.  The
+winter, when visitors are here, is the harvest-time of the Roman poor.  It
+is the summer, when the strangers are gone and the streets deserted,
+which is their season of want and misery.
+
+The truth is, that Rome, at the present day, lives upon her visitors, as
+much or more than Ramsgate or Margate, for I should be disposed to
+consider the native commerce of either of these bathing-places quite as
+remunerative as that of the Papal capital.  The Vatican is the quietest
+and the least showy of European courts; and of itself, whatever it may do
+by others, causes little money to be spent in the town.  Even if the Pope
+were removed from Rome, I much doubt, and I know the Romans doubt,
+whether travellers would cease to come, or even come in diminished
+numbers.  Rome was famous centuries before Popes were heard of, and will
+be equally famous centuries after they have passed away.  The churches,
+the museums, the galleries, the ruins, the climate, and the recollections
+of Rome, would still remain equally attractive, whether the Pope were at
+hand or not.  Under a secular government the city would be far more
+lively and, in many respects, more pleasant for strangers.  An
+enterprising vigorous rule could probably do much to check the malaria,
+to bring the Campagna into cultivation, to render the Tiber navigable, to
+promote roads and railways, and to develop the internal resources of the
+Roman States.  The gain accruing from these reforms and improvements
+would, in Roman estimation, far outweigh any possible loss in the number
+of visitors, or from the absence of the Papal court.  Moreover, whether
+rightly or wrongly, all Romans entertain an unshakeable conviction that
+in an united Italian kingdom, Rome must ultimately be the chief, if not
+the sole capital of Italy.
+
+These reasons, which rest on abstract considerations, naturally affect
+only the educated classes who are also biassed by their political
+predilections.  The small trading and commercial classes are, on somewhat
+different grounds, equally dissatisfied with the present state of things.
+The one boon they desire, is a settled government and the end of this
+ruinous uncertainty.  Now a priestly government supported by French
+bayonets can never give Rome either order or prosperity.  For the sake of
+quiet itself, they wish for change.  With respect to the poor, it is very
+difficult to judge what their feelings or wishes may be.  From what I
+have seen, I doubt, whether in any part of Italy, with the exception of
+the provinces subject to Austrian oppression, the revolution is, strictly
+speaking, a popular one.  I suspect that the populace of Rome have no
+strong desire for Italian unity or, still less for annexation to
+Sardinia, but I am still more convinced that they have no affection or
+regard whatever for the existing government; not even the sort of
+attachment, valueless though it be, which the lazzaroni of Naples have
+for their Bourbon princes.  It is incredible, if any such a feeling did
+exist, that it should refuse to give any sign of its existence at such a
+time as the present.
+
+With respect to the actual pecuniary cost of the Papal government, it is
+not easy to arrive at any positive information; I have little faith in
+statistics generally, and in Roman statistics in particular; I have,
+however, before me the official Government Budget for the year 1858.  Like
+all Papal documents, it is confused and meagre, but yet some curious
+conclusions may be arrived at from it.  The year 1858 was as quiet a
+year, be it remembered, as there has been in Italy for ten years past.  It
+was only on new year's day, in 1859, that Napoleon dropped the first hint
+of the Italian war.  The year 1858 may therefore be fairly regarded as a
+normal year under the present Papal system.  For this year the net
+receipts of the Government were,
+
+                       Scudi.
+Direct Taxes . . . . 3,011571
+Customs  . . . . . . 5,444729
+Stamps . . . . . . .   947184
+Post . . . . . . . .   111848
+Lottery  . . . . . .   392813
+Licences for Trade . . 174525
+Total               10,082670
+
+Now the census, taken at the end of 1857, showed a little over 600,000
+families in the Papal States.  The head therefore of every family had, on
+an average, to pay about 16 sc. and a half, or 3 pounds. 7_s_. 9_d_.
+annually for the expenses of the Government, which for so poor a country
+is pretty well.  Let us now see how that money is professed to have been
+spent,
+
+The net expenses are,
+
+                       Scudi.
+Army . . . . . . . . 2,014047
+Public Debt  . . . . 4,217708
+Interior . . . . . . 1,507235
+Currency . . . . . .    15115
+Public Works . . . .   681932
+Census . . . . . . .    88151
+Grant for special
+   purposes to Minister
+   of Finance . . .  1,415404
+Total                9,949592
+
+Now the Pontifical army is kept up avowedly not for purposes of defence,
+but to support the Government.  The public debt of 66 millions of scudi
+has been incurred for the sake of keeping up this army.  The expenses of
+the Interior mean the expenses of the police and spies, which infest
+every town in the Papal dominions, and the grant for Special Purposes,
+whatever else it may mean, which is not clear, means certainly some job,
+which the Government does not like to avow.  The only parts, therefore,
+of the expenditure which can be fairly said to be for the benefit of the
+nation, are the expenses of the Currency, Census and Public Works,
+amounting altogether to 785198 scudi, or not a twelfth of the net income
+raised by taxation.  Commercially speaking, whatever may be the case
+theologically, I am afraid the Papal system can hardly be said to pay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE MORALITY OF ROME.
+
+
+We all know the story of "Boccaccio's" Jew, who went to Rome an
+unbeliever, and came back a Christian.  There is no need for alarm; it is
+not my intention to repeat the story.  Indeed the only reason for my
+alluding to it, is to introduce the remark that, at the present day, the
+Jew would have returned from Rome hardened in heart and unconverted.  The
+flagrant profligacy, the open immorality, which in the Hebrew's judgment
+supplied the strongest testimony to the truth of a religion that survived
+such scandals, exist no longer.  Rome is, externally, the most moral and
+decorous of European cities.  In reality, she may be only a whited
+sepulchre, but at any rate, the whitewash is laid on very thick, and the
+plaster looks uncommonly like stone.  From various motives, this feature
+is, I think, but seldom brought prominently forward in descriptions of
+the Papal city.  Protestant and liberal writers slur over the facts,
+because, however erroneously, they are deemed inconsistent with the
+assumed iniquity of the Government and the corruptions of the Papacy.
+Catholic narrators know perhaps too much of what goes on behind the
+scenes to relish calling too close an attention to the apparent
+proprieties of Rome.  Be the cause what it may, the moral aspect of the
+Papal city seems to me to be but little dwelt upon, and yet on many
+accounts it is a very curious one.
+
+As far as Sabbatarianism is concerned, Rome is the Glasgow of Italy.  All
+shops, except druggists', tobacconists', and places of refreshment, are
+hermetically closed on Sundays.  Even the barbers have to close at half-
+past ten in the morning under a heavy fine, and during the Sundays in
+Lent cafes and eating-houses are shut throughout the afternoon, because
+the waiters are supposed to go to catechism.  The English reading-rooms
+are locked up; there is no delivery of letters, and no mails go out.  A
+French band plays on the Pincian at sunset, and the Borghese gardens are
+thrown open; but these, till evening, are the only public amusements.  At
+night, it is true, the theatres are open, but then in Roman Catholic
+countries, Sunday evening is universally accounted a feast.  To make up
+for this, the theatres are closed on every Friday in the year, as they
+are too throughout Lent and Advent; and once a week or more there is sure
+to be a Saint's day as well, on which shops and all are closed, to the
+great trial of a traveller's patience.  All the amusements of the Papal
+subjects are regulated with the strictest regard to their morals.  Private
+or public gambling of any kind, excepting always the Papal Lottery, is
+strictly suppressed.  There are no public dancing-places of any kind, no
+casinos or "cafes chantants."  No public masked balls are allowed, except
+one or two on the last nights of the Carnival.  The theatres themselves
+are kept under the most rigid "surveillance."  Every thing, from the
+titles of the plays to the petticoats of the ballet-girls, undergoes
+clerical inspection.  The censorship is as unsparing of "double
+entendres" as of political allusions, and "Palais Royal" farces are
+'Bowdlerized' down till they emerge from the process innocuous and dull;
+compared with one at the "Apollo," a ballet at the Princess's was a wild
+and voluptuous orgy.
+
+The same system of repression prevails in everything.  In the print-shops
+one never sees a picture which even verges on impropriety.  The few
+female portraits exhibited in their windows are robed with an amount of
+drapery which would satisfy the most prudish "sensibilities."  All books,
+which have the slightest amorous tendency, are scrupulously interdicted
+without reference to their political views.  The number of wine-shops
+seems to me small in proportion to the size of the city, and in none of
+them, as far as I could learn, are spirits sold.  There is another
+subject, which will suggest itself at once to any one acquainted with the
+life of towns, but on which it is obviously difficult to enter fully.  It
+is enough to say, that what the author of "Friends in Council" styles,
+with more sentiment than truth, "the sin of great cities," does not
+"apparently" exist in Rome.  Not only is public vice kept out of sight,
+as in some other Italian cities, but its private haunts and resorts are
+absolutely and literally suppressed.  In fact, if priest rule were
+deposed, and our own Sabbatarians and total-abstinence men and societies
+for the suppression of vice, reigned in its stead, I doubt if Rome could
+be made more outwardly decorous than it is at present.
+
+This then is the fair side of the picture.  What is the aspect of the
+reverse?  In the first place, the system requires for its working an
+amount of constant clerical interference in all private affairs, which,
+to say the least, is a great positive evil.  Confession is the great
+weapon by means of which morality is enforced.  Servants are instructed
+to report about their employers, wives about their husbands, children
+about their parents, and girls about their lovers.  Every act of your
+life is thus known to, and interfered with, by the priests.  I might
+quote a hundred instances of petty interference: let me quote the first
+few that come to my memory.  No bookseller can have a sale of books
+without submitting each volume to clerical supervision.  An Italian
+gentleman, resident here, had to my own knowledge to obtain a special
+permission in order to retain a copy of Rousseau's works in his private
+library.  The Roman nobles are not allowed to hunt because the Pope
+considers the amusement dangerous.  Profane swearing is a criminal
+offence.  Every Lent all restaurateurs are warned by a solemn edict not
+to supply meat on fast days, and then told that "whenever on the
+forbidden days they are obliged to supply rich meats, they must do so in
+a separate room, in order that scandal may be avoided, and that all may
+know they are in the capital of the catholic world."  Forced marriages
+are matters of constant occurrence, and even strangers against whom a
+charge of affiliation is brought are obliged either to marry their
+accuser, or make provision for the illegitimate offspring.  In the
+provinces the system of interference is naturally carried to yet greater
+lengths.  Nine years ago certain Christians at Bologna, who had opened
+shops in the Jewish quarter of the town, were ordered to leave at once,
+because such a practice was in "open opposition to the Apostolic laws and
+institutions."  Again, Cardinal Cagiano, Bishop of Senigaglia, published
+a decree in the year 1844, which has never been repealed, to promote
+morality in his diocese.  In that decree the following articles occur:
+
+   "All young men and women are strictly forbidden, under any pretext
+   whatever, to give or receive presents from each other before marriage.
+   All persons who have received such presents before the publication of
+   this decree, are required to make restitution of them within three
+   months, or to become betrothed to the donor within the said period.
+   Any one who contravenes these regulations is to be punished by fifteen
+   days imprisonment, during which he is to support himself at his own
+   expense, and the presents will be devoted to some pious purpose to be
+   determined on hereafter."
+
+I could multiply instances of this sort indefinitely, but I know of none
+more striking than the last.
+
+So much for the mode in which the system is worked, and now as to its
+practical result.  To judge fully, it is necessary to get behind the
+scenes, a thing not easy for a stranger anywhere, least of all here.
+There is too the further difficulty, that when you have got behind the
+scenes, it is not very easy to narrate your esoteric experiences to the
+public.  Even if there were no other objection, it would be useless to
+quote individual stories and facts which have come privately to my
+knowledge, and which would show Rome, in spite of its external propriety,
+to be one of the most corrupt, debauched, and demoralized of cities.  Each
+separate story can be disputed or explained away, but the weight of the
+general evidence is overpowering.  In these matters it is best to keep to
+the old Latin rule, "Experto crede."  I have talked with many persons,
+Romans, Italians, and foreign residents, on the subject, and from one and
+all I have heard similar accounts.  Every traveller I have ever met with,
+who has made like inquiries, has come to a like conviction.  In a country
+where there is practically neither press nor public courts, nor
+responsible government, where even no classified census is allowed to be
+taken, statistics are hard to obtain, and of little value when obtained.
+Personal evidence, unsatisfactory as it is, is after all the best you can
+arrive at.  With regard then to what, in its strictest sense, is termed
+the "morality" of Rome, I must dismiss the subject with the remarks, that
+the absence of recognized public resorts and agents of vice may be dearly
+purchased when parents make a traffic in their own houses of their
+children's shame, and that perhaps as far as the state is concerned the
+debauchery of a few is a less evil than the dissoluteness of the whole
+population.  More I cannot and need not say.  With respect to other sins
+against the Decalogue, it is an easier task to speak.  There is very
+little drunkenness in Rome I freely admit, but then the Italians, like
+most natives of warm countries, are naturally sober.  Rome is certainly
+not superior in this respect to other Italian cities; since the
+introduction of the French soldiery probably the contrary.  At the street
+corners you constantly see exhortations against profane swearing, headed
+"Bestemmiatore orrendo nome," but in spite of this, the amount of
+blasphemies that any common Roman will pour forth on the slightest
+provocation, is really appalling.  Beggars too are universal.  Everybody
+begs; if you ask a common person your way along the street, the chances
+are that he asks you for a "buono mano."  Now, even if you doubt the
+truth of Sheridan's dictum, that no man could be honest without being
+rich, it is hard to believe in a virtuous beggar.  The abundance, also,
+of lotteries shakes one's faith in Roman morality.  A population amongst
+whom gambling and beggary are encouraged by their spiritual and temporal
+rulers is not likely in other respects to be a virtuous or a moral one.
+The frequency of violent crimes is in itself a startling fact.
+
+To my eyes, indeed, the very look of the city and its inhabitants, is a
+strong _prima facie_ ground of suspicion.  There is vice on those worn,
+wretched faces--vice in those dilapidated hovel-palaces--vice in those
+streets, teeming with priests and dirt and misery.  In fact, if you only
+fancy to yourself a city, where there are no manufactures, no commerce,
+no public life of any kind; where the rich are condemned to involuntary
+idleness, and the poor to enforced misery; where there is a population of
+some ten thousand ecclesiastics in the prime of life, without adequate
+occupation for the most part, and all vowed to celibacy; where priests
+and priest-rule are omnipotent, and where every outlet for the natural
+desires and passions of men is carefully cut off--if you take in fully
+all these conditions and their inevitable consequences, you will not be
+surprised if to me, as to any one who knows the truth, the outward
+morality of Rome seems but the saddest of its many mockeries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  THE ROMAN PEOPLE.
+
+
+"Senatus Populusque Romanus."  The phrase sounds strangely, in my ears,
+like the accents of an unknown language or the burden of a half-forgotten
+melody.  In those four initial letters there seems to me always to lie
+embodied an epitome of the world's history--the rise and decline and fall
+of Rome.  On the escutcheons of the Roman nobles, the S.P.Q.R. are still
+blazoned forth conspicuously, but where shall we look for the realities
+expressed by that world-famed symbol?  It is true, the Senate is still
+represented by a single Senator, nominated by the Pope, who drives in a
+Lord Mayor's state coach on solemn occasions; and regularly, on the first
+night of the opera season, sends round ices, as a present to the favoured
+occupants of the second and third tiers of boxes at the "Apollo."  This
+gentleman, by all the laws of senatorial succession, is the undoubted
+heir and representative of the old Roman Senate, who sat with their togas
+wrapped around them, waiting for the Gaul to strike; but alas, the
+"Populus Romanus" has left behind him neither heir nor descendant.
+
+Yet surely, if anything of dead Rome be still left in the living city, it
+should be found in the Roman people.  In the _Mysteres du Peuple_ of
+Eugene Sue, there is a story, that to the Proletarian people, the sons of
+toil and labour, belong genealogies of their own, pedigrees of families,
+who from remote times have lived and died among the ranks of industry.
+These fabulous families, I have often thought, should have had their home
+in the Eternal City.  Amongst the peasants that you meet, praying in the
+churches, or basking in the sun-light, or toiling in the deadly Campagna
+plains, there must be some, who, if they knew it, descend in direct
+lineage from the ancient "Plebs."  It may be so, or rather it must be so;
+but of the fact there is little outward evidence.  You look in vain for
+the characteristic features of the old Roman face, such as you behold
+them when portrayed in ancient statues.  The broad low brow, the
+depressed skull, the protruding under-jaw, and the thin compressed lips,
+are to be seen no longer.  Indeed, though I make the remark with the fear
+of the artist-world before my eyes, I should hardly say myself, that the
+Romans of the present day were a very handsome race; and of their own
+type they are certainly inferior both to Tuscans and Neapolitans.  The
+men are well formed and of good height, but not powerful in build or
+make, and their features are rather marked than regular.  As for the
+women, when you have once perceived that hair may be black as coal and
+yet coarse as string, that bright sparkling eyes may be utterly devoid of
+expression, and that an olive complexion may be deepened by the absence
+of washing, you grow somewhat sceptical as to the reality of their
+vaunted beauty.  All this, however, is a matter of personal taste, about
+which it is useless to express a decided opinion.  I must content myself
+with the remark, that the Roman peasantry as depicted, year after year,
+on the walls of our academy, bear about the same resemblance to the
+article provided for home consumption, as the ladies in an ordinary
+London ball-room bear to the portraits in the "Book of Beauty."  The
+peasants' costumes too, like the smock-frocks and scarlet cloaks of Old
+England, are dying out fast.  On the steps in the "Piazza di Spagna," and
+in the artists' quarter above, you see some score or so of models with
+the braided boddices, and the head-dresses of folded linen, standing
+about for hire.  The braid, it is true, is torn; the snow-white linen
+dirt-besmeared, and the brigand looks feeble and inoffensive, while the
+hoary patriarch plays at pitch and toss: but still they are the same
+figures that we know so well, the traditional Roman peasantry of the
+"Grecian" and the "Old Adelphi."  Unfortunately, they are the last of the
+Romans.  In other parts of the city the peasants' dresses are few and far
+between; the costume has become so uncommon, as to be now a fashionable
+dress for the Roman ladies at Carnival time and other holiday festivals.
+On Sundays and "Festas" in the mountain districts you can still find real
+peasants with real peasants' dresses; but even there Manchester stuffs
+and cottons are making their way fast, and every year the old-fashioned
+costumes grow rarer and rarer.  A grey serge jacket, coarse nondescript-
+coloured cloth trousers, and a brown felt hat, all more or less ragged
+and dusty, compose the ordinary dress of the Roman working man.  Female
+dress, in any part of the world, is one of those mysteries which a wise
+man will avoid any attempt to explain; I can only say, therefore, that
+the dress of the common Roman women is much like that of other European
+countries, except that the colours used are somewhat gayer and gaudier
+than is common in the north.
+
+Provisions are dear in Rome.  Bread of the coarsest and mouldiest quality
+costs, according to the Government tariff, by which its price is
+regulated, from a penny to three halfpence for the English pound.  Meat
+is about a third dearer than in London, and clothing, even of the poorest
+sort, is very high in price.  On the other hand, lodgings, of the class
+used by the poor, are cheap enough.  There is no outlay for firing, as
+even in the coldest weather (and I have known the temperature in Rome as
+low as eight degrees below freezing-point), even well-to-do Romans never
+think of lighting a fire; and then, in this climate, the actual quantity
+of victuals required by an able-bodied labourer is far smaller than in
+our northern countries, while, from the same cause, the use of strong
+liquors is almost unknown.  Tobacco too, which is all made up in the
+Papal factories and chiefly grown in the country, is reasonable in price,
+though poor in quality.  In the country and the poorer parts of the city,
+the dearest cigar you can buy is only a baioccho, or under one halfpenny;
+and from this fact you may conclude what the price of the common cheap
+cigars is to a native.  From all these causes, I feel no doubt that the
+cost of living for the poor is comparatively small, though of course the
+rate of wages is small in proportion.  For ordinary unskilled labour, the
+day-wages, at the winter season, are about three pauls to three pauls and
+a half; in summer about five pauls; and in the height of the vintage as
+much as six or seven pauls, though this is only for a very few weeks.  I
+should suppose, therefore, that from 1_s_. 6_d_. to 1_s_. 9_d_. a day,
+taking the paul at 5_d_., were the average wages of a good workman at
+Rome.  From these wages, small as they are, there are several deductions
+to be made.
+
+In the first place, the immense number of "festas" tells heavily on the
+workman's receipts.  On the more solemn feast-days all work is strictly
+forbidden by the priests; and either employer or labourer, who was
+detected in an infraction of the law, would be subject to heavy fines.
+Even on the minor festivals, about the observance of which the Church is
+not so strict, labour is almost equally out of the question.  The people
+have got so used to holiday keeping, that nothing but absolute necessity
+can induce them to work, except on working days.  All over Italy this is
+too much the case.  I was told by a large manufacturer in Florence, that
+having a great number of orders on hand, and knowing extreme distress to
+prevail among his workmen's families, he offered double wages to any one
+who came to work on a "festa" day, but that only two out of a hundred
+responded to his offer.  I merely mention this fact, as one out of many
+such I have heard, to show how this abuse must prevail in Rome, where
+every moral influence is exerted in favour of idleness against industry,
+and where the observance of holy days is practised most religiously.
+
+Then, too, the higher rate of wages paid in summer is counterbalanced by
+the extra risk to which the labourer is exposed.  The ravages created by
+the malaria fevers amongst the ill-bred, ill-clothed, and ill-cared-for
+labourers, are really fearful.  Indeed it is hardly an exaggeration to
+say, that the whole working population of Rome is eaten up with malaria.
+I feel myself convinced that the misery and degradation of the Papal
+States are to be attributed to two causes, the enormous burden of the
+priesthood, and the ravages of the malaria.  How far these two causes are
+in any way connected with each other, I have never been able to
+determine.  It is one of the rhetorical exaggerations which have impaired
+the utility of the _Question Romaine_, that M. About, in his remarkable
+work, always treats the malaria as if it was solely due to the
+inefficiency of the Papal Government, and would disappear with the
+deposition of the Pope.  This unphilosophical view is generally adopted
+by liberal opponents of the Papacy, who lay the malaria to its doors,
+while Papal advocates, on the contrary, always treat the malaria as a
+mysterious scourge which can never be removed or even palliated; a view
+almost as unphilosophical as the other.  For my own part, I have only
+been able to arrive at three isolated conclusions on the subject.  First,
+that mere cultivation of the Campagna, as shown by Prince Borghese's
+unsuccessful experiments, does not at any rate immediately affect the
+virulence of the miasma, or whatever the malaria may be.  Secondly, that
+the malaria can actually be built out, or, in other words, if the
+Campagna was covered with a stone pavement, the disease would disappear--a
+remedy obviously impracticable; and lastly, that though the existence of
+the malaria cannot be removed, as far I can see, yet that its evil
+effects might be immensely lessened by warm clothing, good food, and
+prompt medical aid at the commencement of the malady.  Whatever tends to
+improve the general condition of the Roman peasantry will put these
+remedies more and more within their reach, and will therefore tend to
+check the ravages of the malaria.  Thus, the inefficient and obstructive
+Government of the Vatican, which checks all material as well as all moral
+progress, increases indirectly the virulence of the fever-plague; but
+this, I think, is the most that can fairly be stated.
+
+I trust that, considering the importance of the subject, this digression,
+unsatisfactory as it is, may be pardoned; and I now turn to the third
+curse, which eats up the wages of the working man at Rome--a curse even
+greater, I think, than the "festas" or the malaria--I mean, the
+universality of the middle-man system.  If you require any work done,
+from stone carving to digging, you seldom or never deal with the actual
+workman.  If you are a farmer and want your harvest got in, you contract
+months beforehand with an agent, who agrees to supply you with harvest-
+men in certain numbers, at a certain price, out of which price he pockets
+as large a percentage as he can, and has probably commissions to pay
+himself to some sub-contractor.  If you are a sculptor and wish a block
+of marble chiselled in the rough, the man you contract with to hew the
+block at certain day-wages brings a boy to do the work at half the above
+amount or less, and only looks in from time to time to see how the work
+is proceeding.  It is the same in every branch of trade or business.  If
+you wish to make a purchase, or effect a sale, or hire a servant, you
+have a whole series of commissions or brokerages to pay before you come
+into contact with the principal.
+
+If you inquire why this system is not broken through, why the employer
+does not deal directly with his workmen, you are told that the custom of
+the country is against any other method; that amongst the workmen
+themselves there is so much terrorism and intimidation and _espionnage_,
+that any single employer or labourer, who contracted for work
+independently, would run a risk of annoyance or actual injury; of having,
+for example, his block of marble split "by a slip of the hand," or his
+tools destroyed, or a knife stuck into him as he went home at night, and,
+more than all, that, without the supervision of the actual overseer, your
+workmen would cheat you right and left, no matter what wages you paid.
+After all it is better to be cheated by one man than by a dozen, and
+being at Rome you must do as the Romans do.
+
+It may possibly have been observed that, in the foregoing paragraph, I
+have spoken of the "workmen at Rome," not of the Roman workmen.  The
+difference, though slight verbally, is an all-important one.  The workmen
+in Rome are not Romans, for the Romans proper never work.  The Campagna
+is tilled in winter by groups of peasants, who come from the Marches, in
+long straggling files, headed by the "Pifferari," those most inharmonious
+of pipers.  In summer-time the harvest is reaped and the vintage gathered
+in by labourers, whose homes lie far away in the Abruzzi mountains.  In
+many ways these mountaineers bear a decided resemblance to the swarms of
+Irish labourers who come across to England in harvest-time.  They are
+frugal, good-humoured, and, compared to the native Romans, honest and
+hard-working.  A very small proportion too of the working-men in Rome
+itself are Romans.  Certain trades, as that of the cooks for instance,
+are almost confined to the inhabitants of particular outlying districts.
+The masons, carpenters, carvers, and other mechanical trades, are filled
+by men who do not belong to the city, and who are called and considered
+foreigners.  Of course the rule is not without exceptions, and you will
+find genuine Romans amongst the common workmen, but amongst the skilled
+workmen hardly ever.  There is a very large, poor, I might almost say,
+pauper population in Rome, and in some form or other these poor must work
+for their living, but their principle is to do as little work as
+possible.  There still exists amongst the Romans a sort of debased,
+imperial pride, a belief that a Roman is _per se_ superior to all other
+Italians.  For manual work, or labour under others, they have an equal
+contempt and dislike.  All the semi-independent trades, like those of cab-
+drivers, street-vendors, petty shopkeepers, &c. are eagerly sought after
+and monopolized by Romans.  The extent to which small trades are carried
+on by persons utterly without capital and inevitably embarrassed with
+debt, is one of the chief evils in the social system which prevails here.
+If the Romans also, like the unjust steward, are too proud to dig, unlike
+that worthy, to beg they are _not_ ashamed.  Begging is a recognized and
+a respected profession, and if other trades fail there is always this
+left.  The cardinal principle of Papal rule is to teach its subjects to
+rely on charity rather than industry.  In order to relieve in some
+measure the fearful distress that existed among the poor of Rome in the
+early spring, the Government took some thousand persons into their
+employment, and set them to work on excavating the Forum.  The sight of
+these men working, or, more correctly speaking, idling at work, used to
+be reckoned one of the stock jokes of the season.  Six men were regularly
+employed in conveying a wheelbarrow filled with two spadefuls of soil.
+There was one man to each handle, two in front to pull when the road
+rose, and one on each side to give a helping hand and keep the barrow
+steady.  You could see any day long files of such barrows, so escorted,
+creeping to and from the Forum.  It is hardly necessary to say that
+little progress was ever made in the excavations, or, for that matter,
+intended to be made.  Yet the majority of these workmen were able-bodied
+fellows, who received tenpence a day for doing nothing.  Much less injury
+would have been inflicted on their self-respect by giving them the money
+outright than in return for this mockery of labour.  Moreover the poor in
+Rome, as I have mentioned elsewhere, are not afraid of actual starvation.
+"Well-disposed" persons, with a good word from the priests, can obtain
+food at the convents of the mendicant friars.  I am not saying there is
+no good in this custom; in fact, it is almost the one good feature I know
+of connected with the priestly system of government; but still, on an
+indolent and demoralised population like that of Rome, the benefit of
+this sort of charity, which destroys the last and the strongest motive
+for exertion, is by no means an unmixed one.
+
+The amusements of the people are much what might be expected from their
+occupations.  To do them justice, they drink but moderately; but whenever
+they can spare the time and money, they crowd out into the roadside
+"Osterias," and spend hours, smoking and sipping the red wine lazily.
+Walking is especially distasteful to them; and on a Sunday and festa-day
+you will see hundreds of carriages filled with working people, though the
+fares are by no means cheap.  Whole families will starve themselves for
+weeks before the Carnival, and leave themselves penniless at the end, to
+get costumes and carriages to drive down the "Corso" with on the gala
+days.  The Romans, too, are a nation of gamblers.  Their chief amusement,
+not to say their chief occupation, is gambling.  In the middle of the
+day, at street-corners and in sunny spots, you see groups of working-men
+playing at pitch halfpenny, or gesticulating wildly over the mysterious
+game of "Moro."  Skittles and stone-throwing are the only popular
+amusements which require any bodily exertion; and both of these, as
+played here, are as much chance as skill.  The lottery, too, is the great
+national pastime.
+
+This picture of the Roman people may not seem a very favourable or a very
+promising one.  I quite admit, that many persons, who have come much into
+contact with them, speak highly of their general good humour, their
+affectionate feelings and their sharpness of intellect.  At the same
+time, I have observed that these eulogists of the Roman populace are
+either Papal partizans who, believing that "this is the best of all
+possible worlds," wish to prove also that "everything here is for the
+best," or else they are vehement friends of Italy, who are afraid of
+damaging their beloved cause by an admission of the plain truth, that the
+Romans are not as a people either honest, truthful or industrious.  For
+my own part, my faith is different.  A bad government produces bad
+subjects, and I am not surprised to find in the debasement and
+degradation of a priest-ruled people the strongest condemnation of the
+Papal system.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  TRIALS FOR MURDER.
+
+
+The idler about the streets of Rome may, from time to time, catch sight,
+on blank walls and dead corners, of long white strips of paper, covered
+with close-printed lines of most uninviting looking type, and headed with
+the Papal arms--the cross-keys and tiara.  If, being like myself
+afflicted with an inquisitive turn of mind, he takes the trouble of
+deciphering these hieroglyphic documents, his labour would not be
+altogether thrown away.  Those straggling strips, stuck up in out-of-the-
+way places, glanced at by a few idle passers-by, and torn down by the
+prowling vagabonds of the streets after a day or two for the sake of the
+paper, are the sole public records of justice issued, or allowed to be
+issued, under the Pontifical government.  Trials are carried on here with
+closed doors; no spectators are admitted; no reports of the proceedings
+are published.  In capital cases, however, _after_ the execution of the
+criminal has taken place a sort of _Proces verbal_ of the case and of the
+trial is placarded on the walls of the chief towns.
+
+During the period of my stay at Rome there were three executions in
+different parts of the Papal territory.  Whether by accident or by design
+I cannot say, but all these executions occurred within a short period of
+each other, and, in consequence, three such statements were issued almost
+at the same time by the Government.  With considerable difficulty I
+succeeded in obtaining copies of these statements, not, I am bound to
+say, because there seemed to be any reluctance in furnishing them, but
+because the fact of anybody wishing to obtain copies was so unusual, that
+there was no preparation made for supplying them; and, at last, I only
+succeeded in procuring them from a printer's devil to the Stanperia
+Apostolica.  The facts narrated in them, and the circumstances alluded
+to, seem to me to throw a strange light on the administration of justice,
+and the daily life of this priest-ruled country.  It is as such that I
+wish to comment on them.  In these statements, be it remembered, there is
+no question of political or clerical bias.  The facts stated are all
+facts, admitted by the authorities of their own free will and pleasure;
+and if, as I think, these facts tell most unfavourably on the judicial
+system of our clerical rulers, it is, at any rate, out of their own
+mouths they are convicted.  All, therefore, that I propose to do is,
+having these official statements before me, to tell the stories that they
+contain, as shortly and as clearly as I can, adding no comment of my own
+but what is necessary to explain the facts in question.  Let me take
+first the case, which is entitled "Cannara contro Luigi Bonci;" the
+township of Cannara, where the crime was committed, being what we should
+call in a civil suit the plaintiff, and the accused Bonci the defendant.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--continued.  THE "BONCI" MURDER.
+
+
+Some three years ago, then, there lived in the hamlet of Cannara, near
+Perugia, a family called Bonci.  They belonged to the peasant class, and
+were poor, even among the Papal peasantry.  The family consisted of the
+father and mother, and of their son and daughter, both grown up.  Between
+the father and son there had long been ill-blood.  The cause of this want
+of family harmony is but indistinctly stated, but apparently it was due
+to the irregular habits of the son, and to the severity of the father;
+while all this domestic misery was rendered doubly bitter by the almost
+abject want of the household.  On the night of November the 9th, 1856,
+Venanzio Bonci, the father, Maria Rosa, his wife, and their daughter,
+Caterina, were at supper in the miserable room, which formed the whole of
+their dwelling, waiting for the return of the son, Luigi, who had been
+absent ever since the morning.  There had been frequent quarrels before
+between father and son about Luigi's stopping out late, and now it was
+past midnight.  There was no light in the room except a faint flicker
+from the embers, and the feeble glimmering of the starlight which entered
+through the open windows.  A noise was heard in the stable underneath the
+room, and the father, thinking it was the son, called out three or four
+times, but got no answer.  A few minutes after Luigi entered without the
+lantern, which he had left below in the stable, and although his sister
+bade him good night he made no reply.  As he entered the room his father
+called to him, "A fine time of night to come home."  "What then?" was the
+only answer given by Luigi.  "You have never been home since morning,"
+went on the father.  "What then?" was still the only answer.  The father
+then told the son to hold his tongue, and again received the same reply.
+At last Venanzio, losing his temper, called out, "Be quiet, or I'll break
+your head;" or, according to the story, "I'll murder you:" to which Luigi
+only answered, "I may as well die to-day as to-morrow."  After that there
+was a short scuffle heard, and Venanzio suddenly cried out as if in pain,
+"My God! my God!"  The mother and daughter screamed for help, but by the
+time the neighbours had come in with lights, Luigi had run off.  Venanzio
+was found reeling to and fro, with blood pouring from several wounds,
+and, in spite of medical aid, he died in the course of a few hours.
+Almost immediately after the commission of the crime Luigi was found by
+the gendarmes in the cottage of an uncle, and arrested on the spot.
+
+These, as far as I can learn from the very confused documents before me,
+are all the facts admitted without question; or, more strictly speaking,
+which the Government states to have been unquestioned.  Luigi was
+arrested on the night of the murder.  Such small evidence as there was
+could have been ascertained in twenty-four hours, and yet the prisoner
+was never brought to trial till the 3rd of May, 1858; that is, eighteen
+months afterwards.  On that day Luigi Bonci was arraigned before the
+civil and criminal court of Perugia, on the two counts of parricide, and
+of having illegal arms in his possession.  The Court was composed of the
+President, Judge, Assistant Judge, and Deputy Judge of the district.
+These gentlemen (all, I should state, lay officials) were assisted by the
+public prosecutor and the Government counsel for the defence.  The course
+of proceedings is stated to have been as follows: prayers were first
+offered up for the Divine guidance, the prisoner was introduced and
+identified, the written depositions were read over, a narrative of the
+facts was given by the president, the prisoner was called upon to reply
+to the charges alleged against him, the witnesses for the crown and for
+the prisoner were heard respectively, the counsel for the prosecution
+called upon the court to condemn the prisoner, and was replied to by the
+counsel for the defence; the discussion was then declared closed, and
+after the judges had retired and deliberated, their sentence was given.
+
+All the facts I have been able to put together about the case are
+gathered from this sentence and from those of the courts of appeal.  These
+sentences, however, are extremely lengthy, very indistinct, and
+encumbered with a great deal of legal phraseology.  As they are all alike
+I may as well give an abstract of this one as a specimen of all.  The
+sentence begins with the following moral remarks: "Frequent paternal
+admonitions, alleged scarcity of daily food, and the evil counsels of
+others, had alienated the heart of the prisoner to such an extent, that
+feelings of affection and reverence towards his own father, Venanzio, had
+given place to contempt, disobedience, ill-will, and even worse."  No
+one, however, would have supposed that he "was capable of becoming a
+parricide, as was too clearly proved on the fatal night in question."
+After these preliminary reflections comes a narration of the facts much
+in the words in which I have given them.  This is followed by a statement
+of the arguments for the prosecution and for the defence, consisting of a
+number of verbose paragraphs, each beginning, "considering that," &c.  The
+case of the prosecution was clear enough.  The medical evidence proved
+that the father died of the wounds received on the above-named night.  The
+fact that the wounds were inflicted by the prisoner, was established by
+the evidence of his mother and sister, who overheard the quarrel between
+him and his father, by the flight after commission of the crime, by the
+discovery of a blood-stained knife dropped on the threshold, by the
+deposition of the father before death, and lastly, by the confession of
+the prisoner himself, who admitted the crime, though under extenuating
+circumstances.  The fact that the sister never heard the knife open,
+although it had three clasps, was asserted to be evidence that the
+prisoner entered the room with his knife open and intending to commit the
+crime.  This charge of _malice prepense_ was supported by the son's
+refusal to answer his father, by the insolence of his language, and by
+the number and vehemence of the stabs he inflicted.
+
+The prisoner's defence was also very simple.  According to his own story,
+he was half drunk on his return home.  His father not only taunted and
+threatened him, but at last seized the door-bar and began knocking him
+about the head; and then, at last, maddened with pain and passion, he
+drew out a knife he had picked up on the road, and stabbed his father,
+hardly knowing what he did.  On the bare statement of facts, I should
+deem this version of the story the more probable of the two, but as no
+details whatever are given of the evidence on either side, it is
+impossible to judge.  The court at any rate decided that there was no
+proof of the prisoner having been drunk, and that the evidence of his
+father having struck him was of a suspicious character, "while," they
+add, "it would be absurd and immoral to maintain, that a father, whose
+right and duty it is to correct his children (and indeed on this occasion
+correction was abundantly deserved by the insolent demeanour of Luigi)
+could be considered to provoke his son by a slight personal
+chastisement."  The son, by the way, was over one and twenty, a fact to
+which no allusion is made.  As "a forlorn hope," in the words of the
+sentence, the counsel for the defence asserted, that whatever the crime
+of the prisoner might be, it was not parricide, from the simple fact that
+Luigi was not Venanzio's son.  The facts of the case appear to have been,
+that Maria Rosa Battistoni being then unmarried, gave birth in July 1835
+to a son, who was the prisoner at the bar; that shortly afterwards the
+vicar of Cannara gave information to the Episcopal court of Assisi, that
+Maria Rosa had been seduced by Venanzio Bonci and had had an illegitimate
+child by him; that, in consequence, a formal requisition was addressed by
+the above court to Venanzio, and that he thereupon acknowledged the
+paternity of the child, and expressed his readiness to marry the mother.
+The marriage was therefore solemnized, and the child entered in the
+church-books as the legitimized son of Venanzio and Maria Bonci, in June,
+1836.  Against this strong presumptive evidence of paternity, and the
+natural inference to be drawn from the child having been brought up and
+educated as Venanzio's son, there were only, we are told, to be set,
+alleged expressions of doubt on the father's part, when in a passion, as
+to his being really the father, and also certain confessions of the
+mother to different parties, that Luigi was not the child of her husband.
+All these confessions however, so it is asserted, were proved to be
+subsequent in date to the son's arrest, and therefore, probably, made
+with a view to save his life.  The plea is in consequence rejected.
+
+No defence was attempted to the second count.  Both charges are therefore
+declared fully proved; and as the punishment for parricide is public
+execution, and the penalty for having in one's possession (a lighter
+offence by the way, than using) any weapon without special license,
+consists of imprisonment from two to twelve months, and of a fine from
+five to sixty scudi, therefore the court "condemns Luigi Bonci for the
+first count, to be publicly executed in Cannara, and to make compensation
+to the heirs of the murdered man, according to the valuation of the civil
+tribunals, and to pay the cost of the trial; and on the second count, the
+court" (with a pedantic mockery of mercy) "considers the first three
+months of the incarceration the prisoner has already undergone to be
+sufficient punishment, coupled with a fine of five scudi and the loss of
+the weapon."
+
+This summary will, I fear, give the reader too favourable an opinion of
+the original sentence.  In order to make the story at all intelligible, I
+have had to pick out my facts, from a perfect labyrinth of sentences and
+parentheses.  All I, or any one else can state is, that these seem to be
+the facts, which seem to have been proved by the witnesses.  What the
+character of the evidence was, or what was the relative credibility of
+the witnesses, whose very names I know not, or how far their assertions
+were borne out or contradicted by circumstantial proof, are all matters
+on which (though the whole character of the crime depends on them) I can
+form no opinion whatever.
+
+The trial occupied but one day, and yet the above sentence, it appears,
+was not communicated to the prisoner till the 15th of October, 1858, that
+is, over five months afterwards.  When the official announcement of the
+sentence was made, the prisoner declared his intention of appealing
+against its justice.  By the Papal law, every person condemned for a
+criminal offence, by the lay tribunals, has the right of appealing to the
+Supreme Pontifical Court.  It is, therefore, needless to say, that in all
+cases where sentence of death is passed, an appeal is made on any ground,
+however trivial, as the condemned culprit cannot lose by this step, and
+may gain.  The practical and obvious objection to this unqualified power
+of appeal, is that the supreme ecclesiastical court is the real judge,
+not the nominal lay court, which does little more than register the fact,
+that the crime is proved _prima facie_.
+
+On the 15th of February, 1859, after a delay of four months more from the
+time of appeal, the court of the supreme tribunal of the Consulta Sacra,
+assembled at the Monte Citorio in Rome, to try the appeal.  The court was
+composed of six "most illustrious and reverend Judges," all "Monsignori"
+and all dignitaries of the Church, assisted by a public prosecutor and
+counsel for the defence, attached to the Papal exchequer.  The course of
+proceedings appears to be much the same as in the inferior courts, except
+that no witnesses, save the prisoner, were examined orally, and the whole
+evidence was taken from written depositions.  At last, after "invoking
+the most sacred name of God," the court pronounce their sentence.  This
+sentence is in a great measure a recapitulation of the preceding one.
+Either no new facts were adduced, or none are alluded to.  The grounds
+for the defence are the same as on the previous occasion, namely, the
+provocation given by the father, and the doubt as to the son's paternity.
+There were, in fact, two questions before the court.  First, whether the
+crime committed was murder or manslaughter; and, if it was murder,
+whether the murderer was or was not the son of the murdered man.  Instead,
+however, of facing either of these questions of fact, the court seems to
+enter upon abstract considerations, which to our notions are quite
+irrelevant.  The degree to which paternal corrections can be carried
+without abuse, and the problem whether a man who kills a person, whom he
+believes and has reason to believe to be his father, but who is not so in
+fact, is guilty or not of the sin of parricide, seem rather questions for
+clerical casuistry than considerations which bear upon facts.  The final
+conclusion drawn from these various reflections is, that the court
+confirms the judgment of the Perugian tribunal, in every respect.
+
+The rejection of the appeal is not communicated for two months more, that
+is, not till the 22nd of April, to the prisoner, who at once appeals
+again against the execution of the verdict to the Upper Court of the
+Supreme Tribunal.  On the 13th of May the case comes on for its third and
+last trial.  The court is again composed of six ecclesiastics of high
+rank, assisted by the same official counsel as before; the same course of
+proceeding is adopted, except that the prisoner is not brought into court
+or examined.  Again, after "invoking the most holy name of God," the
+tribunal pronounces, not its sentence this time, but its judgment.  This
+judgment alludes only to the two grounds on which the appeal is based.
+The first is the question of paternity, which is at once dismissed, as
+being a matter of evidence that has been already decided.  The second
+ground of appeal is a technical and a legal one.  The defence appears to
+have pleaded, that the original arrest was illegal, and that, by this
+fact, the whole trial was vitiated.  On both sides it was admitted that
+the prisoner was arrested without a warrant, and not in "flagrante
+delicto," and that therefore the arrest was, strictly speaking, illegal.
+The court, however, decides, that though the prisoner was not taken in
+the act, yet his guilt was so manifest, that the gendarmes were justified
+in acting as if they had caught him perpetrating the crime, while in
+offences of great atrocity the police have also a discretionary power to
+arrest offenders, even without warrants.  Though in this particular
+instance the result is not much to be regretted, yet it is obvious, that
+the admission of such a principle, and such an interpretation of the law,
+gives the police unlimited power of arrest, subject to the approval of
+their superiors: whether right or wrong, therefore, the appeal is
+dismissed, and the final sentence of death pronounced.
+
+It seems that this verdict was submitted on the 24th of May by the
+President of the Supreme Court to the consideration of his Holiness the
+Pope, who offered no objection to its execution.  The prisoner's last
+chance was now gone, but, with a cruel mercy, he was left to linger on
+for eight months more in uncertainty.  It was only on the 3rd of January,
+1860, that orders were sent from Rome to Perugia, for the execution to
+take place there instead of at Cannara, on the 13th.  On that day the
+verdict of the court is conveyed to the unhappy wretch.  On the 14th, so
+the last paragraph informs us, "The condemned" Luigi Bonci "was beheaded
+by the public executioner, in the market-place of Perugia, and his head
+was there exposed for an hour to the gaze of the assembled multitude."
+
+On the 18th the report, from which these facts are taken, was placarded
+on the walls of Rome.  The murder is committed in November, 1856; the
+murderer is arrested on the night of the crime; for that crime he is not
+tried at all till May, 1858; his final trial does not come off till May,
+1859, and his execution is deferred till January, 1860.  For three years
+and a quarter after the commission of the murder no report is published.
+These facts need no comment.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--continued.  THE "UGOLINI" MURDER.
+
+
+Of late years, round and about Viterbo, there was a well-known character,
+Giovanni Ugolini by name, a sort of itinerant "Jack-of-all-trades," who
+wandered about from place to place, picking up any odd job he could find,
+and begging when he could turn his hand to nothing else.  He is described
+in the legal reports as a Tinker and Umbrella-mender, but his especial
+line of industry, novel to us at any rate, seems to have been that of a
+scraper and cleaner of old tombstones.  By these various pursuits, he
+scraped together a good bit of money for a man in his position, and at
+the end of his winter circuit, in the year 1857, he had saved up by
+common report as much as 70 scudi, or about 14 pounds odd.  On the 4th of
+May in that year, Ugolini left the little town of Castel Giorgio, with
+the avowed intention of going to Viterbo, to change his monies into
+Tuscan coin.  Being belated on his road, he resolved to stop over the
+night at the house of a certain Andrea Volpi which lay on his road, and
+where he had often slept before.  On the following morning, about eight
+o'clock, he left Volpi's house and went on his journey towards Viterbo.
+Nothing more is positively known about him, except that on the same day
+his body was found on a bye-path, a little off the direct Viterbo road,
+covered with wounds.  No money was discovered about his person, while
+there was every indication of his clothes and pack having been rummaged
+and rifled.
+
+Assuming, as one must, the correctness of these facts, there can be no
+doubt that a very brutal murder and robbery had been committed.  For some
+reasons, what, we are not told, the suspicions of the police fell at once
+on one of Volpi's sons, called Serafino, a lad of about 22, and on a
+friend of his, Bonaventura Starna, about two years older than himself.
+Both of these persons, who were common labourers, were, in consequence,
+arrested on the 7th of May.  They were not tried, however, till the 27th
+of April, in the year following, when they were arraigned for the murder
+before the lay criminal and civil court of Viterbo.
+
+The two prisoners, nevertheless, are not tried on the same charge.  Volpi
+is arraigned by the public prosecutor on a charge of wilful murder,
+accompanied with treachery and robbery, while Starna is only brought to
+trial as an accomplice to the crime, not as a principal.  Before the
+actual guilt of either prisoner is ascertained, the public prosecutor,
+that is, the Government, decides the relative degree of their respective
+hypothetical guilt.  The justice of this proceeding may be questioned,
+but its motive is palpable enough.  There was little or no direct
+evidence against the prisoners, and to convict either of them, it was
+necessary to rely upon the testimony of the other.
+
+"With both the prisoners," so runs the sentence of the court, "a criminal
+motive could be established in the fact of their avowed poverty, as they
+each clearly admitted, that neither they nor their families possessed
+anything in the world, and that they derived the means of their miserable
+sustenance from their daily labour alone."  A very close intimacy was
+proved to have existed between the prisoners, so much so, indeed, that
+Starna had frequently been reproved by his parents for his friendship
+with a man who stood in such ill repute as Volpi.  The fact that the
+murdered man was, or was believed to be in possession of money, was shown
+to be well known amongst the Volpi family.  Two of Serafino Volpi's
+brothers were reported to have spoken to third parties of Ugolini's
+savings, and one of them expressed a wish to rob him.  Why this brother
+was neither arrested nor apparently examined, is one of the many
+mysteries, by the way, you come across in perusing these Papal reports.
+Serafino too had mentioned himself, to a neighbour, his suspicion of the
+tinker's having saved money.  On the morning of the murder, Starna was
+known to have come to the Volpi's cottage, to have talked with Serafino,
+and to have left again in his company, shortly after Ugolini's departure.
+After about an hour's absence, Serafino Volpi returned home, and
+therefore had time enough to commit the murder.  He was shown, moreover,
+to have been in possession of a knife, about which he could give no
+satisfactory account, and which might have inflicted the wounds found on
+the corpse.
+
+These appear to have been all the facts which could be established
+against either Volpi or Starna by positive evidence, and, at the worst,
+such facts could only be said to constitute a case for suspicion.
+Previously, however, to the trial, Starna turned, what we should call,
+"King's evidence," and, in contradiction to his foregoing statements,
+made a confession, on which the prosecution practically rested the whole
+of its case.  According to this confession of Starna's, on the morning of
+the murder he called by accident at the Volpi's, and stopped there, till
+after the tinker, who was an entire stranger to him, had left the house.
+Serafino Volpi then offered to accompany him to his (Starna's) house, on
+the pretence of borrowing some tool or other.  They walked quickly to
+avoid the rain, which was falling heavily, and shortly overtook Ugolini,
+who exchanged a few words with Volpi about the weather, and then turned
+off along a bye-road.  Thereupon Volpi proposed that they should follow
+the old man and rob him, adding, "he has got a whole lot of coppers."
+Starna, according to his own story, refused to have anything to do with
+the matter; on which Volpi said, in that case he should do it alone, and
+asked Starna to go and fetch the tool he wanted, and bring it to him
+where they were standing.  Starna then left Volpi running across the
+fields to overtake the tinker, and went home to find the tool.  In a very
+short time afterwards, as he was coming back to the appointed meeting-
+place, he met Volpi in a great state of agitation, who told him that the
+job was finished, and Ugolini's throat cut, but that only 20 pauls' worth
+of copper money, about eight shillings, were found upon him.  Starna
+admitted that he then took eight pauls as his own share in the booty, and
+told Volpi to wash off some spots of blood visible on his sleeve.  He
+also added, that later on the same day he met Volpi again, and then
+expressed his alarm at what had happened; on which he received the
+answer, "If you had been with me, you would not be alive now."
+
+One can hardly conceive a more suspicious story, or one more clearly
+concocted to give the best colour to the witness's own conduct, at the
+expense of his fellow-prisoner.  No evidence whatever appears to have
+been brought in support of this confession.  The court, notwithstanding,
+decides that the truth of this statement is fully established by internal
+and external testimony, and therefore declares that the alleged crimes
+are clearly proved against both the prisoners.  "Considering,"
+nevertheless, "that though Starna was an accomplice in the crime, from
+his having assisted Volpi, and from having, by his own confession, shared
+in the booty, yet that his guilt was less, both in the conception and in
+the perpetration of the crime, there being no proof that he had taken any
+active part in the murder of Ugolini," therefore, "in the most holy name
+of God," the court sentences Volpi to public execution, and Starna to
+twenty years at the galleys.
+
+Of course, both the prisoners resorted to their invariable right of
+appeal, but their case did not come on before the lower court of the
+Supreme Clerical Tribunal at Rome for upwards of a year, namely, on the
+17th of May, 1859.  At this trial, no new facts whatever appear to have
+been adduced.  I gather indistinctly, that Volpi's defence was that he
+had not left his father's house at all on the morning of the murder, but
+that his attempt to prove an "alibi" was unsuccessful.  The chief object
+indeed of the very lengthy sentence of the court, recapitulating the
+evidence already stated, is to establish the comparative innocence of
+Starna, who, for some cause or other, seems to have been favourably
+regarded.  We are told, that "the confession of Starna is confirmed by a
+thousand proofs;" that "it is clearly shown" that Starna "in this
+confession did not deny his own responsibility; a fact which gives his
+statement the character of an incriminative and not of an exonerative
+confession; and that though he might possibly have wished, in his
+statement of the facts, to modify and extenuate his own share in the
+crime, yet there was no reason to suspect that he wished gratuitously to
+aggravate the guilt of his comrade;" and that also taking into
+consideration the villainous character of Volpi, it cannot be doubted,
+that he was the principal in the crime.  The court at Viterbo had decided
+that the crime of the prisoners was murder, coupled with robbery and
+treachery.  The Court of Appeal decides, on what seem sufficient grounds,
+that there is no proof of treachery, and therefore, the crime not being
+of so heinous a character, reduces the period of Starna's punishment from
+twenty to fifteen years, while it simply confirms the sentence of death
+on Volpi.
+
+Again, as a matter of course, there is an appeal from this sentence to
+the upper court of the Supreme Tribunal, which appeal comes off after
+four months' delay, on the 9th of September, 1859.  The only ground of
+appeal brought forward is one which, according to our notions of law,
+should have been brought forward from the first, namely, that the guilt
+of Volpi is not adequately proved by the unsupported statement of his
+accomplice Starna, and "that the evidence which corroborates this
+statement, only constitutes an _a priori_ probability of his guilt."  The
+court, however, dismisses this plea at once, on the ground that it is not
+competent to take cognizance of an argument based on the abstract merits
+of the case, and therefore confirms the verdict.
+
+On the 25th of November the sentence is submitted to, and approved by,
+the Pope.  On the 3rd of January, 1860, orders are issued from Rome for
+the execution to take place.  On the 17th the authorities of Viterbo
+notify to the prisoner that his last appeal has been dismissed, and "call
+on the military to lend their support to the execution of the sentence,"
+and on the following day, two years and eight months after his arrest,
+Volpi is executed for the murder of Ugolini on the Piazza della Rocca at
+Viterbo.  On that day, too, appears the first report of his crime and
+trial.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--continued.  THE "AVANZI" MURDER.
+
+
+In July, 1859, there were in the Bagnio of Civita Vecchia two galley
+slaves, Antonio Simonetti and Domenico Avanzi.  Simonetti was a man of
+thirty, whose life, short as it was, seemed to have been one long career
+of crime.  He had enlisted at an early age in the Pontifical dragoons,
+and served for seven years; on leaving the army, he became a porter, and
+within a few months was guilty of a highway robbery, and sentenced to the
+galleys for life, then to five years' hard labour for theft, and again to
+seven years at the galleys for an attempt to escape, though how the last
+punishment could be super-added to the first, is a fact I cannot hope to
+explain.  Of Avanzi nothing is mentioned, except that he was an elderly
+man condemned to a lengthened term of imprisonment for heavy crimes.
+Prisoners, it seems, condemned for long periods, are not sent out of
+doors to labour at the public works, but are employed within the prison.
+Both Simonetti and Avanzi were set to work in the canvas factory, and
+according to a system adopted in many foreign gaols, they received a
+certain amount of pay for their labour.  An agreement had been made
+between the pair, that one should twist and the other spin the hemp; and
+the price paid for their joint work was to be divided between them in
+certain proportions.  About a fortnight before the murder this sort of
+partnership was dissolved at the proposal of Simonetti, and some days
+after Avanzi made a claim on his late partner for the price of two pounds
+of hemp not accounted for.  There seems to have been no particular
+dispute about this, but on the morning of the murder, Simonetti was
+summoned before the overseer of the factory, on the ground of his refusal
+to pay the sum claimed by Avanzi of fifteen baiocchi, or seven pence
+halfpenny.  Simonetti did not deny that Avanzi had some claim upon him,
+but disputed the amount.  At last, the overseer proposed, as an amicable
+compromise, that Simonetti should pay down seven baiocchi as a settlement
+in full, sooner than have a formal investigation.  Both parties adopted
+the suggestion readily, and returned to their work apparently satisfied.
+An hour and a half after, while Avanzi was sitting at his frame, with his
+face to the wall, Simonetti entered the room with an axe he had picked up
+in the carpenter's store, and walking deliberately up to Avanzi, struck
+him with the axe across the neck, as he was stooping down.  Almost
+immediate death ensued, and on the arrival of the guard, Simonetti was
+arrested at once, and placed in irons.  Probably, as a matter of policy,
+so daring a crime required summary punishment; at any rate, Papal justice
+seems to have been executed with unexampled promptitude.  With what the
+report justly calls "laudable celerity," the case was got ready for trial
+in a week, and on the 30th of July, the civil and criminal court of
+Civita Vecchia met to try the prisoner.  There could be no conceivable
+question about the case.  The murder had been committed during broad
+daylight, in a crowded room, and indeed, the prisoner confessed his
+guilt, and only pleaded gross provocation as an excuse.  There was no
+proof, however, that Avanzi had used irritating language; and even if he
+had, too long a time had elapsed between the supposed offence and the
+revenge taken, for the excuse of provocation to hold good.  Indeed, as
+the sentence of the court argues, in somewhat pompous language, "Woe to
+civil intercourse and human society, if, contrary to every principle of
+reason and justice, an attempt to enforce one's just and legal rights by
+honest means, were once admitted as an extenuating circumstance in the
+darkest crimes, or as a sufficient cause for exciting pardonable
+provocation in the hearts of criminals."  The tribunal too considers,
+that the crime of the prisoner was aggravated by the fact, that his mind
+remained unimpressed "by the horrors of his residence, or the dreadful
+aspect and sad fellowship of his thousand unfortunate companions in
+guilt, or by the flagrant penalties imposed upon him, for so many
+crimes."  On all these grounds, whether abstract or matter-of-fact, the
+court declares the prisoner guilty of the wilful murder of Avanzi, and
+sentences him to death.
+
+On the morrow this sentence is conveyed to Simonetti, who appeals.  With
+considerable expedition the Supreme Tribunal meet to hear the case on the
+23rd of September.  The prisoner alleged before this court that his
+indignation had been excited by improper proposals made to him by the
+murdered man, and it was on this account their partnership had been
+dissolved.  Besides certain inherent improbabilities in this story, the
+court decides that it was incredible that, if true, Simonetti should not
+have made the statement at his previous trial.  The appeal was therefore
+dismissed, and the sentence of death confirmed.  This decision was
+notified to the prisoner on the 18th of November, who again appeals to
+the higher Court, which meets to try the appeal on the 29th of the same
+month.  This court at once decided that there was no ground for supposing
+the crime was not committed with "malice prepense," or for modifying the
+verdict.  It is not stated when the sentence was submitted to the Pope,
+but on the 20th of January, 1860, the rejection of his final appeal is
+communicated to the prisoner, and on the 21st the execution takes place,
+and the report is published.
+
+Now, if I had wished solely to decry the Papal system of justice, I
+should not have given the report of the last trial, which seems to me far
+the most favourable specimen of the set I have come across.  I am
+inclined to believe, from the meagre narratives before me, that all the
+criminals whose cases I have narrated were guilty of the crimes alleged
+against them, and fully deserved the fate they met with.  My object,
+however, has been to point out certain features which must, I think,
+force themselves on any one who has read these cases carefully.  The
+disregard for human life, the abject poverty, the wide-spread
+demoralization in the rural districts indicated by these stories, are
+startling facts in a country which has been for centuries ruled by the
+vicegerents of Christ on earth.  At the same time, the great protraction
+of the trials and the utter uncertainty about the date of their
+occurrence, the unsatisfactory nature of the evidence, the want of any
+cross-examination, the manner in which strict law is disregarded from a
+clerical view of justice, and the identity between the court and the
+prosecution, the abuse of the unlimited power of appeal, and the extent
+to which this appeal from a lay to a clerical court places justice
+virtually in the hands of the priesthood; and finally, the secret and
+private character of the whole investigation, coupled with the utter
+absence of any check on injustice through publicity, are all matters
+patent even to a casual observer.  If such, I ask, is Papal justice, when
+it has no reason for concealment and has right upon its side, what would
+it be in a case where injustice was sought to be perpetrated and
+concealed?
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--continued.  THE "SANTURRI" MURDER.
+
+
+Some months after I had written the question which closes the last
+chapter, I was fortunate enough to obtain a partial answer to it.  During
+the present year the Cavaliere Gennarelli, a Roman barrister, and a
+member of the Roman parliament in 1848, has published a series of
+official documents issued by the Papal authorities during the last ten
+years; the most damning indictment, by the way, that was ever recorded
+against a Government.  Amongst those documents there appears the official
+sentence which, as usual, was published after the execution of a certain
+Romulo Salvatori in 1851.  The trial possesses a peculiar momentary
+interest from the fact that Garibaldi is one of the persons implicated in
+the charge, and that the gallant general, if captured on Roman territory,
+would be liable to the judgment passed on him in default.  It is,
+however, rather with a view to show how the Papal system of justice
+works, when political bias comes into play, that I propose to narrate
+this story as a sequel to the others.  The words between inverted commas
+are, as before, verbal translations from the sentence.  From that
+sentence I have endeavoured to extract first the modicum of facts which
+seem to have been admitted without dispute.
+
+During the death-struggle of the Roman Republic, when the Neapolitan
+troops had entered the Papal territory on their fruitless crusade, the
+country round Velletri was occupied by Garibaldi's soldiery.  Near
+Velletri there is a little town called Giulianello, of which a certain
+Don Dominico Santurri was the head priest.  Justly or unjustly, this
+priest, and two inhabitants of the town, named De Angelis and Latini,
+were accused of plotting against the Republic; arrested by order of one
+of Garibaldi's officers; imprisoned for a couple of days, and, after a
+military examination (though of what nature is a matter of dispute) found
+guilty of treason against the state.  The priest was sentenced to death
+and shot at once; the other two prisoners were dismissed with a reproof.
+Subsequently orders were issued for their re-arrest.  One of them,
+Latini, had made his escape meanwhile; the other, De Angelis, being less
+fortunate, was arrested again and executed.
+
+Now, how far these persons were really guilty or not of the offence for
+which they suffered, I of course have no means of knowing.  Common sense
+tells one that a nation, fighting for dear life against foes abroad and
+traitors within, is obliged to deal out very rough and summary justice,
+and can hardly be expected to waste much time in deliberation.  At any
+rate, when the Papal authority was restored, the Pope, on the demand of
+the French, declared a general amnesty for all political offences.  This
+promise, however, of an amnesty, like many other promises of Pius the
+Ninth, was made with a mental reservation.  The Pope pardoned all
+political offenders, but then the Pope alone was the judge of what
+constituted a political offence.
+
+In accordance with this system the execution of Santurri and De Angelis
+was decided not to have been a political offence, but a case of private
+vengeance, and "the indignation of the public was so strong," that
+Government could not refuse the imperative call for justice.  Within a
+few weeks, therefore, of the Papal restoration, seven inhabitants of
+Giulianello were arrested on the charge of being concerned in the murders
+of Santurri and De Angelis.
+
+On the 4th of April, 1851, the Supreme Court of the Sacra Consulta met to
+try the prisoners--nearly two years after the date of their arrest.  The
+court, as usual, was composed of six high dignitaries of the Church, and
+throughout the mode of procedure differed in nothing that I can learn
+from what I have described in the former trials, except that there is no
+allusion to any preliminary trial before the ordinary lay courts.  Whether
+this omission is accidental, or whether, as in other instances during the
+Papal "Vendetta" after '49, the ordinary forms of justice were dispensed
+with, I cannot say.  Garibaldi, De Pasqualis, and David, "self-styled"
+General, Colonel, and auditor respectively of the Roman army, were
+summoned to appear and answer to the charge against them, or else to
+allow judgment to go by default.  The prisoners actually before the bar
+were
+
+   Romolo Salvatori,
+   Vincenzo Fenili,
+   Luigi Grassi,
+   Francesco Fanella,
+   Dominico Federici,
+   Angelo Gabrielli,
+   Teresa Fenili.
+
+It is curious, to say the least, that all the prisoners appear to have
+been leading members of the liberal party at Giulianello.  Salvatori was
+elected Mayor of the town during the Republic, and the next four
+prisoners held the office there of "Anziani" at the same period, an
+office which corresponds somewhat to that of Alderman in our old civic
+days.  The chief witnesses for the prosecution were Latini, who so
+narrowly escaped execution, and the widow of De Angelis, persons not
+likely to be the most impartial of witnesses.
+
+The whole sentence is in fact one long "ex parte" indictment against
+Salvatori.  The very language of the sentence confesses openly the
+partizanship of the court.  I am told that, in May 1849, "The Republican
+hordes commanded by the adventurer Garibaldi, after the battle with"
+(defeat of?) "the Royal Neapolitan troops at Velletri, had occupied a
+precarious position in the neighbouring towns," and a good number of
+these troops were stationed at Valmontone, under the command of the so-
+called Colonel De Pasqualis; that at this period, when "an accusation
+sent to the commanders of these freebooters was sufficient to ruin every
+honest citizen," Salvatori, in order to gratify his private animosity
+against Santurri, De Angelis, and Latini, forwarded to De Pasqualis an
+unfounded accusation against them of intriguing for the overthrow of the
+Republic; and in order to give it a "colour of probability," induced the
+above-named Anziani to sign it; and that, in order to accomplish his
+impious design, he wrote a private letter to De Pasqualis, telling him
+how the arrest of the accused might be effected.  Again, I learn that a
+search, instituted by Salvatori into the priest Santurri's papers,
+produced no "evidence favourable to his infamous purpose," that the
+accused were never examined, though "a certain David, who pretended to be
+a military auditor, made a few vague inquiries of Santurri, and noted the
+answers down on paper with a pencil."  Then we have a queer story how,
+when Santurri implored for mercy, David replied, "Priests may pardon, but
+Garibaldi never," though the very next minute David is represented as
+announcing to De Angelis and Latini, that Garibaldi had granted them
+their pardon.  Then I am informed that Salvatori used insulting language
+to Santurri on his arrest; that it was solely owing to Salvatori's
+remonstrances that orders were issued for the re-arrest of Latini and De
+Angelis; and that though Salvatori ultimately, at the prayer of De
+Angelis' wife, gave her a letter to De Pasqualis interceding for her
+husband, yet he purposely delayed granting it till he knew it would be
+too late.
+
+Such are the heads of the long string of accusations against Salvatori,
+of which practically the sentence is composed.  The evidence, as far as
+it is given in the sentence on which the accusations rest, is vague in
+the extreme.  The proof of any personal ill-will against the three
+victims of the Republic, on the part of any of the prisoners, is most
+insufficient.  Salvatori is said to have had an old grudge against
+Santurri, about some wood belonging to the Church, to which he had made
+an unjust claim.  De Angelis was stated to have once threatened to shoot
+Salvatori; but this, even in Ireland, could hardly be construed into
+evidence that therefore Salvatori was resolved to murder De Angelis.  The
+only ground of ill-will that can be suggested, as far as Latini is
+concerned, is that he was a partizan of the priesthood.  The act of
+accusation against Santurri and his fellow-victims, forwarded by the
+authorities of Giulianello, though essential to the due comprehension of
+the story, is not forthcoming; and no explanation even is offered of the
+motives which induced the four "Anziani" to sign a charge which, by the
+Papal hypothesis, they knew to be utterly unfounded.  The bare idea, that
+Santurri or the others were really guilty of any intrigues against the
+Republic, is treated as absurd; the fact that any trial or investigation
+ever took place is slurred over; and yet, with a marvellous
+inconsistency, Salvatori is accused of being in reality the guilty author
+of these executions, because some witness--name not given--reports that
+he heard a report from a servant of Garibaldi, that Santurri was only
+executed, in opposition to Garibaldi's own wish, in consequence of
+Salvatori's representations.
+
+What was the nature of Salvatori's defence cannot be gathered from the
+sentence.  From another source, however, I learn that it was such as one
+might naturally expect.  During 1849, the mayors of the small country
+towns were entrusted with political authority by the Government.  In the
+exercise of his duty, as mayor, Salvatori discovered that Santurri and
+the others were in correspondence with the Neapolitans, who were then
+invading the country, and reported the charge to the officer in command.
+The result of a military perquisition was to establish convincing proof
+of the charge of treason.  Santurri was tried by a court martial, and
+sentenced at once to execution; as were also his colleagues, on further
+evidence of guilt being discovered.  Salvatori, therefore, pleaded, that
+his sole offence, if offence there was, consisted in having discharged
+his duty as an official of the Republican Government, and that this
+offence was condoned by the Papal amnesty.  This defence, as being
+somewhat difficult to answer, is purposely ignored; and a printed notice,
+published on the day of Santurri's execution, and giving an account of
+his trial and conviction, is rejected as evidence, because it is not
+official!
+
+Considering the tone of the sentence it will not be matter of surprise,
+that the court sums up with the conclusion, that "Not the slightest doubt
+can be entertained that the wilful calumnies and solicitations of the
+prisoner Salvatori were the sole and the too efficacious causes of the
+result he had deliberately purposed to himself" (namely, the murder of
+Santurri); and therefore unanimously condemns him to public execution at
+Anagni.  Vincenzo Fenili and Grassi, who had co-operated in the arrest of
+Santurri, are sentenced to 20 years' labour on the hulks.  There not
+being sufficient evidence to convict Fanella, Federici, and Teresa
+Fenili, they are to be--not acquitted, but kept in prison for six months
+more, while Gabrielli, whose only offence was, that he told Salvatori
+where the priest Santurri was to be found, though without any evil
+motive, is to be released provisionally, having been, by the way,
+imprisoned already for 18 months, while Garibaldi and De Pasqualis are to
+be proceeded against in default.
+
+Salvatori was executed on the 10th of September, 1851; Fenili and Grassi
+are probably, being both men in the prime of life, still alive and
+labouring in the Bagnio of Civita Vecchia, where, at their leisure, they
+can appreciate the mercies of a Papal amnesty.  It seems to me that I
+should have called this chapter the Salvatori rather than the Santurri
+murder, and then the question asked at the end of the last would have
+required no answer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  THE PAPAL PRESS.
+
+
+At Rome there is no public life.  There are no public events to narrate,
+no party politics to comment on.  Events indeed will occur, and politics
+will exist even in this best regulated of countries; but as all narration
+of the one, and all manifestation of the other, are equally interdicted
+for press purposes, neither events nor politics have any existence.  To
+one, who knows the wear and tear of the London press, to whom the very
+name of a newspaper recalls late hours and interminable reports,
+despatches and telegrams, proof-sheets, parliamentary debates and police
+intelligence, leading articles and correspondents' letters; a very series
+of Sisyphean labours, without rest or end; to such an one the position of
+the Roman journalist seems a haven of rest, the most delightful of all
+sinecures.  There are many mysteries indeed about the Papal Press.  Who
+writes or composes the papers is a mystery; who reads or purchases them
+is perhaps a greater mystery; but the bare fact of their existence is the
+greatest mystery of all.  Even the genius of Mr Dickens was never able to
+explain satisfactorily to the readers of _Nicholas Nickleby_, why
+Squeers, who never taught anything at Dotheboys Hall, and never intended
+anything to be taught there, should have thought it necessary to engage
+an usher to teach nothing; and exactly in the same way, it is an
+insoluble problem why the Pontifical Government, which never tells
+anything and never intends anything to be told, should publish papers, in
+order to tell nothing.  The greatest minds, however, are not exempt from
+error; and it must be to some hidden flaw in the otherwise perfect Papal
+system, that the existence of newspapers in the sacred city is to be
+ascribed.  The marvel of his own being must be to the Roman journalist a
+subject of constant contemplation.
+
+The Press of Rome boasts of three papers.  There is the _Giornale di
+Roma_, the _Diario Romano_, and, last and least, the _Vero Amico del
+Popolo_.  The three organs of Papal opinion bear a suspicious resemblance
+to each other.  The _Diary_ is a feeble reproduction of the _Journal_,
+and the _Peoples True Friend_, which I never met with, save in one
+obscure cafe, is a yet feebler compound of the two; in fact, the
+_Giornale di Roma_ is the only one of the lot that has the least pretence
+to the name of a newspaper; it is, indeed, the official paper, the London
+Gazette of Rome.  It consists of four pages, a little larger in size than
+those of the _Examiner_, and with about as much matter as is contained in
+two pages of the English journal.  The type is delightfully large, and
+the spaces between the lines are really pleasant to look at; next to a
+Roman editor, the position of a Roman compositor must be one of the
+easiest berths in the newspaper-world.  Things are taken very easily
+here, and the _Giornale_ never appears till six o'clock at night, so that
+writers and printers can take their pleasure and be in bed betimes.  There
+is no issue on Sundays and Feast-days, which occur with delightful
+frequency.  This ideal journal, too, has no fixed price.  The case of any
+one being impatient enough about news to buy a single number seems hardly
+to be contemplated.  The yearly subscription is seven scudi, which comes
+to between a penny and five farthings a number; but for a single copy you
+are asked half a paul, or twopence halfpenny.  This however must be
+regarded as a fancy price, as single copies are not an article on demand;
+they can only be obtained, by the way, at the office of the Gazette in
+the Via della Stamperia, and this office is closed from noon, I think, to
+sunset.
+
+Suppose, for the sake of argument, there was an English newspaper at
+Rome.  Let us consider what would be its summary of contents, this day on
+which I write.  Putting aside foreign topics altogether, what might one
+naturally suppose would be the Roman news?  There is the revolution in
+the Romagna; if private reports are not altogether false, there have been
+disturbances in the Marches; there is the question of the Congress, the
+rumoured departure of the French troops, the state of the adjoining
+kingdoms, the movements of the Pontifical army, and the promised Papal
+reforms.  Add to all this, there is the recent mysterious attempt at
+murder in the Minerva hotel, about which all kinds of strange rumours are
+in circulation.  Suppose too, which heaven forbid, that I was a Roman
+citizen, and had no means of catching sight of foreign newspapers, which
+is extremely probable, or understood no foreign language, which is more
+probable still; what in this case should I learn from my sole source of
+information, my _Giornale di Roma_, about my own city and my own country,
+on this 19th of January, in the year of grace 1860?
+
+The first fact brought before my eager gaze on taking up the paper, would
+be that yesterday was the feast of St Peter's chair.  Solemn mass was, I
+learn, performed in the cathedral, in the presence of "our Lord's
+Holiness," and a Latin oration pronounced in honour of the Sacred Chair.
+After the ceremony was over, it seems that the Senator of Rome, Marquis
+Mattei, presented an address to the Pope, with a copy of which I am
+kindly favoured.  The Senator, in his own name and in that of his
+colleagues in the magistracy, declares, that "if at all times devotion to
+the Pontiff and loyalty to the Sovereign was the intense desire of his
+heart, it is more ardent to-day than ever, since he only re-echoes the
+sentiment of the whole Catholic world, which with wonderful unanimity
+proclaims its veneration for the august Father of the faithful, and
+offers itself, as a shield, to the Sovereign of Rome."  He adds, that
+"his mind revolts from those fallacious maxims, which some persons try to
+insinuate into the feeble minds of the people, throwing doubts on the
+incontestable rights of the Church, and that he looks with contempt on
+such intrigues."  As however both the Senator and his colleagues are
+nominees of the Pope, and as a brother of the Marquis is a Cardinal, I
+feel sceptical as to the value of their opinion.  The next paragraph
+tells me, that in order to testify their devotion to the Papacy the
+inhabitants of Rome illuminated their houses last night in honour of the
+feast.  Unfortunately, I happened to walk out yesterday evening, and
+observed that the lamps were very few and far between, while in the only
+illuminated house I entered I found the proprietor grumbling at the
+expense which the priests had insisted on his incurring.  I have then a
+whole column about the proceedings at the "Propaganda" on the festival of
+the Epiphany, now some days ago.  The Archbishop of Thebes, I rejoice to
+learn, excited the pupils of the Academy to imitate the virtues
+manifested in the "Magi," by an appropriate homily, drawing a striking
+parallel between the simplicity, the faith and honesty of the three
+kings, and the disbelief and hypocrisy of the wicked king Herod.  I
+wonder if I have ever heard of Herod under a more modern name, and pass
+on to a passage, written in italics, in order to attract my special
+attention.  The "Propaganda" meeting is, I am informed, "a noble
+spectacle, which Rome alone can offer to the world; that Rome, which God
+has made the capital of His everlasting kingdom."  This concludes the
+whole of my domestic intelligence; all that I know, or am to know, about
+the state of my own country.
+
+Then follows the foreign intelligence, under the heading of "Varieties."
+Seventy pro-papal works have, I read, been published in France; indeed,
+the zeal in behalf of the Pontifical cause gains, day by day, so rapidly
+in that country, that "every one," so some provincial paper says, "who
+can hold a pen in hand uses it in favour of justice and religion, upon
+the question of the Papacy."  So much for France.  All I learn about
+Italy is that all writings in defence of the Pope are eagerly sought
+after and perused.  Spanish affairs meet with more attention.  An English
+vessel has been captured, it seems, freighted with 14,000 bayonets for
+Tangiers; and the shipwrecked crew of a French brig were all but
+massacred by the Moors, or rather, if they were not massacred, it was
+from no want of malignity on the part of the infidels.  I have next an
+account of the opening of the Victoria Bridge, Canada, interesting
+certainly, though I confess that some account, when the sewers in the
+Piazza di Spagna are likely to be closed, would possess more practical
+interest for myself.  This paragraph is followed by two columns long of
+the American President's letter to Congress; a subject on which, as a
+Roman citizen, I do not feel keenly excited.
+
+The next heading is the "Morning's News."  This news is made up of small
+short extracts from, or more correctly speaking, small paragraphs
+about--extracts from--the foreign newspapers.  If I have not heard any
+rumours at my cafe, these paragraphs are commonly unintelligible; if I
+have heard any such reports of agitation or excitement abroad in
+reference to the Papacy I always find from the paragraphs, that these
+reports were utterly erroneous.  There is a good deal about the new
+French free-trade tariff, and the pacific intentions of the emperor.
+There are grave discussions, it appears, in the cabinets of London and
+Turin; and the return of the conservative Count Walewski to office is
+confidently expected in Paris.  Lord Cowley's journey to London is now
+known to have no political signification, and the idea that any accord
+between France and England betokened a desertion of the Villa-Franca
+stipulations, is asserted, on the best authority, to be an entire
+delusion.
+
+This concludes my budget of news.  A whole page is covered with
+quotations from Villemain's pamphlet, _La France, l'Empire et la
+Papaute_; but as my own personal experience must of course be the best
+evidence as to the blessings of a Papal government, this seems to me to
+be carrying coals to Newcastle.  I have then a list of the strangers
+arrived at Rome, one advertisement of some religious work, _The Devotions
+of Saint Alphonso Maria de Liguori_, a few meteorological observations
+from the Pontifical observatory, and half-a-dozen official notices of
+legal judgments, in cases about which, till now, I have never been
+allowed to hear a single allusion.  I have, however, the final
+satisfaction of observing that my paper was printed at the office of the
+Holy Apostolic Chamber.
+
+"Ex uno," my Roman friend might truly say, "disce omnes."  The number I
+have taken as a sample is one of more than average interest.  I know,
+indeed, no greater proof of the anxiety and alarm of the Papal government
+than that so much intelligence should be allowed to ooze out through the
+Roman press.  I know also of no greater proof of its weakness.  A strong
+despotic government may ignore the press altogether; but a despotism
+which tries to defend itself by the press, and such a press, must be weak
+indeed.  None but a government of priests, half terrified out of their
+senses, would dream of feeding strong men with such babes' meat as this.
+There are Signs of the Times even in the _Giornale di Roma_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.  THE POPE'S TRACT.
+
+
+If it has ever been the fortune of my readers to mix in
+tract-distributing circles, they will, doubtless, have become acquainted
+with a peculiar style of literature which, for lack of a more appropriate
+appellation, I should call the "candid inquirer" and "intelligent
+operative" style.  The mysteries of religion, the problems of social
+existence, the intricate casuistries of contending duties, are all
+explained, in a short and simple dialogue between a maid-servant and her
+mistress; or a young, a very young man, and his parochial pastor, or a
+ne'er-do-weel sot and a sober, industrious artisan.  The price is only a
+penny (a reduction made on ordering a quantity), and the logic is worthy
+of the price.
+
+In its dire distress and need the Papacy has resorted, as a forlorn hope,
+to the controversial tract system.  As an abstract matter this is only
+fair play.  The Pope has had so many millions of tracts published against
+him, that it is hard if he may not produce one little one in his own
+defence.  His Holiness may say with truth, in the words of Juvenal,
+
+   Semper ego auditor tantum? nunquamne reponam,
+   Vexatus toties?
+
+But, as a matter of policy, if he has got so very little to say for
+himself, it would be perhaps wiser if he held his tongue.  Be that as it
+may, the Vatican has thought fit to bring out a small brown paper tract,
+in answer to the celebrated, too-celebrated, pamphlet, _Le Pape et le
+Congres_.  The tract is of the smallest bulk, the clearest type, the best
+paper, and the cheapest price.  Mindful of the Horatian dictum, it
+plunges at once "in medias res," and starts, out of breath, with the
+following interjections: "The end of the world has come.  Some want a
+Pope and not a King; others half a Pope and half a King; and others
+again, no Pope and no King.  And who are these persons--Catholics or
+Protestants, Jews or Phalansterians, believers or unbelievers?  Men who
+have once believed, and believe no longer, or men who have never believed
+at all?  Which are the most sincere of these classes?  The last, who say,
+'God and the people,' and who mean to say, 'No more Popes, and no more
+Kings.'  Which are the most hypocritical?  The second, the men of half
+measures, who wish for half a Pope and half a King, trusting the while,
+that either Pope or King may die of inanition, or at any rate that the
+King will.  Which are the greatest dupes?  The first, who, Pharisee-like,
+offering up their prayers, and going to church once a year, deceive
+themselves with the idea, that the Pope will be more powerful and more
+free in the vestry of St Peter's than in the palace of the Vatican."
+
+The above view of the devotional habits prevalent amongst the Pharisees
+may appear somewhat novel, but let that pass.  Meanwhile, any one
+experienced in tract lore will feel certain that this outburst will be
+followed by the appearance of the "candid inquirer," who comes upon the
+boards at once, in obedience to the call, and addresses the eloquent
+controversialist with the stereotyped phrases.
+
+"These three classes of persons, who raise an outcry against the temporal
+power of the Pope, are of different stamps; for I understand well whom
+you allude to; you mean the sincere, the moderate and the devout
+opponents of the Papacy.  I have, however, one or two questions, I should
+like to ask you; would you be kind enough to answer me?"
+
+X of course replies, that nothing in the world would give him so much
+pleasure; and during the first dialogue the candid inquirer appears in
+the character of D, the devout opponent.  The pamphlet is much too long
+and too tedious to give in full.  Happily the arguments are few in
+number; and such as they are, I shall be able to pick them out without
+much difficulty, quoting the exact words of the dialogue, wherever it
+rises to peculiar grandeur.  X opens the discussion by carrying an
+assault at once into the enemy's weak places: "You devout believers say
+that a Court is not fitting for a priest.  Everybody, however, knows
+that, at the Papal Court, the time and money of the public are not
+frittered away in parties and fetes and dances.  Everybody knows too that
+women are not admitted to the Vatican, and therefore the habits of the
+court are not effeminate, while the whole of its time is spent in
+transacting state affairs; and the due course of justice is not disturbed
+by certain feminine passions."  After this statement, startling to any
+one with a knowledge of the past, and still more to an inhabitant of Rome
+at the present day, the devout inquirer wisely deserts the domain of
+stern facts, and betakes himself to abstract considerations.  His first
+position, that the Vicar of Christ ought to follow the example of his
+master, who had neither court nor kingdom, nor where to lay his head, is
+upset at once by the _argumentum ad hominem_, that, according to the same
+rule, every believer ought to get crucified.  No escape from this dilemma
+presenting itself to our friend D's devout but feeble mind, X follows up
+the assault, by asking him, as a _deductio ad absurdum_, whether he
+should like to see the Pope in sandals like St Peter.  The catechumen
+falls into the trap at once; flares up at the idea of such degradation
+being inflicted on the "Master of kings and Father of the faithful;" and
+asks indignantly if, for a "touch of Italianita," he is to be suspected
+of having "washed away his baptism from his brow."  Henceforth great D,
+after "Charles Reade's" style, becomes little d.  Logically speaking, it
+is all over with him.  If the Pope be the master of kings, he must by
+analogy have the rights of a master, liberty to instruct and power to
+correct.  The old parallel of a schoolmaster and his scholars is adduced.
+D feels he is caught; states, in the stock formula, "that this parallel
+between the master of kings and the master of scholars puzzles me,
+because it is unimpeachable; and yet I don't want to concede everything,
+and cannot deny everything."  As a last effort, he suggests with
+hesitation, that "after all, a law which secured the Pope perfect liberty
+of speech, action and judgment, would fulfil all the necessities of the
+case; and that in other respects the Pope might be a subject like anybody
+else."  On this suggestion X tramples brutally.  D is asked, how the
+observance of this law is to be enforced, and can give no answer, on
+which X bursts into the most virulent abuse of all liberal governments in
+terms commensurate with the offence.  "Praised be God, the days of Henry
+the VIIIth are passed, and Catholics and Bishops, and all men of great
+and free intellects need no longer lose their heads beneath the British
+axe.  But are you ignorant that the 'most catholic France' has had
+proclaimed from her tribunes, that the law is of no creed?  Are you
+ignorant of the Josephian laws of Austria?  Glory be now to her young and
+most devout of catholic sovereigns! but are you not aware, that in the
+reign of Joseph the bishops in that empire were not allowed to write to,
+or correspond freely with, the Pope? . . . I suppose, forsooth, you
+expect observance of the law from those liberal governments of yours,
+which make the first use of their liberty to destroy liberty itself; who
+exile bishops, and who, in the face of all the world, break the plighted
+faith of treaties and concordats--oh yes, those governments, who spy into
+the most secret recesses of family life, and create the monstrous and
+tyrannical _Loi des suspects_, oh yes, _they_ are sure to respect the
+liberty and the independence of the Bishop of Rome! and are you baby
+enough to believe or imagine it?"  D cowers beneath the moral lash; and
+hints rather than proposes, that if one country did not respect the
+Pope's freedom, he could move into another, though he admits at the same
+time, he can see grave difficulties in the project.  Even this admission
+is unavailing to protect him from X's savage onslaught, who winds up
+another torrent of vituperation with these words: "Yes!  This is no
+question of the Pope and the Pope's person, but of the liberty of all the
+Church, and of all the Episcopate, of your liberty and mine, of the
+liberty of princes, peoples, and all Christian souls.  Miserable man,
+have you lost all common sense, all catholic sense, even the ordinary
+sense of language?"  In vain D confesses his errors, owns that he is
+converted, and implores mercy.  "No," X replies in conclusion, "this is
+not enough; your tongue has spread scandal; and even, if innocent itself,
+has sown discord.  The good seed is obedience and reverence to the Pope
+our father and the Church our mother.  Woe to the tares of the new creed!
+Woe to the proud and impious men, who under the cloak of piety raise
+their hands and tongues against their father and mother!  The crows and
+birds of prey shall feed upon their tongues, and the wrath of God shall
+wither up their hands."
+
+The demolition of D, the devout, only whets X's appetite; and heedless of
+his coming doom, M, the moderate, enters the lists.  As a specimen of
+Papal mild facetiousness, I quote the commencement of the second
+dialogue.
+
+M.  "Great news! a great book!"
+
+X.  "Where from?"
+
+M.  "From Paris."
+
+X.  "A dapper-dandy then, I suppose?"
+
+M.  "No, a political pamphlet."
+
+X.  "Well, that is the same as a political dandy."
+
+M.  "A pamphlet explaining the policy of the Moderates."
+
+X.  "You mean, of the Moderate intellects?"
+
+M.  "No, I mean the policy of the Moderates, a policy of compromise,
+between the Holy Father and, and--"
+
+X.  "Say what you really mean,--between the Holy Father and the Holy
+Revolution."
+
+After this test of M's intellectual calibre, I am not surprised to learn
+that he is treated throughout with the most contemptuous playfulness.  He
+is horror-struck at learning that, in fact, he is nothing better "than a
+mediator between Christ and Beelzebub."  He is joked about the _fait
+accompli_; and asked whether he would consider a box on his ears was
+excused and accounted for by a similar denomination of the occurrence;
+questioned, whether he would like himself to be deprived of all his
+property; and at last dumbfounded by the inquiry, whether the reasoning
+of his beloved pamphlet is anything but rank communism.  M, in fact,
+after this tirade ceases any attempt at argument, and contents himself
+with feeble suggestions, which afford to X fertile openings for the
+exercise of his vituperative abilities.  For instance, M drops a hint
+that the Pope might be placed under the guarantee and protection of the
+Catholic powers; on which X retorts: "The Catholic powers indeed!  First
+of all, you ought to be sure whether the Catholic powers will not
+co-operate with the Jew, in the disgraceful act of plundering Christ
+through his Vicar, in order to guarantee him afterwards the last shreds
+of his garment."  (Another somewhat novel view, by the way, of Gospel
+history.)  "Secondly, you should learn whether any tribunal in the world,
+in the name of common justice, would place the victim under the
+protection and guarantee of his spoiler."  When M expresses a doubt
+whether there is any career for a soldier or statesman under the Papal
+Government, his doubts are removed by the reflection that the Roman
+statesmen are no worse off than the French, and that, if Roman soldiers
+don't fight, and Roman orators don't speak, it is because the exertion of
+their faculties would not prove beneficial to themselves or others.  Then
+follows one of those ejaculatory paragraphs, which
+tract-controversialists generally, and X especially, delight in.  "You!
+yes, you! applaud that Parisian insult-monger, who after having robbed
+Rome of the provinces, that give her power and splendour, and having left
+her a city maimed of hands and feet, with a frontier two fingers'-length
+from the Vatican, then speaks of Rome thus degraded; he, I say, this
+author of yours--this legislator of yours--this Parisian of yours, speaks
+in the words of _Le Pape et le Congres_,"--and so on, through a labyrinth
+of exclamatory parentheses.  "Moderate" is overwhelmed by all this;
+becomes convinced and converted; and, after the fashion of Papal
+converts, out-Herods Herod in the ardour of his zeal.  He volunteers to X
+the following original view of French politics: "I can understand the
+anger of the (French) journals because France has been so unfortunate in
+her Italian enterprise.  She promised, she advised, she threatened; and
+promises, advice, and threats are alike dispersed in air.  She promised
+and placarded on all the walls the independence of Italy from the Alps to
+the Adriatic.  Where is her promise now?  She promised and published
+through all the Churches the freedom and integrity of the Papal
+dominions.  Where is her promise now?  She advised Piedmont, she advised
+the Duchies, she advised the Romagna, and her advice was neither received
+nor accepted.  Where is her advice now?  Then came the threats of the
+31st of December last, and, with profound respect, she threatened the
+Pope to sacrifice the Romagna; and her prayers or her threats, as you
+like, where are they now?"  Again, of his own accord, M asserts, as a
+self-evident fact, that "morality and justice have no better sanctuary
+and no purer inspirations than are to be found in the Court of the
+Vatican."  What slight difficulties he still entertains are removed at
+once.  He asks X candidly to tell him whether the Papal government is
+really a bad one or not, and is satisfied with the quotation "Sunt bona
+mixta malis;" he then inquires, in all simplicity, why there are so many
+complaints and outbreaks against the Papal rule? and is told, in
+explanation, that the Pope is persecuted because he is weak.  X,
+emboldened by his easy triumph, ridicules the notion of any reforms being
+granted by the Papacy, states that what is wanted is a reform in the
+Papal subjects, not in the Papal rulers, and finally falls foul of poor
+M, in such language as this:--"What good can we ever expect from this
+race of Moderates, who in all revolutions are sent out as pioneers, who
+have ruined every state in turn by shutting their eyes to every danger,
+and parleying with every revolution, and who would propose a compromise
+even with fire or fever, or plague itself."  After this, X repeats the
+old fable of the horse and the man, and then launches into a tirade
+against France: "You refused to believe that Italy replaced foreign
+influence by foreign dominion on the day on which France crossed the
+Alps.  Do you still disbelieve in the treason which is plotting against
+Italy, by depriving her of her natural bulwarks, Savoy, Nice, and the
+maritime Alps?  Do you not see, that while you are lulled to sleep by the
+syren song of Italian independence, Italy is weakened, dismembered and
+enslaved?"  A last suggestion of M, that possibly the language of the
+encyclical letter was a little too strong, brings forth the following
+retort: "It was strong, and tasted bitter to diseased and vitiated
+palates, but to the lips of justice the taste was sweet and satisfying.
+Poor nations!  What have politics become?  What filth we are obliged to
+swallow!  What scandal to the people; what a lesson of immorality is this
+fashion of outraging every principle of right, with sword, tongue and
+pen!  In this chaos, blessed be Providence, there is one free voice left,
+the voice of St Peter, which is raised in defence of justice, despised
+and disregarded."  Hereupon M confesses, "on the faith of a Moderate,"
+that the refusal of the Pope to accept the advice of the Emperor was "an
+act worthy of him, both as Pope and Italian sovereign," and then retires
+in shame and confusion.
+
+S, the sincere opponent, then enters and announces with foolish pride,
+that "Italy shall be free, and the gates of hell shall prevail."  Pride
+cometh before a fall, and S is shortly convinced that his remark was
+profane, and that, by his own shewing, liberty was a gift of hell.  S
+then repeats a number of common-places about the rights of men, the voice
+of the people, and the will of the majority; and as, in every case, he
+quotes these common-places incorrectly and inappropriately, X upsets him
+without effort.  As a specimen of the style of logic adopted, I will take
+one case at hazard.  S states that "his reason of all reasons is, that
+Italy belongs to the Italians, and that the Italians have the right of
+dividing it, uniting it, and governing it, as seems good in their own
+sight."  To this X answers, "I adopt and apply your own principle.  Turin,
+with its houses, belongs to the Turinese; therefore the Turinese have the
+right to divide or unite the houses of Turin, or drive out their
+possessors, as seems good in their own sight."  The gross
+disingenuousness, the palpable quibble in this argument, need no
+exposure.  Logically, however, the argument is rather above the usual
+range.  X then proceeds to frighten S with the old bugbears;--the
+impossibility of real union between the Italian races; the absorption of
+the local small capitals in the event of a great kingdom, and the
+certainty that the European powers will never consent to an Italian
+monarchy.  This conclusion is a short _resume_ of Papal history, which
+will somewhat surprise the readers of Ranke and Gibbon.
+
+"After the death of Constantine, the almost regal authority of the Popes
+in reality commenced.  Gregory the Great, created Pope 440 A.D. was
+compelled for the safety of Italy to exercise this authority against the
+Lombards on one hand, and the rapacious Exarchs on the other.  About 726
+A.D.  Gregory II. declined the offer of Ravenna, Venice, and the other
+Italian States, who conferred upon him, in name as well as in fact, the
+sovereignty of Italy.  At last, in 741 A.D. when Italy was not only
+deserted in her need, but threatened from Byzantium with desolation and
+heresy, Gregory III. called in the aid of Charles Martel, that Italy
+might not perish; and by this law, a law of life and preservation, and
+through the decree of Providence, the Popes became Italian sovereigns,
+both in right and fact."  On this very lucid and satisfactory account of
+the origin of the Papal power, S is convinced at once, and is finally
+dismissed shamefaced, with the unanswerable interrogation, "whether the
+real object of the Revolution is not to create new men, new nations, new
+reason, new humanity, and a new God?"
+
+The three abstractions, S, M, D, then re-assemble to recant their errors.
+One and all avow themselves confuted, and convicted of folly or worse.  X
+gives them absolution with the qualified approval, that "he rejoices in
+their moral amendment, and trusts the change may be a permanent one," and
+then asks them, as an elementary question in their new creed, "What is
+the true and traditional liberty of Italy, the only one worthy to be
+sought and loved by all Italians?"  To this question with one voice S and
+M and D make answer, "Liberty with law, law with religion, and religion
+with the Pope."  The course of instruction is completed, and if anybody
+is still unconvinced by the arguments of the all-wise X, I am afraid that
+his initial letter must be a Z.
+
+So much for the _Independenza e Papa_, as the pamphlet is styled.  I have
+given, I fear, a somewhat lengthy account of it; not for its literary
+merits, which are small, but as being the best native defence of the
+Papacy I have come across.  The dull dead _vis inertiae_ which formed the
+real strength of the Papacy has been of late exchanged for a petty
+useless fussiness.  Ever since Guerroniere's pamphlet fell like a bomb
+upon the Vatican there has been a perfect array of paper-champions, sent
+forth to do battle for the Papal cause.  They are mostly, it is true, of
+foreign growth.  Extracts from Montalembert, De Falloux, and Berryer's
+speeches, patched together and re-garnished; reprints of the Episcopal
+charges in France; editions of Count Sola della Margherita's much
+be-praised work; and, I regret to say, translations of Lord Normanby's
+speeches in the House of Lords, are advertised daily on the walls of
+Rome.  Of native and original productions there have been but few.
+Literary talent does not flourish in Rome, and what little there is, is
+all retained against the Government.  The _Eye-glance at the Encyclical_,
+the _Widow's Mite_, and the _Tears of St Peter_, are the titles of some
+of the anonymous pro-Papal tracts published under Government patronage;
+of these the _Independenza e Papa_, which is sold at the printing-office
+of the _Giornale di Roma_, is decidedly the ablest and most respectable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  PAPAL LOTTERIES.
+
+
+If ever anybody had cause to regret the suppression of lotteries, it is
+the whole tribe of play-writers and authors.  Never will there be found
+again a "Deus ex Machina," so serviceable or so unfailing as the lottery.
+If your plot wanted a solution, or your intrigue a _denoument_, or your
+novel a termination, you could always cut through all your difficulties
+by the medium of a lottery-ticket.  The virtuous but impoverished hero
+became at once a very Croesus, and the worldly-minded parent bestowed his
+daughter and his blessing on the successful gambler, who, by the way,
+never purchased his own ticket, but always had it bequeathed to him as a
+legacy.  Alas, lottery-tickets, like wealthy uncles and places under
+government, have gone out of date.  The fond glance of memory turns in
+vain towards the good old times, when the lottery was in its glory.  It
+is, however, some comfort to reflect, that if, as devout Catholics
+assert, the Papacy is eternal, then in Rome, at least, lotteries are
+eternal also.  In truth, the lottery is a great, I might almost say _the_
+great Pontifical institution.  It is a trade not only sanctioned, but
+actively supported, by the Government.  Partly, therefore, as a matter of
+literary interest, and partly as a curious feature in the economics of
+the Papal States, I have made various personal researches into the
+working of the lottery-system, and shall endeavour to give the
+theoretical not the practical result of my investigations; the latter
+result being, I am afraid, of a negative description.
+
+Murray, who knows everything, states that in Rome alone fifty-five
+millions of lottery-tickets are taken annually.  Now though I would much
+sooner doubt the infallibility of the Pope than that of the author of the
+most invaluable of hand-books, I cannot help thinking there is some
+strange error in this calculation.  The whole population of Rome is under
+180,000, and therefore, according to this statement, every living soul in
+the city, man, woman, priest and child, must, on an average, take one
+ticket a day, to make up the amount stated.  If, however, without
+examining the strict arithmetical correctness of this statement, you take
+it, just as the old Romans used "sex centi" for an indefinite number, as
+an expression of the fact, that the number of the lottery-tickets taken
+annually in Rome is quite incredible, you will not be far wrong.  During
+the year 1858 the receipts of the lottery (by which I suppose are meant
+the net, not the gross receipts) are officially stated to have been
+1,181,000 scudi, or about an eleventh of the whole Pontifical revenue.  It
+is true the expenses of the Lottery are charged amidst the state
+expenditure for the year at 788,987 scudi, but then a large portion of
+this expense is directly repaid to the Government, and the remainder is
+paid to the lottery-holders, who all have to pay heavily for the
+privilege of keeping a lottery-office, and who form also the most devoted
+of the Papal adherents, more especially since the liberal party have set
+their faces against the lottery.  Common estimation too assigns a far
+larger profit to the lotteries than Papal returns give it credit for,
+and, I own that, from the system on which they are conducted, of which I
+shall speak presently, I suspect the profit must be very much beyond the
+sum mentioned; anyhow, this source of income is a very important one, and
+is guarded jealously as a Government monopoly.  Private gambling tables
+of any kind are rigidly suppressed.  If you want to gamble, you must
+gamble at the tables and on the terms of the Government.  The very sale
+of foreign lottery-tickets is, I believe, forbidden.  To this rule there
+is one exception, and that is in favour of Tuscany.  Between the Grand
+Ducal and the Papal Governments there long existed an _entente cordiale_
+on the subject of lotteries.  There is no bond, cynics say, so powerful
+as that of common interest; and this saying seems to be justified in the
+present instance.  Though the Court of Rome is at variance on every point
+of politics and faith with the present revolutionary Government of
+Tuscany, yet in matters of money they are not divided; and so the joint
+lottery-system flourishes, as of old.  The lottery is drawn once a
+fortnight at Rome, and once every alternate fortnight at Florence or
+Leghorn; and as far as the speculator is concerned, it makes no
+difference whether his ticket is drawn for in Rome or in Tuscany, though
+the gains and losses of each branch are, I understand, kept separate.
+These lotteries are not of the plain, good old English stamp, in which
+there were, say, ten thousand tickets, and ten prizes of different value
+allotted to the holders of the ten first numbers drawn, while the
+remaining nine thousand nine hundred and ninety ticket-holders drew
+blanks.  The system of speculation in vogue here is far more hazardous
+and complicated.  To any one acquainted with the German gambling-places
+it is enough to say, that the Papal lottery-system is exactly like that
+of a _roulette_ table, with the one important exception, that the chances
+in the bank's favour, instead of being about thirty-seven to thirty-six,
+as they are at Baden or Hamburgh, are in the proportion of three to one.
+For the benefit of those to whom these words convey no definite meaning,
+I will endeavour to explain the system as simply as I can.
+
+In a Papal or Tuscan lottery there are ninety numbers, from one up to
+ninety, and of these numbers, five are drawn at each drawing.  You may,
+therefore, stake your money on any one or two or three or four or five of
+the ninety numbers being drawn, which is termed playing at the "eletto,"
+"ambo," "terno," "quaterno," and "tombola" respectively, or you may
+finally play "al estratto," that is, you may not only speculate on the
+particular numbers drawn, but on the order in which they may happen to be
+drawn.  Practically, people rarely play upon any except the three first-
+named chances, and they will be sufficient for my explanation.  Now a
+very simple arithmetical calculation will show you, that the chances
+against your naming one number out of the five drawn is eighteen to one;
+against your predicting two, four hundred to one; and against your
+hitting on three, nearly twelve thousand to one.  Supposing, therefore,
+the game was played with ordinary fairness, and even as much as 25 per
+cent. were deducted for profit and working expenses off the winnings, you
+ought, if you staked a scudo, for instance, and won an "eletto," "ambo"
+or "terno," to win in round numbers 14, 300, and 9000 scudi respectively.
+If in reality you did win (a very great "if" indeed), you would not be
+paid in these instances more than 4, 25 and 3600 scudi.  In fact, if ever
+there was invented in this world a game, of which the old saying, "Heads
+I win, and tails you lose" held true, it would be of the Papal Lottery.
+If the numbers you back do not happen to turn up, you lose the whole of
+your stake; if they do, you are docked of more than seventy-five per
+cent. of your winnings.  For my part, I would sooner play at thimble-rig
+on Epsom Downs, or dominoes with Greek merchants, or at "three-cards"
+with a casual and communicative fellow-passenger of sporting cast: I
+should infallibly be legged, but I should hardly be plundered so
+ruthlessly or remorselessly.  Still the Vatican, like all gentlemen who
+play with loaded dice or marked cards, may have a run of luck against it.
+Spiritual infallibility itself cannot determine whether a halfpenny
+tossed into the air will come down man or woman, and the law of chances
+cannot be regulated by a _motu proprio_.  It is possible, though not
+probable, that on any one occasion the majority of the gamblers might
+stake their money fortuitously on one series of numbers, and if that
+series did happen to be drawn, then the loss to the Lottery, even with
+all deductions, would be a heavy one, and the Roman exchequer is by no
+means in a position to bear a heavy drain.  In consequence, measures are
+taken to avert this calamity; each office reports daily what sums have
+been staked on what numbers; and, if any numbers are regarded with undue
+partiality, orders are issued from the head department to receive no more
+money on these numbers or series.  I have assumed all along that the
+numbers are drawn fairly, and, without a very high opinion of the
+integrity of our Papal rulers, I am disposed to think they are.  In the
+first place, any general impression of unfairness would greatly damage
+the future profits of the speculation; and, secondly, by the usual rule
+of averages it will be found that, on the whole, people stake pretty
+equally on one combination as another, and therefore the question, which
+particular numbers are drawn, is of less practical importance to the
+lottery management than might at first be supposed.  In spite, however,
+of these abstract considerations, the virtue of the Papal Lotteries,
+unlike that of Caesar's wife, is not above suspicion; and I have often
+heard Romans remark, that the only possible explanation of there being
+one blank day between the closing the lottery-offices and the drawing was
+the obvious one, that time was required to calculate, from the state of
+the stakes, what combination of winning numbers will be most beneficial,
+or least hurtful, to the Papal pockets.
+
+Whatever mathematicians may assert, your regular gamblers always believe
+in luck, and therefore it is not surprising that a nation, whose great
+excitement is the lottery, should be devout worshippers of the blind
+goddess.  It may be that some memories of the Pythagorean doctrines still
+exist in the land of their birth, but be the cause what it may, it is
+certain that in the southern Peninsula a belief in the symbolism of
+numbers is a received article of faith.  Every thing, name, or event, has
+its numerical interpretation.  Suppose, for instance, a robbery occurs;
+forthwith the numbers or sequences of numbers corresponding to the name
+of the robber or the robbed, the day or hour of the crime, the articles
+stolen, or a dozen other coincident circumstances, are eagerly sought
+after and staked upon in the ensuing lottery.  Then there are the _numeri
+simpatici_, or the numbers in each month or year which are supposed to be
+fortunate, and lists of which are published in the popular almanacs.  The
+"sympathetic number for instance for the month of March is 88," why or
+wherefore I have never been able to discover.  Let me assume now, that
+having dreamt a dream, or heard of a death, or I care not what, you wish
+to stake your money on the arithmetical signification of the occurrence.
+You will have no difficulty in discovering a lottery-office; in well nigh
+every street there are one or more "Prenditoria di Lotti."  In fact,
+begging and gambling are the only two trades that thrive in Rome, or are
+pushed with enterprise or energy.  When the drawing takes place in
+Tuscany, the result is communicated at once by the electric telegraph, a
+fact unparalleled in any other branch of Roman business.  Over each
+office are placed the Papal arms, the cross keys of St Peter and the
+tiara.  Outside their aspects differ, according to the quarter of the
+city.  In the well-to-do streets, if such an appellation applied to any
+street here be not an absurdity, the exterior of the lottery-offices are
+neat but not gaudy.  A notice, printed in large black letters on a white
+placard, that this week the lottery will be drawn for in Rome, or where-
+ever it may be, and a simple glass frame over the door, in which are slid
+the winning numbers of last week, form the whole outward adornment.  In
+the poor and populous parts the lotteries flaunt out in all kinds of
+shabby finery: the walls about the door are pasted over with puffing
+inscriptions; from stands in front of the shop flutter long stripes of
+parti-coloured paper, inscribed with all sorts of cabalistic figures.  If
+you like you may try the "Terno della fortuna," which is certain,
+morally, to turn up this week or next.  If you are of a philosophical
+disposition, you may stake your luck on the numbers 19 and 42, which have
+not been drawn for ever so long a time, and must therefore be drawn
+sooner--or later; or if you like to cast in your lot with others, you may
+back that "ambo" which has "sold" marked against it; at any rate, you
+will not be the only fool who stands to lose or win on that chance,
+which, after all, is some slight consolation.  If none of these
+inducements are sufficient, you may fix on your choice by spinning round
+the index on the painted dial-plate, and choosing the numbers opposite to
+which the spin stops, thus making chance determine chance.  Having, at
+last, selected your combination somehow or other, you enter the office
+with something of that shamefaced feeling which, I suppose, a man must be
+conscious of the first time that he ever enters the back-door of a
+pawnbroker's establishment.
+
+The interior of these offices is the same throughout.  A low, dark room,
+with a long ink-stained desk at one side, behind which, pen in ear, is
+seated an official, more grimy even, and more snuffy than the run of his
+tribe.  Opposite the desk there is sure to be a picture of the Madonna
+with a small glass lamp before it, wherein a feeble wick floats and
+flickers in a pool of rancid oil.  On the wall you may read a list of the
+virtuous maidens who are to receive marriage portions of from 5 pounds
+downwards, on the occasion of the lottery being drawn at some religious
+festival.  Indeed, throughout, the lottery is conducted on a strictly
+religious footing.  The _impiegati_, or officials who keep them, are all
+men of sound principles and devotional habits, fervent adherents of the
+Pope, and habitual communicants.  Lotteries too can be defended on
+abstract religious grounds, as encouraging a simple faith in providence,
+and dispelling any overwhelming confidence in your own unsanctified
+exertions.  When you have made these reflections, you have only got to
+tell the clerk what sum of money you want to stake, and on what numbers.
+The smallest contribution (from eleven baiocchi or about sixpence
+upwards) will be thankfully received.  A long whity-brown slip of paper
+is given you, with the numbers written on it, and the sum you may win
+marked opposite.  No questions whatever, about name or residence or
+papers, are asked, as they are whenever you want to transact any other
+piece of business in Rome; and all you have to do, is to keep your slip
+of paper, and come back on the Saturday to learn whether your numbers
+have been drawn or not.
+
+There is, in truth, a ludicrous side to the Papal Lotteries; but there is
+also a very sad one.  It is sad to see the offices on a Thursday night,
+when they are kept open till midnight, hours after every other shop is
+closed, and to watch the crowds of common humble people who hurry in, one
+after the other; servants and cabmen and clerks and beggars, and, above
+all, women of the poorer class, to stake their small savings--too often
+their small pilferings--on the hoped-for numbers.  When one speaks of the
+disgrace and shame that this authorized system of gambling confers on the
+Papal Government; of the improvidence and dishonesty and misery it
+creates too certainly among the poor, one is always told, by the
+advocates of the Papacy, that the people are so passionately attached to
+the lottery, that no Government could run the risk of abolishing it.  If
+this be true, which I do not believe, I can only say--shame upon the
+rulers, who have so demoralized their subjects!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.  THE STUDENTS OF THE SAPIENZA.
+
+
+There is no University properly speaking in Rome.  The constant and
+minute interference of the priests in the course of study; the rigid
+censorship extended over all books of learning, and the arbitrary
+restrictions with which free thought and inquiry are hampered, would of
+themselves be sufficient to stop the growth of any great school of
+learning at Rome, even if there existed a demand for such an institution,
+which there does not.  Still in these days, even at Rome, young men must
+receive some kind of education, and to meet this want the Sapienza
+College is provided.  Both in the age of the scholars and the nature of
+the studies it bears a much closer resemblance to a Scotch high school
+than to an University, but still, such as it is, it forms the great lay-
+place of education in the Papal States.  There is a separate theological
+faculty; the head of the college is a Cardinal, and the whole course of
+study is under the control and supervision of the priests.  Many,
+however, of the professors are laymen, the majority of the pupils are
+educated for secular pursuits, and the families from whom the students
+come, form as a body the _elite_ in point of education and intelligence
+amongst the mercantile and professional classes in the Papal States.
+
+At the commencement of the year a great attempt was made by the
+Government to get up addresses of loyalty and devotion to the Pope.  Not
+even Pius the Ninth himself believed one single word in any of these
+purchased testimonials.  Indeed, on one occasion, when an address was
+presented by the officers of the army, he informed the deputation with
+more candour than prudence, that he knew perfectly well not one of them
+would raise his hand to save the Papacy.  But abroad, and more especially
+in France, it was conceived that such addresses would be accepted as
+genuine testimonials to the contentment of the Roman people with their
+rulers.  In obedience to these tactics, it was resolved to have an
+address from the students of the Sapienza.  Such an address, containing
+the stock terms of fulsome adulation and unreasoning reverence, was drawn
+up by the authorities.  Only a dozen students out of the 400 to 500 of
+whom the college consists volunteered to sign it.  The students were then
+summoned in a body before the rector, and requested to add their
+signatures.  For this purpose the address was left in their hands, but
+instead of being signed it was torn to pieces, and the fragments
+scattered about the lecture-room, amidst a chorus of shouts and groans.
+With the sort of senile folly which characterized all the proceedings of
+the Vatican at this period, the affair, instead of being passed
+unnoticed, was taken up seriously, and assumed in consequence an utterly
+uncalled-for notoriety.  The college was closed for the day, several of
+the pupils were summoned before the police, an official inquiry was
+instituted into the demonstration, and the matter became the talk of
+Rome.
+
+Of course at once a dozen contradictory rumours were in circulation, and
+it was with considerable difficulty that I obtained the above narrative
+of the occurrence, which I know to be substantially correct.  As a
+curious instance of how facts are perverted at Rome by theological bias,
+I would mention here that when I made some inquiries on the subject from
+an English gentleman, a recent convert, and I need hardly add a most
+virulent partizan of the Papal rule, who was in a position to know the
+truth about the matter, I was told by him, that there had undoubtedly
+been a demonstration at the Sapienza, but that the truth was, the
+students were so indignant at the outrages committed against his
+Holiness, that they drew up an address of their own accord, expressive of
+their devotion to the Pope, and that upon the rector refusing his consent
+to the presentation of the address, on the ground that they were too
+young to take any part in political matters, they vented by tumultuous
+shouts their dissatisfation at this somewhat ill-timed interference.  Now,
+not only was there such an inherent improbability about this story, to
+any one at all acquainted with Roman feelings or Papal policy, that it
+scarcely needed refutation, but subsequent events proved it to be
+entirely devoid of foundation in fact, and yet it was told me in good
+faith by a person who had every means of knowing the truth if he had
+chosen.  The anecdote thus forms a curious illustration of the manner in
+which stories are got up and circulated in Rome.
+
+The result of the inquiry was that seven or eight of the students, who
+whether justly or unjustly were regarded as ringleaders in the
+demonstration, were either expelled or suspended from prosecuting their
+studies.  Amongst the expelled students was the son of the medical
+Professor, Dr Maturani, who, considering his son unjustly used, resigned,
+or rather was obliged to resign his post.  The Pope then made a state
+visit to the college, but was very coldly received, and held out no hopes
+of the offenders being pardoned.  The partizans of the Government talked
+much about the good effect produced by the Papal visit, but within a day
+or two the students assembled in a body at the Sapienza, and demanded of
+the rector that the medical professor should be reinstated in his office,
+and that the sentences of expulsion should be rescinded, as all were
+equally guilty or equally guiltless.  On receiving these demands the
+rector requested the students, as a personal favour, to make no further
+demonstration till he had had time to lay their sentiments before
+Cardinal Roberti, the president of the Congregation of Studies, which he
+promised to do at once.  The students thereupon retired, but on their
+return next morning received no reply whatever.  The following day was
+Sunday, when the college is closed, and on Monday the new medical
+professor was to deliver his inaugural lecture.  It was expected that the
+students would take this opportunity of venting their dissatisfaction,
+and the government actually resolved to send the Roman gendarmes into the
+lecture-room in order to suppress any expression of feeling by force.  At
+the time this act was considered only a piece of almost incredible folly,
+but the events of St Joseph's day shewed clearly enough that the Vatican
+was anxious to bring about a collision between the troops and the
+malcontents.  A little blood-letting, after Lord Sidmouth's dictum, was
+considered wholesome for the Pope's subjects.  Fortunately the intention
+came to the knowledge of the French authorities, who interfered at once,
+and said if troops were required they must be French and not Papal ones,
+as otherwise it was impossible to answer for the result.  On the Monday
+therefore a detachment of French troops was sent down to the college.  The
+lecture-room was crowded with students, who greeted the new Professor on
+his entry with a volley of hisses, and then left the room in a body.  The
+French officer in command was appealed to by the authorities to
+interfere, but refused doing so, and equally declined receiving an
+address which the students wished to force upon him.  His orders he
+stated were solely to suppress any actual riot, but nothing further.  Some
+400 of the students then proceeded to the residences of Cardinal
+Antonelli, of General Goyon, and the Duc de Gramont, and presented an
+address, a copy of which they requested might be forwarded to the
+Emperor.  These were the words of the address;
+
+   "Your Excellency--Some of our comrades have been removed from us.
+   United to them in our studies, united, too, in our sentiments, we
+   protest against a punishment so unjust and so partial.  When adulation
+   and servility suggested to some amongst us the utterance of a
+   falsehood which insulted the Pontiff, while it did no service to the
+   Sovereign, we all rose in union to denounce those who, without our
+   consent, constituted themselves the interpreters of our wishes.  This
+   act was not the caprice of a section.  It was the vast majority
+   amongst us who thus spoke out the truth.  The punishment, if
+   punishment there is to be for speaking the truth, should not fall upon
+   a few alone.
+
+   "We confess it openly, the act was the act of all; the measure of our
+   conduct was the same for all.  We therefore demand from your
+   Excellency that the expelled students should be allowed to return, or
+   else that we should all be united with them in one common punishment,
+   as we are proud of being united with them in a common love of truth
+   and of our country.
+
+   "The presence of our 400 students supplies the place of signatures."
+
+The last clause is open to question.  The plain fact is, that the
+students could not get their courage up to signing point.  A government
+of priests never forgives or forgets, and their vengeance though slow is
+very sure.  Any student who had actually affixed his signature to the
+address would have been a marked man for life; and instead of wondering
+that the whole body had not sufficient moral resolution to express their
+sentiments in writing, I am surprised that they had the courage to
+protest at all, even anonymously.  This hesitation, however, afforded the
+government a loop-hole, which they were wise enough to take advantage of;
+Cardinal Antonelli declined at once to give any reply to the address, on
+the ground that he could take no notice of an unsigned and unauthentic
+document; so the matter rested.  Logically, the Cardinal had the best of
+the dispute; but, practically, the remonstrants triumphed.  The students
+kept away from the classes, and after a short time the Sapienza college
+had to be closed, in order, if possible, to weed out the liberal faction
+amongst the pupils.  Numbers of the students were arrested or exiled.  As
+instances of Papal notions of justice and law, I may mention two
+instances connected with the government inquiry, which came to my
+knowledge.  One student was sent for to the police-office and asked if he
+was one of those who presented the address; on his replying in the
+negative, he was asked further, whether, if he had been on the spot, he
+would have joined in the presentation.  To this question, he replied,
+that the police had no right to question him as to a matter of
+hypothesis, but only as to facts.  The magistrate's sole answer to this
+objection consisted in an order to leave Rome within twenty-four hours.
+Another student was arrested by a gendarme in the street, and brought to
+the police-office; it was past five o'clock, and the magistrate informed
+him it was too late to enter on the charge that day, and therefore he
+must remain in the custody of the police for the night.  In vain the
+student requested to be informed of the charge against him, and protested
+against the illegality of detaining a person in custody without there
+being any charge even alleged; but to all this the magistrate remained
+obdurate, and the student was sent home under the care of the gendarme.
+Happily for himself, he managed to give his guardian the slip in the
+streets, and left the Papal States that night without awaiting the result
+of an inquiry which had commenced under such auspices.
+
+It is true that the political opinions of a parcel of boys may have very
+little intrinsic value; but straws shew which way the wind blows, and so
+this exhibition of the students' sentiments shews how deep-rooted is the
+disaffection to the Papacy throughout Roman society, and also how strong
+the conviction is, that the days of priest-rule are numbered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.  A PAPAL PAGEANT.
+
+
+The Papacy is too old and too feeble even to die with dignity.  Of itself
+the sight of a falling power, of a dynasy _in extremis_, commands
+something of respect if not of regret; but the conduct of the Papacy
+deprives it of the sympathy that is due to its misfortunes.  There is a
+kind of silliness, I know of no better word to use, about the whole Papal
+policy at the present day, which is really aggravating.  It is silly to
+rave about the martyr's crown and the cruel stake, when nobody has the
+slightest intention of hurting a hair of your head; silly to talk of your
+paternal love when your provinces are in arms against your "cruel
+mercies;" silly to boast of your independence when you are guarded in
+your own capital against your own subjects by foreign troops; silly, in
+fact, to bark when you cannot bite, to lie when you cannot deceive.  No
+power on earth could make the position of the Pope a dignified one at
+this present moment, and if anything could make it less dignified than
+before, it is the system of pompous pretensions and querulous complaints
+and fulsome adulation which now prevails at the Vatican.  I know not how
+better to give an idea of the extent to which this system is carried,
+than by describing a Papal pageant which occurred early in the year.
+
+To enter fully into the painful absurdity of the whole scene, one should
+bear in mind what were the prospects of Papal politics at the
+commencement of February.  The provinces of the Romagna were about to
+take the first step towards their final separation, by electing members
+for the Sardinian Parliament.  The question, whether the French troops
+could remain in Rome, or in other words, whether the Pope must retire
+from Rome, was still undecided; the streets of the city were thronged
+with Pontifical Sbirri and French patrols, to suppress the excitement
+caused by a score of lads, who raised a shout of _Viva l'Italia_ a week
+before.  The misery and discontent of the Roman populace was so great
+that the coming Carnival time was viewed with the gravest apprehensions,
+and anxious doubts were entertained whether it was least dangerous to
+permit or forbid the celebration of the festival.  Bear all this in mind;
+fancy some _Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin_, is written on all around,
+telling of disaffection and despair, and revolt and ruin; and then listen
+to what was said and done to and by the Pope on that Sunday before
+Septuagesima.
+
+Some months ago a college was founded at Rome for the education of
+American youths destined to the priesthood; there were already an
+English, an Irish, and a Scotch college, not to speak of the Propaganda.
+However, in addition to all these, a college reserved for the United
+States, was projected and established by the present Pontiff.  Indeed,
+this American college, the raised Boulevard, which now disfigures the
+Forum, and the column erected in the Piazza di Spagna to the dogma of the
+Immaculate Conception, appear to be the only material products of the
+Pontificate of Pius the Ninth.  For some reason or other, which I am not
+learned enough in theological lore to determine, the feast of St Francis
+de Sales was celebrated as a sort of inauguration festival by the pupils
+of the new college.  The Pope honoured the ceremony with his presence;
+and, for a wonder, a very full account of the proceedings was published
+in the _Giornale di Roma_; the quotations I make are literal translations
+from the official reports.
+
+"The day," so writes the _Giornale_, "was in very truth a blessed and a
+fortunate one, not only for the pupils themselves, who yearned for an
+opportunity of bearing solemn witness to their gratitude and devotion
+towards their best and highest father and most munificent benefactor, but
+also for all those who have it upon their hearts to share in those great
+works which form the most striking proof of the perpetual growth and
+spread of our most sacred religion."
+
+Apparently the number of the latter class is not extensive, as the visit
+of the Pope attracted but little crowd, and the lines of French soldiers
+who were drawn up on his way to salute him as he passed, were certainly
+not collected in the first instance by a spirit of religious zeal.  The
+_Giornale_, however, views everything with the eyes of faith, not of
+"pure reason."  Mass was performed at the Holy Church of Humility, and
+"from early dawn, as soon as the news of the holy father's visit was
+circulated, an immense crowd assembled there which filled not only the
+church, but the adjoining rooms and corridors.  The crowd was composed of
+the flower of Roman rank and beauty, and the _elite_ of the strangers
+residing in Rome, both French, English, and American, who desired the
+blessing of assisting at the bloodless sacrifice celebrated by the Vicar
+of Christ, and who longed to receive from his hands the angels' food."  I
+am sorry truth compels me to state, that the whole of this immense crowd
+consisted of some two hundred people in all, and that the only
+illustrious personages of special note amongst the crowd not being
+priests, were General Goyon, the American Minister and Consul, and the
+Senator of Rome.  The Pope arrived at eight o'clock, and then proceeded
+to celebrate the communion, assisted by Monsignors Bacon, bishop of
+Portland, U.S., and Goro, bishop of Liverpool.  "The rapt contemplation,
+the contrition of heart, the spirit of ardent faith which penetrated the
+whole assembly, more especially while the holy father distributed the
+sacred bread, were all things so sublime that they are easier to conceive
+than to describe."
+
+After mass was over the Pope entered the college.  Above the door the
+following inscription was written in Latin, composed, I can safely say,
+by an Hiberno-Yankee pen:
+
+"Approach, O mighty Pius, O thou the parent of the old world and the new,
+approach these sanctuaries, which thou hast founded for thine American
+children devoted to the science of the church!  To thee, the whole
+company of pupils; to thee, all America, wild with exultation, offer up
+praise!  For thee, they implore all things peaceful and blessed."
+
+In the hall prepared for his holiness' reception there was hung up,
+"beneath a gorgeous canopy, a marvellous full-length likeness of the
+august person of the holy Pontiff, destined to recall his revered
+features.  Around the picture a number of appropriate Latin mottos were
+arranged, of which I give one or two as specimens of the style of
+adulation adopted:
+
+"Come, O youth, raise up the glad voice, behold, the supreme shepherd is
+present, blessing his children with the light of his countenance.  Hail,
+O day, shining with a glorious light, on which his glad children receive
+within their arms the best of parents!
+
+"As the earth beams forth covered with the sparkling sun-light, so the
+youths rejoice with gladness, while thou, O father, kindly gladdenest
+them with thy most pleasant presence!"
+
+Refreshments were then presented to the guests, which I am glad to say
+were much better than the mottos.  The pupils of the Propaganda, who were
+all present, sang a hymn; addresses were made to the Pope by the
+pro-rector of the college in the name of the pupils, by Bishop Bacon on
+behalf of catholic America, and by Cardinal Barnabo, the superior of the
+Propaganda, all of them in terms of the most fervent adoration.  Each of
+the American pupils then advanced with a short poem which he had
+composed, or was supposed to have composed, in expression of the emotions
+of his heart on this joyful occasion, and requested permission to recite
+it.  At such a time the best feature in the Pope's character, a sort of
+feeble kindliness of nature, was sure to show itself.  I cannot but think
+indeed that the sight of the young boyish faces, whose words of reverence
+might possibly be those of truth and honesty, must have given an unwonted
+pleasure to the worn out, harassed, disappointed old man.  "The holy
+father," I read, "receiving with agitated feelings so many tokens of
+homage, was delighted beyond measure."  When the English poems were
+recited to him, he called out, "can't understand a word, but it seems
+good, very good."  He spoke to each of the lads in turn, and, when he was
+shown the statue of Washington, told them to give a cheer for their
+country, to cry _Viva la Patria_ (the very offence, by the way, for which
+ten days before he had put his own Roman fellow-countrymen into prison),
+and then when the boys cheered, he raised his hands to his ears, and told
+them laughingly, they would drive him deaf.  Now all this is very
+pleasant, or in young-lady parlance, very nice, and I wish, truly, I had
+nothing more to tell.  I trust, indeed, that the long abstinence from
+food (as a priest who is about to celebrate the communion is not allowed
+to touch food from midnight till the time when Mass is over, and in these
+matters of observance Pius IX. is reputed to be strictly conscientious)
+or else the excitement of the scene had been too much for the not very
+powerful mind of the Pontiff; otherwise I know not how you can excuse an
+aged man, on the brink of the grave, to say nothing of the Vicegerent of
+Christ, using such language as he employed.
+
+"After much affectionate demonstration, the Holy Father could no longer
+restrain his lips from speaking, and, turning his penetrating glance
+around, spoke as follows," in the words of the _Giornale_:
+
+"One of the chief objects of the most high Pontiffs has ever been, the
+propagation and maintenance of the faith throughout the world.  Their
+efforts therefore have always been directed towards the establishment of
+colleges in this sovereign city, in order that the youth of all nations,
+who would have to preach the faith in the different Catholic countries,
+might receive their education here.  In the foundation then of this new
+college, he had only followed in the steps of his illustrious
+predecessors.  It thus seemed to him that he had rather performed a
+simple duty, than an act deserving praise.  After his Holiness had
+pointed out, what a great blessing the faith was, how indeed it was a
+true gift of Heaven, the sole solace and comfort vouchsafed to us
+throughout the vicissitudes of fortune, he then expressed his extreme
+distress, that in these days, this very faith should be made an especial
+object of attack, and added that this fact alone was the cause of his
+deep and profound dejection.  There is no need, he stated, to refer now,
+to the prisons and tortures and persecutions of old, when we are all
+witnesses to the onslaught which is now being made against the Catholic
+faith and against whosoever seeks to maintain its purity and integrity.
+There was no cause however for wonder: such from the cradle had been the
+heritage of the faith, which was born and bred amidst persecution and
+adversity, and which under the same lot still continues its glorious
+progress.  The Gospel of the day recalled this truth only too
+appropriately; although his Holiness continued in the midst of
+persecution, it was his duty only to arm himself with greater courage,
+yet the grief of his heart was nevertheless rendered more bitter still,
+by beholding that in this very peninsula--so highly privileged by God,
+not only endowed with the faith, and with possessing the most august
+throne on earth,--that even here, the minds and hearts of men were
+hopelessly perverted.  No, his fears were not caused by the arms or
+armies, or the forces of any power, be it what it might.  No, it was not
+the loss of temporal dominion, which created in his heart the bitterest
+of afflictions.  Those who have caused this loss must, alas! bear the
+censure of the Church, and must henceforth be given over to the wrath of
+God, as long as they refuse to repent, and cast themselves on His loving
+mercy.  What afflicted and terrified him far more than all this, was the
+perversion of all ideas, this fearful evil, the corrupting of all
+notions; vice, in truth, is taken for virtue, virtue counted for vice.  At
+last, in some cities of this unhappy Italy, men have come to make in
+truth an apotheosis of the cut-throat and the assassin.  Praise and
+honour are lavished on the most villainous of men and actions, while at
+the same time endurance in the faith and even episcopal resolution in
+maintaining the holy rights of that faith, and its provident blessings,
+are stigmatized with a strange audacity, by the names of hypocrisy,
+fanaticism, and perversion of religion.  He then went on to say, that
+now, more than ever, it was high time to take vengeance in the name of
+God, and that the vengeance of the priesthood and the Vicariate of Christ
+Jesus consisted solely in prayer and supplication, that all might be
+converted and live.  That, moreover, the chief of all these evils was
+only too truly the corruption of the heart and the perversion of the
+intellect, and that this evil could only be overcome by the greatest of
+miracles, which must be wrought by God and interceded from him by prayer.
+After this, the Holy Father, in language which seemed inspired, as though
+he were raised out of himself, exhorted all present, and especially the
+young men destined to carry the faith to their distant countries."
+
+Even amongst the audience, who all belonged more or less to the Papal
+faction, the intemperate and injudicious character of this speech,
+delivered in the presence of the French commander-in-chief, and the
+allusions which could not but be intended for the Emperor Napoleon,
+Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel, created great consternation, and was but
+coldly received.  The _Giornale_ however reports, that "where his
+Holiness, with agitated voice, bestowed his apostolic benediction, awe
+and admiration could be read on every countenance; all hearts beat aloud;
+and no eyelid was left dry.  The whole assembly pressing forward, bent in
+turn before the august personage, touching, some his hands and some his
+dress, while others again cast themselves at his feet, in order to
+impress thereon a reverent and affectionate kiss."
+
+After having examined the building, the Pope went on foot to the
+neighbouring convent of the Augustine nuns, called "The Convent of the
+Virgins," the whole of the religious community were "permitted to kiss
+the sacred foot," and then "having comforted the virgins with paternal
+and loving words," he returned to the Vatican, past the files of French
+troops, through the beggar-crowded streets, amidst cold, sullen glances
+and averted obeisances, back to his dreary palace, there to wait wearily
+for orders from Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.  THE CARNIVAL SENZA MOCCOLO.
+
+
+There are things in the world which allow of no description, and of such
+things a true Roman carnival is one.  You might as well seek to analyze
+champagne, or expound the mystery of melody, or tell why a woman pleases
+you.  The strange web of colour, beauty, mirth, wit, and folly, is
+tangled so together that common hands cannot unravel it.  To paint a
+carnival without blotching, to touch it without destroying, is an art
+given unto few, I almost might say to none, save to our own wondrous word-
+wizard, who dreamt the "dream of Venice," and told it waking.  For my own
+part, the only branch of art to which, even as a child, I ever took
+kindly, was the humble one of tracing upon gritting glass, with a grating
+pencil, hard outlines of coarse sketches squeezed tight against the
+window-pane.  After the manner in which I used to draw, I have since
+sought to write; for such a picture-frame then as mine, the airy,
+baseless fabric of an Italian revel is no fitting subject, and had the
+Roman Carnival for 1860 been even as other carnivals are, I should have
+left it unrecorded.  It has been my lot, however, to witness such a
+carnival as has not been seen at Rome before, and is not likely to be
+seen again.  In the decay of creeds and the decline of dynasties there
+appear from time to time signs which, like the writing on the wall,
+proclaim the coming change, and amongst these signs our past Carnival is,
+if I err not, no unimportant one.  While then the memory of the scene is
+fresh upon me, let me seek to tell what I have seen and heard.  The
+question whether we were to have a Carnival at all, remained long
+doubtful; the usual time for issuing the regulations had long passed, and
+no edict had appeared; strange reports were spread and odd stories
+circulated.  Our rulers were, it seems, equally afraid of having a
+carnival and not having it; and with their wonted wisdom decided on the
+middle course, of having a carnival which was not a carnival at all.  One
+week before the first of the eight fete-days, the long-delayed edict was
+posted on the walls; the festival was to be celebrated as usual, except
+that no masks were to be allowed; false beards and moustaches, or any
+attempt to disguise the features, were strictly forbidden.  Political
+allusions, or cries of any kind, were placed under the same ban; crowds
+were to disperse at a moment's notice, and prompt obedience was to be
+rendered to any injunction of the police.  Subject to these slight
+restraints, the wild revel and the joyous licence of the Carnival was to
+rule unbridled.  In the words of a Papal writer in the government gazette
+of Venice: "The festival is to be celebrated in full vigour, except that
+no masks are allowed, as the fashion for them has lately gone out.  There
+will be, however, disguises and fancy dresses, confetti, bouquets, races,
+moccoletti, public and private balls, and, in short, every amusement of
+the Carnival time."  What more could be required by a happy and contented
+people?  Somehow, the news does not seem to be received with any
+extraordinary rejoicing; a group of idlers gaze at the decree and pass
+on, shrugging their shoulders listlessly.  Along the Corso notice-boards
+are hung out of balconies to let, but the notices grow mildewed, and the
+balconies remain untaken.  The carriage-drivers don't pester you, as in
+former years, to engage them for the Carnival; and the fancy dresses
+exposed in the shop-windows are shabby and few in number.  There is no
+appearance of unnecessary excitement; but "still waters run deep;" and in
+order to restrain any possible exuberance of feeling, on the very night
+before the Carnival the French general issues a manifesto.  "To prevent
+painful occurrences," so run General Guyon's orders, "the officer
+commanding each detachment of troops which may have to act against a
+crowd, shall himself, or through a police-officer, make it a summons to
+disperse.  After this warning the crowd must disperse instantly, without
+noise or cries, if it does not wish to see force employed."  Still no
+doubts are entertained of the brilliancy of the Carnival; the Romans (so
+at least their rulers say, and who should know them better?) will enjoy
+themselves notwithstanding; the Carnival is their great holiday, the one
+week of pleasure counted on the long, dull year through, and no power on
+earth, still less no abstract consideration, will keep them from the
+Corso revels.  From old time, all that they have ever cared for are the
+_panem et circenses_; and the Carnival gives them both.  It is the Roman
+harvest-time, when the poor gather in their gleanings.  Flower-sellers,
+vendors of confetti, hawkers of papers, letters-out of chairs and
+benches, itinerant minstrels, perambulating cigar-merchants, pedlars,
+beggars, errand-boys, and a hundred other obscure traders, pick up,
+heaven knows how! enough in Carnival time to tide them over the dead
+summer-season.  So both necessity and pleasure, want and luxury, will
+combine to swell the crowd; and the pageant will be gay enough for the
+Vatican to say that its faithful subjects are loyal and satisfied.
+
+The day opens drearily, chilly, and damp and raw, with a feeble sun
+breaking through the lowering clouds; soon after noon the streets begin
+to fill with soldiers.  Till this year the Corso used to be guarded, and
+the files of carriages kept in order, by the Italian pontifical dragoons,
+the most warlike-looking of parade regiments I have ever seen.  Last
+spring, however, when the war broke out, these bold dragoons grew ashamed
+of their police duties, and began to ride across the frontier without
+leave or license, to fight in behalf of Italy.  The whole regiment, in
+fact, was found to be so disaffected that it was disbanded without delay,
+and at present there are only some score or so left, who ride close
+behind the Pope when he goes out "unattended," as his partisans profess.
+So the dragoons having disappeared, the duty of keeping order is given to
+the French soldiers.  There are soldiers ranged everywhere: along the
+street pavements there is one long line of blue overcoats and red
+trousers and oil-skin flowerpot hats covering the short, squat, small-
+made soldiers of the 40th Foot regiment, whose fixed bayonets gleam
+brightly in the rare sun-light intervals.  At every piazza there are
+detachments stationed; their muskets are stacked in rows on the ground,
+and the men stand ready to march at the word of order.  In every side-
+street sentinels are posted.  From time to time orderlies gallop past.
+Ever and anon you hear the rub-a-dub of the drums, as new detachments
+pass on towards the Corso.  The head-quarters at the Piazza Colonna are
+crowded with officers coming and going, and the whole French troops off
+duty seem to have received orders to crowd the Corso, where they stroll
+along in knots of three or four, alone and unnoticed by the crowd around
+them.  The heavy guns boom forth from the Castle of St Angelo, and the
+Carnival has begun.
+
+Gradually and slowly the street fills.  One day is so like another that
+to see one is to have seen all.  The length of the Corso there saunters
+listlessly an idle, cloak-wrapt, hands-in-pocket-wearing, cigar-smoking,
+shivering crowd, composed of French soldiers and the rif-raff of Rome,
+the proportion being one of the former to every two or three of the
+latter.  The balconies, which grow like mushrooms on the fronts of every
+house, in all out-of-the-way places and positions, are every now and then
+adorned with red hangings.  These balconies and the windows are scantily
+filled with shabbily-dressed persons, who look on the scene below as
+spectators, not as actors.  At rare intervals a carriage passes.  The
+chances are that its occupants are English or Americans.  On the most
+crowded day there are, perhaps, at one time, fifty carriages in all, of
+which more than half belong to the _forestieri_.  Indeed, if it were not
+for our Anglo-Saxon countrymen, there would be no carnival at all.  We
+don't contribute much, it is true, to the brilliancy of the _coup d'oeil_.
+Our gentlemen are in the shabbiest of coats and seediest of hats, while
+our ladies wear grey cloaks, and round, soup-plate bonnets.  However, if
+we are not ornamental, we are useful.  We pelt each other with a hearty
+vigour, and discharge volleys of _confetti_ at every window where a fair
+English face appears.  The poor luckless nosegay or sugar-plum boys look
+upon us as their best friends, and follow our carriages with importunate
+pertinacity.  Fancy dresses of any kind are few.  There are one or two
+very young men--English, I suspect,--dressed as Turks, or Greeks, or
+pirates, after Highbury Barn traditions, looking cold and uncomfortable.
+Half a dozen tumble-down carriages represent the Roman element.  They are
+filled with men disguised as peasant-women, and _vice versa_; but,
+whether justly or unjustly, they are supposed to be chartered for the
+show by the Government, and attract small comment or notice.  Amongst the
+foot-crowd, with the exception of a stray foreigner, there is not a well-
+dressed person to be seen.  The fun is of the most dismal character.  Boys
+with bladders whack each other on the back, and jump upon each other's
+shoulders.  Harlequins and clowns--shabby, spiritless, and unmasked--grin
+inanely in your face, and seem to be hunting after a joke they can never
+find.  A quack doctor, or a man in crinoline, followed by a nigger
+holding an umbrella over his head, or a swell with pasteboard collars,
+and a chimney-pot on his head, pass from time to time and shout to the
+bystanders, but receive no answer.  Give them a wide berth, for they are
+spies, and bad company.  The one great amusement is pelting a black hat,
+the glossier the better.  After a short time even this pleasure palls,
+and, moreover, victims grow scarce, for the crowd, contrary to the run of
+Italian crowds, is an ill-bred, ill-conditioned one, and take to throw
+nosegays weighted with stones, which hurt and cut.  So the long three
+hours, from two to five, pass drearily.  Up and down the Corso, in a
+broken, straggling line, amidst feeble showers of chalk (not sugar)
+plums, and a drizzle of penny posies to the sound of one solitary band,
+the crowd sways to and fro.  At last the guns boom again.  Then the score
+of dragoons--of whom one may truly say, in the words of Tennyson's
+"Balaclava Charge," that they are "all that are left of--not the 'twelve'
+hundred"--come trotting down the Corso from the Piazza del Popolo.  With
+a quick shuffling march the French troops pass along the street, and form
+in file, pushing back the crowd to the pavements.  With drawn swords and
+at full gallop the dragoons ride back through the double line.  Then
+there is a shout, or rather a long murmur.  All faces are turned up the
+street, and half a dozen broken-kneed, riderless, terror-struck shaggy
+ponies with numbers chalked on them, and fluttering trappings of pins and
+paper stuck into their backs, run past in straggling order.  Where they
+started you see a crowd standing round one of the grooms who held them,
+and who is lying maimed and stunned upon the ground, and you wonder at
+the unconcern with which the accident is treated.  Another gun sounds.
+The troops form to clear the street, the crowd disperses, and the
+Carnival is over for the day.  A message is sent to the Vatican, to
+inform the Pope that the festival has been most brilliant, and along the
+telegraphic wires the truth is flashed to Paris that the day has passed
+without an outbreak.
+
+On the last day of the Carnival the Porto Pia road was full as usual, and
+the Corso filled as usual with soldiers, and spies, and rabble.  An order
+was published, that any person appearing out of the Corso with lighted
+tapers would be arrested, and therefore the idea of an evening
+demonstration outside the gates was dropped.  Not all the efforts,
+however, of the police could light the Moccoletti in the Corso.  House
+after house, window after window, were left unlighted.  The crowd in the
+streets carried no candles, and there were only sixteen carriages or so,
+all filled with strangers.  Of all the dreary sights I have ever
+witnessed that Moccoletti illumination was the dreariest.  At rare
+intervals, and in English accents, you heard the cry of "Senza Moccolo,"
+which used to burst from every mouth as the tiny flames flickered, and
+glared, and fell.  Before the sight was half over the spectators began to
+leave, and while I pushed my way through the dispersing crowds, I could
+still hear the faint cry of "Senza Moccolo."  As the sound still died
+away, the cry still haunted me; and in my recollection, the Carnival of
+1860 will ever remain as the dullest and dismalest of Carnivals--the
+Carnival without mirth, or sun, or gaiety--the Carnival Senza Moccolo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.  ROMAN DEMONSTRATIONS.  THE PIAZZA COLONNA CROWDS.  THE
+PORTA PIA MEETINGS.  THE ANTI-SMOKE MOVEMENT.
+
+
+Straws show which way the wind blows, and so, though the straws
+themselves are valueless, yet as indications of what is coming, their
+motions are worth noting.  It is thus that I judge of the series of
+demonstrations which marked the spring of this year in Rome, and which
+ended in the outrage of St Joseph's day.  Of themselves they were less
+than worthless, but as tokens of the future they possess a value of their
+own.  In recent Papal history they form a strange page.  Let me note
+their features briefly, as I wrote of them at the time.
+
+
+
+January 28.
+
+
+At last there is a break in the dull uniformity of Roman life.--There is
+a ripple on the waters, whether the precursor of a tempest, or to be
+followed by a dead calm, it is hard to tell.  Meanwhile it is some gain
+at any rate, that the old corpse-like city should show signs of life,
+however transient.  Feeble as those symptoms are, let us make the most of
+them.
+
+Since the Imperial occupation of Rome, the building in the Piazza
+Colonna, which old Roman travellers remember as the abode of the Post
+Office, has been confiscated to the service of the French army.  It
+forms, in fact, a sort of military head-quarter.  All the bureaux of the
+different departments of the service are to be found here.  The office of
+the electric telegraph is contained under the same roof, and the front
+windows of the town-hall-looking building, lit up so brightly and so late
+at night, are those of the French military "circle."  The Piazza Colonna,
+where stands the column of Mark Antony, opens out of the Corso, and is
+perhaps the most central position in all Rome.  At the corner is the
+cafe, monopolized by the French non-commissioned officers; and next door
+is the great French bookseller's.
+
+Altogether the Piazza and its vicinity is the French _quartier_ of Rome.
+At seven o'clock every evening, the detachments who are to be on guard,
+during the night, at the different military posts, are drawn up in front
+of the said building, receive the pass-word, and then, headed by the
+drums and fifes, march off to their respective stations.  Every Sunday
+and Thursday evening too, at this hour, the French band plays for a short
+time in the Piazza.  Generally, this ceremony passes off in perfect
+quiet, and in truth attracts as little attention from bystanders as our
+file of guardsmen passing on their daily round from Charing Cross to the
+Tower.  On Sunday evening last, a considerable crowd, numbering, as far
+as I can learn, some two or three thousand persons, chiefly men and boys,
+assembled round the band, and as the patrols marched off down the Corso,
+and towards the Castle of Saint Angelo, followed them with shouts of
+"Viva l'Italia," "Viva Napoleone," and, most ominous of all, "Viva
+Cavour."  As soon as the patrols had passed the crowd dispersed, and
+there was, apparently, an end of the matter.  The next night poured with
+rain, with such a rain as only Rome can supply; and yet, in spite of the
+rain, a good number of people collected to see the guard march off, and
+again a few seditious or patriotic cries (the two terms are here
+synonymous) were heard.  Such things in Italy, and in Rome especially,
+are matters of grave importance, and the Government was evidently
+alarmed.  Contrary to general expectation, and I suspect to the hopes of
+the clerical party, the French general has issued no notice, as he did
+last year, forbidding these demonstrations.  However, the patrols have
+been much increased, and great numbers of the Pontifical gendarmes have
+been brought into the city.  On Tuesday night the Papal police made
+several arrests, and a report was spread by the priests that the French
+troops had orders to fire at once, if any attempt was made to create
+disturbance.  On the same night, too, there was a demonstration at the
+Apollo.  I have heard, from several quarters, that on some of the
+Pontifical soldiers entering the house, the whole audience left the
+theatre, with very few exceptions.  However, in this city one gets to
+have a cordial sympathy with the unbelieving Thomas, and not having been
+present at the theatre myself, I cannot endorse the story.
+
+Last night I strolled down the Corso to see the guard pass.  The street
+was very full, at least full for Rome, where the streets seem empty at
+their fullest, and numerous groups of men were standing on the door-steps
+and at the shop windows.  Mounted patrols passed up and down the street,
+and wherever there seemed the nucleus of a crowd forming, knots of the
+Papal _sbirri_, with their long cloaks and cocked hats pressed over their
+eyes, and furtive hang-dog looking countenances, elbowed their way
+unopposed and apparently unnoticed.  In the square itself there were a
+hundred men or so, chiefly, I should judge, strangers or artists, a group
+of young ragamuffins, who had climbed upon the pedestals of the columns,
+and seemed actuated only by the curiosity natural to the boy genus, and a
+very large number of French soldiers, who, at first sight, looked merely
+loiterers.  The patrol, of perhaps four hundred men, stood drawn up under
+arms, waiting for the word to march.  Gradually one perceived that the
+crowds of soldiers who loitered about without muskets were not mere
+spectators.  Almost imperceptibly they closed round the patrol, pushed
+back by the bystanders not in uniform, and then retreated, forming a
+clear ring for the guard to move in.  There was no pushing, no hustling,
+no cries of any kind.  After a few minutes the drums and fifes struck up,
+the drum-major whirled his staff round in the air, the ring of soldier-
+spectators parted, driving the crowd back on either side, and through the
+clear space thus formed the patrol marched up the square, divided into
+two columns, one going to the right, and the other to the left, and so
+passed down the length of the Corso.  The crowd made no sign, and raised
+no shout as the troops went by, and only looked on in sullen silence.  In
+fact, the sole opinion I heard uttered was that of a French private, who
+formed one of the ring, and who remarked to his comrade that this duty of
+theirs was _sacre nom de chien de metier_, a remark in which I could not
+but coincide.  As soon as the patrol had passed, the crowd retreated into
+the cafes or the back-streets, and in half-an-hour the Corso was as empty
+as usual, and was left to the _sbirri_, who passed up and down slowly and
+silently.  Even in the small side-streets, which lead from the Corso to
+the English quarters, I met knots of the Papal police accompanied by
+French soldiers, and the suspicious scrutinizing glance they cast upon
+you as you passed showed clearly enough they were out on business.
+
+
+
+18 February.
+
+
+The present has been a week of demonstrations, both Papal and anti-Papal.
+Last Thursday was the Giovedi Grasso, the great people's day of the
+carnival.  In other years, from an early hour in the afternoon, there is
+a constant stream of carriages and foot-passengers setting from all parts
+of Rome towards the Corso.  The back-streets and the ordinary promenades
+are almost deserted.  The delight of the Romans in the carnival is so
+notorious, that persons long resident in Rome possessed the strongest
+conviction beforehand, that no human power could ever keep the natives
+from the Corso upon Thursday.  The day, unlike its predecessors, was
+brilliantly bright.  The Corso was decked out as gaily as hangings and
+awnings could make it.  The sellers of bouquets and "confetti" were at
+their posts.  A number of carriages were sent down filled with adherents
+of the Government, dressed in carnival attire, to act as decoy-ducks.  All
+officials were required to take part in the festivities.  The influence
+of the priests was exerted to beat up carnival recruits amongst their
+flocks, and yet the people obstinately declined coming.  The revel was
+ready, but the revellers were wanting.  The stiff-necked Romans were not
+content with stopping away, but insisted on going elsewhere.  By one of
+those tacit understandings, which are always the characteristic of a
+country without public life or liberty, a place of rendezvous was fixed
+upon.  Without notice or proclamation of any kind, everybody knew
+somehow, though how, nobody could tell, that the road beyond the Porta
+Pia was the place where people were to meet on the day in question.  The
+spot was appropriate on various grounds.  Along the Via Nomentana, which
+leaves Rome through this gate, lies the Mons Sacer, whither the Plebs of
+old seceded from the city, to escape from the tyranny of their rulers.
+The gate too, which was commenced by Michael Angelo, was completed by the
+present Pontiff, and there is an irony dear to an Italian's mind in the
+idea of choosing the Porta Pia for the egress of a demonstration against
+the Pope Pius.  Perhaps, after all, the fact that the road is one of the
+sunniest and pleasantest near Rome may have had more to do with its
+selection than any abstract considerations.  Be the cause what it may,
+one fact is certain, that from the time when the Corso ought to have been
+filling, a multitude of carriages and holiday-dressed people set out
+towards the Porta Pia.  The Giovedi Grasso is a feast-day in Rome, and
+all the shops are shut, and their owners at liberty.  All Rome, in
+consequence, seemed to be wending towards the Porta Pia.  From the gate
+to the convent of St Agnese, a distance of about a mile, there was a long
+string of carriages, chiefly hired vehicles, but filled with well-dressed
+persons.  As far as I could judge, the number of private and aristocratic
+conveyances was small.  The prince of Piombino, who is married to one of
+the half-English Borghese princesses, was the only Roman nobleman I heard
+of, as being amongst the crowd.  But if the nobility were not present on
+the Via Nomentana, they were equally absent from the Corso.  The
+footpaths were thronged with a dense file of orderly respectable people.
+There were, perhaps, half-a-dozen carriages, the owners of which had some
+sort of carnival-dress on, but that was all.  There were no cries, no
+throwing of confetti, no demonstration of feeling, except in the very
+fact of the assemblage.  As far as I could guess from my own observation,
+there were about 6000 people present, and from 400 to 500 carriages;
+though persons who ought to be well informed have told me that there were
+double these numbers.  No attempt at interference was made on the part of
+the French.  There were but few French soldiers about, and what there
+were, were evidently mere spectators.  Pontifical gendarmes passed along
+the road at frequent intervals, and, not being able to arrest a
+multitude, consoled themselves with the small piece of tyranny of closing
+the _osterias_, which, both in look and character, bear a strong
+resemblance to our London tea-gardens, and are a favourite resort of
+thirsty and dusty pedestrians.  The crowd, nevertheless, remained
+perfectly orderly and peaceful, and as soon as the carnival-time was
+over, returned quietly to the city.  As I came back from the gate I
+passed through the Corso just before the course was cleared for the
+races.  I have never seen in Italy a rabble like that collected in the
+street.  The crowd was much such a one as you will sometimes meet, and
+avoid, in the low purlieus of London on Guy Faux day.  Carriages there
+were, some forty in all, chiefly English.  One hardly met a single
+respectable-looking person, except foreigners, in the crowd; and I own I
+was not sorry when I reached my destination, and got clear of the mob.
+Yet the report of the police of the Pope was, that the carnival was
+_brilliante, e brilliantissimo_.
+
+On the following day (Friday) much the same sort of demonstration took
+place in the Corso.  There being no carnival, the whole street, from the
+Piazza del Popolo to the Capitol, was filled with a line of carriages,
+going and returning at a foot's pace.  The balconies and windows were
+filled with spectators, and the rabble of the previous day was replaced
+by the same quiet, decent crowd I had seen at the Porta Pia.  The
+carriages, from some cause or other, were more aristocratic in
+appearance; while the number of spectators was much smaller--probably
+because it was a working day, and not a "festa."  By seven o'clock the
+assemblage dispersed, and the street was empty.  Meanwhile, Friday
+afternoon was chosen for the time of a counter-demonstration at the
+Vatican.  All the English Roman Catholics sojourning in Rome received
+notice that it was proposed to present an address to the Pope, condoling
+with him in his afflictions.  Cardinal Wiseman was the chief promoter,
+and framed the address.  Many Roman Catholics, I understand, abstained
+from going, because they were not aware what the terms of the address
+might be, and how far the sentiments expressed in it might be consistent
+with their position as English subjects.  The demonstration outwardly was
+not a very imposing one; about fifty cabs and one-horse vehicles drove up
+at three o'clock to the Vatican, and altogether some 150 persons, men,
+women, and children, of English extraction, mustered together as
+representatives of Catholic England.  The address was read by Cardinal
+Wiseman, expressing in temperate terms enough the sympathy of the meeting
+for the tribulations which had befallen his Holiness.  The bearing of the
+Pope, so his admirers state, was calm, dignified, and resolute.  As
+however, I have heard this statement made on every occasion of his
+appearance in public, I am disposed to think it was much what it usually
+is--the bearing of a good-natured, not over-wise, and somewhat shaky old
+man.  In reply to the address, he stated that "if it was the will of God
+that chastisement should be inflicted upon his Church, he, as His vicar,
+however unworthy, must taste of the chalice;" and that, "as becomes all
+Christians, knowing that though we cannot penetrate the motives of God,
+yet that He in his wisdom permits nothing without an ulterior object, we
+may safely trust that this object must be good."  All persons present
+then advanced and kissed the Pope's hand, or foot, if the ardour of their
+devotion was not contented by kissing the hand alone.  When this
+presentation was over, the Pope requested the company to kneel, and then
+prayed in Italian for the spiritual welfare of England, calling her the
+land of the saints, and alluding to the famous _Non Angli, sed angeli_.
+He exhorted all present "to look forward to the good time when justice
+and mercy should meet and embrace each other as brothers;" and finally,
+with faltering voice, and tears rolling down his cheeks, gave his
+apostolical benediction.  Of course, if you can shut your eyes to facts,
+all this is very pretty and sentimental.  If the Romans could be happy
+enough to possess the constitution of Thibet, and have a spiritual and a
+temporal Grand Llama, they could not have fixed on a more efficient
+candidate for the former post than the present Pope; but the crowds of
+French soldiers which lined the streets to coerce the chosen people,
+formed a strange comment on the value of pontifical piety.  It is too
+true that the better the Pope the worse the ruler.  Probably the
+thousands of Romans who thronged the Corso knew more about the blessings
+of the Papal sway than the few score strangers, who volunteered to pay
+the homage to the Sovereign of Rome which the Romans refuse to render.
+
+To-day the demonstration was repeated on the Porta Pia; and the Vatican,
+indignant at its powerlessness to suppress these symptoms of
+disaffection, is anxious to stir up the crowd to some overt act of
+insurrection, which may justify or, at any rate, palliate the employment
+of violent measures.  So in order to incense the crowd, the public
+executioner was sent out in a cart guarded by gendarmes to excite some
+active expression of anger on the part of the mob.  It is hard for us to
+understand the feeling with which the Italians, and especially the
+Romans, regard the _carnefice_.  He is always a condemned murderer, whose
+life is spared on condition of his assuming the hated office, and, except
+on duty, he is never allowed to leave the quarter of St Angelo, where he
+dwells, as otherwise his life would be sacrificed to the indignation of
+the crowd, who regard his presence as a contamination.
+
+The poor fellow looked sheepish and frightened enough, as he patrolled
+slowly with his escort up and down the crowded Porta Pia thoroughfare;
+but even this insult failed to effect its object.  The device was too
+transparent for an Italian crowd not to detect it, and the ill-omened
+_cortege_ of the "Pope's representative," as the Romans styled the
+executioner, passed by without any comment.
+
+
+
+MARCH 7.
+
+
+The system of silent legal opposition which was carried on formerly at
+Milan, and now at Venice, is being organised here against the Papal rule.
+By one of those mystical compacts to which I have before alluded, it has
+been resolved to suppress smoking and lottery-gambling.  Our
+anti-tobacconists, or our moral reformers, must not suppose that the
+Romans have suddenly become alive to the iniquity of either of these
+pursuits.  I wish, indeed, with regard to the latter, I could
+conscientiously assert that the Liberal faction had decreed its
+extinction from any conviction of the degradation and corruption
+inflicted by it upon their country.  I fear, however, from the extent to
+which lotteries are still encouraged by the Tuscan Government, that such
+is not the case.  The reason of the movement is, indeed, a very simple
+and material one.  From the lotteries and the tobacco monopoly the
+government derives a very large part of its revenues, and a part, too,
+which does not excite unpopularity in the same way as direct taxation.
+Any extinction, therefore, or indeed any serious diminution of these
+sources of revenue, would place the Holy See in great difficulties.  The
+profits on the lottery go directly into the pockets of the Government,
+who are also supplied with very extensive and important patronage by the
+vast number of petty posts which the system employed for collecting
+tickets places at their disposal.  The tobacco monopoly is farmed out to
+a company, on whom any loss would fall in the first instance; but if the
+abstention from tobacco were continued long, the Government would soon
+feel the effects, through the inability of the company to keep up their
+present rate of payment.
+
+Whether rightly or wrongly, an attempt to cut off the funds of the Papal
+exchequer in this manner is certainly being made.  Strangers, of course,
+are not interfered with; but Italians are warned at the doors of the
+cigar-shops and the lottery-offices not to enter and buy.  The sudden
+diminution in the number of people you meet smoking in the streets is
+quite remarkable, and, I am sure, would strike any observer who had never
+heard of the movement.  There have been already several disturbances
+between smokers and non-smokers.  The story goes, that in a quarrel
+arising out of this subject, a man was stabbed in the street the night
+before last; but in Rome it is almost impossible to make out the truth in
+a matter of this kind.  At several lottery-offices gendarmes have been
+placed to hinder purchasers of tickets from being molested; and a bitter
+feeling seems growing up on every side.  How long the Romans may have
+strength of mind enough to abstain from their favourite amusements of
+smoking and gambling, it is impossible to say; but since I witnessed
+their resolute abstention from the delights of the Carnival, I think
+better of their courage than I did before.
+
+On Sunday evening, when the great promenade takes place along the Corso,
+where, a week ago, there was hardly a male mouth without a cigar or
+cheroot or cigarette inserted in it, I only noticed four smokers in the
+Corso crowd, and they were all foreigners.  The practice is suppressed
+not only in the streets but in the cafes.  For the benefit of the weaker
+brethren, who cannot screw up their patriotism to total abstinence, pipes
+are allowed, as the Government profit on tobacco is very small compared
+with that on cigars.  The Italians, however, are not much of
+pipe-smokers, and the tobacconists are in despair at the total absence of
+customers.  Of course, the partisans of the Government prophesy that the
+movement will end in smoke, but at present the laugh is on the other
+side.
+
+
+
+March 10.
+
+
+The Society for the Suppression of Smoking, who by the way send their
+tracts to the reading-rooms here, of all places in the world, will regret
+to learn that the Roman Anti-Tobacco Crusade is to expire on and after
+Sunday next.  The leaders of the liberal party have, I think, acted
+wisely in contenting themselves with an exhibition of their union and
+power and then withdrawing from the contest.  The loss to the Government
+by the discontinuance of smoking was only an indirect and eventual one;
+on the other hand, the company, who farm the Tobacco monopoly, would have
+been ruined by the progress of the movement, and had already been obliged
+to dismiss a large proportion of their work-people.  The tobacconists and
+street-hawkers of cigars were deprived of their livelihood, and the
+misery and consequent ill-will created amongst the poor of Rome by
+keeping up the prohibition would have been serious.  Then, too, perhaps
+it was thought advisable not to impose too heavy a trial on patriotic
+ardour.  Smoke is meat and drink to a Roman, his first care in the
+morning, his occupation by day, and his last thought at night.  Yet you
+may truly say, that during the time of its prohibition the whole city
+willingly gave up smoking.  If, in order to testify political
+dissatisfaction, the whole of London were to leave off beer-drinking by
+private agreement, the expression of feeling would be hardly a more
+remarkable one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.  THE EMEUTE OF ST JOSEPH'S DAY.
+
+
+The feast of San Giuseppe is the only _festa_ day in Lent, when the
+Romans eat fried fish in honour of the occasion,--St Joseph alone knows
+why.  Henceforth the day will have other and less pleasing associations.
+The garland-wreathed stalls, with the open ovens and the frizzling
+fritters, were reared as usual at every corner; the shops were closed;
+the _osterias_ were full; the streets were crowded with holiday-people in
+holiday-attire, and the day was warm and bright like an early summer-day
+in England, though it was only the 19th of March.  The news of the
+Romagna elections, with their overwhelming majority in favour of
+annexation to Sardinia, had been just received in Rome with general
+exultation.  No doubt the festive appearance which marked the city
+throughout the day was not altogether accidental, but was meant for, and
+regarded as, an expression of public sympathy with the revolted
+provinces.  St Joseph happens to be the patron saint of the two great
+Italian popular heroes, Garibaldi and Mazzini, and a demonstration on
+this day was therefore considered to be in honour of the Three Josephs,
+the Saint and his two proteges.  It was known generally that the
+adherents of the Liberal party would muster, as usual, on the Porta Pia
+road, and that the more courageous partizans of the popular cause would
+be distinguished by wearing a violet in their button-holes.
+
+The Government had, it seems, decided that even these tacit expressions
+of disaffection must be suppressed at all costs.  With a happy irony of
+cruelty which appears to distinguish a priestly despotism above every
+other, the holiday of St Joseph was chosen as the opportunity for
+striking terror into the hearts of the disloyal Romans; and as the policy
+which sent out the executioner to excite the populace had not been
+crowned with its coveted success, it was resolved to create a collision
+between the police and the people.  In the morning, five Roman gentlemen
+of position and fortune, suspected of sympathy with the liberal cause,
+received notice that they were exiled from the Papal States, and must
+leave the city within twenty-four hours.  Amongst these gentlemen was St
+Angeli, who, not long ago, was arrested and imprisoned without charge or
+trial, and who was but lately released on the remonstrance of the French
+authorities.  There was also Count Silverstrelli, a brother of the
+gentleman of that name so well known to English sportsmen at Rome.  The
+news of these arrests did not check the proposed demonstration.  Towards
+four o'clock a considerable number of carriages and persons on foot
+assembled outside the gates on the Via Nomentana; some patrols, however,
+of French soldiers were found to be stationed along the road; and as it
+is the great object of the liberal leaders at Rome to avoid any
+possibility even of collision between the people and the French troops,
+it was resolved to adjourn the place of assemblage to the Corso.  Whether
+this was a thought suggested on the moment, or whether it was the result
+of a preconcerted plan, is a mooted question not likely to be decided;
+the resolution, however come to, was acted on at once.  Neither here, nor
+elsewhere, I may observe, was there anything of a tumultuous crowd, or
+the slightest apparent approach to agitation on the part of the
+multitude.  All a spectator could observe was, that the carriages turned
+homewards somewhat nearer to the gates than usual, and that the stream of
+people who sauntered idly along the footpath, as on any other _festa_
+day, set out earlier than they are wont to do on their return to the
+city.
+
+About six o'clock the crowd from the Porta Pia had reassembled in the
+Corso.  Six o'clock is always the fullest time in that street; private
+carriages are coming back from the Pincio promenade, and strangers are
+driving back to their hotels from the rounds of sight-seeing.  The Corso,
+without doubt, was unusually and densely crowded; the footpaths swarmed
+with passengers, and, what was peculiarly galling to the Government,
+after the failure of the Carnival, there was a double line of
+aristocratic carriages passing up and down; still everything was
+perfectly peaceable and orderly.  At the hour of the _Ave Maria_ the
+crowd was at its fullest, and this was the time selected for the outrage.
+In a scene of general terror and confusion it is impossible to ascertain
+exact details of the order in which events occurred, but I believe the
+following account is fairly exact.
+
+There were a great number of the Pontifical police, or _sbirri_, as the
+Romans call them, scattered in knots of two or three about the Corso;
+there were also several mounted patrols of the Papal gendarmes.  The
+police did everything in their power to excite the people, hustled the
+crowd in every direction, used the most opprobrious epithets, and pushed
+their way along with insulting gestures.  There are various stories
+afloat as to the immediate cause of the outbreak; one, that as a patrol
+passed the crowd hissed; another, that a cry was heard of "Viva Vittorio
+Emmanuele!" and a third, the Papal version, that on a young man of the
+name of Barberi being asked by a gendarme why he wore a violet flower on
+his coat, he answered rudely, and, on the officer trying to arrest him,
+his comrades pulled him away.  All stories agree, that the provocation to
+the police was given in the Piazza Colonna; and the disturbance, if any,
+was so trivial, that a friend of mine, who was on the spot at the time,
+perceived nothing of it, and only fancies he heard a murmur as the police
+rode by.  The provocation, whatever it was, was sufficient as a pretext
+for the premeditated outrage.  The _sbirri_ drew their swords, and
+slashing right and left, charged the dense crowds of men, women and
+children.  The word was given, and a band of some twenty Papal dragoons,
+who had been drawn up hard by at the Monte Citorio, waiting under arms
+for the signal, galloped down the Corso, clearing their way with drawn
+swords.  The _sbirri_ along the street pulled out their cutlass-knives;
+the dragoons rode on the footway, and struck out at the carriages filled
+with ladies as they passed by, while the police ran a-muck (I can use no
+other word) amongst the terror-stricken crowd.  The cries of the crushed
+and wounded, the terror of the women, and the savage, brutal fury of the
+police, added to the panic and confusion of the scene.  Not the slightest
+attempt at resistance was made by the unarmed crowd; in a few minutes the
+Corso was cleared as if by magic, and order reigned in Rome.
+
+Short as the time was, the havoc wrought was very considerable.  Nearer
+two than one hundred persons were injured in all.  Of course the greater
+number of these persons were not actually wounded, but crushed, or
+stunned, or thrown down.  There was no respect of persons in the use made
+of their swords by the police.  Three French officers of the 40th, who
+were in plain clothes amongst the crowd, were cut down and severely
+wounded.  An Irish gentleman, the brother of the member for Fermanagh,
+narrowly escaped a sabre-cut by dodging behind a pillar.  The son of
+Prince Piombino was pursued by a gendarme beneath the gateway of his own
+palace, and only got off with his hat slit right in two.  Persons were
+hunted down by the soldiery even out of the Corso.  One gentleman, an
+Italian, was chased up the Via Condotti by a dragoon with his sword
+drawn, and saved himself from a sabre-cut by taking refuge in a passage.
+Some of the dragoons rode down the Via Ripetta, when they had come to the
+top of the Corso, and cut down a woman who was passing by.  As soon as
+the Corso was cleared, the gendarmes went into the different cafes along
+the street, and ordered all persons, who were found in them, to go home
+at once.  In one case an infirm old man, who could not make off fast
+enough, had his face cut open by a sabre-blow; while the backs of the
+gendarmes' swords were used plentifully to expedite the departure of the
+cafe frequenters.  The exact number of wounded it is of course impossible
+to ascertain.  Persons who received injuries were afraid to show
+themselves, and still more to call attention to their injuries, for fear
+of being arrested for disaffection and immured in prison.  If I believed
+the stories I heard on good authority and on most positive assurance, I
+should put down the number of persons who died from wounds or injuries
+received during the melee at from twelve to fifteen.  Still, long
+experience has led me to place very little reliance on any Roman story I
+cannot test; and I am bound to say, I could not sift any one of these
+stories to the bottom.  On the other hand, this fact by no means causes
+me to disbelieve that fatal injuries may have been received.  The extreme
+difficulty, if not impossibility, of obtaining true information on such a
+point may be realized from the circumstance, that a government official
+was, within my knowledge, dismissed from his post for merely visiting one
+of the victims who had been wounded by the police.  By all accounts, even
+by that of the Papal partizans, the number of severe injuries inflicted
+was very considerable; indeed it is impossible it should have been
+otherwise, when one considers that along a street so crowded that the
+carriages could only move at a foot's pace, the gendarmes on horse and
+foot charged recklessly, cutting at every one they could reach.  In my
+statement, however, of the casualties, I have sought to assert, not what
+I believe, but only what (as far as one can speak with certainty of what
+one did not actually see) I know to be the truth.
+
+The worst part of the whole story, in my opinion, was the subsequent
+conduct of the Government.  These outrages, which might have been excused
+as the result of an unforeseen disturbance, obtained in cold blood the
+deliberate sanction of the Vatican.  The Papal gendarmes received the
+personal acknowledgments of the Pope for their conduct.  The six horsemen
+who distinguished themselves by clearing the Piazza Colonna were promoted
+for their services, and all the police on duty that day received extra
+pay.  With unusual promptitude, in fact not more than a week after the
+event, the _Giornale di Roma_ contained an official statement of the
+occurrence.  After alleging that hitherto they had considered the
+unpleasant event of too small importance to deserve notice, they proceed
+to give the following narrative.
+
+   "On Monday, the 19th instant, in the course of the afternoon, the
+   revolutionary faction proposed to make a demonstration in the Corso
+   against the Pontifical Government, by an assemblage of persons hired
+   for the express purpose.  On the discovery of these designs, fitting
+   arrangements were made in concert with the French police; and the
+   French troops, as well as the Papal gendarmes, were drawn up, so that
+   in case of need they might suppress any disturbance whatever.
+
+   "In fact, about five o'clock in the afternoon crowds were formed in
+   the streets, directed by leaders, and amongst these leaders were two
+   hide-tanners, whom the gendarmes arrested with promptitude.  The
+   crowd, thus raked together, then began to hoot at and insult the
+   gendarmes, and at last attempted to rescue the prisoners.  Not
+   succeeding in this attempt, the rioters, whose numbers had now been
+   swollen by a lot of idle fellows from the vilest rabble, crowded
+   together into the Piazza Colonna, and continued to outrage the
+   officers of public justice with every kind of insult.  Thereupon a
+   handful of police advanced courageously against the rioters, and
+   proved quite sufficient to disperse and rout them.
+
+   "The friends of order applauded the gallant gendarmes in the execution
+   of their duty.  In less than an hour the most perfect quiet reigned
+   around, and in the affray a very few persons were injured, whose
+   injuries have proved to be of slight consequence."
+
+Throughout the whole of this document the _suppressio veri_ reigns
+supreme.  It is ludicrous describing the _emeute_ as an event unworthy of
+special mention, when rewards and praises have been heaped by the
+Government on the heroes who distinguished themselves in the suppression
+of this contemptible fracas.  In a city like Rome a crowd which filled
+the whole Corso's length cannot be described as a faction, while the
+occupants of the aristocratic carriages which lined both sides of the
+street are not likely to have had two hide-tanners for their leaders.  The
+size of the crowd disposes at once of the idea that the persons who
+composed it were bribed to be present; and the attempt to identify the
+action of the French troops with that of the Papal gendarmes, is upset by
+the plain and simple fact, that the French patrols were on the Porta Pia
+road, and not in the Corso at all.  Indeed, if the whole matter was not
+too serious to laugh at, there would be something actually comical in the
+notion of the friends of order, or any person in their senses, stopping
+to applaud the gendarmes as they trampled their way through the helpless,
+screaming, terror-stricken crowd, striking indiscriminately at friend or
+foe.  The statement has this value, and this value only, that it gives
+the formal approval of the Government to the brutal outrages of the Papal
+police.
+
+For a time the Pro-Papal party were in a state of high exultation.  A
+popular demonstration had been suppressed by a score or so of Pontifical
+troops.  The stock stories about the cowardice of the Italians were
+revived, and the more intemperate partizans of the Government asserted
+that the support of the French army was no longer needed, and that the
+Pope would shortly be able to rely for protection on his own troops
+alone.  There was in these exultations a certain sad amount of truth.  I
+am no blind admirer of the Romans, and I freely admit that no
+high-spirited crowd would have submitted to be cut down by a mere handful
+of gendarmes.  I admit, too, that this blood-letting stopped for the time
+the fashion of demonstrations.  It is however at best a doubtful
+compliment to a government that it has succeeded in crushing the spirit
+and energy of a nation; but to this compliment, I fear, the Papal rule is
+only too well entitled.  "The lesson given on St Joseph's day," so wrote
+the organ of the Papacy in Paris, "has profited;" how, and to whom, time
+will show.  Hardly, I think; at any rate, to the religion of love and
+mercy, or to those who preach its doctrines, and enforce its teachings by
+lessons such as this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.  A COUNTRY FAIR.
+
+
+Far away among the Sabine hills, right up the valley of the Teverone, as
+the Romans now-a-days call the stream which once bore the name of Anio,
+hard by the mountain frontier-land of Naples, lies the little town of
+Subiaco.  I am not aware that of itself this out-of-the-world nook
+possesses much claim to notice.  Antiquarians, indeed, visit it to search
+after the traces of a palace, where Nero may or may not have dwelt.
+Students of ecclesiastical lore make pilgrimages thereto, to behold the
+famous convent of the Santo Speco, the home of the Benedictine order.  In
+summer-time the artists in Rome wander out here to take shelter from the
+burning heat of the flat Campagna land, and to sketch the wild Salvator
+Rosa scenery which hems in the town on every side.  I cannot say,
+however, that it was love of antiquities or divinity, or even scenery,
+which led my steps Subiaco-wards.  The motive of my journey was of a less
+elevated and more matter-of-fact character.  Some few days beforehand a
+yellow play-bill-looking placard caught my eye as I strolled down the
+Corso.  A perusal of its contents informed me, that on the approaching
+feast-day of St Benedict there was to be held at Subiaco the great annual
+_Festa e fiera_.  Many and various were the attractions offered.  There
+was to be a horse-race, a _tombola_, or open lottery, an illumination,
+display of fire-works, high mass, and, more than all, a public
+procession, in which the sacred image of San Benedetto was to be carried
+from the convent to the town.  Such a bill of fare was irresistible, even
+had there not been added to it the desire to escape from the close muggy
+climate of Rome into the fresh mountain-air,--a desire whose intensity
+nothing but a long residence here can enable one to appreciate.
+
+Subiaco is some forty odd miles from Rome, and amongst the petty towns of
+the Papal States is a place of some small importance.  The means,
+however, of communication with the metropolis are of the scantiest.  Two
+or three times a week a sort of Italian _eil-wagen_, a funereal and
+tumble-down, flea-ridden coach, with windows boarded up so high that,
+when seated, you cannot see out of them, and closed hermetically, after
+Italian fashion, shambles along at jog-trot pace between the two towns,
+and takes a livelong day, from early morning to late at night, to perform
+the journey.  Other public mode of transit there is none; and therefore,
+not having patience for the diligence, I had to travel in a private
+conveyance, and if there had been any one else going from the fair to
+Rome, which there was not, they must perforce have done the same.  As to
+the details of the journey, and the scenery through which you pass, are
+they not written in the book of Murray, wherein whoso likes may read
+them?  It is enough for me to note one or two facts which tell their own
+story.  Throughout the forty and odd miles of the road I traversed, I
+never passed through a single village or town, with the exception of
+Tivoli; and between that town and Rome, a distance of some twenty miles,
+never even caught sight of one.  After Tivoli, when the road enters the
+mountains, there are a dozen small towns or so, all perched on the
+summits of high hills, under which the road winds in passing.  Detached
+houses or cottages there are, as a rule, none--certainly not half a dozen
+in all--the whole way along.  There was little appearance of traffic
+anywhere.  A few rough carts, loaded with charcoal or wood for the Roman
+markets; strings of mules, almost buried beneath high piles of brushwood,
+which were swung pannier-wise across their backs; and a score of peasant-
+farmers mounted on shaggy cart-horses, and jogging towards the fair,
+constituted the way-bill of the road.  The mountain slopes were
+apparently altogether barren, or at any rate uncultivated.  In the plain
+of the valley, bearing traces of recent inundation from the brook-torrent
+which ran alongside the road in strange zig-zag windings, were a number
+of poorly tilled fields, half covered with stones.  The season was
+backward, and I could see no trace of anything but hard, fruitless
+labour; and the peasants, who were working listlessly, seemed unequal to
+the labour of cultivating such unprofitable lands.  Personally the men
+were a vigorous race enough, but the traces of the malaria fever, the
+sunken features and livid complexion, were painfully common; their dress
+too was worn ragged and meagre, while the boys working in the fields
+constantly left their work to beg as I passed by, a fact which,
+considering how little frequented this district is by travellers, struck
+me unpleasantly.  With my English recollections of what going to the fair
+used to be, I looked but in vain for farmers' carts or holiday-dressed
+foot-folk going towards Subiaco.  I did not meet one carriage of any
+description, except the diligence without a passenger, and could not have
+guessed, from the few knots of peasants I passed, that there was anything
+unusual going on in what I suppose I might call the county town of the
+district.
+
+By the time I reached Subiaco, the first day of the fair was at its
+height.  The topography of the place is of the simplest description,--a
+narrow street running up a steep hill, with a small market-place; on the
+summit stands a church; half a dozen _cul-de-sac_ alleys on the right,
+terminated by the wall that hems in the river at their feet; a long
+series of broken steps on the left, leading to a dilapidated castle,
+where the Legate ought to reside, but does not; such are the main
+features of the town.  In fact, if you fancy Snow Hill, Holborn, shrunk
+to about a quarter of its width, all its houses reduced to much such a
+condition as that gaunt corner-building which for years past has excited
+my ungratified curiosity; Newgate gaol replaced by the facade of a dingy
+Italian church; the dimensions of the locale considerably diminished; and
+a small section of the dark alleys between the prison and Farringdon
+Street, bounded by the Fleet-ditch uncovered; you will have a very fair
+impression of the town of Subiaco.
+
+The fair, such as it was, was confined to this High Street and to the
+little square at its head.  The street was filled with people, chiefly
+men, bartering at the doors of the un-windowed shops.  A very small crowd
+would fill so small a place, but I think there could hardly have been
+less than a thousand persons.  Cutlery and hosiery of the rudest kind
+seemed to be the great articles of commerce.  There were, of course, an
+office of the Pontifical Lottery, which was always crammed, an itinerant
+vendor of quack medicines and a few scattered stalls (not a single booth
+by the way), where shoes and caps and pots and pans and the "wonderful
+adventures of St Balaam" were sold by hucksters of Jewish physiognomy.
+Lean, black-bristled pigs ran at every step between your legs, and young
+kids, slung across their owners' shoulders with their heads downwards,
+bleated piteously.  The only sights of a private description were a
+series of deformed beggars, drawn in go-carts, and wriggling with the
+most hideous contortions; but the fat woman, and the infant with two
+heads, and the learned dog, whom I had seen in all parts of Europe, were
+nowhere to be found.  There was not even an organ boy or a hurdy-gurdy.
+Music, alas! like prophecy, has no honour in its own country.  The crowd
+was of a very humble description; the number of bonnets or hats visible
+might be counted on one's fingers, and the fancy peasant costumes of
+which Subiaco is said to be the great rendezvous, were scarcely more in
+number.  There was very little animation apparent of any kind, very
+little of gesticulation, or still less of shouting; indeed the crowd, to
+do them justice, were perfectly quiet and orderly, for a holiday crowd
+almost painfully so.  The party to which I belonged, and which consisted
+of four Englishmen, all more or less attired in those outlandish costumes
+which none but Englishmen ever wear, and no Englishman ever dreams of
+wearing in his own country, excited no comment whatever, and scarcely
+attracted a passing glance.  Fancy what the effect would be of four
+bloused and bearded Frenchmen strolling arm-in-arm through a village wake
+in an out-of-the-way English county?  By the time I had strolled through
+the fair, the guns, or rather two most dilapidated old fowling-pieces,
+were firing as a signal for the race.  The horses were the same as those
+run at the Carnival races in Rome, and as the only difference was, that
+the course, besides being over hard slippery stones, was also up a steep
+hill-street, and the race therefore somewhat more cruel, I did not wait
+to see the end, but wandered up the valley to hear the vespers at the
+convent of the Santo Speco.  I should have been sorry to have missed the
+service.  Through a number of winding passages, up flights of narrow
+steps, and by terrace-ledges cut from the rock, over which I passed, and
+overhanging the river-side, I came to a vault-like chapel with low
+Saracenic arches and quaint old, dark recesses, and a dim shadowy air of
+mystery.  Round the candle-lighted altar, standing out brightly from
+amidst the darkness, knelt in every posture some seventy monks; and ever
+and anon the dreary nasal chanting ceased, and a strain of real music
+burst from out the hidden choir, rising and dying fitfully.  The whole
+scene was beautiful enough; but,--what a pity there should be a "but" in
+everything,--when you came to look on the scene in the light of a
+service, the charm passed away.  There were plenty of performers but no
+audience; the congregation consisted of four peasant-women, two men, and
+a child in arms.  The town below was crowded.  The service was one of the
+chief ones in the year, but somehow or other the people stopped away.
+
+When the music was over, I was shown through the convent.  There were, as
+usual, the stock marvels: a hole through which you looked and beheld
+a--shall I call it sacred?--picture of Satan with horns and hoof
+complete; a small plot of ground, where used to grow the thorns on which
+St Benedict was wont to roll himself in order to quench the desires of
+manhood, and where now grow the roses into which St Francis transformed
+the said thorns, in honour of his brother saint.  The monk who showed me
+the building talked much about the misery of the surrounding poor.  At
+the convent's foot lies a little wood of dark green ilexes, of almost
+unknown age, valued on account of some tradition about St Benedict, and
+perhaps still more as forming a kind of oasis on the barren, bare
+mountain-side.  Armed guards have to be placed at night around this wood,
+to save it from the depredations of the peasantry; every tree belonging
+to the convent and not guarded was sure to be cut down.  No one, so my
+informant told me, would believe the sums of money the convent had spent
+of late on charity, and how for this purpose even their daily supplies of
+food had been curtailed; but alas! it was only like pouring water into a
+sieve, for the people were poorer than ever.  I own that when the old
+priest pointed out the number of churches and convents you could see in
+the valley below, and spoke, with regret, of the time when there were
+twelve convents round Subiaco alone, I felt that the cause of this
+hopeless misery was not far to seek, though hard to remedy.
+
+On my way homewards to the town I beheld the half dozen sky-rockets which
+composed the display of fire-works, and also the two rows of oil-lamps on
+the cornices over the church-door, which formed the brilliant
+illuminations.  Neither sight seemed to collect much crowd or create much
+excitement.  As the dusk came on the streets emptied fast, and by night-
+time the town was almost deserted; and, except that the wine-shops were
+still filled with a few hardened topers, every sign of the fair had
+vanished.  There was not even a trace of drunkenness apparent.  The next
+morning the same scene was repeated with little difference, save that the
+crowd was rather greater, and a band of military music played in the
+market-place.  About noon the holy procession was seen coming down the
+winding road which leads from the convent to the town.  I had taken up my
+position on a roadside bank, and enjoyed a perfect view.  There were a
+number of shabby flags and banners preceded by a hundred able-bodied men
+dressed in dirty-white surplices, rather dirtier than the colour of their
+faces.  A crowd of ragged choristers followed swinging incense-pots,
+droning an unintelligible chant, and fighting with each other.  Then came
+a troop of monks and scholars with bare heads and downcast eyes.  All
+these walked in twos and twos, and carried a few crucifixes raised aloft.
+The monks were succeeded by a pewter-looking bust, which, I suppose, was
+a likeness of St Benedict, and the bust was followed by a mule, on which,
+in a snuff-coloured coat, black tights, white neckcloth, and a
+beef-eater's hat, the whole sheltered beneath a green carriage umbrella,
+rode His Excellency the Governor of the district.  Behind him walked his
+secretary, the Syndic of Subiaco, four gendarmes, and three broken-down,
+old livery-clad beadles, who carried the umbrellas of these high
+dignitaries.  In truth, had it not been for the unutterable shabbiness of
+the whole affair, I could have fancied I saw the market scene in
+"Martha," and "The Last Rose of Summer" seemed to ring unbidden in my
+ears.  Not a score of un-official spectators accompanied the procession
+from the convent, and the interest caused by it appeared but small; the
+devotion absolutely none.  The fact which struck me most throughout was
+the utter apathy of the people.  Not a person in the place I spoke to--and
+I asked several--had any notion who the governor was.  The nearest
+approach that I got to an answer was from one of the old beadles, who
+replied to my question, "Chi sa?" "E una roba da lontano;" and with this
+explanation that the governor was "a thing that came from a distance," I
+was obliged to rest satisfied.  When the procession reached the town the
+band joined in, the governor got off his mule, room was made for our
+party in the rank behind him, I suppose, as "distinguished foreigners;"
+and so with banners flying, crosses nodding, drums beating, priests and
+choristers chanting, we marched in a body into the church, where the
+female portion of the crowd and all the beggars followed us.  I had now,
+however, had enough of the "humours of the fair," and left the town
+without waiting to try my luck at the _tombola_, which was to come off
+directly High Mass was over.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.  THE HOLY WEEK.
+
+
+The _nil admirari_ school are out of favour.  In our earnest working age,
+it is the fashion to treat everything seriously, to find in every thing a
+deep hidden meaning, in fact, to admire everything.  Since the days of
+Wordsworth and Peter Bell, every petty poet and romantic writer has had
+his sneer at the shallow sceptic to whom a cowslip was a cowslip only,
+and who called a spade a spade.  I feel, therefore, painfully that I am
+not of my own day when I express my deliberate conviction, that the
+ceremonies of Holy Week at Rome are--the word must come out sooner or
+later--an imposture.  This is not the place to enter into the religious
+aspect of the Catholic question, nor if it were, should I have any wish
+to enter the lists of controversy as a champion of either side.  I can
+understand that for some minds the ideas of Church unity, of a mystic
+communion of the faithful, and of an infallible head of a spiritual body
+have a strange attraction, nay, even a real existence.  I can understand
+too, that for such persons all the pomps and pageantry of the Papal
+services present themselves under an aspect to me unintelligible.  Whether
+these ideas be right or wrong, I am not able, nor do I care, to argue.
+The Pontifical ceremonies, however, have not only a spiritual aspect, but
+a material and very matter-of-fact one.  They are after all great
+spectacles got up with the aid of music and upholstery and dramatic
+mechanism.  Now, how far in this latter point of view the ceremonies are
+successful or not, I think from some small experience I am pretty well
+qualified to judge; and if I am asked whether, as ceremonies, the
+services of the Church of Rome are imposing and effective, I answer most
+unhesitatingly, No.  I know that this assertion upsets a received article
+of faith in Protestant England as to the seductive character of the Papal
+ceremonies.  I remember well the time when I too believed that the
+shrines of the old faith were the haunts of sense-enthralling grandeur,
+of wild enchantment and bewitching beauty; when I too dreamt how amidst
+crowds of rapt worshippers, while unearthly music pealed around you and
+the fragrant incense floated heavenwards, your soul became lost to
+everything, save to a feeling of unreasoning ecstasy.  In fact, I
+believed in the enchantments of Papal pageantry, as firmly as I believed
+that a Lord Mayor's feast was a repast in which Apicius would have
+revelled, or that an opera ball was a scene of oriental and voluptuous
+delight.  Alas! I have seen all, and known all, and have found all three
+to be but vanity.
+
+Now the question as to the real aspect of the Papal pageantry, and the
+effects produced by it upon the minds, not of controversialists, but of
+ordinary spectators, is by no means an unimportant one with reference to
+the future prospects of Italy and the Papacy.  Let me try then, not
+irreverently or depreciatingly, but as speaking of plain matters of fact,
+to tell you what you really do see and hear at the greatest and grandest
+of the Roman ceremonies.  Of all the Holy Week services none have a more
+European fame, or have been more written or sung about, than the
+Misereres in the Sistine Chapel.  Now to be present at these services you
+have to start at about one o'clock, or midday, in full evening costume,
+dress-coat and black trowsers.  Any man who has ever had to walk out in
+evening attire in the broad daylight, will agree with me that the
+sensation of the general shabbiness and duskiness of your whole
+appearance is so strong as to overcome all other considerations, not to
+mention your devotional feelings.  In this attire you have to stand for a
+couple of hours amongst a perspiring and ill-tempered crowd, composed of
+tourists and priests, for the Italians are too wise to trouble themselves
+for such an object.  During these two mortal hours you are pushed forward
+constantly by energetic ladies bent on being placed, and pushed back by
+the Swedish guards, who defend the entrance.  The conversation you hear
+around you, and perforce engage in, is equally unedifying, both
+religiously and intellectually, a sort of _rechauffe_ of Murray's
+handbook, flavoured with discussions on last Sunday's sermon.  When you
+are reduced to such a frame of mind and body as is the natural result of
+time so employed, the doors of the chapel are opened, and you have
+literally to fight your way in amidst a crowd of ladies hustling,
+screaming, and fainting.  If you are lucky, you get standing room in a
+sort of open pen, whence, if you are tall, you can catch a sight of the
+Pope's tiara in the distance; or, if you belong to the softer sex, you
+get a place behind the screen, where you cannot see, but, what is much
+better, can sit.  The atmosphere of the candle-lighted, crammed chapel is
+overpowering, and occupation you have none, except trying in the dim
+light to decipher the frescoes on the roof, with your head turned
+backwards.  For three long hours you have a succession of dreary
+monotonous strains, forming portions of a chant, to you unintelligible,
+broken at intervals by a passage of intonation.  There is no organ or
+instrumental music, and the absence of contralto voices is poorly
+compensated for by the unnatural accents of the Papal substitutes for
+female vocalists.
+
+The music itself may be very fine,--competent critics declare it is, and
+I have no doubt they are right; but I say, unhesitatingly, it is not
+music that addresses itself to popular tastes, or produces any feeling
+save that of weariness on nine-tenths of its hearers.  You can mark
+clearly the expression of satisfaction which steals over every face as
+candle after candle of the stack of wax-lights before the altar is put
+out successively, at intervals of some twenty minutes.  If the ceremony
+were reduced to one-tenth of its length, it might be impressive, but a
+dirge which goes on for three hours, and a chandelier which takes the
+same time to have its lights snuffed out, become an intolerable nuisance.
+The dying cadence of the Miserere is undoubtedly grand; but, in the first
+place, it comes when your patience is exhausted; and, in the second, it
+lasts so long, that you begin to wonder whether it will ever end.  The
+slavery to conventional rules in England, which causes one to shrink from
+the charge of not caring about music as zealously as one could, and from
+pleading guilty to personal cowardice, makes Englishmen, and still more
+Englishwomen, profess to be delighted with the Miserere; but, in their
+heart of hearts, their feeling is much such as I have given utterance to.
+
+The ceremonies in St Peter's itself are, as sights, much better; but yet
+I often think that the very size and grandeur of the giant edifice
+increases the _mesquin-ness_ (for want of an English word I must
+manufacture a French one) of the whole ceremony.  At the exposition of
+the relics, for instance, you see in a very lofty gallery two small
+figures, holding up something--what, you cannot tell--set up in a rich
+framework of gold and jewels; it may be a piece of the cross, or a
+martyr's finger-bone, or a horse's tooth--what it is neither you nor any
+one else can guess at that distance.  If the whole congregation knelt
+down in adoration, the artistic effect would unquestionably be fine, but
+then not one person in seven does kneel, and therefore the effect is
+lost.  So it is with the washing of the high altar.  If one priest alone
+went up and poured the wine and oil over the sacred stone, and then
+cleansed the shrine from any spot or stain, the grandeur of the idea
+would not be marred by the monotony of the performance; but when some
+four hundred priests and choristers defile past, each armed with a chip
+besom, like those of the buy-a-broom girls of our childhood, and each
+gives a dab to the altar as he passes, the whole scene becomes tiresome,
+if not absurd.  The same fatal objection applies to the famous washing of
+the feet at the Trinita dei Pellegrini.  As a mere matter of simple fact,
+there is nothing very interesting in seeing a number of old women's feet
+washed, or in beholding a number of peasants who would be much better if
+the washing extended above their feet, engaged in gulping down an
+unsavoury repast.  The whole charm of the thing rests in the idea, and
+this idea is quite extinguished by the extreme length and tediousness of
+the whole proceeding.  The feet have too evidently been washed before,
+and the pilgrims are too palpably got up for the occasion.
+
+The finest ceremony I have ever witnessed in Rome is the High Mass at St
+Peter's on Easter-day; but as a theatrical spectacle, in which light
+alone I am now speaking of it, it is marred by many palpable defects.
+Whenever I have seen the Pope carried in his chair in state, I can never
+help thinking of the story of the Irishman, who, when the bottom and seat
+of his sedan-chair fell out, remarked to his bearers, that "he might as
+well walk, but for the honour of the thing."  One feels so strongly that
+the Pope might every bit as well walk as ride in that ricketty, top-heavy
+chair, in which he sits, or rather sways to and fro, with a sea-sick
+expression.  Then the ostrich feathers are so very shabby, and the whole
+get-up of the procession is so painfully "not" regardless of expense.  You
+see Cardinals with dirty robes, under the most gorgeous stoles, while the
+surplices are as yellow as the stained gold-worked bands which hang
+across them.  There is, indeed, no sense of congruity or the inherent
+fitness of things about the Italian ceremonials.  A priest performs mass
+and elevates the host with muddy boots on, while the Pope himself, in the
+midst of the grandest service, blows his nose on a common red
+pocket-handkerchief.  The absence of the organ detracts much from the
+impressiveness of the music in English ears, while the constant bowings
+and genuflexions, the drawling intonations, and the endless monotonous
+psalms, all utterly devoid of meaning for a lay-worshipper, added to the
+utter listlessness of the congregation, and even of the priests engaged
+in celebration of the service, destroy the impression the gorgeousness of
+the scene would otherwise produce.
+
+The insuperable objection, however, to the impressiveness of the whole
+scene is the same as mars all Papal pageants,--I mean the length and
+monotony of the performance.  One chant may be fine, one prostration
+before the altar may be striking, one burst of the choral litany may act
+upon your senses; but, when you have chant after chant, prostration after
+prostration, chorus after chorus, each the twin brother to the other, and
+going on for hours, without apparent rhyme or reason, you cease to take
+thought of anything, in order to speculate idly when, if ever, there is
+likely to be an end.  There is no variety, and little change, too, about
+the ceremonies.  When you have seen one you have seen all; and when you
+have seen them once, you can understand how to the Romans themselves
+these sights have become stale and dull, till they look upon them much as
+I fancy the musician in the orchestra of the old Princess's must have
+looked upon one of Kean's Shaksperian revivals when the season was far
+spent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.  ISOLATION OF ROME.
+
+
+There is, I think, no city in the world where Pilate's question, "What is
+truth?" would be so hard to answer as in Rome.  In addition to the
+ordinary difficulties which everywhere beset the path of the foreigner in
+search of knowledge, there are a number of obstacles peculiar and special
+to Rome alone.
+
+The whole policy of the government is directed towards maintaining the
+country in a state of isolation, towards drawing, in fact, a moral
+_cordon sanitaire_ round the Papal dominions.  Indeed, if one lived long
+in Rome, one would get to doubt the reality of anything.  When I last
+came to Rome straight from Tuscany, seething in the turmoil of its new-
+bought liberties, I could hardly believe that only six months ago there
+had been war in Italy within two hundred miles from the Papal city, that
+the fate of Italy still hung trembling in the balance, and that the chief
+province of the country was still in open revolt against its rulers.
+There was no sign, no trace, scarce a symptom even of what had passed or
+was passing in the world without.  We all seemed spellbound in a dull,
+dead, dreary circle.  There were no advertisements in the streets, except
+of devotional works for the coming season of Lent; no pamphlets or books
+placed in the booksellers' windows, which by their titles even implied
+the existence of the war and the revolution; no prints for sale of the
+scenes of the campaign, or the popular heroes of the day.  This was the
+normal state of Rome, such as I had seen it in former years.  Later on,
+indeed, either the force of events, or a change in the counsels of the
+Vatican, induced the Papacy to drop the defensive passive attitude which
+constituted its real strength, and to adopt an active offensive policy,
+which served rather to show the greatness of the dreaded danger than to
+avert its occurrence.  Still the increased animation, though perceptible
+enough to a Roman, appeared to a stranger but a step above absolute
+stagnation.  I never could get over my astonishment at our utter
+ignorance of what went on around and amongst us.  About the state of
+affairs in our two neighbouring countries, whether in free Tuscany or in
+despotic Naples, we were entirely in the dark.  What little news we got
+was derived from chance reports of stray travellers, or from the French
+and English newspapers.  The _Giornale di Roma_ gave us now and then a
+damnatory paragraph about the Tuscan Government, from which, out of a
+mass of vituperation, we could pick up an odd fact or so; but during the
+first four months of this year, throughout which period I perused the
+_Giornale_ pretty carefully, I do not remember to have seen a single
+allusion, good, bad or indifferent, to the kingdom of Naples.  The Tuscan
+papers were naturally enough forbidden, as are almost all the journals of
+the free Italian states, and could only be obtained by private hands.  The
+Neapolitan Gazette, the _Monitore del Regno delle Due Sicilie_, was never
+seen by any chance, though I cannot suppose its circulation was directly
+interdicted.  The communication between Rome and Naples was, and is,
+scanty in the extreme.  During the last ten years, about ten miles of the
+Pio-Centrale Railroad, the Neapolitan line, have been opened.  At present
+beyond Albano the works are entirely at a stand-still, and there are
+still some thirty miles of line, between Rome and the frontier, of which
+hardly a sod has been turned.  The Civita Vecchia line has only been
+completed in consequence of the pressure of the French authorities, and
+the Ancona-Florence line is still in _statu quo_.  Three times a week
+there are diligences between Rome and Naples.  The local steam-boats,
+which used to run along the coast from Porto d'Anzio to the Neapolitan
+capital have been given up, and in fact there is no ready means of
+transit, save by the foreign steamers, which touch at Civita Vecchia.
+Whether purposely or not, everything has been done to check free
+communication between the Papal and Neapolitan States, and in this
+respect the Government has been eminently successful.  The two countries
+are totally distinct.  A Neapolitan is a _forestiere_ in Rome, and _vice
+versa_.  The _divide et impera_ has been the motto of all the petty
+Italian despots and of the Papacy in particular, and hitherto has proved
+successful.  Even now, as far as I could see and learn, the desire for
+Italian unity does not penetrate very low down.  It is the desire, I
+freely grant, of all the best and wisest Italians, but scarcely, I
+suspect, the wish of the Italian people.  In truth, Italy at this moment
+is very much what Great Britain would be, if Scotland, Ireland, Wales and
+the States of the Saxon Heptarchy had remained to this day separate petty
+kingdoms, ruled by governments who fostered and developed every local and
+sectional jealousy.  The broad fact, that for some weeks at Rome we were
+in utter ignorance whether there had been a revolution or not in the
+capital of the frontier kingdom, not thirty miles away, and should have
+been quite surprised if we had learnt anything about the matter, is a
+sufficient commentary on our state of isolation.
+
+This artificial isolation too is increased by a sort of general apathy
+and almost universal ignorance, which are characteristic of all classes
+in Rome.  How far this intellectual apathy is caused by, or causes, the
+material isolation of the city, would be a curious question to determine.
+The existence, however, of this fact, which none acquainted with Rome
+will question, constitutes one of the chief difficulties in ascertaining
+accurate information about facts.  The most intelligent and the most
+liberal amongst the Romans (the two terms are there synonymous) never
+seem to know the value of positive facts, and even in matters susceptible
+of proof prefer general statements.  Then, too, the absence of social
+meetings, or means of intercourse, is one of the most striking features
+about Roman society.  There is no public life, no current literature,
+little even of free conversation.  Of course, among the English and
+foreign residents there are plenty of parties and gaieties of every kind.
+At these parties you meet a few Anglicised Italians, who have picked up a
+little of our English language and a good deal of our English dress.  The
+nobility of Rome who come into contact with the higher class of English
+travellers give a good number of formal receptions, but amongst the
+middle and professional classes there is very little society at all.  The
+summer is the season for what society there is, but even then there is
+but little.  There are no saloons in the Roman theatres, and the
+miserable refreshment-rooms, with their bars even more shabby and worse
+provided than our English ones, are, as you may suppose, not places of
+meeting.  Even at the Opera there seemed to be little visiting in the
+boxes.  With the exception of the strangers' rooms, there are no reading-
+rooms or clubs in Rome, if I may exclude from this category a miserable
+_Gabinetto di Lettura_, chiefly frequented by priests, and whose current
+_lettura_ consisted of the _Tablet_, the _Univers_, the _Armonia_, and
+the _Courier des Alpes_.  The only real places of meeting, or focuses of
+news, are the cafes.  At best, however, they are _triste_, uncomfortable
+places.  There is no cafe in all Rome equal to a second-rate one in an
+ordinary French provincial town.  There are few newspapers, little domino
+playing, and not much conversation.  The spy system is carried to such an
+extent here, that even in private circles the speakers are on their guard
+as to what they say, and still more as to what they repeat.  As an
+instance of this, I may mention a case that happened to me personally.  On
+the morning before the demonstrations at the Porta Pia a Roman gentleman,
+with whom I was well acquainted, wished to give me information of the
+proposed meeting, of which, it happened, I was well aware; but though we
+were alone in a room together, the nearest approach on which my friend
+ventured to a direct information, which might be considered of a
+seditious character, was to tell me that I should find the Porta Pia road
+a pleasant walk on an afternoon.
+
+In fact, paradoxical as the assertion may appear, you learn more about
+Rome from foreigners than from natives.  Unfortunately, such information
+as you may acquire in this way is almost always of a suspicious
+character.  Almost every one in Rome judges of what he sees or hears
+according, in German phrase, to some stand-point of his own, either
+political or artistic or theological, as the case may be.  As to the
+foreign converts, it is only natural that, as in most cases they have
+sacrificed everything for the Papal faith, they should therefore look at
+everything from the Papal point of view.  If, however, they abuse and
+despise the Romans on every occasion, it is some satisfaction to reflect
+that the Romans lose no opportunity of despising or abusing them in turn.
+English Liberals who see a good deal of Roman society, see it, I think,
+under too favourable circumstances, and also attach undue importance to
+the wonderful habit all Italians have of saying as their own opinion
+whatever they think will be pleasing to their listener.  On the other
+hand, the persons who are best qualified to judge of Rome, the ordinary
+residents of long standing, who care little about Italy and less about
+the Pope, are, I fancy, unduly influenced by the advantages of their
+exceptional position.  There are few places in the world where a
+stranger, especially an English stranger, is better off than in Rome.  As
+a rule, he has perfect liberty to do and say and write what he likes, and
+almost inevitably he gets to think that a government which is so lenient
+a one for him cannot be a very bad one for its own subjects.  The cause,
+however, of this exceptional lenity is not hard to discover.  Much as we
+laugh at home about the _Civis Romanus_ doctrine, abroad it is a very
+powerful reality.  Whether rightly or wrongly, foreign governments are
+afraid of meddling with English subjects, and act accordingly.  Then,
+too, Englishmen as a body care very little about foreign politics, and
+are known to live almost entirely among themselves abroad, and seldom to
+interfere in the concerns of foreigners; and lastly, I am afraid that the
+moral influence of England, of which our papers are so fond of boasting,
+is very small indeed on the continent generally, and especially in Italy.
+All the articles the _Times_ ever wrote on Italian affairs did not
+produce half the effect of About's pamphlet or Cavour's speeches.  I am
+convinced that the influence of English newspapers in Italy is most
+limited.  The very scanty knowledge of the English language, and the
+utter want of comprehension of our English modes of thought and feeling,
+render an English journal even more uninteresting to the bulk of Italians
+than an Italian one is to an Englishman; and the Roman rulers are well
+aware of this important fact.  Hard words break no bones, and the Vatican
+cares little for what English papers say of it, and looks upon the
+introduction of English Anti-Papal journals as part of the necessary
+price to be paid for the residence of the wealthy heretics who refuse to
+stop anywhere where they cannot have clubs and churches and papers of
+their own.  The expulsion of M. Gallenga, the _Times_ correspondent, was
+in reality no exception to this policy.  It was not as the correspondent
+of an English newspaper, but as an ex-Mazzinian revolutionist and the
+author of _Fra Dolcino_, that this gentleman was obnoxious to the Papal
+authorities.  Though a naturalized English subject, he had not ceased to
+be an Italian, and his personal influence amongst Roman society might
+have been considerable, though the effect of his English correspondence,
+however able, would have been next to nothing.
+
+From all these causes it is very hard to learn anything at Rome, and
+harder yet to learn anything with accuracy.  It is only by a process of
+elimination you ever arrive at the truth.  Out of a dozen stories and
+reports you have to take one, or rather part of one, and to reject the
+eleven and odd remaining.  It has been my object, therefore, in the
+following descriptions of the scenes which marked the period of my
+residence in Rome, to give as much as possible of what I have known and
+seen myself, and as little of what I heard and learnt from others.  What
+my narrative may lose in vividness, it will, I trust, gain in accuracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.  THE PAPAL QUESTION SOLVED BY NAPOLEON I.
+
+
+About half a century ago the Papal question was the order of the day.
+Another Napoleon was seated on the throne of France, in the full tide of
+success and triumph of victory; another Pius was Pontiff at the Vatican,
+under the patronage of French legions, and, strange to say, another
+Antonelli was the leading adviser of the Pope.  The city of Rome, too,
+and the Papal States were in a condition of general discontent and
+disaffection; but, unfortunately, this latter circumstance is one of too
+constant occurrence to afford any clue as to the date of the period in
+question.
+
+In the year of grace 1806, the enemies of Napoleon were _ipso facto_ our
+friends; and in consequence the Pope, who was known to be hostile to
+France, became somewhat of a popular character amongst us.  Indeed Pius
+VII. was looked on at home rather in the light of a martyr and a hero.  It
+is only of late years that this feeling has worn off, and that we, as a
+nation, have begun to doubt whether, in his struggle with the Papacy, the
+Corsican usurper, as it was the fashion then to style him, may not have
+been in the right after all.  Considerable light has been thrown upon
+this question by the recent publications of certain private State papers,
+which remained in the possession of Count Aldini, the minister of Italian
+affairs under the great Emperor.
+
+There had long been subjects of dissension between the Papal and the
+Imperial Governments.  At last, in 1806, these dissensions came to an
+open rupture.  On the 1st of June in that year, Count Aldini wrote a
+despatch, by order of the Emperor, to complain of the avowed hostility
+displayed by the Papal Court against the system of legislation introduced
+into the Kingdom of Italy, and of the private intrigues carried on by
+Cardinal Antonelli.  In this despatch occur these words, which at the
+present day read strangely appropriate:--
+
+   "His Majesty cannot behold without indignation, how that authority,
+   which was appointed by God to maintain order and obedience on earth,
+   employs the most perilous weapons to spread disorder and discord."
+
+This appeal to the conscience of the Vatican remained of course without
+effect, and things only grew worse.  At the end of the same year Napoleon
+published at Berlin his famous decrees for the blockade of England, and
+the exclusion of all English merchandise.  Whether justly or unjustly,
+the Court of Rome was suspected by Buonaparte of not keeping up the
+blockade (the most unpardonable of all political offences in his eyes).
+At last, by a decree of the 2nd of April 1808, he removed the Marches
+from the Papal Government, and annexed them to the Kingdom of Italy.  The
+legations, by the way, had formed part of that kingdom since the treaty
+of Tolentino.  This experiment proved unsuccessful.  Napoleon soon
+discovered, what his successor is also likely to learn, that the real
+evil of the Papal Government consisted not in its territorial extent, but
+in the admixture of temporal and spiritual authority; that, in fact, its
+power of working mischief was, if anything, in inverse proportion to its
+size.  With that rapidity of resolution which formed half his power, he
+resolved at once to suppress the temporal power of the Popes, and gave
+instructions to Count Aldini to draw up the necessary decrees.  The
+Emperor was then on the eve of departure for the Spanish peninsula; and
+it was during the harassing reverses of his fortunes in Spain, that the
+following report of Aldini was perused by him:--
+
+   "Sire,--Your Imperial and Royal Majesty has considered that the time
+   is come to fix the destinies of Rome.
+
+   "You have directed me to examine which, amidst the diverse governments
+   that Rome has had during modern times, is most adapted for her actual
+   circumstances, while retaining the character of a free government.  It
+   appears from history, that Crescenzius governed Rome for many years
+   with the title of Patrician and Consul.
+
+   "Pope John XV. having appealed against him to the Emperor Otho, the
+   appeal was dismissed, and Crescenzius was confirmed in his office, and
+   caused to swear allegiance to the Emperor.
+
+   "The supreme dominion of the Emperors over Rome was exercised without
+   contradiction throughout all the dynasty of the Othos and Conrads, and
+   only became assailed under Frederick I.
+
+   "Afterwards, amidst the multitude of Italian republics, the Roman
+   republic was restored for a time; and, in the 13th century, had for
+   the head of its government a Matteo of the Orsini family with the
+   title of Senator, in honour of whose memory a medal was struck.
+
+   "For a long period the Kings of Naples, of the Anjou race, were
+   Senators of Rome.
+
+   "Pope Nicholas III. retained the senatorial dignity for himself; and,
+   by a bull of 1268, forbade the election of any Senator, without the
+   sanction of the Pope.
+
+   "From this date all the Senators of Rome have been nominated by the
+   Popes, and were never permitted to be foreigners.
+
+   "Besides the Senator, there was a council, called the Conservatori.
+   The members of this council were chosen from amongst the first
+   families of Rome; proposed by the Senator, and approved by the Pope.
+
+   "From time to time the Pontiffs have endeavoured to diminish the
+   jurisdiction and the prerogatives of the Senators, so that in latter
+   times their office has been reduced to a mere honorary charge.
+
+   "It has appeared to me that the restoration of this form of
+   government, replacing the Senator in his old authority, would be a
+   step at once adapted to the circumstances of the present day, and
+   acceptable to the Roman people.
+
+   "To declare Rome a free Imperial city, and to reserve a palace there
+   for your Majesty and your court, cannot but produce the most
+   favourable effect on the minds of the Romans.
+
+   "In the other dispositions of the proposed statute I have confined
+   myself to following the precedents adopted by your Majesty on former
+   occasions, under similar circumstances."
+
+This report was accompanied by the minutes of three decrees.  The first
+referred to the future government of the Eternal City, and was sketched
+out in the following articles:--
+
+   "Art. 1.  Rome is a free Imperial city.
+
+   "Art. 2.  The Palace of the Quirinal, with its dependencies, is
+   declared to be an Imperial Palace.
+
+   "Art. 3.  The confines between the territory of Rome and the Kingdom
+   of Italy are to be determined by a line, which, starting from
+   Arteveri, passes through Baccano, Palestrina, Marino, Albano,
+   Monterotondo, Palombara, Tivoli, and thence, keeping always at a
+   distance of two miles inland from the sea, returns to Arteveri.
+
+   "Art. 4.  The lands of all communes intersected by the above line form
+   the territory of Rome, excepting all lands that lie between the line
+   and the sea coast.
+
+   "Art. 5.  A Senator and a Magistracy of forty Conservators are to form
+   the Government of the City and its territory.
+
+   "Art. 6.  The executive power resides in the Senator; the legislative
+   with the Magistracy of the Conservators.  The Senator has the
+   initiative in all projects of law.
+
+   "Art. 7.  The office of the Senator is for life; that of the
+   Conservators for four years.  The Magistracy is to be renewed every
+   year for one-fourth of its members.  In the first three years, lot is
+   to decide who go out; afterwards, the members shall retire by
+   rotation.
+
+   "Art. 8.  Ten Conservators, at least, shall be chosen from the
+   different communes which compose the territory of Rome.
+
+   "Art. 9.  The Senator is always to be nominated by us and our
+   successors.  For the first election alone we reserve to ourselves the
+   right of nominating the Magistracy of the Conservators.  Hereafter, as
+   vacancies occur, the Senator shall nominate the Conservators from a
+   double list presented to him by the Magistracy.
+
+   "Art. 10.  The judicial functions are to be exercised in the name of
+   the Senator, by judges nominated by him.  Their appointment shall be
+   for life.  They cannot be removed except for fraud or neglect of duty,
+   recognised as such by the Magistracy, or on being sentenced to any
+   disgraceful or penal punishment.
+
+   "Art. 11.  Five AEdiles, nominated after the same fashion as the
+   Conservators, shall superintend the preservation of the ancient
+   monuments and the repairs of the public buildings.  For this purpose a
+   special fund (the amount to be determined by the Government) shall be
+   placed yearly at their disposal.
+
+   "Art. 12.  Between the kingdom of Italy and the Roman State, there
+   shall be no intermediate line of customs or duties.  The Government of
+   Rome may, however, impose an _octroi_ duty on victuals at the gates of
+   the city.
+
+   "Art. 13.  For . . . years no ecclesiastic can hold a civil office in
+   Rome or its territory."
+
+The second decree declares that the Papal States, with the exception of
+the Roman territories above described, are irrevocably and in perpetuity
+annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, and that the _Code Napoleon_ is to be
+the law of the land.
+
+The third is headed, "Dispositions with regard to his Holiness," and
+disposes of the Papal question in this somewhat summary manner.
+
+   "We Napoleon, by the grace of God, and by the Constitution, Emperor of
+   the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Rhenish Confederation,
+
+   "Having regard to our first decree concerning Rome, have decreed, and
+   decree as follows:--
+
+   "Art. 1.  The Church and the Piazza of St Peter, the palace of the
+   Vatican and that of the Holy Office, with their dependencies, are a
+   free possession of his Holiness the Pope.
+
+   "Art. 2.  All the property of the Capitol and the Basilica of St Peter
+   are preserved to those institutions under whatever administration the
+   Pope may please to appoint.
+
+   "Art. 3.  His Holiness shall receive a yearly income of one million
+   Italian francs, and shall retain all the honorary privileges he has
+   enjoyed in past times.
+
+   "Given at our Imperial Palace of St Cloud, this --- day of Sept.
+   1808."
+
+In the midst of the Spanish campaigns, these documents were perused and
+approved by the Emperor, who wrote to Aldini, at that time in Italy, and
+told him to make private inquiries as to whether the time was opportune
+for the promulgation of these decrees, and whether it was expedient to
+require the clergy to take an oath of allegiance to the new constitution.
+Aldini's reply contains the following remarkable passage:--
+
+   "The Pope, who has never enjoyed the good opinion of the Roman public,
+   has succeeded in these latter days in winning the sympathy of a few
+   fanatics, who call his obstinacy heroic constancy, and wait every day
+   for a miracle to be worked by God in his defence.
+
+   "Except these bigots and a few wealthy persons who dread the
+   possibility, that, under a change of government, their privileges
+   might be destroyed, and the taxes on property increased, all classes
+   are of one mind in desiring a new order of things, and all alike long
+   for its establishment.
+
+   "I must not, however, conceal from you that this universal sentiment
+   is chiefly due to two causes:--Firstly, to the idea that the payment
+   of the interest on the public debt will be resumed; as, in truth, a
+   great number of Roman families depend on these payments for their
+   income; and secondly, to the hope that Rome will become the capital of
+   a great state, a hope which the Romans know not how to renounce."
+
+Under these circumstances, Count Aldini goes on to recommend that hopes
+should be held out of an early resumption of payments on the national
+debt, and that a provisional air should be given to the proposed
+arrangement, so as to keep alive the prospect of a great kingdom, of
+which Rome should be the centre.  He deprecates enforcing an oath of
+allegiance on the clergy, on the ground that "all priests will consent to
+obey the civil government; but all will not consent to swear allegiance
+to it, because they consider obedience an involuntary act, and an oath a
+voluntary act which might compromise their conscience."  He finally
+recommends delay, under present circumstances, till some decisive victory
+has crushed the hopes of the priest party.  This delay was fatal to the
+scheme.  After the battle of Wagram, Napoleon resumed the project, and
+resolved to encrease the Pope's income to two millions of francs.  Then,
+however, there came unfortunately the protests of Pius VII. the bull of
+excommunication hurled against the Emperor, and a whole series of petty
+insults and annoyances on the part of the Pope; such, for instance, as
+walling up the doors of his palace, and declaring, like his successor and
+namesake, his anxiety to be made a martyr.  Passion seems to have
+prevailed over Napoleon's cooler and better judgment.  The Pope was
+carried off to Savona, Rome was made part of the French empire, and
+Aldini's project slumbered till, in after years, it has been revived,
+though without acknowledgement, by M. Guerroniere, in his pamphlet of _Le
+Pape et le Congres_.
+
+Now this project I have quoted not for its intrinsic value, but because I
+think it one likely to be realized.  Napoleon III. (the fact both for
+good and bad is worth minding) and not the Italians has to decide on
+Rome's future, and any one who has watched the Emperor's career will be
+aware how carefully he follows out the cooler and wiser ideas of his
+great predecessor.  The Papal question is not one to be settled by the
+sword, and I know not whether amongst all the plans that I have seen, the
+solution of Napoleon I. does not present the fewest difficulties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.  TWO PICTURES.
+
+
+Within the space of a few days, some three weeks in all, it was my
+fortune to be present at two demonstrations forming two pictures of
+Italian story, or rather two aspects of one picture.  In both the subject-
+matter was the feelings of Italians towards their rulers; in both that
+feeling was expressed legibly, though in diverse fashions; and from both
+one and the same lesson--that lesson, which I have sought to express in
+these loose sketches of mine--may be learned easily.  Let me first, then,
+write of these pictures as I saw them at the time, so that my moral may
+speak for itself to those who care to learn it.
+
+The 12th of April is the anniversary of Pio Nono's return to Rome from
+Gaeta, that refuge of destitute sovereigns.  It is also, by a strange
+coincidence, the anniversary of the day on which his Holiness and General
+Goyon narrowly escaped being killed by the falling of a scaffold, from
+which they were inspecting the repairs at the church of St Agnese.  On
+that day, in honour of the doubly joyful event, the Pope went to
+celebrate mass at the convent of St Agnese.  The time was one when a
+popular demonstration in favour of the Pope was urgently required.  It
+was in fact the beginning of the end.  Victor Emmanuel was about to enter
+Bologna as king; the news of the Sicilian insurrection had just reached
+Rome; the Imperial Government had sent one of its periodical intimations,
+that the French occupation could not be prolonged indefinitely; and
+General De La Moriciere had assumed the command of the Papal army, on his
+ill-fated and Quixotic crusade.  At such a time it was deemed necessary
+to show Europe, that the Pope still reigned in the hearts of his people,
+and every effort was made to secure a demonstration.  Government clerks
+and official personages received orders to be present at the ceremony;
+and all persons, over whom the Priests had influence, were urged to
+attend and swell the crowd.  And yet what came of it all?  Along the road
+between the Convent of Santa Agnese and the Porta Pia, where the great
+demonstrations took place some weeks ago, there was little sign of crowd
+or excitement.  The day was chilly and cheerless; but the chilliness of
+the wind itself precluded the idea of rain, so that it was not the
+weather which deterred the concourse of the faithful.  The Patrizzi
+Villa, just outside the gate, had a few festoons hung over the garden
+wall, which fronts the road; but one of the Patrizzi family, I should
+mention, is a Cardinal.  The villas on the road exhibited no decorations
+or signs of festivity whatever.  Indeed, I only observed three houses in
+all which had placed hangings before their windows, or made any
+preparations in honour of the event.  There were not many persons outside
+the gates.  Every few steps you met patrols of six French soldiers headed
+by a gendarme.  These patrols had been sent by General Goyon to keep the
+crowd in order; but, unfortunately, there was no crowd to keep in order;
+so that the soldiers looked and seemed to feel as if they were sent on a
+fool's errand.  At St Agnese there were some 150 carriages collected,
+almost all hired ones, of the poorer sort.  The private vehicles were
+very few indeed; not a quarter of the muster at most.  The church itself
+was gaily filled, but not crowded in any part.  Priests, monks, and women
+formed nine-tenths of the congregation.  The sacrament was administered
+by the Pope himself to a number of communicants, amongst whom the English
+converts visiting Rome were as usual conspicuous.  After mass was over
+the Pope had breakfast at the Convent, and returned about noon to the
+city.  Meanwhile, something approaching to a crowd, that is about 600
+people, half of whom were priests and the rest _impiegati_, were
+collected at the gates; and as the Pope passed to his coach and four,
+each of this crowd, with somewhat suspicious unanimity, drew a
+handkerchief from his pocket, and raised a feeble cheer.  Inside the
+gates, and along the streets through which the Papal procession passed,
+there was no appearance of any unusual concourse of people.  By the
+corner of the Gualtro Fontane street, near the new palace of Queen
+Christina, a large body of nuns and school-children, decked out in white,
+were drawn up on the pavement, who waved their hats, and threw flowers as
+the Pope went by; but this was all; and even the Pope himself could
+hardly have supposed what demonstration there was to be spontaneous.  It
+is true the _Giornale_ made the most of it.  Their narrative ran thus:
+"About half-past eleven in the morning his Holiness, accompanied by the
+applause of all who had joined to escort him, entered his carriage, and
+took the road towards his residence at the Vatican.  Words are
+insufficient to express the enthusiastic affection, the joyous
+demonstrations, which, for the length of three miles from St Agnese to
+the Quirinal, were manifested towards him by the good people of this
+Sovereign City, who had crowded to behold his passage; and who, by any
+means in their power, expressed the tender affection which they could not
+but entertain for his sacred person.  Infinite, too, was the number of
+carriages which followed the Royal cortege to the Pontifical palace of St
+Peter's."
+
+To this I can only say, that many things are visible to the eye of faith,
+and hidden to the common world.  To my unenlightened vision, the crowd of
+three miles in length was composed of a thousand persons in all; and the
+infinite number of carriages looked uncommonly like sixty.
+
+And now for the converse picture.
+
+
+
+The "Promised Land."
+
+
+Out of chill clouds and dull gloom, I passed into summer sunshine.  Across
+barren moor-land and more barren mountains, by the side of marshy lakes,
+deserted and malaria-haunted, through squalid villages and decayed
+cities, my journey brought me into a rich garden-country, studded with
+thriving towns swarming with life, and watered with endless streams.  I
+came into a land such as children of Israel never looked upon from over
+Jordan, after their weary wanderings in the wilderness; a land rich in
+oil and corn, and vineyards and cattle; a very "land of promise."  This,
+indeed, is the true Italy, the Italy of which all poets of all time have
+sung; and whose likeness all artists have sought to draw, and sought in
+vain.  The sight, however, of this wondrous beauty was not new to me who
+write; still less is its record new to you who read.  With this much of
+tribute let it pass unnoticed.  Fortunately, it was my lot to see the
+promised land of Italy as for centuries past she has not been seen.  I
+saw her free, and rejoicing in her freedom.  Then let me seek to recall
+such of the epochs in that right royal progress--when the chosen King
+came to take possession of his promised land--as stand most clearly
+forth.
+
+I remember once seeing a collection of Indian portraits.  There were
+rajahs and dervishes, jugglers and dancing-girls, depicted in every
+variety of garb and posture.  For the whole set, however, there was but
+one face.  Each portrait had a hole where the face should have been, and
+the picture was completed by placing the one head beneath the blank
+opening.  In fact, you had one face beneath a hundred different
+draperies.  So also, in my wanderings, I saw but one picture in a dozen
+frames; one sight in many cities.  At some, the flags may have waved more
+gaily; at some again the lamps may have sparkled more brilliantly, and at
+others the crowd may have cheered more lustily; but the substance of the
+sight was the same throughout.  Everywhere, some half-dozen of dusty open
+carriages, filled with officers in uniform, passing through crowded
+streets festooned with flowers, dressed out with banners--everywhere, the
+one figure of a plain, rough Soldier-king, bowing stiffly and slowly from
+time to time--everywhere, a surging, heaving, shouting crowd.  Such is
+the one subject of my picture-gallery.
+
+I am in the Duomo of Florence.  Around and about me there is a great
+crowd.  Every niche and cornice where foot can stand is occupied.  A deep
+gloom hangs around the darkened church, and from out the lofty vaulted
+roof thousands of lamps hang glimmering like stars upon a moonless sky.
+Ever and anon the organ peals forth triumphantly, and the clouds of
+incense rise fitfully; and as the bell rings, and the host is raised on
+high, you see above the bowed heads of the swaying crowd the figure of
+the excommunicated King, kneeling on the altar-steps.  Then, when the
+service is over, and the royal procession passes down the nave, through
+the double line of soldiers, who keep the passage clear, I am carried
+onwards to the front of the grand cathedral, which for centuries has
+stood bare and unfinished, and which is to date its completion from the
+time when the city of Dante and Michael Angelo is to date her freedom,
+too long delayed.
+
+The next scene present to my memory is a dark gloomy night.  I am at
+Pisa, in the city of the Campo Santo, where hang the chains of the
+ancient port which the Genoese carried off in triumph centuries ago, in
+the days of the old Republic, and have brought back to day, in honour of
+the new brotherhood.  The great festival of the Luminara is to be held to-
+night, in the presence of the King.  I have come from Florence through
+the pleasant Arno valley, shining in the glory of an Italian sunset, and
+the night has come on, and dark, rain-laden clouds are rolling up from
+the sea; but neither wind nor rain are heeded now.  Through narrow
+streets, which a year ago were silent and deserted, I follow a great
+multitude pressing towards the river-side.  A sudden turn brings me to
+the quay, and an illuminated city rises before me across the Arno.  The
+glare is so strong that at first I can scarcely distinguish anything save
+the one grand blaze of light.  Then, by degrees, I see that every house
+and palace-front along those mile-long quays is lit up by rows on rows of
+lamps, scattered everywhere.  Arches and parapets and bridges are all
+marked out against the dark back-ground of the sky by the long lines of
+light, and in the depths of the dull stream that rolls at my feet a
+second inverted city sparkles brightly.  Along either quay a great,
+countless multitude keeps moving to and fro, casting a dark hem of shadow
+at the foot of the houses which line the river.  Then of a sudden the
+low, ceaseless hum of ten thousand voices is exchanged for a loud cheer,
+and the bands begin to play, and the royal carriages, escorted by a
+running crowd, pass along the quays; and wherever the throng is thickest,
+you can tell that Victor Emmanuel is to be found, with Ricasoli by his
+side.  Then, as the King and his party pass out of sight, the storm comes
+on in its fury, and the gusts of wind blow out the lamps, as if after
+doing honour to the King their work was ended.
+
+Another scene which I remember well was on a long day's journey through
+the Val di Chiana, a day's journey by fertile fields and smiling
+villages, and on pleasant country roads.  The King was coming in the
+course of the day along the same route.  At every corner, at every bridge
+and roadside house, there were groups of peasants standing waiting to see
+_Il padrone nuovo_, the new sovereign and master.  The children had flags
+in their little hands, and the cottagers had hung out their coloured bed-
+quilts, and the roadside crosses were decked out with flowers.  The
+church-bells were ringing, country bands were playing lustily, and the
+national guard of every little town I passed stood under arms, to the
+admiration of all beholders.  It was a holiday everywhere; the fields
+were left untilled, the carts were taken up to carry whole peasant
+families to the market-town of Arezzo, where the King was to spend the
+night.  Man, woman, and child wore the national colours in some part of
+their Sunday dress; and about everything and everybody there was a look
+of happiness, hard indeed to describe, but one not often seen nor easily
+forgotten.
+
+Let us turn northwards.  The old streets of Bologna, with their endless
+rows of colonnades, are filled with people.  The dead Papal city is alive
+again.  The priests have disappeared; friars, monks, Jesuits, and nuns
+have vanished from their old haunts.  St Patrick did not clear the land
+of Erin more thoroughly and more suddenly of the genus reptile than the
+presence of Victor Emmanuel has cleared Bologna of the genus priest.  It
+is whispered that out of top windows, and from behind blinds and
+shutters, priests are peeping out at the strange sight of a glad and a
+free people, with glances the reverse of friendly; but neither the black
+robe nor the brown serge cowl, nor the three-cornered, low-crowned hat,
+are to be seen amongst the crowd.  Well, perhaps the scene looks none the
+less gay for their absence.  The flags and flowers glitter beneath the
+blue, cloudless sky, and the burning sun of a hot summer day gives an
+unwonted brightness to the grey colours of the grim, gaunt houses.  Down
+the steep, winding road leading from the old monastery of St Michael,
+where the King is lodged, through the dark, narrow, crowded streets, a
+brilliant cavalcade comes riding slowly; half a horse's length in front
+rides Victor Emmanuel.  Amongst the order-covered staff who follow, there
+is scarcely one of not more royal presence than their leader; there are
+many whose names may stand before his in the world's judgment, but the
+crowd has its eye fixed on the King, and the King alone.  For three days
+this selfsame crowd has followed him, and stared at him, and cheered him,
+but their ardour remains undiminished.  All the school-children of the
+city, down to little mites of things who can scarcely toddle, have been
+brought out to see him.  Boy-soldiers, with Lilliputian muskets, salute
+him as he passes.  A mob of men, heedless of the gendarmes or of the
+horses' hoofs, run before the cavalcade, in the burning heat, and cheer
+hoarsely.  Every window is lined with ladies in the gayest of gay
+dresses, who cast glances before the King, and try, like true daughters
+of Eve, to catch a smile from that plain, good-humoured face.  So amidst
+flowers and smiles and cheers the procession passes on.  There is no
+pause, indeed, in the ceaseless cheering, save where the band of exiles
+stands with the flags of Rome, and Naples, and Venice, covered with the
+black veil; or when the regiments defile past with the tattered colours
+which were rent to shreds at San Martino and at Solferino, and then the
+cry of "Viva Vittorio Emmanuele" is changed for that of "Viva l'Italia!"
+
+It is a Sunday afternoon, and at three o'clock I have turned out of the
+broiling streets into the vast, crowded theatre of Reggio.  Every place
+is occupied, every box is crammed; rows of lights sparkle around the
+darkened house, and the heat is a thing to be remembered afterwards.
+There is a gorgeous ballet being acted on the stage, and Caesar is being
+tempted by every variety of female art and posture, in a way which never
+happens except to ballet heroes, and to Saint Anthony of Padua.  The
+dancing girls, however, dance in vain, and the orchestra plays to deaf
+ears, for all voices are raised at once, and all eyes are turned from the
+stage.  The King has entered the royal box, and every lady in the long
+tiers of boxes unfurls the tricolor-flag she bears in her hands and waves
+it bravely.  The whole house keeps rising, shouting, cheering.  The
+musicians lay down their instruments, and the ballet-girls drop their
+postures and Caesar forgets his dignity, and one and all crowd forward on
+the stage and join in the general cheering; and when the king leaves, the
+curtain drops upon the unfinished ballet, and the whole house rush into
+the piazza to see Victor Emmanuel again as he drives away.
+
+The last time that my path comes across the kingly progress is at a
+railway station.  The long street of Parma, leading to the station, is
+lined with a dense crowd; and the flowers and flags and triumphal arches
+are to be seen in greater profusion here than even I have been accustomed
+to before.  The royal carriages have to move at a foot's pace, on account
+of the multitude which presses round them.  Amidst playing of bands and
+throwing of flowers, the King, accompanied by his vast escort, has
+reached the station, and enters it with his suite, but the eager
+enthusiasm of the multitude is not sated yet.  Regardless of all railway
+rules and penalties, they clamber over palings and run up embankments,
+and manage to force their way at last to the platform itself, as the
+royal train is moving on.  Even the iron nerve of Victor Emmanuel seems
+affected by this last greeting of farewell; and while the train remains
+in sight I can see the King bowing kindly to the crowd on either side.
+
+Never, I think, in the world's history was the promised land entered with
+more of promise.
+
+When, in the old fairy tale, the sleeping princess of the slumber-bound
+palace awoke to light and life; when of a sudden the horses began to
+neigh, and the clocks to tick, and the spits to turn, the brightness and
+suddenness of the change could scarcely have been more complete than that
+through which I passed.  From chill, cheerless, ceaseless rain into
+bright warm sun-light; from a country fever-haunted, barren, and
+desolate, into a land swarming with life, rich and fertile as a garden;
+from a gloomy priest-ridden people, kept down by force of arms, hating
+their rulers and hated by them, into the presence of a free people
+rejoicing in their freedom: such has been my change as I passed from the
+States of the Church into those of Victor Emmanuel.
+
+Surely the moral of these two pictures speaks for itself.  Put aside
+abstract political considerations, put aside, too, theological questions,
+and look at broad facts patent to all.  If anybody can see Rome and the
+Papal States, and still believe that the people are happy or prosperous
+or faring with good prospects either for this world or the next, I can
+say nothing more.  His eyes are not my eyes, nor his judgment mine.  For
+those to whom this ocular testimony is denied, I have written these
+papers.  I have sought to make present to them the utter dreariness, the
+hopeless discontent, the abject demoralization, which strike a resident
+in Rome, unless he refuses wilfully to see the truth.  In the dead Rome
+of real life; in the universal spiritless immorality of Roman society; in
+the decay of what once was the Roman people; in the squalid misery of the
+country towns, miserable even in their merriment; in the utter isolation
+of the Papal States, a moral lazaretto amongst European kingdoms, you see
+only too plainly the permanent condition of the country.  As to the
+present misery, you can read its signs in those pageants which impose on
+no one; in the Carnivals, where there are no revellers; in the solemn
+ceremonies, where the worshippers are sought in vain; and in the sad,
+sullen, hopeless demonstrations, whereby a people protest constantly that
+they are weary of their fate.  If you look for causes, you may find them
+perhaps in those trials without law or justice; in that Press without
+liberty or truth; in those Church-sanctioned lotteries; in the presence
+of that multitude of priests, and in the policy which dictated the
+outrage of St Joseph's day, and the Bull of excommunication.  How far
+these causes are sufficient to explain the fact, is a matter of opinion.
+I can understand a fervent believer in the Catholic Faith saying, that
+the people of the Papal States ought to be happy and prosperous under
+Papal rule.  It may be so, but the fact is they are not; and that they
+are both prosperous and happy under the rule of Victor Emmanuel ever
+since the great Lombard campaign, when the French armies at Solferino
+destroyed the Austrian power, the key-stone of the whole priest-despot
+rule in Italy.  I have been living, with but short intervals, in
+different parts of this Italian land.  Wherever the free national
+government has spread, I can see the growth of prosperity and happiness.
+There have been, there are, and there will be partial reactions, petty
+disturbances; but they are but eddies in the great, deep, resistless
+current.  Go to Bologna, or Ferrara, or Ancona, and you will find them,
+as I have, passed from dead desolation into active life.  Commerce is
+flourishing, order prevails, and the people are free and full of life.
+These are facts on which both Protestant and Catholic can judge; and
+Catholics, as well as Protestants, will tell you the same thing.  Then if
+this be so, and that it is so I assert fearlessly, in what right, human
+or divine, are a number of God's creatures to be forced to live out that
+one short life of ours in dull, abject misery?  If you tell me that their
+misery is necessary to the maintenance of a religious creed, be that
+creed Protestant or Catholic, I reply that the sooner then that creed
+disappears, the better for mankind and for faith in God.
+
+And now, a few words in parting about the future.  The end I believe is
+coming on so rapidly, has indeed advanced so far, since first I began to
+write these letters, little more than a year ago, that I hesitate to make
+prophecies which to-morrow may render vain.  The whole Italian revolution
+is eminently a political one, not a religious one.  It is possible a
+religious change, whether reformation-like or otherwise, may follow in
+its steps, but that time is not come.  There is no wish in the Italian
+people, unless I err much, to alter the national faith, or to dispense
+with the Pope, as a spiritual potentate.  Before long Pius IX., having
+caused as much misery as one man can well cause in one lifetime, must
+depart from this world; and then, if not sooner, some arrangement must be
+come to between the Pope and the Italian people, if the Papacy is to last
+at all.  In some form or other I hold that the compromise will be of the
+nature of the "Napoleonic Solution," to which I have therefore given a
+place amongst these papers.  Whether it is possible for a Pope to remain
+permanently at Rome as a spiritual prince in a free city, time alone can
+show, but ere long the experiment will be made.
+
+If in these letters I have said aught to wound the faith of either
+Protestant or Catholic, I have said it unwillingly, and regret that it
+should be so.  This however I believe, and would have others believe it
+too, that the misery of the Roman people is a real misery, be its cause
+what it may, and like all real misery in this world, calls to God for
+justice, and not in vain.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROME IN 1860***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 17284.txt or 17284.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/2/8/17284
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+