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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. Bennion
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Principles of Teaching
+
+Author: Adam S. Bennion
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2005 [EBook #17307]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Amy Cunningham and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Principles of
+Teaching
+
+BY ADAM S. BENNION
+_Superintendent of Church Schools_
+
+
+Designed for Quorum Instructors and Auxiliary Class
+Teachers of the Church of Jesus Christ of
+Latter-day Saints.
+
+Published by
+THE GENERAL BOARDS OF THE AUXILIARY ORGANIZATIONS
+OF THE CHURCH
+
+1921
+
+
+
+1952
+
+Reprint of the original
+
+FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING RELIGION
+
+Copyright, 1921
+
+By Adam S. Bennion
+
+For the General Boards of the
+Auxiliary Organizations
+of the Church
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+to the 1952 Edition
+
+
+Two texts have been written for the teacher training program of the
+Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since Dr. Adam S. Bennion's
+Book _Principles of Teaching_ was published, yet in spite of the fact
+that this book has been out of print several years so many requests for
+it have poured in that the General Superintendency has decided to
+satisfy the demand with this new edition.
+
+This book with its classic qualities in many ways fits Shakespeare's
+description of a beautiful woman when he said, "Age cannot wither her
+nor custom dim her infinite variety." Anyone who knows Dr. Bennion or
+has read his writings knows that neither custom nor age has dimmed his
+infinite variety. Furthermore, a glance at the table of contents of this
+book will reveal the fact that the problems and principles treated
+herein are just as real today as they were when the text was written.
+
+This little volume is republished in the hope that it again will become
+one of the basic texts in the teacher training program and fulfill its
+mission as an instrument in the hands of sincere people who have the
+devout wish of learning how to teach the principles of the gospel by the
+power of the Holy Spirit.
+
+                              H.A. Dixon, Chairman
+                              Teacher Training Committee
+
+
+
+
+_Contents_
+
+
+Chapter                                          Page
+
+       Preface                                    vii
+    I  Purposes Behind Teaching                     1
+   II  What Is Teaching?                            7
+  III  The Joys of Teaching                        14
+   IV  Personality                                 20
+    V  Personality                                 26
+   VI  Attainment                                  33
+  VII  Native Tendencies                           40
+ VIII  What to Do With Native Tendencies           46
+   IX  Individual Differences                      53
+    X  Individual Differences and Teaching         61
+   XI  Attention                                   68
+  XII  What Makes for Interest                     74
+ XIII  A Laboratory Lesson in Interest             80
+  XIV  The More Immediate Problems in Teaching     88
+   XV  Organizing the Lesson                       96
+  XVI  Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson    103
+ XVII  The Aim                                    111
+XVIII  Application                                116
+  XIX  Methods of the Recitation                  126
+   XX  Review and Preview                         134
+  XXI  The Question as a Factor in Education      142
+ XXII  The Problem of Discipline                  149
+XXIII  Creating Class Spirit                      157
+ XXIV  Conversion--The Real Test of Teaching      164
+       Bibliography                               171
+
+
+
+
+_Preface_
+
+
+That ever-old question, "How to Teach," becomes ever new when made to
+read, "How to Teach Better." This volume aims to raise those problems
+which every teacher sooner or later faces, and it attempts to suggest an
+approach by way of solution which will insure at least some degree of
+growth towards efficiency. These chapters originally were prepared for
+the course offered to teacher-trainers in the Summer School of the
+Brigham Young University, in 1920. The teachers in that course were an
+inspiration to the author and are responsible for many of the thoughts
+expressed in the pages of this book.
+
+The successful teacher ever views his calling as an opportunity--not as
+an obligation. To associate with young people is a rare privilege; to
+teach them is an inspiration; to lead them into the glorious truths of
+the Gospel of Jesus Christ is heavenly joy itself. This little volume
+hopes to push open the door of opportunity a little wider, that more of
+that joy may be realized.
+
+    "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me
+      Some blessed Saint will come and say,
+    'All hail, beloved; but for thee
+      My soul to death had fallen a prey';
+    And oh! what rapture in the thought,
+      One soul to glory to have brought."
+
+                              ADAM S. BENNION.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PURPOSES BEHIND TEACHING
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER I
+
+     The worth of souls.--The Father's joy in the soul that is
+     saved.--The teacher's responsibility.--Teaching, a sacred
+     calling.--Our Church a teaching Church.
+
+     Our three-fold purpose in Teaching:
+       a--To guarantee salvation of the individual members of the
+       Church.
+
+       b--To pass on the wonderful heritage handed down by our pioneer
+       forefathers.
+
+       c--To make more easily possible the conversion of the world.
+
+
+   "Remember the worth of souls is great in the sight of God;
+
+   "For, behold, the Lord your Redeemer suffered death in the flesh;
+   wherefore he suffered the pain of all men, that all men might repent
+   and come unto him.
+
+   "And he hath risen again from the dead, that he might bring all men
+   unto him, on conditions of repentance;
+
+   "And how great is his joy in the soul that repenteth.
+
+   "Wherefore, you are called to cry repentance unto this people;
+
+   "And if it so be that you should labor all your days in crying
+   repentance unto his people, and bring, save it be one soul unto me,
+   how great shall be your joy with him in the kingdom of my Father?
+
+   "And now, if your joy will be great with one soul that you have
+   brought unto me into the kingdom of my Father, how great will be your
+   joy if you should bring many souls unto me?" (Doc. & Cov., Sec.
+   18:10-16.)
+
+   "For behold, this is my work and my glory--to bring to pass the
+   immortality and eternal life of man." (Moses 1:39.)
+
+If this is the work and glory of the Lord, how great must be the
+responsibility of the teachers of Zion, His copartners in the business
+of saving humankind! Next to parenthood, teaching involves us in the
+most sacred relationship known to man. The teacher akin to the parent is
+the steward of human souls--his purpose to bless and to elevate.
+
+The first great question that should concern the Latter-day Saint
+teacher is, "Why do I teach?" To appreciate fully the real purposes
+behind teaching is the first great guarantee of success. For teaching is
+"no mere job"--it is a sacred calling--a trust of the Lord Himself under
+the divine injunction, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:15). For the teacher who
+has caught a glimpse of his real responsibility there is no
+indifference, no eleventh-hour preparation, no feeling of unconcern
+about the welfare of his pupils between lessons--for him there is
+constant inspiration in the thought, "To me is given the privilege of
+being the cupbearer between the Master and His children who would drink
+at His fountain of truth."
+
+The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been variously
+designated by those not of us: "The Great Industrial Church," "The
+Church of Pioneers," "The Church of Wonderful Organization." It might
+well be called "The Teaching Church." There is scarcely a man or woman
+in it that has not at some time been asked to respond to the call of
+teacher. Our people have been a remarkable people because they have been
+remarkably taught--taught of the Lord and His prophets. Our future can
+be secure only as it is guaranteed this same good teaching. Every
+teacher must come to realize that "Mormonism" is at stake when he
+teaches. "Why do I teach?" goes to the very heart of teaching.
+
+The answer to this question is to be found, in part at least, in the
+three-fold objectives of our Church. First, the salvation and exaltation
+of the individual soul. As already pointed out, this is the very "work
+and glory" of the Father. Man is born into the world a child of
+divinity--born for the purpose of development and perfection. Life is
+the great laboratory in which he works out his experiment of eternity.
+In potentiality, a God--in actuality, a creature of heredity,
+environment, and teaching. "Why do I teach?" To help someone else
+realize his divinity--to assist him to become all that he might
+become--to make of him what he might not be but for my teaching.
+
+Someone has jocularly said: "The child is born into the world half
+angel, half imp. The imp develops naturally, the angel has to be
+cultivated." The teacher is the great cultivator of souls. Whether we
+say the child is half angel and half imp, we know that he is capable of
+doing both good and evil and that he develops character as he practices
+virtue and avoids vice. We know, too, that he mentally develops. Born
+with the capacity to do, he behaves to his own blessing or condemnation.
+There is no such thing as static life. To the teacher is given the
+privilege of pointing to the higher life. He is the gardener in the
+garden of life. His task is to plant and to cultivate the flowers of
+noble thoughts and deeds rather than to let the human soul grow up to
+weeds. This purpose becomes all the more significant when we realize
+that the effects of our teaching are not only to modify a life here of
+three-score and ten--they are impressions attendant throughout eternity.
+As the poet Goethe has said, "Life is the childhood of our immortality,"
+and the teachings of childhood are what determine the character of
+maturity. The thought is given additional emphasis in the beautiful
+little poem, "Planting," by W. Lomax Childress:
+
+    Who plants a tree may live
+      To see its leaves unfold,
+    The greenness of its summer garb,
+      Its autumn tinge of gold.
+
+    Who plants a flower may live
+      To see its beauty grow,
+    The lily whiten on its stalk,
+      The rambler rose to blow.
+
+    Who sows the seed may find
+      The field of harvest fair,
+    The song of reapers ringing clear,
+      When all the sheaves are there.
+
+    But time will fell the tree,
+      The rose will fade and die,
+    The harvest time will pass away,
+      As does the song and sigh.
+
+    But whoso plants in love,
+      The word of hope and trust,
+    Shall find it still alive with God--
+      It is not made of dust.
+
+    It cannot fade nor change,
+      Though worlds may scattered be,
+    For love alone has high repose
+      In immortality.
+
+If the teacher, as he stands before his class, could project his vision
+into the future--could see his pupils developed into manhood and
+womanhood, and could see all that he might do or fail to do, he would
+read a meaning well-nigh beyond comprehension into the question, "Why do
+I teach?"
+
+A second answer to this query lies in our obligation to pass on the
+wonderful heritage which we here received from our pioneer forefathers.
+The story of their sacrifice, devotion, and achievement is unique in the
+history of the world. Only recently a pioneer of 1852 thrilled a
+parents' class in one of our wards with the simple narrative of his
+early experiences. His account of Indian raids, of the experience with
+Johnston's army, of privations and suffering, of social pastimes--all of
+these things rang with a spirit of romance. None of his auditors will
+ever forget the story of his aunt who gave up her seat in her wagon to a
+sick friend for whom no provision had been made, and trudged across the
+plains afoot that one more soul might rejoice in Zion. Every pioneer can
+tell this sort of thrilling story. Could our young people enjoy the
+companionship of these pioneers there would be little need of alarm
+concerning their faith. Unfortunately, each year sees fewer of these
+pioneers left to tell their story. It is to the teacher, both of the
+fireside and the classroom, that we must look for the perpetuation of
+the spirit of '47. The ideals and achievements of the pioneers are such
+an inspiration, such a challenge to the youth of the Church today--that
+teachers ought to glory in the opportunity to keep alive the memories of
+the past. Our pioneer heritage ought never to be forfeited to
+indifference. It is a heritage that could come only out of pioneer life.
+Such courage to face sacrifice, such devotion to God, such loyalty to
+government, such consecration to the task of conquering an unpromising
+and forbidding desert, such determination to secure the advantages of
+education, such unselfish devotion to the welfare of their
+fellows--where could we turn for such inspiration to one who would
+teach?
+
+Nor is it enough that we strive to perfect the individual membership of
+the Church and preserve the social heritage out of the past--we assume
+to become the teachers of the world. It is our blessing to belong to a
+Church built upon revelation--a Church established and taught of the
+Lord. But with that blessing comes the injunction to carry this gospel
+of the kingdom to every nation and clime. "Mormonism" was not revealed
+for a few Saints alone who were to establish Zion--it was to be
+proclaimed to all the world. Every Latter-day Saint is enjoined to teach
+the truth. Whether called as a missionary, or pursuing his regular
+calling at home, his privilege and his obligation is to cry repentance
+and preach the plan of salvation. The better we teach, the sooner we
+shall make possible the realization of God's purposes in the world. The
+two thousand young men and women who go out each year to represent us
+in the ministry should go out well trained, not only that they may
+represent our Church as an institution which believes that "the glory of
+God is intelligence," but also that they may win intelligent men and
+women to the truth. Only he who is well taught may become a good
+teacher--hence the need of intelligent, devoted service. "Why do I
+teach?" far from being an idle question, goes to the very heart of the
+future of the Church.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER I
+
+1. How many of the members of your ward are actively engaged in other
+than parental teaching?
+
+2. What significance is attached to calling our Church a teaching
+Church?
+
+3. Discuss the significance of Jesus' being a teacher.
+
+4. Compare the responsibility of teaching with that of parenthood.
+
+5. Enumerate the chief purposes behind teaching.
+
+6. In your opinion, which is the greatest purpose? Why?
+
+7. To what extent does the following statement apply to the welfare of
+our Church:
+
+   "That nation that does not revere its past, plays little part in the
+   present, and soon finds that it has no future."
+
+8. Discuss our obligation under the injunction to teach the gospel to
+the world.
+
+9. Discuss the need here at home of better teaching.
+
+10. In what sense are we trustees of the heritage left by the pioneers?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Doctrine & Covenants: James, _Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals_;
+Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School
+Teachers_; Strayer, _A Brief Course in the Teaching Process_; Betts,
+_How to Teach Religion_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Sharp,
+_Education for Character_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WHAT IS TEACHING?
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER II
+
+     Teaching a complex art.--What teaching is not.--What teaching
+     is.--What it involves.--Presentation of facts.--Organization and
+     evaluation of knowledge.--Interpretation and elaboration of
+     truth.--Inspiration to high ideals.--Encouragement and direction
+     given to expression.--Discovery of pupils' better
+     selves.--Inspiration of example as well as precept.--Application of
+     truths taught in lives of pupils.
+
+
+The query, "What constitutes teaching?" cannot be answered off-hand. It
+is so complex an art, so fine an art, as Professor Driggs points out,
+that it has to be pondered to be understood and appreciated. It is often
+considered to be mere lesson-hearing and lesson-giving. The difference
+between mere instructions and teaching is as great as the distinction
+between eating and digestion.
+
+The following definition of _teaching_, contributed by a former state
+superintendent of schools, is rich in suggestion:
+
+   "Teaching is the process of training an individual through the
+   formation of habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of
+   ideals, and the fixing of permanent interests so that he shall become
+   a clean, intelligent, self-supporting member of society, who has the
+   power to govern himself, can participate in noble enjoyments, and has
+   the desire and the courage to revere God and serve his fellows."
+
+Teaching does not merely consist of an inquisition of questions with
+appropriate answers thrown in; it surely is not mere reading; nor can it
+be mistaken for preaching or lecturing. These are all means that may be
+employed in the process of teaching. And they are important, too. We
+have been cautioned much, of late years, not to lose ourselves in the
+process of doling out facts--but that rather we should occupy ourselves
+teaching boys and girls. That all sounds well--the writer of these
+lessons has himself proclaimed this doctrine--but we have discovered
+that you cannot teach boys and girls _nothing_. They no more can be
+happy _listening_ to _nothing_ than they can be content _doing nothing_.
+
+And so we now urge the significance of having a rich supply of subject
+matter--a substantial content of lesson material. But the doctrine holds
+that the teacher ought not to lose himself in mere facts--they are
+merely the medium through which he arrives at, and drives home the
+truth.
+
+   "It is the teacher's task to make changes for the better in the
+   abilities, habits and attitudes of boys and girls. Her efficiency can
+   be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In
+   other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated not
+   only by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by the
+   results she secures."--_Journal of Educational Research_, May, 1920.
+
+We have said that teaching is a complex art. It consists of at least
+these eight fundamentals, each one of which, or any combination of
+which, may be featured in any one particular lesson:
+
+  1. Presentation of facts.
+  2. Organization and evaluation of knowledge.
+  3. Interpretation and elaboration of truth.
+  4. Inspiration to high ideals.
+  5. Encouragement and direction given to expression.
+  6. Discovery of pupils' better selves.
+  7. Inspiration of example as well as precept.
+  8. Application of truths taught in lives of the pupils.
+
+
+I. PRESENTATION OF FACTS
+
+Facts constitute the background upon which the mind operates. There may
+be many or few--they may be presented in a lecture of thirty minutes, in
+the reading of a dozen pages, or they may be called forth out of the
+mind by a single stimulating question. But we ought not to confuse the
+issue. If we are to discuss any matter in the hope of reaching a
+conclusion in truth, we must have material upon which the mind can build
+that conclusion. We are not concerned in this chapter with method of
+procedure in getting the facts before a class--the important thought
+here is that the facts in rich abundance should be supplied. A certain
+young lady protested recently against going to Sunday School. Her
+explanation of her attitude is best expressed in her own words: "I get
+sick and tired of going to a class where I never hear anything new or
+worth while." Exaggerated, of course, but students are crying for bread,
+and ought not to be turned away with a stone.
+
+
+II. ORGANIZATION AND EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+We have hinted that a lesson may not have facts enough to justify the
+time it takes--there is, on the other hand, danger that the whole time
+of the class may be consumed in a mere rehearsal of facts as facts. Only
+recently a significant complaint was voiced by a young man who has gone
+through training in practically all of our organizations. "I don't seem
+to know anything at all," he said, "about the history of Israel, as a
+whole. I can recall certain isolated facts about particular persons or
+places, but I can't give any intelligent answer at all to such questions
+as these:
+
+"Who were the Israelites? What were their big movements relative to the
+Promised Land? What is the history of Israel up to the time of the
+Savior? What is their history subsequently? Are we of Israel and how?"
+
+The young man was not complaining--he merely regretted his ignorance on
+points of vital interest. He was in need of further organization of the
+knowledge he had. He had not been given the big central ideas about
+which to build the minor ones. Relative importance had not been taught
+him through that organized review that is so valuable in review. The
+teacher ought to come back time and again to pause on the big
+essentials--the peaks of gospel teaching.
+
+
+III. INTERPRETATION AND ELABORATION OF TRUTH
+
+It is really surprising how many various notions of an idea will be
+carried away by the members of a class from a single declaration on the
+part of a teacher. A phase of a subject may be presented which links up
+with a particular experience of one of the pupils. To him there is only
+one interpretation. To another pupil the phase of the subject presented
+might make no appeal at all, or linked up with a different experience
+might lead to an entirely different conclusion. Truths need to be
+elaborated and interpreted from all possible angles--all possible phases
+should be developed. An interesting discussion recently took place with
+a young man who had "gone off" on a pet doctrinal theory. His whole
+conception built itself up about a single passage of scripture.
+Satisfied with a single notion, he had shut his eyes to all else and
+"knew that he was right." Properly to be taught, he needed to be trained
+to suspend his judgment until _all the evidence_ was in.
+
+
+IV. INSPIRATION TO HIGH IDEALS
+
+Men and women like to be carried to the heights. They like to be lifted
+out of their lower selves into what they may become. It is the teacher's
+delight to let his class stand tip-toe on the facts of subject matter to
+peep into the glories of the gospel plan of life and salvation. In 1903
+Sanford Bell, of the University of Colorado, reported the results of a
+survey conducted with 543 men and 488 women to ascertain whether they
+liked male or female teachers better and just what it was that made them
+like those teachers who had meant most in their lives. The survey showed
+that the following influences stood out in the order named:
+
+  Moral uplift.
+  Inspiration.
+  Stimulus to intellectual awakening.
+  Spur to scholarship.
+  Help in getting a firm grip on the vital issues of life.
+  Personal kindness.
+  Encouragement in crises.
+
+What a testimonial to the force of inspiration to higher ideals!
+
+
+V. ENCOURAGEMENT AND DIRECTION GIVEN TO PUPILS' EXPRESSION
+
+Most pupils in class are ordinarily inclined to sit silently by and let
+someone else do the talking. And yet, everyone enjoys participating in a
+lesson when once "the ice is broken." It is the teacher's task first of
+all to create an atmosphere of easy expression and then later to help
+make that expression adequate and effective. The bishop of one of our
+wards in southern Utah declared, not long ago, that he traced the
+beginning of his testimony back to a Primary lesson in which a skillful
+teacher led him to commit himself very enthusiastically to the notion
+that the Lord does answer prayers. He said he defended the proposition
+so vigorously that he set about to make sure from experience that he was
+right. The details of securing this expression will be more fully worked
+out in the chapter on Methods of the Recitation.
+
+
+VI. DISCOVERY OF PUPILS' BETTER SELVES
+
+One of the most fascinating problems in teaching is to come to know the
+real nature of our pupils--to get below surface appearances to the very
+boy himself. Most of the work of solving this problem necessarily must
+be done out of class. Such intimate knowledge is the result of personal
+contact when no barriers of class recitation interfere. It involves time
+and effort, of course, but it is really the key to genuine teaching. It
+makes possible what we have named as factor number eight, which may be
+disposed of here for present purposes. We read of bygone days largely
+because in them we hope to find a solution to the problems of Jimmie
+Livingston today. How can we effect the solution if all that we know of
+Jimmie is that he is one of our fifteen scouts? We must see him in
+action, must associate with him as he encounters his problems, if we
+would help him solve them. Our discovery of our pupils' better selves,
+and intelligent application, go together hand in hand.
+
+
+VII. INSPIRATION OF EXAMPLE AS WELL AS PRECEPT
+
+When Emerson declared, "What you are thunders so loudly in my ears that
+I can't hear what you say," he sounded a mighty note to teachers.
+Hundreds of boys and girls have been stimulated to better lives by the
+desire "to be like teacher." "Come, follow me," is the great password to
+the calling of teacher. The teacher conducts a class on Sunday
+morning--he really teaches all during the week. When Elbert Hubbard
+added his new commandment, "Remember the week-days, to keep them holy,"
+he must have had teachers in mind. A student in one of our Church
+schools was once heard to say, "My teacher teaches me more religion by
+the way he plays basketball than by the way he teaches theology." It
+was what Jesus did that made him Savior of the world. He was the
+greatest _teacher_ because he was the greatest man.
+
+Surely teaching is a complex art!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER II
+
+1. What is teaching?
+
+2. Why is it essential that we get a clear conception of just what
+teaching is?
+
+3. Discuss the importance of building the recitation upon a good
+foundation of facts.
+
+4. Why are facts alone not a guarantee of a successful recitation?
+
+5. What is the teacher's obligation in the matter of organizing
+knowledge?
+
+6. Discuss the significance of teaching as an interpretation of truth.
+
+7. Discuss the teacher's obligation to discover pupils' better selves.
+
+8. What is the relative importance of expression and impression in
+teaching?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Gregory, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_;
+Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a
+Teacher_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE JOYS OF TEACHING
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER III
+
+     The Joys that attend Teaching: Enrichment of the spirit.--Guarantee
+     of the teacher's own growth and development.--Restraining and
+     uplifting influence on the moral character of the
+     teacher.--Satisfaction that attends seeing pupils
+     develop.--Inspirational companionship.--Contentment that attaches
+     to duty done.--Outpouring of the blessings of the Lord.
+
+
+Chapters one and two emphasized the thought that the purposes behind
+teaching impose a sacred obligation on the part of those who aspire to
+teach. But lest the obligation appear burdensome, let us remind
+ourselves that compensation is one of the great laws of life. "To him
+who gives shall be given" applies to teaching as to few other things.
+Verily he who loses his life finds it. The devotion of the real teacher,
+though it involves labor, anxiety and sacrifice, is repaid ten-fold.
+Only he who has fully given himself in service to others can appreciate
+the joy that attends teaching--particularly that teaching enjoined upon
+us by the Master and which is its own recompense.
+
+It is difficult to enumerate all of the blessings that attend the
+service of the teacher, but let us consider a few that stand out
+pre-eminently.
+
+If there were none other than this first one it would justify all that
+is done in the name of teaching; namely, "the enrichment of spirit."
+"There is a spirit in man: and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth
+them understanding." To feel the thrill of that inspiration is a
+compensation beyond price. The Lord, having commanded us to teach (see
+Sec. 88:77-81, Doc. & Cov.), has followed the command with the promise
+of a blessing, one of the richest in all scripture.
+
+   "For thus saith the Lord, I, the Lord, am merciful and gracious unto
+   those who fear me, and delight to honor those who serve me in
+   righteousness and in truth unto the end;
+
+   "Great shall be their reward and eternal shall be their glory;
+
+   "And to them will I reveal all mysteries, yea, all the hidden
+   mysteries of my kingdom from days of old, and for ages to come will I
+   make known unto them the good pleasure of my will concerning all
+   things pertaining to my kingdom;
+
+   "Yea, even the wonders of eternity shall they know, and things to
+   come will I show them, even the things of many generations;
+
+   "And their wisdom shall be great, and their understanding reach to
+   heaven: and before them the wisdom of the wise shall perish, and the
+   understanding of the prudent shall come to naught;
+
+   "For by my Spirit will I enlighten them, and by my power will I make
+   known unto them the secrets of my will; yea, even those things which
+   eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor yet entered into the heart of
+   man." (Doc. & Cov. 76:5-10.)
+
+This constitutes a promissory note signed by our heavenly Father
+Himself. A blessing beyond compare--a dividend unfailing--and our only
+investment--devoted service! Companionship with the Spirit of the Lord!
+That is what it means, if we serve Him in faith and humility.
+
+   "Be thou humble, and the Lord thy God shall lead thee by the hand,
+   and give thee answer to thy prayers." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 112:10.)
+
+Like all other gifts and attainments, the Spirit of the Lord has to be
+cultivated. Teaching insures a cultivation as few other things in life
+can. An enriched spirit, then, is the first great reward of the teacher.
+
+A second satisfaction is the guarantee of one's own growth and
+development. Teachers invariably declare that they have learned more,
+especially in the first year of teaching, than in any year at college. A
+consciousness of the fact that it is hard to teach that which is not
+well known incites that type of study which makes for growth. A good
+class is a great "pace-setter." Intellectually it has the pull of
+achievement. The real teacher always is the greatest student in the
+class. The "drive" of having a regular task to perform, especially when
+that task is checked up as it is by students, leads many a person to a
+development unknown to him who is free to slide. "Blessed is he who has
+to do things." Responsibility is the great force that builds character.
+Compare the relative development of the person who spends Tuesday
+evening at home with the evening paper, or at some other pastime, and of
+the person who, having accepted fully the call to teach, leads a class
+of truth-seekers through an hour's discussion of some vital subject.
+Follow the development through the Tuesday evenings of a lifetime.
+
+How easy to understand that there are varying degrees of glory
+hereafter.
+
+A third value of teaching lies in the fact that the position of teacher
+exercises a restraining influence for good on the moral life of the
+teacher. He is sustained by a consciousness that his conduct is his only
+evidence to his pupils that his practice is consistent with his theory.
+His class follows him in emulation or in criticism in all that he does.
+"Come, follow me," lifts the real teacher over the pitfalls of
+temptation. He cannot do forbidden work on the Sabbath, he cannot
+indulge in the use of tobacco, he cannot stoop to folly--his class
+stands between him and all these things. A teacher recently gave
+expression to the value of this restraining force when she said, "I urge
+my girls so vigorously not to go to the movies on Sunday that I find my
+conscience in rebellion if anyone asks me to go."
+
+Many a man in attempting to convert another to the righteousness of a
+particular issue has found himself to be his own best convert. He comes
+to appreciate the fact that the trail he establishes is the path
+followed by those whom he influences. He hears the voice of the child as
+recorded in the little poem:
+
+    I STEPPED IN YOUR STEPS ALL THE WAY
+
+    "A father and his tiny son
+      Crossed a rough street one stormy day,
+    'See papa!' cried the little one,
+      'I stepped in your steps all the way!'
+
+    "Ah, random, childish hands, that deal
+      Quick thrusts no coat of proof could stay!
+    It touched him with the touch of steel--
+      'I stepped in your steps all the way!'
+
+    "If this man shirks his manhood's due
+      And heeds what lying voices say,
+    It is not one who falls, but two,
+      'I stepped in your steps all the way!'
+
+    "But they who thrust off greed and fear,
+      Who love and watch, who toil and pray,
+    How their hearts carol when they say,
+      'I stepped in your steps all the way!'"
+
+Still another joy that attends teaching is the satisfaction of seeing
+pupils develop. The sculptor finds real happiness in watching his clay
+take on the form and expression of his model; the artist glories as his
+colors grow into life; the parent finds supreme joy in seeing himself
+"re-grow" in his child; so the teacher delights to see his pupils build
+their lives on the truths he has taught. The joy is doubly sweet if it
+is heightened by an expression of appreciation on the part of the
+pupils. Few experiences can bring the thrill of real happiness that
+comes to the teacher when a former student, once perhaps a little
+inclined to mischief or carelessness, takes him by the hand with a "God
+bless you for helping me find my better self."
+
+An officer of the British army, in recounting those experiences which
+had come to him in the recent world war, and which he said he never
+could forget, referred to one which more than compensated him for all
+the effort he had ever put into his preparation for teaching. Because of
+his position in the army it became his duty to discipline a group of
+boys for what in the army is a serious offense. In that group was a boy
+who had formerly been a pupil under the officer in one of our ward
+organizations. Chagrin was stamped on the face of the boy as he came
+forward for reprimand. Regret and remorse were in the heart of the
+officer. They soon gave way to pride, however, as the boy assured him
+that worse than any punishment was the humiliation of being brought
+before his own teacher, and he further assured him that never again
+would he do a thing that would mar the sacred relations of pupil and
+teacher.
+
+A further compensation attached to teaching is that of inspirational
+companionship. It is a blessed privilege to enjoy the sunshine of youth.
+Every pupil contributes an association with one of God's choice spirits.
+To live and work with children and adolescents is one of the finest of
+safeguards against old age. The teacher not only partakes of the joy of
+his group--they constitute him a link between his generation and theirs.
+Their newness of life, their optimism, their spontaneity, their joy,
+they gladly pass on to their teacher.
+
+Moreover, the teacher enjoys the uplifting associations of his fellow
+teachers. Among those consecrated to a noble service, there is a spirit
+unknown to him who has not enjoyed such communion. Whether he is
+conscious of it or not, the teacher responds to the pull of such a
+group. Scores of teachers have testified that the associations they have
+enjoyed as members of a local board, stake board, or general board, are
+among the happiest of their lives.
+
+And finally there is the contentment of mind that comes as a result of a
+duty well done. The human soul is so constituted that any task well
+performed brings a feeling of satisfaction, and this is doubly
+heightened when the duty performed is of the nature of a free will
+offering. Still more so when it is shared in by others to their
+blessing. Just as we hope for an eventual crowning under the blessing,
+"Well done, thou good and faithful servant," so we treasure those
+benedictions along the way that attend the discharge of a sacred
+obligation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER III
+
+1. Quote some of the promises of the Lord to those who do His will.
+
+2. How is teaching one of the surest guarantees of the blessings of
+eternal life?
+
+3. What are the immediate joys attached to teaching?
+
+4. Discuss the application to teaching of the truth--"He who loses his
+life shall find it."
+
+5. What types of companionship are assured him who teaches?
+
+6. As you now recall them, what distinct pleasures stand out in your
+teaching experience?
+
+7. Discuss Section 76 of the Doctrine & Covenants as one of the most
+valuable promissory notes ever given to mankind.
+
+8. Discuss the force of a duty done as a guarantee of joy.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Doctrine and Covenants: Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Sharp, _Education
+for Character_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How
+to Teach Religion_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PERSONALITY
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER IV
+
+     The worth of a great teacher.--Good teachers not necessarily
+     born.--Some boys' observations on teachers.--A high school
+     survey.--Clapp's _Essential Characteristics_.--Betts' _Three
+     Classes of Teachers_.--His list of qualities.
+
+
+   "A great teacher is worth more to a state, though he teach by the
+   roadside, than a faculty of mediocrities housed in Gothic
+   piles."--_Chicago Tribune_, September, 1919.
+
+We may stress the sacred obligation of the teacher; we may discuss in
+detail mechanical processes involved in lesson preparation; we may
+analyze child nature in all of its complexity; but after all we come
+back to the _Personality of the Teacher_ as the great outstanding factor
+in pedagogical success. _That something in the man_ that grips people!
+
+Very generally this _Personal Equation_ has been looked upon as a
+certain indefinable possession enjoyed by the favored few. In a certain
+sense this is true. Personality is largely inherent in the individual
+and therefore differs as fully as do individuals. But of recent years
+educators have carried on extensive investigations in this field of
+personality and have succeeded in reducing to comprehensible terms those
+qualities which seem to be most responsible for achievements of
+successful teachers. Observation leads us all to similar deductions and
+constitutes one of the most interesting experiments open to those
+concerned with the teaching process.
+
+Why, with the same amount of preparation, does one teacher succeed with
+a class over which another has no control at all?
+
+Why is it that one class is crowded each week, while another adjourns
+for lack of membership?
+
+The writer a short time ago, after addressing the members of a ward
+M.I.A., asked a group of scouts to remain after the meeting, to whom he
+put the question, "What is it that you like or dislike in teachers?" The
+group was a thoroughly typical group--real boys, full of life and
+equally full of frankness. They contributed the following replies:
+
+  1. We like a fellow that's full of pep.
+  2. We like a fellow that doesn't preach all the time.
+  3. We like a fellow that makes us be good.
+  4. We like a fellow that tells us new things.
+
+Boylike, they were "strong" for pep--a little word with a big
+significance. Vigor, enthusiasm, sense of humor, attack,
+forcefulness--all of these qualities are summed up in these three
+letters.
+
+And the interesting thing is that while the boys liked to be told new
+things, they didn't want to be preached at. They evidently had the boy's
+idea of preaching who characterized it as, "talking a lot when you
+haven't anything to say."
+
+Still more interesting is the fact that boys like to be made to be good.
+In spite of their fun and their seeming indifference they really are
+serious in a desire to subscribe to the laws of order that make progress
+possible.
+
+A principal of the Granite High School carried on an investigation
+through a period of four years to ascertain just what it is that
+students like in teachers. During those years students set down various
+attributes and qualities, which are summarized below just as they were
+given:
+
+  _Desirable Characteristics_
+
+  Congeniality.
+  Broadmindedness.
+  Wide knowledge.
+  Personality that makes discipline easy.
+  Willingness to entertain questions.
+  Realization that students need help.
+  Sense of humor--ability to take a joke.
+  Optimism--cheerfulness.
+  Sympathy.
+  Originality.
+  Progressiveness.
+  Effective expression.
+  Pleasing appearance--"good looking."
+  Tact.
+  Patience.
+  Sincerity.
+
+Among the characteristics which they did not like in teachers they named
+the following:
+
+  _Undesirable Characteristics_
+
+  Grouchiness.
+  Wandering in method.
+  Indifference to need for help.
+  Too close holding to the text.
+  Distant attitude--aloofness.
+  Partiality.
+  Excitability.
+  Irritability.
+  Pessimism--"in the dumps."
+  Indifferent assignments.
+  Hazy explanations.
+  Failure to cover assignments.
+  Distracting facial expressions.
+  Attitude of "lording it over."
+  Sarcasm.
+  Poor taste in dress.
+  Bluffing--"the tables turned."
+  Discipline for discipline's sake.
+  "Holier than thouness."
+
+_Desirable Capabilities_
+
+They also reduced to rather memorable phrases a half dozen desirable
+capabilities:
+
+  1. The ability to make students work and want to work.
+  2. The ability to make definite assignments.
+  3. The ability to make clear explanations.
+  4. The ability to be pleasant without being easy.
+  5. The ability to emphasize essentials.
+  6. The ability to capitalize on new ideas.
+  7. The ability to be human.
+
+A number of years ago Clapp conducted a similar survey among one hundred
+leading school men of America, asking them to list the ten most
+essential characteristics of a good teacher. From the lists sent in
+Clapp compiled the ten qualities in the order named most frequently by
+the one hundred men:
+
+  1. Sympathy.
+  2. Address.
+  3. Enthusiasm.
+  4. Sincerity.
+  5. Personal Appearance.
+  6. Optimism.
+  7. Scholarship.
+  8. Vitality.
+  9. Fairness.
+  10. Reserve or dignity.
+
+George Herbert Betts, in his stimulating book, _How to Teach Religion_,
+says there are three classes of teachers:
+
+   "Two types of teachers are remembered: One to be forgiven after years
+   have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to be
+   thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts. Between
+   these two is a third and a larger group: those who are forgotten,
+   because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their pupils.
+   This group represents the mediocrity of the profession, not bad
+   enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place in
+   gratitude and remembrance."
+
+Mr. Betts then goes on with a very exhaustive list of positive and
+negative qualities in teachers--a list so valuable that we set it down
+here for reference.
+
+   _Positive Qualities_               _Negative Qualities_
+
+1. Open-minded, inquiring, broad.     Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for
+                                        truth.
+
+2. Accurate, thorough, discerning.    Indefinite, superficial, lazy.
+
+3. Judicious, balanced, fair.         Prejudiced, led by likes and
+                                        dislikes.
+
+4. Original, independent,             Dependent, imitative, subservient.
+   resourceful.
+
+5. Decisive, possessing convictions.  Uncertain, wavering, undecided.
+
+6. Cheerful, joyous, optimistic.      Gloomy, morose, pessimistic, bitter.
+
+7. Amiable, friendly, agreeable.      Repellent, unsociable, disagreeable.
+
+8. Democratic, broadly sympathetic.   Snobbish, self-centered, exclusive.
+
+9. Tolerant, sense of humor,          Opinionated, dogmatic, intolerant.
+   generous.
+
+10. Kind, courteous, tactful.         Cruel, rude, untactful.
+
+11. Tractable, co-operative,          Stubborn, not able to work with
+    teachable.                          others.
+
+12. Loyal, honorable, dependable.     Disloyal, uncertain dependability.
+
+13. Executive, forceful, vigorous.    Uncertain, weak, not capable.
+
+14. High ideals, worthy, exalted.     Low standards, base, contemptible.
+
+15. Modest, self-effacing.            Egotistical, vain, autocratic.
+
+16. Courageous, daring, firm.         Overcautious, weak, vacillating.
+
+17. Honest, truthful, frank,          Low standards of honor and truth.
+    sincere.
+
+18. Patient, calm, equable.           Irritable, excitable, moody.
+
+19. Generous, open-hearted,           Stingy, selfish, resentful.
+    forgiving.
+
+20. Responsive, congenial.            Cold, repulsive, uninviting.
+
+21. Punctual, on schedule, capable.   Tardy, usually behindhand,
+                                        incapable.
+
+22. Methodical, consistent, logical.  Haphazard, desultory, inconsistent.
+
+23. Altruistic, given to service.     Indifferent, not socially minded.
+
+24. Refined, alive to beauty,         Coarse, lacking aesthetic quality.
+    artistic.
+
+25. Self-controlled, decision,        Suggestible, easily led, uncertain.
+    purpose.
+
+26. Good physical carriage, dignity.  Lack of poise, ill posture, no
+                                        grace.
+
+27. Taste in attire, cleanliness,     Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride.
+    pride.
+
+28. Face smiling, voice pleasant.     Somber expression, voice unpleasant.
+
+29. Physical endurance, vigor,        Quickly tired, weak, sluggish.
+    strength.
+
+30. Spiritual responsiveness,         Spiritually weak, inconstant,
+    strong.                             uncertain.
+
+31. Prayer life warm, satisfying.     Prayer cold, formal, little comfort.
+
+32. Religious certainty, peace,       Conflict, strain, uncertainty.
+    quiet.
+
+33. Religious experience expanding.   Spiritual life static or losing
+                                        force.
+
+34. God a near, inspiring reality.    God distant, unreal, hard of
+                                        approach.
+
+35. Power to win others to religion.  Influence little or negative.
+
+36. Interest in Bible and religion.   Little concern for religion and
+                                        Bible.
+
+37. Religion makes life fuller and    Religion felt as a limitation.
+    richer.
+
+38. Deeply believe great              Lacking in foundations for faith.
+    fundamentals.
+
+39. Increasing triumph over sin.      Too frequent falling before
+                                        temptation.
+
+40. Religious future hopeful.         Religious growth uncertain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IV
+
+1. Think of the teachers who stand out most clearly in your memory. Why
+do they so stand out?
+
+2. Name the qualities that made the Savior the _Great Teacher_.
+
+3. If you had to choose between a fairly capable but humble teacher, and
+a very capable but conceited one, which one would be your choice? Why?
+
+4. What is your argument against the idea, "Teachers are born, not
+made"?
+
+5. Discuss the relative significance of the qualities quoted from Betts.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+O'Shea, _Every-day Problems in Teaching_; Betts, _How to Teach
+Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Palmer, _The Ideal
+Teacher_; Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School
+Teachers_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+PERSONALITY
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER V
+
+     The six major qualities:--a. Sympathy.--b. Sincerity.--c.
+     Optimism.--d. Scholarly attitude.--e. Vitality.--f. Spirituality.
+
+
+To set about to cultivate separate qualities would be rather a
+discouraging undertaking. As a matter of fact, many of the
+characteristics named really overlap, while others are secondary in
+importance. For practical purposes let us enlarge upon five or six
+qualities which everyone will agree are fundamental to teaching success.
+
+The class in Teacher Training, at the Brigham Young University, in the
+summer of 1920, named these six as the most fundamental:
+
+  1. Sympathy.
+  2. Sincerity.
+  3. Optimism.
+  4. Scholarly attitude.
+  5. Vitality.
+  6. Spirituality.
+
+No attempt was made to set them down in the order of relative
+importance.
+
+
+1. SYMPATHY
+
+This is a very broad and far-reaching term. It rests upon experience and
+imagination and involves the ability to live, at least temporarily,
+someone else's life. Sympathy is fundamentally vicarious. Properly to
+sympathize with children a man must re-live in memory his own childhood
+or he must have the power of imagination to see things through their
+eyes. Many a teacher has condemned pupils for doing what to them was
+perfectly normal. We too frequently persist in viewing a situation from
+our own point of view rather than in going around to the other side to
+look at it as our pupils see it. It is no easy matter thus "to get out
+of ourselves" and become a boy or girl again, but it is worth the
+effort.
+
+Along with this ability at vicarious living, sympathy involves an
+interest in others. Sympathy is a matter of concern in the affairs of
+others. The rush and stir of modern life fairly seem to force us to
+focus our attention upon self, but if we would succeed as teachers, we
+must make ourselves enter into the lives of our pupils out of an
+interest to see how they conduct their lives, and the reasons for such
+conduct.
+
+Coupled with this interest in others and the imagination to see through
+their eyes, sympathy involves a desire to help them. A man may have an
+interest in people born out of mere curiosity or for selfish purposes,
+but if he has sympathy for them, he must be moved with a desire to help
+and to bless them.
+
+And, finally, sympathy involves the actual doing of something by way of
+service. President Grant liked to refer to a situation wherein a
+particular person was in distress. Friends of all sorts came along
+expressing regret and professing sympathy. Finally a fellow stepped
+forward and said, "I feel to sympathize with this person to the extent
+of fifty dollars." "That man," said President Grant, "has sympathy in
+his heart as well as in his purse."
+
+
+2. SINCERITY
+
+Surely this is a foundation principle in teaching:
+
+    "Thou must to thyself be true,
+      If thou the truth would teach;
+    Thy soul must overflow,
+      If thou another soul would reach."
+
+A teacher must really be converted to what he teaches or there is a
+hollowness to all that he utters. "Children and dogs," it is said, are
+the great judges of sincerity--they instinctively know a friend. No
+teacher can continue to stand on false ground before his pupils. The
+superintendent of one of our Sunday Schools, having selected one of the
+most talented persons in his ward to teach a Second Intermediate Class
+was astonished some months later to receive a request from the class for
+a change of teachers. The class could assign no specific reasons for
+their objections, except that they didn't get anything out of the class.
+A year later the superintendent learned that the teacher was living in
+violation of the regulations of the Church, on a particular principle,
+and it was perfectly clear why his message didn't ring home.
+
+The sincere teacher not only believes what he teaches--he consecrates
+his best efforts to the task in hand. He urges no excuse for absence or
+lack of preparation--"he is there." He lets his class feel that for the
+time being it is his greatest concern. He meets with boys and girls
+because he loves to and reaches out to them with an enthusiasm that
+cannot be questioned.
+
+
+3. OPTIMISM
+
+is the sunshine of the classroom. It is as natural to expect a plant to
+develop when covered with a blanket as it is to expect a class to be
+full of activity and responsiveness under an influence of unnatural
+solemnity. Lincoln is quoted as having declared, "You can catch more
+flies with a drop of honey than with a gallon of vinegar"--a homely
+expression, but full of suggestion. A grouch is no magnet.
+
+A little girl when questioned why she liked her Sunday School teacher
+said, "Oh, she always smiles at me and says, hello." There is contagion
+in the cheeriness of a smile that cannot be resisted. Children live so
+naturally in an atmosphere of happiness and fun that teachers of
+religious instruction may well guard against making their work too
+formally sober. Frequently teachers feel the seriousness of their
+undertaking so keenly that they worry or discipline themselves into a
+state of pedagogical unnaturalness. There is very great force behind the
+comment of the student who appreciated the teacher who could be human.
+The experience is told of a teacher who continued to have difficulty
+with one of her pupils. He so persisted in violating regulations that he
+was kept in after school regularly, and yet after school hours he was
+one of the most helpful lads in the school; in fact, he and the teacher
+seemed almost chummy. Struck by the difference in his attitude, the
+teacher remarked to him one afternoon, as he went about cleaning the
+blackboard, "Jimmie, I have just been wondering about you. You're one of
+my best workers after school--I can't understand how you can be so
+different during school hours and after."
+
+"Gee, that's funny," put in Jimmie, "I was just thinking the same thing
+about you."
+
+To be cheerful without being easy is a real art. Liberty is so often
+converted into license, and a spirit of fun so easily transformed into
+mischief and disorder. And yet cheerfulness is the great key to the
+human heart.
+
+An attitude of looking for the good in pupils will lead to a response of
+friendliness on their part which is the basis of all teaching.
+
+
+4. SCHOLARLY ATTITUDE
+
+If a teacher would cultivate an appetite for learning among his pupils
+he must himself hunger for knowledge. Most young people will "take
+intellectually if sufficiently exposed." A scholarly attitude implies
+first of all a growing mastery of subject matter. To quote an eminent
+writer on religious education, "A common bane of Sunday school teaching
+has been the haziness of the teacher's own ideas concerning the truths
+of religion."
+
+Fancy the hostess who would invite her guests to a dinner, and upon
+their arrival indicate to them that she had made only vague plans to
+receive them. No special place for their wraps, no entertainment for
+their amusement, and then fancy her asking them to sit down to a
+warmed-up conglomeration of left-overs.
+
+Of course, it is only in fancy that we can imagine such a service. Yet
+reports frequently indicate that there are class recitations,
+intellectual banquets, for which the preparation has been about as
+meagre as that indicated. Surely he who would feast others upon His word
+should prepare unceasingly. Let us keep in mind the comment--"We like
+the fellow who tells us something new."
+
+Along with this mastery of subject matter, a scholarly attitude implies
+both broadmindedness and openmindedness. Seekers after truth should
+welcome it from all available sources, and ought not to be handicapped
+by bias or prejudice. Tolerance and a willingness to entertain
+questions--a constant effort to view a subject from every possible
+angle--a poise that attends self-control even under stress of
+annoyance--these things are all involved in a truly scholarly attack
+upon any given problem.
+
+
+5. VITALITY
+
+One of the qualities most favorably and frequently commented on by
+students is what they call "pep." A certain vigor of attack that seems
+to go directly to the point at stake, putting at rest all other
+business and making discipline unnecessary, is what twentieth century
+young people seem to like. The element of hero worship prompts them to
+demand that the leader shall "do things." They like the "push" that
+takes a man over the top, the drive that wins a ball game, the energy
+that stamps the business man with success. Vitality is an inherent
+factor in leadership.
+
+
+6. SPIRITUALITY
+
+The crowning glory of the successful religious teacher is that spiritual
+glow which links up heaven and earth.
+
+   "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the power of faith, and if
+   ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec.
+   42:14.)
+
+This divine injunction is given us because we have undertaken to teach
+His Gospel. We would lead others to Him. And this is possible only as we
+lead by the light of His Holy Spirit. Above our knowledge of facts and
+our understanding of child nature must be placed our communion with that
+Spirit which touches the hearts of men.
+
+If a teacher would prepare a young man for a place in a modern business
+house he must teach him the ways of business,--buying, selling,
+collecting, managing, etc.,--matters of fact, governed by the laws of
+barter and trade. If that same teacher would teach the same young man
+the way of eternal life, he must substitute for the laws of man the word
+of the Lord, and for the spirit of exchange, the Spirit of Heaven. A
+pupil can be prepared for the kingdom of God only as he is led to
+respond to and appreciate His Spirit, and to do His will. While it is
+true that the best way to prepare for heaven is to live the best
+possible life here on earth, yet we need the Spirit of the Lord to
+interpret what constitutes that best possible life.
+
+There is power in the intellect of man; there is glory in that power
+when it is heightened by the Spirit of the Almighty.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER V
+
+1. What is sympathy?
+
+2. Why is it so essential in teaching?
+
+3. Why is sincerity a foundation principle in all teaching?
+
+4. Discuss the obligation on the part of the teacher to leave his
+troubles outside the classroom.
+
+5. Discuss the statement--"Cheerfulness is spiritual sunshine."
+
+6. Illustrate the value of cheerfulness.
+
+7. What is the significance of the term, scholarly attitude?
+
+8. Just what constitutes vitality?
+
+9. Show how it is essential to teaching.
+
+10. Why name spirituality as the crowning characteristic of the good
+teacher?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter IV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ATTAINMENT
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER VI
+
+     The possibility of growth in teaching.--How to develop
+     spirituality: a. By cultivating the spirit of prayer; b. By leading
+     a clean life; c. By obeying the principles of the Gospel; d. By
+     performing one's duty in the Church; e. By reading and pondering
+     the word of the Lord.--How to develop other qualities: a. By taking
+     a personal inventory; b. By coming in contact with the best in life
+     through reading and companionship; c. By forming the habit of
+     systematic study; d. By assuming responsibility.
+
+
+While we may agree as to what constitutes the desirable characteristics
+in teachers it is far easier to name them than to attain them. We have
+already pointed out that teaching is a complex art proficiency in which
+is the result of a long, painstaking process. But success in teaching as
+in all other pursuits is possible of achievement. We have heard so
+frequently that teachers must be born, not made, that many prospective
+teachers, feeling that they have been denied this pedagogical
+birthright, give up in despair. Of course, it is naturally easy for some
+individuals to teach--they do seem born possessed of a teaching
+personality, but they are not given a monopoly on the profession.
+
+The Lord has too many children to be taught to leave their instruction
+to a few favored ones. The qualities listed in chapter five may be
+developed, in varying degrees, of course, by any normal person anxious
+to serve his fellows. The "will to do" is the great key to success.
+
+To him who would develop spiritually, these five suggestions may be
+helpful:
+
+First, cultivate the spirit of prayer. The president of one of our
+stakes made the remark once that he believed only a few of the men and
+women of his stake really pray. "They go through the form, all right,"
+he said; "they repeat the words--but they do not enter into the spirit
+of the prayer. If the Lord doesn't draw nearer to them than they do to
+Him I doubt that their prayers are really of very great force."
+
+The ability to pray is the great test of a spiritual life. "The faith to
+pray" is a gift to be cultivated through devoted practice. The teacher
+who would have his pupils draw nearer to him must himself draw near to
+the Lord. The promise, "Ask, and ye shall receive, seek, and ye shall
+find," was given only to those who ask in faith. This constant prayer of
+faith, then is the first great guarantee of the Spirit.
+
+The second is a clean life. Just as it is impossible for water to make
+its way through a dirty, clogged pipe, so it is for the Spirit to flow
+through a channel of unrighteous desires. A visitor was interested a
+short time ago in Canada in attempting to get a drink out of a pipe that
+had been installed to carry water from a spring in the side of a
+mountain to a pool at the side of the road. Due to neglect, moss and
+filth had been allowed to collect about the bottom of the pipe, until it
+was nearly choked up. Getting a drink was out of the question. And yet
+there was plenty of water in the spring above--just as fine water as had
+ever flowed from that source. It was simply denied passage down to those
+who would drink. And so with the Spirit. The Lord is still able to
+bless--all too frequently, we so live that "the passage is clogged." The
+Word of Wisdom is not only a guarantee of health--it is the key to
+communication with the Spirit. And what is true of the body applies with
+even greater force to cleanliness of mind. The teacher might well adopt
+this prayer:
+
+   "Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within
+   me."
+
+The third great guarantee of the Spirit is an unswerving obedience to
+all principles of the Gospel. To teach belief a man must believe. Firmly
+grounded in all the cardinal principles the teacher may well inspire a
+spirit of the Gospel, but not otherwise. Doubt and uncertainty will keep
+the teacher from the position of counsel and leadership.
+
+The fourth assurance in the matter of developing spirituality is the
+consistent performance of one's religious obligations. The complaint is
+often made that teachers in a particular organization will meet their
+classes regularly, but that done they seem to consider their religious
+duties discharged. Teaching does not excuse a person from attending the
+other services required of Latter-day Saints. He is asked to attend
+Sacrament meetings, Priesthood meetings, Union meetings, special
+preparation meetings--they are all essential to the full development of
+the Spirit of the Gospel, which is the spirit of teaching. The teacher
+may rightly expect to be sustained only as he sustains those who preside
+over him.
+
+   "For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what
+   measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (Matt. 7:2.)
+
+And finally, if we would enjoy the spirit of our work we must
+familiarize ourselves with the Word of the Lord. To read it is to
+associate in thought with Him. His Spirit pervades all that He has said,
+whether in ancient or modern times. One of our apostles frequently
+remarked that if he would feel fully in touch with the spirit of his
+calling he must read regularly from the Doctrine & Covenants. "That book
+keeps me attuned as no other book can." It is not given to us to
+associate here with the Master, but through His recorded words we can
+live over all that He once lived. Thereby we not only come really to
+know what He would have us do, we partake of a spirit that surpasses
+understanding.
+
+   "Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life."
+
+As for attainment in other matters involved in the teaching process, the
+teachers who attended the course at the Brigham Young University were
+agreed that regular practice in the following processes will insure
+marked growth and development:
+
+1. The taking of a personal inventory at regular intervals. "Am I the
+kind of teacher I should like to go to?" starts an investigation full of
+suggestiveness. The qualities listed in chapter four constitute a
+reference chart for analysis. A teacher can become his own best critic
+if he sets up the proper ideals by way of a standard. A teacher in one
+of our Church schools in Idaho carried out an interesting investigation
+during the year 1919-1920. Anxious that he should not monopolize the
+time in his recitations, he asked one of his students to tabulate the
+time of the class period as follows:
+
+  Number of questions asked by teacher.
+  Number of questions asked by pupils.
+  Amount of time consumed by teacher.
+  Amount of time consumed by pupils.
+
+He was astonished to discover that of the forty-five minutes given to
+recitation he was regularly using an average of thirty-two minutes.
+Similar investigations can be carried on by any interested teacher.
+
+2. Contact with the best in life. It is a fundamental law in life that
+life is an adaptation to environment. The writer has been interested in
+observing the force of this law as it affects animal life. Lizards in
+Emery county are slate-gray in color that they may be less conspicuous
+on a background of clay and gray sandstone; the same animals in St.
+George take on a reddish color--an adaptation to their environment of
+red sandstone.
+
+Nor is the operation of this law merely a physical process. On a trip
+into Canada recently the writer traveled some distance with a group of
+bankers in attendance at a convention at Great Falls. On his way home he
+took a train on which there was a troupe of vaudeville players. The
+contrast was too marked to escape notice. One group had responded to an
+environment of sober business negotiations--the other to the gayety of
+the footlights. And so the teacher who would grow must put himself into
+an environment that makes the kind of growth he desires
+natural--inevitable. Through good books he can associate with the choice
+spirits of all ages. No one denies his acquaintanceship. Great men have
+given their best thoughts to many of the problems that confront us. We
+can capitalize on their wisdom by reading their books. We re-enforce
+ourselves with their strength.
+
+Magazines, too, are full of stimulation. They constitute a kind of
+intellectual clearing house for the best thought of the world today.
+Business houses value them so highly in promoting the advancement of
+their employees that they subscribe regularly. One manager remarked: "No
+one factor makes for greater growth among my men than reading the
+achievements of others--leaders in their lines--through the magazines."
+There is scarcely a phase of life which is not being fully written about
+in the current issues of the leading magazines.
+
+Then, too, contact with men and women of achievement is a remarkable
+stimulus to growth.
+
+There are leaders in every community--men and women rich in
+experience--who will gladly discuss the vital issues of life with those
+who approach them. There still remain, too, pioneers with their
+wonderful stories of sacrifice and devotion. To the teacher who will
+take the pains there is an untold wealth of material in the lives of the
+men and women about him.
+
+3. Regular habits of systematic study. Thorough intensive effort finds
+its best reward in the intellectual growth that it insures. In these
+days of the hurry of business and the whirl of commercialized amusements
+there is little time left for study except for him who makes himself
+subscribe to a system of work. Thirty minutes of concentrated effort a
+day works wonders in the matter of growth. President Grant was a
+splendid evidence of the force of persistent effort in his writing, his
+business success, and his rise to the leadership of half a million
+Latter-day Saints.
+
+4. Assuming the obligations of responsibility. In every organization
+there are constant calls upon teachers to perform laborious tasks. It is
+so natural to seek to avoid them--so easy to leave them for somebody
+else--that we have to cultivate vigorously a habit of accepting the
+obligations that present themselves. The difficulties of responsibility
+are often burdensome, but they are an essential guarantee of
+achievement. "Welcome the task that makes you go beyond your ordinary
+self, if you would grow!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VI
+
+1. Discuss our obligation to grow.
+
+2. Point out the difference between praying and merely saying prayers.
+
+3. Discuss the various means which guarantee spiritual growth.
+
+4. Comment on the thought that a personal inventory is as essential to
+teaching as it is to financial success.
+
+5. What is your daily scheme for systematic study?
+
+6. What plan do you follow in an attempt to know the scriptures?
+
+7. Why is it so important that we assume the responsibilities placed
+upon us?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter IV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+NATIVE TENDENCIES
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER VII
+
+     Importance of Child Study to teachers.--Teaching both a social and
+     an individual process.--A Child's characteristics--his
+     birthright.--What the nervous system is.--Types of original
+     responses.--The significance of instinctive action.--Colvin's list
+     of native tendencies.--Sisson's list.--A knowledge of native
+     tendencies essential to proper control of human behavior.
+
+
+We have now discussed the significance and meaning of teaching, together
+with the consideration of the characteristics that constitute the
+personal equation of the teacher. It is now pertinent that we give some
+attention to the nature of the child to be taught, that we may the more
+intelligently discuss methods of teaching, or how teacher and pupil get
+together in an exchange of knowledge.
+
+Teaching is a unique process. It is both social and individual. The
+teacher meets a class--a collection of pupils in a social unit. In one
+way he is concerned with them generally--he directs group action. But in
+addition to this social aspect, the problem involves his giving
+attention to each individual in the group. He may put a general
+question, but he gets an individual reply. In short, he must be aware of
+the fact that his pupils, for purposes of recitation, are all alike; and
+at the same time he must appreciate the fact that they are peculiarly
+different. In a later chapter we shall consider these differences; let
+us here consider the points of similarity.
+
+The fact that a boy is a boy makes him heir to all of the
+characteristics that man has developed. These characteristics are his
+birthright. He responds in a particular way to stimuli because the race
+before him has so responded. There is no need here of entering into a
+discussion as to how great a controlling factor heredity may be in a
+man's life, or how potent environment may be in modifying that life--we
+are concerned rather with the result--that man is as he is. It is
+essential that we know his characteristics, particularly as they
+manifest themselves in youth, so that we may know what to expect in his
+conduct and so that we may proceed to modify and control that conduct.
+Just as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case--to get
+at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to suggest a
+remedy--so the first consideration of the teacher is a query, "Whom do I
+teach?"
+
+Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular way to a
+particular stimulus because men throughout the history of the race have
+so responded. Certain connections have been established in his nervous
+system and he acts accordingly--he does what he does because he is
+_man_. We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physiological
+processes involved in thinking and other forms of behavior, but perhaps
+we may well set down a statement or two relative to man's tendencies to
+act, and their explanations:
+
+   "The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types: Those
+   that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent;
+   and those that connect, the associative. The meeting places of these
+   neurones are the synapses. All neurones have the three
+   characteristics of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In
+   order for conduct or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two
+   neurones must be active, and in all but a few of the human activities
+   many more are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence
+   depends upon the connections at the synapses,--upon the possibility
+   of the current affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The
+   possession of an 'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a
+   matter of inheritance, of certain connections between neurones, the
+   possession of certain synapses which are in functional contact and
+   across which a current may pass merely as a matter of structure. Just
+   why certain synapses should be thus connected is the whole question
+   of heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a
+   synapses,--first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some
+   sort of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than
+   another of two neurones equally near together in space. This
+   proximity and permeability are both provided for by the structure and
+   constitution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the
+   connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the
+   multiplicity of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible
+   for one afferent to discharge into many neurones, and for one
+   efferent neurone to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the
+   individual when born is equipped with potentialities of character,
+   intellect and conduct, because of the pre-formed connections or
+   tendencies to connections present in his nervous system.
+
+   "_Types of Original Responses._--These unlearned tendencies which
+   make up the original nature of the human race are usually classified
+   into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and
+   capacities. Automatic actions are such as those controlling the
+   heart-beats, digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of
+   the pupil of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are
+   reflexes; imitation, fighting, and fear, are instincts, which
+   capacities refer to those more subtle traits by means of which an
+   individual becomes a good linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in
+   handling tools. However, there is no sharp line of division between
+   these various unlearned tendencies; what one psychologist calls a
+   reflex or a series of reflexes, another will call an instinct. It
+   seems better to consider them as of the same general character but
+   differing from each other in simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of
+   response, variableness among individuals, and modifiability. They
+   range from movements such as the action of the blood vessels to those
+   concerned in hunting and collecting; from the simple, definite,
+   uniform knee-jerk, which is very similar in all people and open to
+   very little modification, to the capacity for scholarship, which is
+   extremely complex, vague as to definition, variable both as to
+   manifestation in one individual and amounts amongst people in
+   general, and is open to almost endless modification. This fund of
+   unlearned tendencies is the capital with which each child starts, the
+   capital which makes education and progress possible, as well as the
+   capital which limits the extent to which progress and development in
+   any line may proceed." _The Psychology of Childhood_, pp. 21, 22, 23.
+
+Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, begins his second
+chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner relative to this same
+question:
+
+   "The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is
+   already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is pumping
+   away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic, vital
+   activities he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The organism
+   possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions of life.
+
+   "There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these,
+   for which nature winds him up quite as thoroughly--yes, and sets him
+   to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when brought to
+   the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work upon
+   contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort, clasp
+   anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth
+   whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow
+   afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection,
+   walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things
+   apart, put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends,
+   act shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,'
+   quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with one
+   of the opposite sex. These, and many more, are just his natural human
+   ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more than he initiates
+   breathing or heart-beat. He does these things because he is so born
+   and built. They are his instincts."
+
+As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not especially concerned
+with the boundary lines between automatic actions, reflexes, and
+instincts--we are rather concerned with the fact that human beings
+possess native tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists
+stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have all pretty
+generally agreed that under certain stimuli there are natural tendencies
+to react.
+
+These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth--they are all
+potentialities with the birth of the child--and continue to develop in
+turn, certain ones being more pronounced in the various stages of the
+child's life. Colvin in his _The Learning Process_, runs through the
+complete list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime, is
+characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger, sympathy,
+affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitiveness,
+constructiveness, self-assertion (leadership), self-abasement, rivalry,
+envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness, the hunting and predatory
+instincts, the migratory instinct, love of adventure and the unknown,
+superstition, the sex instincts, which express themselves in sex-love,
+vanity, coquetry, modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of
+nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and the moral
+emotions.
+
+Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know, _The
+Essentials of Character_, emphasizes the importance for teaching of ten
+tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger and curiosity, suggestibility,
+tastes and aesthetic appreciation, self-assertion, love, joy, fear, the
+growing-up impulse, the love of approbation.
+
+As already indicated, the teacher should give attention to these
+tendencies that he may the better know how to proceed. If he knows that
+the one great outstanding impulse of a boy of seven is to do something,
+he perhaps will be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the
+theory that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows that one
+of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to fourteen is to organize
+"gangs" for social and "political" purposes, he will very likely
+capitalize on this idea in building up a good strong class spirit.
+
+Knowing that children naturally respond to certain stimuli in very
+definite ways, the teacher can better set about to furnish the right
+stimuli--he can be in a better position to _direct and control
+behavior_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VII
+
+1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are born
+'going'"?
+
+2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to the
+native tendencies in children?
+
+3. What constitutes instinctive action? Illustrate.
+
+4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those that
+are essentially social.
+
+5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers?
+
+6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and
+training in the development of children.
+
+7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its nervous
+system?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of Childhood_; Weigle, _Talks to
+Sunday School Teachers_; Colvin, _The Learning Process_; Sisson, _The
+Essentials of Character_; Stiles, _The Nervous System and its
+Conservation_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Harrison, _A Study
+of Child Nature_; Kirkpatrick, _Fundamentals of Child Study_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+"WHAT TO DO WITH NATIVE TENDENCIES"
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER VIII
+
+     Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child life.--The
+     teacher's attitude toward them.--Follow the grain.
+
+     Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The method
+     of rewards and punishment; 3. The method of substitution; 4. The
+     method of stimulation and sublimation.
+
+
+Having listed the native tendencies generally, we might well now
+consider them as they manifest themselves at the various stages of an
+individual's development. As already indicated, they constitute his
+birthright as a human being, though most of them are present in the
+early years of his life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent
+years have made extensive observations as to what instincts are most
+prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particularly to the
+volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Norsworthy and Whitley. In this
+latter book, pages 286, 287, and 298-302, will be found an interesting
+tabulation of characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the
+years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the Brigham
+Young Summer School, in the Psychology of Adolescence, worked out very
+fully the characteristics unique in this period, though many of them, of
+course, are present at other stages:
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE IN THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD
+
+  1. Maturing of the sex instincts.
+  2. Rapid limb growth.
+  3. Over-awkwardness.
+  4. Visceral organs develop rapidly (heart, liver, lungs, genital
+     organs.)
+  5. Change in physical proportions; features take on definite
+     characteristics.
+  6. Brain structure has matured.
+  7. Self-awareness.
+  8. Personal pride and desire for social approval.
+  9. Egotism.
+  10. Unstable, "hair-trigger," conflicting emotions.
+  11. Altruism, sincere interest in the well-being of others.
+  12. Religious and moral awakening.
+  13. New attitude.
+  14. Aesthetic awakening.
+  15. Puzzle to everybody.
+  16. Desire to abandon conventionalities, struggle for self-assertion.
+  17. Career motive.
+  18. Period of "palling" and mating; clique and "gang" spirit.
+  19. Positiveness,--affirmation, denial.
+  20. Inordinate desire for excessive amusement.
+  21. Evidence of hereditary influences.
+  22. "Hero worship," castle building.
+  23. "Wanderlust."
+  24. Hyper-suggestibility.
+  25. Ideals; ambitions.
+  27. Yearning for adult responsibility.
+
+Having listed these tendencies we still face the question, "What shall
+we do with them? What is their significance in teaching?"
+
+It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not to ignore
+them. None of them is wholly useless, and few of them can safely be
+developed just as they first manifest themselves. They call for training
+and direction.
+
+   "Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some rooted
+   out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result in
+   pain or discomfort, or by substituting desirable habits in their
+   place; most of the instincts should be modified and
+   redirected."--(_Thorndike._)
+
+Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work with boys and
+girls, men and women, we are aware of these natural tendencies that we
+may work with them rather than contrary to them--that we may "follow the
+grain" of human nature.
+
+Since these tendencies are the result of responses to stimuli they may
+be modified by attention either to the stimuli or to the reaction that
+attends the stimulation. Four methods call for our consideration:
+
+  1. The method of disuse.
+  2. The method of rewards and punishments.
+  3. The method of substitution.
+  4. The method of stimulation and sublimation.
+
+No one of these methods can be said always to be best. The nature of the
+person in question, his previous experience and training, together with
+the circumstances attending a given situation, all are factors which
+determine how we should proceed. The vital point is, that both as
+parents and teachers we should guard against falling into the rut of
+applying the same treatment to all cases regardless of their nature.
+
+
+1. THE METHOD OF DISUSE
+
+This method is largely negative. It aims to safeguard an individual
+against ills by withholding stimuli. The mother aims to keep scissors
+out of reach and sight of the baby that it may not be lured into danger.
+Some parents, upon discerning that the pugnacious instinct is
+manifesting itself vigorously in their boy, isolate him from other
+boys--keep him by himself through a period of a year or more that the
+tendency may not be accentuated. Other parents, observing their
+daughter's inclination to be frivolous, or seeing the instinct of sex
+begin to manifest itself in her interest in young men, send her away to
+a girl's school--a sort of intellectual nunnery.
+
+Frequently teachers follow this method in the conduct of their classes.
+The tendency to self-assertion and verbal combat, natural to youth, is
+smothered by an unwillingness on the part of the teacher to indulge
+questions and debate or by a marked inclination to do all the talking.
+
+It is clear that this method of disuse has its place in the training of
+children, though grave dangers attend its too frequent indulgence.
+Children and others of immature judgment need the protection of
+withheld stimuli. But clearly this is not a method to be recommended for
+general application. The boy who is never allowed to quarrel or fight
+may very possibly grow up to be a man afraid to meet the battles of
+life; the girl, if her natural emotions are checked, may lose those very
+qualities that make for the highest type of womanhood and motherhood.
+Fortunately, in these days, it is pretty nearly impossible to bring boys
+and girls up in "glass houses." Doubly fortunate, for they are made
+happy in their bringing up and are fitted for a world not particularly
+devoted to the fondling of humankind.
+
+
+2. THE METHOD OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS
+
+This method is clearly illustrated in the training of "trick" animals.
+These creatures through innumerable repetitions are made to do
+phenomenal "stunts." In the training for every successful "try" they are
+rewarded with a cube of sugar, a piece of candy, or some other
+pleasure-producing article; for every miss they are punished--made to
+suffer pain or discomfort. This same sort of procedure carries over into
+human affairs. Witness the hickory stick and the ruler, or count the
+nickels and caresses. Ridicule before the class, and praise for
+commendable behavior or performance, are typical of this same method. If
+it is followed, and it clearly has a place in the training of children,
+care should be exercised to see that in the child's mind in any case
+there is clear connection between what he has done and the treatment
+that he receives. With some parents it fairly seems as if their one
+remedy for all offenses is a tingling in the epidermis--it is equally
+clear that with some teachers their one weapon is sarcasm. All too
+frequently these measures grow out of unsettled nerves or stirred up
+passions, on the part of the parent or teacher, and have really but
+little connection--remote at best--with the offense in question. There
+may be an abuse in the matter of rewards, too, of course, but as a rule
+few classes suffer from too much appreciation. The real art of
+discipline lies in making the reward or the punishment naturally grow
+out of the conduct indulged in.
+
+
+3. THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION
+
+Because of the fact that some stimuli inevitably lead to discomfort and
+disaster--that some conduct is bad--there is need of a method of
+substitution. The child's mind needs to be led from the contemplation of
+an undesirable course of action to something quite different. Frequently
+a child cannot be satisfied with a mere denial, and circumstances may
+not be favorable to punishment--yet the correction must be made.
+Substitution is the avenue of escape. A striking illustration in point
+occurred recently in a cafe in Montana. A trio of foreigners, father,
+mother, and two-year-old son, came in and sat down at one of the tables.
+Soon after the parents began to eat, the child caught sight of a little
+silver pitcher for which he began to beg. Whining and crying, mixed in
+with the begging, created a good bit of disturbance. The only attempted
+solution on the part of the parents was a series of: "Don't do that!"
+"No! no!" "Keep quiet, Marti!" a continued focusing of the child's
+attention on what he ought not to do, and an added note to the
+disturbance. Then an American across the aisle having surveyed the
+situation took out of his pocket a folder full of brightly colored
+views. The charm worked beautifully--the meal went on free from
+disturbance--and the child was happy.
+
+This method involves a good bit of resourcefulness, calling at times
+for what seems an impossible amount of ingenuity. As someone has said,
+"It is beating the other fellow to it." It merits the consideration of
+those who have to handle boys and girls who are regularly up to
+"stunts."
+
+
+4. THE METHOD OF STIMULATION AND SUBLIMATION
+
+This method is rather closely akin to that of substitution, with the
+exception that it capitalizes on tendencies already in operation and
+raises them to a higher level. Stimulation, of course, merely means the
+bringing of children into contact with desirable stimuli on every
+possible occasion; in fact, it involves the making of favorable
+occasions.
+
+Sublimation involves building upon native tendencies to an elevated
+realization. Educationally this method is most full of promise. It is
+seen in kindergarten methods when a child is led from mere meaningless
+playing with toys to constructive manipulation of blocks, tools, etc. It
+is seen admirably in football where the pugnacious tendency of boys is
+capitalized on to build manliness in struggle and to develop a spirit of
+fair play. It is seen in the fostering of a girl's fondness for dolls,
+so that it may crystallize into the devotion of motherhood. It is seen
+when a boys' man leads a "gang" of boys into an association for social
+betterment. It is seen when a teacher works upon the instinct to collect
+and hoard, elevating it into a desire for the acquisition of knowledge
+and the finer things of life.
+
+Whatever our method, let us give due consideration to the natural
+inclinations and aptitudes of boys and girls--let us help them to
+achieve fully their own potentialities.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VIII
+
+1. Point out the essential differences between boys and girls at the age
+of six and seven and those of sixteen and seventeen.
+
+2. Discuss the significance of the following phrase: "The grain in human
+nature."
+
+3. How can the hunting instinct be appealed to in religious stimulation?
+
+4. Of what significance is the "gang spirit" to teachers of adolescents?
+
+5. How can rivalry be made an asset in teaching?
+
+6. How can the fighting instinct in children best be directed?
+
+7. Why is biography so valuable in material for teaching?
+
+8. Why is it so essential that we put responsibility upon boys and
+girls? How should this fact affect teaching?
+
+9. What are the dangers that attend an attempt to keep children quiet
+for any length of time?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER IX
+
+     Fundamental significance of individual differences.--Typical
+     illustration.--The truth illustrated physically; in range of voice,
+     in speed, in mental capabilities.--The same truth applied
+     spiritually.--Some cases in point.
+
+
+Everybody is like everybody else in this--that everybody is different
+from everybody else. Having discussed how all men enjoy a common
+heritage by way of native endowments, let us now turn to a consideration
+of how men differ.
+
+Two of the terms most frequently met in recent educational publications
+are statistical methods and individual differences. There is nothing
+particularly new in this latter term--it merely represents a new
+emphasis being given to the old idea that no two of us are alike. Every
+parent is aware of the very marked differences in his children. Even
+twins differ in disposition and mental capabilities. In fact, one of the
+difficulties that attaches to parenthood is just this problem of making
+provision in one household for such various personalities.
+
+A member of the stake presidency in one of the stakes in southern Utah,
+in discussing this matter a short time ago, remarked that in his family
+of four boys one very definitely had decided to become a farmer and was
+already busy at getting acquainted with the details of the work; a
+second boy was devoted to music and voiced a very vigorous protest
+against farming; the third son was so bashful and reticent that he
+hadn't given expression to any notion of preference; the fourth, a
+happy-go-lucky sort of chap, free and noisy in his cutting up about the
+place, wasn't worrying about what he was to do in life--he just didn't
+want anything to do with strenuous effort.
+
+"How can I drive a four-horse team such as that?" was the interesting
+query of this father.
+
+Practically every family presents this variety of attitude and
+practically every parent is trying to work out a solution to the
+problem, so there is nothing startling about the term individual
+differences. Educators have just given the matter more careful and
+scholarly attention of recent years.
+
+If the matter of differences in children constitutes a problem of
+concern in a family of from two to ten children, how much greater must
+that problem be in a class from thirty to fifty with approximately as
+many families represented. The problem has led to some very interesting
+investigations--investigations so simple that they can be carried on by
+anyone interested. For instance, if we could line up all the men in Salt
+Lake City according to size we should find at one end of the line a few
+exceptionally tall men, likely from six feet to six feet six inches in
+height. At the other end of the line would be a few exceptionally small
+men--undersized men from three feet eight or ten inches to four feet six
+inches. In between these two types would come in graduated order all
+sorts of men with a decidedly large number standing about five feet six
+or eight inches. This latter height we call the average.
+
+Practically we see the significance of these differences. No
+manufacturer thinks of making one size of overall in the hope that it
+will fit each of these men. He adapts his garment to their size, and he
+knows approximately how many of each size will be called for in the
+course of ordinary business.
+
+If these same men could be taken one by one into a music studio and have
+their voices tested for range, the same interesting variations would be
+found. There would be a few very high tenors, a few exceptionally low
+bassos, and a crowd with medium range with fillers-in all along the
+line.
+
+If we were interested in carrying the experiment still further we might
+apply the speed test. In a 100-yard dash a few men would be found to be
+particularly fast, a few others would trail away behind at a snail's
+pace, while the big crowd of men would make the distance in "average
+time."
+
+Of course, it would be foolish to attempt to make tenors of all these
+men--equally foolish to try to make speeders of them all. In these
+practical matters we appreciate the wisdom of letting each man fit into
+that niche for which he is qualified.
+
+Nor are these differences confined to the field of physical
+characteristics and achievements. Tests by the hundred have demonstrated
+beyond all question that they hold equally well of mental capabilities.
+In the past children have gone to school at the age of six. They have
+remained there because they were six. At seven they were in grade two,
+and so on up through the grades of our public schools. Tests and
+measurements now, however, are showing that such a procedure works both
+a hardship and an injustice on the pupils. Some boys at six are found as
+capable of doing work in grade two as other boys at eight. Some boys and
+girls at six are found wholly incapable of doing what is required in
+grade one. One of the most promising prospects ahead educationally is
+that we shall be able to find out just the capacity of a child
+regardless of his age, and fit him into what he can do well, making
+provisions for his passing on as he shows capability for higher work.
+Not only has this matter of individual differences been found to apply
+generally in the various grades of our schools--it has been found to
+have significant bearing upon achievements in particular subjects. For
+all too long a time we have held a boy in grade four until he mastered
+what we have called his grade four arithmetic, spelling, geography,
+grammar, history, etc. As a matter of fact, many a boy who is a
+fourth-grader in grammar may be only a second-grader in arithmetic--a
+girl, for whom fourth grade arithmetic is an impossibility, because of
+her special liking for reading, may be seventh grade in her capacity in
+that subject. In the specific subjects, individual differences have been
+found to be most marked. Surely it is unfair to ask a boy "born short"
+in history to keep up to the pace of a comrade "born long" in that
+subject; so, too, it is unfair to ask a girl "born long" in geography to
+hold back to the pace of one "born short" in that subject. The results
+of these observations are leading to developments that are full of
+promise for the educational interests of the future.
+
+In order that we may more fully appreciate the reality of these
+observations let us set down the concrete results of a few experiments.
+
+The first three tests are quoted from Thorndike:
+
+In a test in addition, all pupils being allowed the same time,
+
+   1 pupil  did  3 examples correctly
+   2 pupils did  4 examples correctly
+   1 pupil  did  5 examples correctly
+   5 pupils did  6 examples correctly
+   2 pupils did  7 examples correctly
+   4 pupils did  8 examples correctly
+   6 pupils did  9 examples correctly
+  14 pupils did 10 examples correctly
+   8 pupils did 11 examples correctly
+   7 pupils did 12 examples correctly
+   8 pupils did 13 examples correctly
+   5 pupils did 14 examples correctly
+   5 pupils did 15 examples correctly
+   6 pupils did 16 examples correctly
+   1 pupil  did 17 examples correctly
+   5 pupils did 18 examples correctly
+   1 pupil  did 19 examples correctly
+   2 pupils did 20 examples correctly
+
+The rapidity of movement of ten-year-old girls, as measured by the
+number of crosses made in a fixed time:
+
+   6 or  7  by       1 girl
+   8 or  9  by       0 girl
+  10 or 11  by       4 girls
+  12 or 13  by       3 girls
+  14 or 15  by      21 girls
+  16 or 17  by      29 girls
+  18 or 19  by      33 girls
+  20 or 21  by      13 girls
+  22 or 23  by      15 girls
+  24 or 25  by      11 girls
+  26 or 27  by       5 girls
+  28 or 29  by       2 girls
+  30 or 31  by       5 girls
+  32 or 33  by       3 girls
+  34 or 35  by       5 girls
+  36 or 37  by       0 girl
+  38 or 49  by       4 girls
+  40 or 41  by       1 girl
+
+Two papers, A and B, written by members of the same grade and class in a
+test in spelling:
+
+     A.            B.
+  greatful      gratful
+  elegant       eleagent
+  present       present
+  patience      paisionce
+  succeed       suckseed
+  severe        survere
+  accident      axadent
+  sometimes     sometimes
+  sensible      sensible
+  business      biusness
+  answer        anser
+  sweeping      sweping
+  properly      prooling
+  improvement   improvment
+  fatiguing     fegting
+  anxious       anxchus
+  appreciate    apresheating
+  assure        ashure
+  imagine       amagen
+  praise        prasy
+
+In a test in spelling wherein fifty common words were dictated to a
+class of twenty-eight pupils, the following results were obtained:
+
+   2 spelled correctly all 50
+   3 spelled correctly between 45 and 48
+   5 spelled correctly between 40 and 45
+  11 spelled correctly between 30 and 40
+   6 spelled correctly between 20 and 30
+   1 spelled correctly between 15 and 20
+
+And now the question--what has all this to do with the teaching of
+religion? Just this: the differences among men as found in fields
+already referred to, are found also in matters of religion. For one man
+it is easy to believe in visions and all other heavenly manifestations;
+for another it is next to impossible. To one man the resurrection is the
+one great reality; to another it is merely a matter of conjecture. One
+man feels certain that his prayers are heard and answered; another feels
+equally certain that they cannot be. One man is emotionally spiritual;
+another is coldly hard-headed and matter-of-fact. The point is not a
+question which man is right--it is rather that we ought not to attempt
+to reach each man in exactly the same way, nor should we expect each one
+to measure up to the standards of the others.
+
+An interesting illustration of this difference in religious attitude was
+shown recently in connection with the funeral of a promising young man
+who had been taken in death just as he had fairly launched upon his
+life's work. In a discussion that followed the service, one good brother
+found consolation in the thought that the Lord needed just such a young
+man to help carry on a more important work among the spirits already
+called home. His companion in the discussion found an explanation to his
+satisfaction in the thought that it was providential that the young man
+could be taken when he was, that he thereby might be spared the probable
+catastrophies that might have visited him had he lived. Each man found
+complete solace in his own philosophy, though neither could accept the
+reasoning of the other.
+
+An interesting case of difference of view came to the attention of the
+teacher-training class at Provo when someone asked how the lesson on
+Jonah could be presented so that it would appeal to adolescent boys and
+girls. The query was joined in by several others for whom Jonah had been
+a stumbling block, when Brother Sainsbury, of Vernal, startled the class
+by saying Jonah was his favorite story. "I would rather teach that story
+than any other one in the Bible," he declared, and illustrated his
+method so clearly that the account of Jonah took on an entirely new
+aspect.
+
+Many men and women in the world are shocked at the thought that God is a
+personality. To them the idea that God is simply a "man made perfect," a
+being similar to us, but exalted to deity, is akin to blasphemy. And
+then to add the idea of a heavenly mother is beyond comprehension. To
+Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, these thoughts are the very glory
+of God. To them a man made perfect is the noblest conception possible.
+It makes of Him a reality. And the thought of Mother--Heaven without a
+Mother would be like home without one.
+
+And so with all the principles and conceptions of religion, men's
+reactions to them are as varied as they are to all the other facts of
+life. Everywhere the opinions, the capacities, the attainments of men
+vary. The law of individual differences is one of the most universal in
+our experience.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IX
+
+1. Just what is the meaning of the term Individual Differences?
+
+2. Illustrate such differences in families with which you are familiar.
+
+3. Apply the test to your ward choir.
+
+4. Name and characterize twenty men whom you know. How do they differ?
+
+5. Have a report brought in from your public school on the results of
+given tests in arithmetic, spelling, etc.
+
+6. Have the members of your class write their opinions relative to some
+point of doctrine concerning which there may be some uncertainty.
+
+7. Observe the attitude and response of each of the members of a typical
+Sunday School, Kindergarten, of an advanced M.I.A. class.
+
+8. Illustrate individual differences as expressed in the religious
+attitudes of men you know.
+
+9. To what extent are boys different from girls in mental capability and
+attitude?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TEACHING
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER X
+
+     The causes of individual differences.--Norsworthy and Whitley on
+     the significance of parentage.--The teacher's obligation to know
+     parents.--The influence of sex.--Environment as a
+     factor.--Thorndike quoted.--B.H. Jacobsen on individual
+     differences.
+
+
+So far we simply have made the point that individuals differ. We are
+concerned in this chapter in knowing how these differences affect the
+teaching process. Fully to appreciate their significance we must know
+not only that they exist, and the degree of their variation, but also
+the forces that produce them. On the side of heredity, race, family, and
+sex, are the great modifying factors. Practically, of course, we are
+concerned very little as Church teachers with problems of race. We are
+all so nearly one in that regard that a discussion of racial differences
+would contribute but little to the solution of our teaching problem.
+
+The matter of family heritage is a problem of very much more immediate
+concern. Someone has happily said: "Really to know a boy one must know
+fully his father and his mother." "Yes," says a commentator, "and he
+ought to know a deal about the grandfather and grandmother." The
+significance of parentage is made to stand out with clearness in the
+following paragraph from Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of
+Childhood_:
+
+   "Just as good eyesight and longevity are family characteristics, so
+   also color blindness, left-handedness, some slight peculiarity of
+   structure such as an extra finger or toe, or the Hapsburg lip, sense
+   defects such as deafness or blindness, tendencies to certain
+   diseases, especially those of the nervous system,--all these run in
+   families. Certain mental traits likewise are obviously handed down
+   from parents to child, such as strong will, memory for faces, musical
+   imagination, abilities in mathematics or the languages, artistic
+   talent. In these ways and many others children resemble their
+   parents. The same general law holds of likes and dislikes, of
+   temperamental qualities such as quick temper, vivacity, lovableness,
+   moodiness. In all traits, characteristics, features, powers both
+   physical and mental and to some extent moral also, children's
+   original nature, their stock in trade, is determined by their
+   immediate ancestry. 'We inherit our parents' tempers, our parents'
+   conscientiousness, shyness and ability, as we inherit their stature,
+   forearm and span,' says Pearson."
+
+The teacher who would really appreciate the feelings and responses of a
+boy in his class must be aware, therefore, that the boy is not merely
+one of a dozen type individuals--he is a product of a particular
+parentage, acting as he does largely because "he was born that way."
+
+We shall point out in connection with environmental influences the
+importance of a teacher's knowing the home condition of his pupils; but
+it is important here, in passing, to emphasize the point that even
+though a child were never to live with its parents it could be
+understood by the teacher acquainted with the peculiar traits of those
+parents. "Born with a bent" is a proverb of such force that it cannot be
+ignored. To know the parental heritage of a boy is to anticipate his
+reaction to stimuli--is to know what approach to make to win him.
+
+Because of the fact that in many of our organizations we are concerned
+with the problem of teaching boys and girls together, the question of
+the influence of sex is one which we must face. There are those who hold
+that boys and girls are so fundamentally different by nature that they
+ought not to be taught coeducationally. Others maintain that they are
+essentially alike in feeling and intellectuality, and that because of
+the fact that eventually they are to be mated in the great partnership
+of life they should be held together as much as possible during the
+younger years of their lives. Most authorities are agreed that boys and
+girls differ not so much because they are possessed of different native
+tendencies, but because they live differently--they follow different
+lines of activity, and therefore develop different interests. To quote
+again from Norsworthy and Whitley:
+
+   "That men and women are different, that their natures are not the
+   same, has long been an accepted fact. Out of this fact of difference
+   have grown many hot discussions as to the superiority of one or the
+   other nature as a whole. The present point of view of scientists
+   seems well expressed by Ellis when he says, 'We may regard all such
+   discussions as absolutely futile and foolish. If it is a question of
+   determining the existence and significance of some particular
+   physical sexual difference, a conclusion may not be impossible. To
+   make any broad statement of the phenomena is to recognize that no
+   general conclusion is possible. Now and again we come across facts
+   which group themselves with a certain uniformity, but as we continue,
+   we find other equally important facts which group themselves with
+   equal uniformity in another sense. The result produces compensation.'
+   The question of interest then is, what in nature is peculiar to the
+   male sex and what to the female? What traits will be true of a boy,
+   merely because he is a boy, and vice versa? This has been an
+   extremely difficult question to answer, because of the difficulty
+   encountered in trying to eliminate the influence of environment and
+   training. Boys are what they are because of their original nature
+   plus their surroundings. Some would claim that if we could give boys
+   and girls the same surroundings, the same social requirements, the
+   same treatment from babyhood, there would be no difference in the
+   resulting natures. Training undoubtedly accentuates inborn sex
+   differences, and it is true that a reversal of training does lessen
+   this difference; however, the weight of opinion at present is that
+   differences in intellect and character do exist because of
+   differences of sex, but that these have been unduly magnified. H.B.
+   Thompson, in her investigation entitled _The Mental Traits of Sex_,
+   finds that 'Motor ability in most of its forms is better developed in
+   men than in women. In strength, rapidity of movement, and rate of
+   fatigue, they have a very decided advantage, and in precision of
+   movement a slight advantage.... The thresholds are on the whole lower
+   in women, discriminative sensibility is on the whole better in
+   men.... All these differences, however, are slight. As for the
+   intellectual faculties, women are decidedly superior to men in
+   memory, and possibly more rapid in associative thinking. Men are
+   probably superior in ingenuity.... The data on the life of feeling
+   indicate that there is little, if any, sexual difference in the
+   degree of domination by emotion, and that social consciousness is
+   more prominent in men, and religious consciousness in women.'
+
+   "Pearson, in his measurement of traits, not by objective tests but by
+   opinions of people who know the individual, finds that boys are more
+   athletic, noisy, self-assertive, self-conscious; less popular, duller
+   in conscience, quicker-tempered, less sullen, a little duller
+   intellectually and less efficient in penmanship. Heymans and Wiersma,
+   following the same general method as Pearson, state as their general
+   conclusions that the female is more active, more emotional, and more
+   unselfish than the male. 'They consider women to be more impulsive,
+   less efficient intellectually, and more fickle than men as a result
+   of the first two differences mentioned above; to be gifted in music,
+   acting, conversation and the invention of stories, as a result in
+   part of the second difference; and to think well of people and to be
+   easily reconciled to them as a result of the third.' Thorndike finds
+   the chief differences to be that the female varies less from the
+   average standard, is more observant of small visual details, less
+   often color-blind, less interested in things and their mechanisms,
+   more interested in people and their feelings, less given to pursuing,
+   capturing and maltreating living things, and more given to nursing,
+   comforting and relieving them than is the male. H. Ellis considers
+   the chief differences to be the less tendency to variability, the
+   greater affectability, and the greater primitiveness of the female
+   mind, and the less ability shown by women in dealing with the more
+   remote and abstract interests in life. All the authors emphasize the
+   smallness of the differences; and after all the striking thing is not
+   the differences between the sexes, but the great difference within
+   the same sex in respect to every mental trait tested. The difference
+   of man from man, and woman from woman, in any trait is almost as
+   great as the differences between the sexes in that trait. Sex can be
+   the cause, then, of only a fraction of the difference between the
+   original nature of individuals."
+
+It is reasonably certain, then, that a teacher may safely appeal to both
+boys and girls on the ground of the fundamental instincts, feeling
+confident that common stimuli will produce largely the same results.
+
+Important as it is that we know what our pupils are from their
+parentage, it is even more important in the matter of religious
+instruction that we shall appreciate the force of the varieties of
+environment that have been operative. Though boys and girls may be
+essentially alike at the outset of their lives they may be thrown into
+such associations as to make their ideals and conduct entirely
+different. Fancy the contrast between the case of a girl brought up for
+fifteen years in a household of refinement and in a companionship of
+gentility, and the case of a boy who during the same years has been the
+pal of bullies on street corners. Surely stimuli that are to promote
+proper reaction in these two cases will have to be suited to the person
+in question.
+
+Then, too, the teacher must realize that one child may come from a home
+of faith, confidence, and contentment; whereas, another may come from a
+home of agitation, doubt, and suspicion. One may have been taught to
+pray--another may have been led to disbelieve. One may have been
+stimulated to read over sacred books--another may have been left to
+peruse cheap, sensational detective stories. To succeed in reaching the
+hearts of a group of such boys and girls, a teacher surely ought to be
+aware of individual differences and ought to be fortified with a wealth
+of material so that the appeal may be as varied as possible. To quote
+from Thorndike's _Principles of Education_:
+
+   "A teacher has to choose what is for the greatest good of the
+   greatest number. He cannot expect to drive forty children abreast
+   along the highroad of education." "Yet the differences in children
+   should not blind us to their likenesses." "We need general principles
+   and their sagacious application to individual problems."
+
+   "The worst error of teachers with respect to individual differences
+   is to neglect them, to form one set of fixed habits for dealing with
+   all children, to teach 'the child instead of countless different
+   living individuals.' To realize the varieties of human nature, the
+   nature and amount of mental differences, is to be protected against
+   many fallacies of teaching."
+
+Our treatment of individual differences was well summed up in the
+following paper by B.H. Jacobsen, a member of the B.Y.U.
+Teacher-Training class:
+
+   _The Significance of Individual Differences in Teaching_
+
+   "Individual instruction in our religious organizations as in the
+   public schools is under present condition impracticable. We are
+   compelled to teach in groups or classes of somewhat varying size.
+   Consequently, it is of prime importance for the teacher, in trying to
+   apply that fundamental principle of pedagogy--an understanding of the
+   being to be taught--to know first what characteristics and
+   tendencies, whether native or acquired, are known to a large majority
+   of the children in the class. Leaving out of consideration the
+   possible presence of subnormal children, the language used must be
+   clear and simple enough to be comprehended by all; the great majority
+   of the questions must be intended for all to find answers to; the
+   stories, illustrations, incidents, pictures, and various devices
+   employed must be reasonably within the range of experience and
+   comprehension of all members.
+
+   "At the same time, it is important to recognize the fact that, after
+   all, the class as a whole does not in any very fundamental,
+   pedagogical sense constitute the objective unit of instruction.
+   Though it seems natural for most teachers to look upon the class as a
+   more or less uniform mass, and the exigencies of the situation make
+   this to some extent unavoidable, still the individual child remains
+   always the real unit, and furthermore the units are all different--in
+   appearance, training and temperament.
+
+   "In general the methods and material will be uniform for all, but
+   there will still be abundant opportunity for exercising little
+   individual touches and tricks in relation to individual pupils,
+   especially those who vary somewhat widely from the average. Even such
+   a superficial matter as size, especially superior size, might
+   profitably receive a little special consideration by the teacher and
+   thus at times save some pupil a little physical embarrassment. The
+   boy unusually active might be given some physical task to perform,
+   even if it has to be provided for the occasion, though it must not be
+   too artificially created, as this is sure of detection.
+
+   "Questions requiring more than ordinary mental ability to answer may
+   be directed to those of superior alertness and intelligence, who may
+   also be given more difficult subjects to look up for presentation to
+   the class. Special interests in animals, flowers, books, aeroplanes,
+   industries, vocations, should be discovered and utilized by the
+   watchful teacher. Even though the connection may be a little remote,
+   any contribution of real interest and value is legitimate in order to
+   relieve the monotony of a dull class.
+
+   "Pupils differ very widely in temperament and disposition as well as
+   in capacity. The timid boy or girl should be given special
+   encouragement and commendation, while the over-bold will take no
+   injury from a mild "squelch" occasionally. The child of gloomy
+   disposition should if anything have more smiles and sunny words sent
+   his way than the cheerful one, who is in no danger of losing his
+   share. The talkative child will need cautioning and careful
+   directing, while the one who seldom speaks needs the frequent
+   stimulus of a kind and encouraging look or word. The child who is
+   naturally docile and obedient will develop smoothly and without great
+   need of special attention and direction, while the stubborn, the
+   rebellious, the untractable child, the cause of continual worry and
+   solicitude, is the one on whom special thought must be bestowed; for
+   his soul is no less precious in the sight of God, and the wise
+   teacher may be the means of making him a useful citizen, as well as
+   directing him in the way of working out his eternal salvation."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER X
+
+1. Discuss the relative significance of race, sex, family, and
+environment as factors producing individual differences.
+
+2. Why is it essential that teachers know the parents of pupils?
+
+3. What are the advantages of having boys and girls together in class?
+What are the arguments for separating them?
+
+4. How can a teacher be governed by the force of individual differences
+when he has to teach a group of forty pupils?
+
+5. Discuss the statement that teaching is both a social and an
+individual process.
+
+6. Choose a subject of general interest and illustrate how it might be
+presented to satisfy different types of pupils.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ATTENTION
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XI
+
+     Attention the mother of learning.--Gregory quoted.--The fact of
+     attention in the Army.--What attention
+     is.--Illustrations.--Attention and interest.--The three types of
+     attention: Involuntary, nonvoluntary, voluntary.--How to secure
+     attention.--Interest the great key to attention.
+
+
+In that stimulating little book, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_, by
+Gregory, _et al_, the second law is stated in these words:
+
+   "A _learner_ is one who _attends_ with interest to the lesson."
+
+Expressed as a rule of teaching, the law is made to read:
+
+   "Gain and keep the attention and interest of the pupils upon the
+   lesson. Do not try to teach without attention."
+
+As a matter of fact, it is impossible to teach without attention. A
+person may hold class--go through the formality of a class exercise--but
+he can _really teach_ only him who _attends_. The first big, outstanding
+thought with reference to attention is that we should secure it, not so
+much in the interest of order, important as it is in that connection,
+but because it is the _sine qua non_ of _learning_.
+
+A boy may sit in a class in algebra for weeks, with his mind far afield
+on some pet scheme, or building palatial edifices in the air, but not
+until he _attends_ does he begin to grasp the problems presented. It is
+literally as well as scripturally possible "to have ears and hear not."
+_Attention_ is the mother of learning.
+
+Think of the force of that word _attention_ in the American Army. It is
+a delight to see the ranks straighten to that command--would that our
+messages of truth could challenge the same response from that vast army
+of seekers after truth--the boys and girls of the Church. The soldier at
+attention not only stands erect, nor does he merely keep silence--he is
+eagerly receptive--anxious to receive a message which he is to translate
+into action. His attitude, perhaps, is our best answer to the question,
+"What is attention?" Betts says, "The concentration of the mind's energy
+on one object of thought is attention."
+
+As Magnusson expresses it, "Attention is the centering of consciousness
+on a portion of its contents." And Angell adds, "Attention is simply a
+name for the central and most active portion of the field of
+consciousness."
+
+The mind, of course, during waking hours, is never merely passive. With
+its flood of ideas it is always recalling, observing, comparing,
+analyzing, building toward conclusions. These processes go on
+inevitably--go on with little concern about attention. But when we
+narrow the field--when we bring our mental energy to a focus on
+something specific and particular we then _attend_.
+
+Betts, in his _The Mind and Its Education_, very happily illustrates the
+meaning of attention:
+
+   "_Attention Measures Mental Efficiency._--In a state of attention the
+   mind may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been passed
+   through a burning glass. You may let all the rays which can pass
+   through your window pane fall hour after hour upon the paper lying on
+   your desk, and no marked effects follow. But let the same amount of
+   sunlight be passed through a lens and converged to a point the size
+   of your pencil, and the paper will at once burst into flame."
+
+To follow another analogy, attention is to the energies of the mind what
+the pipe line leading into the power plant is to the water in the canyon
+above. It directs and concentrates for the generation of power. Just as
+the water might run on and on to little or no purpose, so the energies
+of a boy or girl may be permitted to drift aimlessly toward no
+conviction unless the teacher wins him to an attention that rivets truth
+to his life.
+
+In a discussion of attention the question of the relation of interest to
+attention is bound to arise. Do we attend to things because they are
+interesting? Or are we interested in things because we give them our
+attention? The two terms are so interwoven in meaning that they are
+frequently treated under one chapter heading. Our purpose here is not to
+attempt to divorce them, but rather to give them emphasis because of
+their significance in the teaching process.
+
+Attention denotes a focusing of mental energy on a particular idea or
+object; interest, subjectively considered, is an attitude of mind.
+Perhaps we can get a clearer idea of the two terms if we consider the
+various types of attention. First of all there is what is called
+_Involuntary_ attention. This is the type over which the mind has little
+or no control. A person sits reading--his attention fixed on the page in
+front of him--when suddenly a rock crashes through the window
+immediately behind him. He jumps to see what is wrong. His attention to
+his book is shifted to the window, not because he wills it so, but
+because of the suddenness and force of the stimulus. The excitation of
+the auditory nerve centers compels attention. The attendant feeling may
+be one of pleasure or of pain--there may be an interest developed or
+there may not. Involuntary attention clearly does not rest upon
+interest.
+
+Then there is what is called _Nonvoluntary_ attention. I go to a theatre
+and some particular musical number is featured. It grips my interest and
+I follow it with rapt attention, wholly without conscious effort. Unlike
+the case of a sudden noise, in this experience my attention is not
+physiologically automatic--I could control it if I chose--but I choose
+now to give it. Interest clearly is the motor power behind such
+attention. Then, finally, there is _Voluntary_ attention. I sit at a
+table working out a problem in arithmetic. Outside there is being played
+a most exciting ball game. My interests are almost wholly centered in
+the outcome of the game, but duty bids me work out my problem. I make
+myself attend to it in spite of the pull of my natural interests.
+
+And so attention is seen to be purely the result of physiological
+stimulus; it is seen to accompany--fairly to be born out of
+it--interest. It is seen to be the result of an operation of the will
+against the natural force of interest. This three-fold classification is
+of particular significance to the teacher. He may be sure that if he
+resorts to the use of unusual stimuli he can arrest attention, though by
+so doing he has no guarantee of holding it; he may feel certain of
+attention if he can bring before pupils objects and ideas which to them
+are interesting; he may so win them to the purposes of his recitation
+that they will give attention even though they are not interested in
+what may be going on for the time being. It is evident, however, that
+resorting to violent stimuli is dangerous, that forced attention is
+ultimately disagreeable and certainly not a modern commonplace in
+experience, that attention which attends genuine interest is the
+attention most generally to be sought.
+
+One question still remains: "How shall we proceed to secure and to hold
+attention?"
+
+In the first place we should remind ourselves that it is a difficult
+matter to give sustained attention to a single object or idea, unless
+the object or idea changes. The difficulty is greater with children than
+with adults. In the second place we should be mindful that it is poor
+policy either to demand attention or to beg for it.
+
+Where attention has to be secured out of disorder we are justified in
+making use of stimuli that shock pupils into attention. One of the best
+illustrations of this sort of procedure was the method used in the David
+Belasco theatre in New York to get audiences quiet for the opening of
+the performances. Mr. Belasco was convinced that the orchestra had
+become a mere accompaniment to the clatter and noise of the audience and
+so he did not trust to that means to secure order. In fact, he discarded
+the orchestra idea. At the appointed hour for the curtain to rise, his
+theatre became suddenly dark. So dark that the blackness was startling.
+Immediately upon the silence that attended the shock the soft chiming of
+bells became audible which led the audience to strain in an attempt to
+catch fully the effect of the chime. At that point the curtains were
+drawn and the first lines of the play fell upon the ears of a perfectly
+quiet audience.
+
+It is safer and better, of course, to anticipate disorder by getting the
+lesson under way in an interesting manner. These artificial devices are
+serviceable as emergency measures as well as helpful as restful
+variations in a class hour. Change in posture, group exercises, periods
+of relaxation, all help to make attention the more easily possible.
+
+The key to sustained attention, when all is said and done, is interest.
+There is no substitute for the fascination of interest. As Magnusson
+says: "Monotony is the great enemy of attention. Interest is the
+attention-compelling element of instincts and desires." The teacher can
+feel assured of success only when he is so fully prepared that his
+material wins attention because of its richness and appropriateness.
+Special thought should be given in the preparation of a lesson to the
+attack to be made during the first two minutes of a recitation. A
+pointed, vital question, a challenging statement, a striking incident, a
+fascinating, appropriate story, a significant quotation--these are a few
+of the legitimate challenges to attention.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XI
+
+1. Discuss the statement: "There is no such thing as inattention; when
+pupils appear inattentive, they are singly attentive to something more
+interesting than the lesson."
+
+2. Explain the force of attention in the learning process.
+
+3. What is attention?
+
+4. Discuss and illustrate the different types of attention.
+
+5. Give some practical suggestions on the securing of attention.
+
+6. Point out the distinction between attention and interest.
+
+7. Discuss the effect of monotony on attention.
+
+8. How do children and adults differ in their powers of attention?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Pillsburg, _Attention_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of
+Childhood_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Betts, _How to Teach
+Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Fitch, _The Art of
+Securing Attention_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Dewey,
+_Interest and Effort in Education_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a
+Teacher_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+WHAT MAKES FOR INTEREST
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XII
+
+     Individual differences and interest.--What makes for
+     interest.--Interest begets interest.--Preparation is a great
+     guarantee.--Knowledge of the lives of boys and girls a great
+     help.--The factors of interestingness: The Vital, The Unusual, The
+     Uncertain, The Concrete, The Similar, The Antagonistic, The
+     Animate.
+
+
+After discussing the relation of interest to attention we still face the
+question: What is it that makes an interesting object, or an idea
+interesting? Why do we find some things naturally interesting while
+others are dull and commonplace? Of course, everything is not equally
+interesting to all people. Individual differences make clear the fact
+that a certain stimulus will call for a response in one particular
+person, quite unlike the response manifested in a person of different
+temperament and training. But psychologists are agreed that in spite of
+these differences there are certain elements of interests that are
+generally and fundamentally appealing to human nature. To know what it
+is that makes for interest is one of the prerequisites of good teaching.
+
+But before naming these "factors of interestingness," may we not also
+name and discuss briefly some other essentials in the matter of creating
+and maintaining interest?
+
+In the first place it is good to remember that a teacher who would have
+his pupils interested must himself be interested. If he would see their
+faces light up with the glow of enthusiasm, he must be the charged
+battery to generate the current. Interest begets interest. It is as
+contagious as whooping cough--if a class is exposed it is sure to catch
+it. The teacher who constantly complains of a dull class, very likely
+is simply facing a reaction to his own dullness or disagreeableness.
+"Blue Monday" isn't properly so named merely because of the drowsy
+pupil. The teacher inevitably sets the pace and determines the tone of
+his class. Many a teacher when tired, or out of patience, has concluded
+a recitation feeling that his pupils were about the most stupid group he
+has ever faced; the same teacher keyed up to enthusiasm has felt at the
+close of another recitation that these same pupils could not be
+surpassed. A student with whom the writer talked a short time ago
+remarked that she could always tell whether the day's class was going to
+be interesting under a particular teacher as soon as she caught the mood
+in which she entered the classroom. Half-heartedness, indifference, and
+unpleasantness are all negative--they neither attract nor stimulate.
+Interest and enthusiasm are the sunshine of the classroom--they are to
+the human soul what the sun's rays are to the plant.
+
+The second great guarantee of interest is preparation. The teacher needs
+to have his subject matter so thoroughly in mind that, free from
+textbook and notes, he can reach out to a real contact with his boys and
+girls. If his eyes are glued to his book, he cannot hope to arouse keen
+interest. The eye is a great force in gripping the attention of a class
+or audience. They want nothing to stand between them and the speaker.
+Not long ago one of the most forceful and eloquent public speakers in
+Utah failed miserably, in addressing a thoroughly fine audience, because
+he was lost in the machinery of his notes. His material was
+excellent--his power as an orator unquestioned--yet he was bound down by
+a lack of preparation that cost him the mastery of his audience.
+
+Not only does adequate preparation enable a teacher to reach out and
+take hold of his pupils; it makes it possible for him to capitalize on
+the situations that are bound to arise in class discussion. A concrete
+illustration to clear up a troublesome question, an appropriate incident
+to hit off some general truth, a happy phrase to crystallize a
+thought--all these things are born only of adequate preparation.
+
+Not long ago a candidate for the presidency of the United States
+delighted an audience of ten thousand or more in the Salt Lake
+Tabernacle by his remarkable handling of questions and comments thrown
+at him from that vast audience. There was no hesitancy or uncertainty.
+He spoke "as one who knew." He was prepared. He had so lived with the
+questions of the day that they fairly seemed to be part of him. The
+interesting teacher never teaches all he knows. His reserve material
+inspires both interest and confidence. A class begins to lose interest
+in a teacher the moment they suspect that his stock in trade is running
+low. The mystery, "how one small head could carry all he knew," is still
+fascinating. Thorough preparation, moreover, minimizes the likelihood of
+routine, the monotony of which is always deadening. A class likes a
+teacher--is interested in him--when it can't anticipate just what he is
+going to do next and how he is going to do it.
+
+A further aid in holding interest is to know intimately the life of the
+boys and girls taught. To appreciate fully their attitude--to know what
+sort of things in life generally appeal to them--is a very great asset
+to any teacher. If a teacher knows that a boy's reaction to the story of
+the Israelites' crossing the Red Sea is that that story is "some bunk,"
+he is fortified in knowing how to present other subjects which are
+similar tests to a boy's faith and understanding. To know pupils'
+attitudes and mode of life is to know what sort of illustrations to use,
+what emphasis to put upon emotional material, what stress to lay on
+practical application. In short, it is to know just how to "connect up."
+It stimulates to a testing of values so that a teacher selects and
+adapts his material to the needs of the boys and girls whom he teaches.
+
+And, finally, as a key to interest, a teacher needs to know what the
+"factors of interestingness" are. According to the findings of the
+Public Speaking Department of the University of Chicago, they are summed
+up in these seven terms:
+
+  The Vital
+  The Unusual
+  The Uncertain
+  The Concrete
+  The Similar
+  The Antagonistic
+  The Animate
+
+This list becomes more and more helpful as it is pondered. It is
+surprising to find how experience can be explained on the score of
+interest by reference to these terms. Those things are vital which
+pertain to life--which affect existence. Dangers are always interesting.
+Catastrophies are fascinating. Just today all America is scanning the
+newspapers throughout the country to find an explanation of the Wall
+Street explosion. We shall not soon forget the feverish interest that
+gripped the people of the world during our recent world wars.
+
+When life is at stake, interest runs high. So it does when property,
+liberty, and other sacred rights, so vital to life, are affected.
+Anything vital enough to justify the publication of an "extra" may be
+depended upon to grip the interest of men and women.
+
+It is equally clear that a fascination attaches to things that are
+unusual. New styles attract because of this fact. Let a man oddly
+dressed walk along a thoroughfare--the passersby are interested
+immediately. A "loud" hat or necktie, or other item of apparel, attracts
+attention because it is out of the ordinary. Much of the interest and
+delight in traveling lies in this element of the new and unusual which
+the traveler encounters. The experiences of childhood which stand out
+most prominently are usually those which at the time riveted themselves
+to the mind through the interest of their extraordinariness.
+
+Every reader knows the fascination of uncertainty. "How will the book
+turn out?" prompts many a person to turn through hundreds of pages of a
+novel. An accident is interesting not only because of its vital
+significance, but because there is always a question as to how seriously
+those involved may be hurt. One of the clearest illustrations of the
+force of the uncertain is found attending baseball games. Let the score
+stand at 10 to 2 in the eighth inning and the grandstands and bleachers
+begin to empty. Few spectators care to remain. The game is too clearly
+settled. As the boys say, it is "sewed up" and there is nothing
+uncertain to grip interest. But let the score stand 3 to 2 or 2 to 2 in
+the eighth and even the man scheduled home for dinner stays to the end.
+He wants to know how the game is "coming out."
+
+It is easier also to be interested in concrete than in abstract things.
+General truths are not gripping--concrete illustrations of those truths
+are. If I declare that it is important to have faith, I create but
+little interest in an audience. But if I tell that same audience how
+some individual has been miraculously healed through faith, I have their
+interest completely. Concrete illustrations fit into and link up with
+our own experiences so easily and forcefully that they are particularly
+interesting.
+
+So, too, with things that are similar. The mind naturally links like
+with like. We are fond of making comparisons. The interest in the
+similar is due to that fundamental law of learning that we proceed from
+what is known to that which is unknown and we proceed along points of
+similarity.
+
+And how natural it seems to be interested in things antagonistic! Our
+love of contests of all sorts is evidence of the fact. Who can resist
+the interest that attaches to a quarrel--a fight--a clash of any kind.
+The best of classes will leave the best of teachers, mentally at least,
+to witness a dog fight. Our champion prize fighters make fortunes out of
+man's interest in the antagonistic.
+
+And then, finally, we are interested in the animate. We like action.
+Things in motion have a peculiar fascination. Who does not watch with
+interest a moving locomotive? Advertising experts appreciate the appeal
+of the animate, as is evidenced by the great variety of moving objects
+that challenge our interest as we pass up and down the streets of a city
+and we respond to the challenge. In fact, it is natural to respond to
+the appeal of all of these seven terms--hence their significance in
+teaching.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XII
+
+1. Discuss the force of individual differences in choosing material that
+will be interesting.
+
+2. Why is it so essential that the teacher be interested in what he
+hopes to interest his pupils in?
+
+3. Show how preparation makes for interest.
+
+4. Why is an intimate acquaintance with the lives of pupils so essential
+a factor with the interesting teacher?
+
+5. Illustrate concretely the force of each of the factors of
+interestingness.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter XI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A LABORATORY LESSON IN INTEREST
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIII
+
+     Interest should be inherent in the lesson taught.--An illustration
+     of "dragged in" interest.--Interest and the "easy" idea.--A proper
+     interpretation of interest.--How to make the subject of _Fasting_
+     interesting.--The various possibilities.--How to secure interest in
+     the Atonement.--How to secure interest in the Resurrection.--How to
+     secure interest in the story of Jonah.
+
+
+"Oh, that's all right," says one. "It is easy enough to talk about
+interest, and it's easy to be interesting if you can choose anything you
+like to amuse a class. But if you have to teach them theology, and
+especially some of the dry lessons that are outlined for us, I don't see
+how we can be expected to make our work interesting."
+
+Of course, there is some point to such an objection. Having been asked
+to teach the truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ, we cannot defend the
+practice of bringing in all kinds of material just because it is funny.
+And, of course, it is true, too, that some lesson outlines upon first
+thought do appear rather forbidding. But it is equally true that there
+is a path of interest through the most unpromising material, though that
+path does not always run alongside the teacher's highroad of ease and
+unconcern. A false notion of interest is that it denotes mere
+amusement--that it is something aside from serious and sober thought.
+
+The writer recalls visiting a class taught by a person holding such a
+notion. Having given his lesson but little thought he apologized for its
+lack of interest by saying, "Now, boys and girls, if you will just be
+quiet while we go over the lesson, even though it isn't very
+interesting, I'll read you our next chapter of _Huckleberry Finn_." And
+yet the lesson, hurried over, with a little intensive study could have
+been made as fascinating as the reading of _Huckleberry Finn_ and
+notably more profitable.
+
+Another misconception relative to interest is the idea that to make a
+subject interesting you must so popularize it that you cheapen it. This
+idea is typified in the "snap" courses in school--courses made
+interesting at the expense of painstaking application. As a matter of
+fact, to cheapen a thing is ultimately to kill interest in it. Genuine
+interest of real worth is born of effort and devotion to a worthy
+objective. Far from dissipating the mind's energies, it heightens and
+concentrates them to the mastery of the bigger and finer things of life.
+
+A subject to be made interesting must present some element of newness,
+yet must be so linked up with the experience of the learner as to be
+made comprehensible. It must, moreover, be made to appeal as essential
+and helpful in the life of the learner. The two outstanding queries of
+the uninterested pupil are:
+
+  What is it all about?
+  What's the use?
+
+Let us, then, turn to two or three subjects which at first thought may
+appear more or less dull to see whether there is an approach to them
+that can be made interesting.
+
+Members of the teacher-training class at Provo were asked to name four
+or five subjects which they regarded hard to stimulate interest in. They
+named the following:
+
+  Fasting.
+  The Fall.
+  The Atonement.
+  The Resurrection.
+  The Story of Jonah.
+
+Let us suppose that I have met my Second Intermediate class of eighteen
+boys and girls to discuss the subject of fasting. I might begin by
+relating an actual experience in which through fasting and prayer on the
+part of the members of a particular family a little boy has just been
+most miraculously restored to health, after an operation for
+appendicitis. It was an infection case, and three doctors agreed there
+was no possible chance of recovery. A fourth doctor held out the
+possibility of one chance in a hundred. And yet a two days' fast,
+coupled with a faith I have seldom seen equalled, has been rewarded by
+the complete recovery of the boy, who is now thoroughly well and strong.
+
+Such a concrete illustration is one possibility for arousing interest.
+
+Or, I might proceed with a few definite, pointed questions:
+
+"How many of you eighteen boys and girls fasted this month?"
+
+The answers show that seven have fasted; eleven have not.
+
+I proceed then to inquire why the eleven have failed to fast. Various
+explanations are offered:
+
+"Oh, I forgot."
+
+"We don't fast in our home."
+
+"Father has to work all day Sunday; and so, because mother has to get
+breakfast for him, we all eat."
+
+"I have a headache if I fast, so I think it is better not to."
+
+"I don't see any use in fasting. Going around with a long, hungry face
+can't help anyone."
+
+"It's easy to fast when they won't give you anything to eat."
+
+"I like to fast just to show myself that I don't live to be eating all
+the time."
+
+"I believe it's a good thing to give the body a little rest once in a
+while."
+
+"I feel different when I fast--more spiritual or something."
+
+"It must be right to fast. The Church wouldn't ask us to if it wasn't a
+good thing."
+
+The definiteness of these replies, coupled with the suspense of
+wondering what the next answer will be, keeps up a lively interest.
+
+A third possibility would be to call for the experiences of the pupils,
+or experiences which have occurred in their families, or concerning
+which they have read. A very rich compilation of interesting material
+can be collected under such a scheme.
+
+Or, finally, I may choose to proceed immediately with a vigorous
+analysis and discussion of the whole problem. I arouse interest by
+quoting a friend who has put the query to me, "What is the use of
+fasting?" and then enlist the cooperation of the class in formulating a
+reply. Together we work out the possible justification of fasting.
+
+The following outline may represent the line of our thought:
+
+1. Jesus taught us to fast.
+  a. His forty days in the wilderness.
+  b. His injunction to his apostles.
+
+2. Our leaders have instituted fasting in these latter days.
+
+3. By fasting we develop a mastery over our appetites. The body is made
+to serve the will.
+
+4. Physiologically, it is a good thing to fast. Many scientists are now
+recommending regular rests for the digestive organs.
+
+5. Fasting makes possible an elevation of spirit.
+
+6. Our system of fasting makes it possible to see that no one in the
+Church wants for food.
+
+7. Fasting enables us to appreciate the feelings of those who are less
+fortunate in the world than we are, who are denied the blessings we
+enjoy.
+
+Of course, each idea needs to be introduced and developed in a concrete,
+vigorous manner. So treated, fasting can be made a very fascinating
+subject.
+
+The following suggestions on introducing the lesson on the Resurrection
+to little children have been drawn up by one of the most successful
+kindergarten teachers in the Church:
+
+"There are several things to be considered before presenting the lesson
+on the Resurrection to little children.
+
+"First, the teacher must feel that she _can_ present it. In other words,
+she must love the story and feel the importance of it. She must also be
+able to see the beautiful side and remember that she is teaching, 'There
+is no death; but life eternal.'
+
+"The next question to consider is: How are we going to present it? We
+must lead the child from the known to the unknown, through the child's
+own experience. Therefore we go to nature, because all nature appeals to
+the child. But in order to create the right atmosphere, the teacher in
+selecting the subject must feel that what he has selected is the very
+thing he wants in order to explain to the child, 'There is no death.'
+
+"There are several ways in which the subject may be approached through
+nature. We may take the Autumn and let the children tell what happens to
+the trees, flowers, and different plants. Lead them to see the condition
+after the leaves are off. Then what will happen next Spring. Or we may
+take one specific tree or brush and talk of the twig where the leaves
+were in the summer, but have now fallen to the ground. The twig looks
+dead. But on opening the bud and removing the brown covering we find the
+tiny leaf inside waiting and preparing to come forth in the Spring.
+
+"The bulb may be used in a similar way, leading the child to see the
+bulb as it is before planting, then to see what happens when we plant
+it.
+
+"The caterpillar may also be used. Here we have the live worm getting
+ready to go into his cocoon and is absent for some time; then he
+returns, only in another form. A higher stage.
+
+"Lead the child to see that every thing in nature has a period of
+changing, of apparently going away for a short time, but is not dead--it
+returns to life.
+
+"Be sure to have the objects you are talking about before the class,
+while you are discussing the subject. If not obtainable, use a picture,
+or draw them."
+
+The problem of the story of Jonah is usually submitted with a twinkle in
+the eye of him who raises the question. The world has so generally
+relegated it to the heap of the impossible that even some of our own
+people look rather amazed when a champion for Jonah steps forward. And
+yet this story properly approached is one of the teacher's greatest
+opportunities. If it is to be presented to small children it can be told
+very beautifully, either as a lesson on disobedience or, from the point
+of view of the people of Nineveh, as a lesson on fasting and prayer.
+Little children will not be troubled with doubt and disbelief unless the
+teacher fosters such attitudes.
+
+To older minds, of course, the story already is a good bit of a
+stumbling block, and therefore needs to be given thoughtful preparation.
+
+At the outset, with older students, we ought to lead them into the
+beauties of the story--beauties which all too frequently are wholly
+unknown to the ordinary boy or girl. Read the story:
+
+  The call that comes to Jonah.
+  His hesitancy.
+  His dodging of duty.
+  His selfish judgments.
+  His punishment.
+  His attitude toward the people of Nineveh.
+  The lesson taught.
+
+"Yes," says the young skeptic, "but how about the whale idea? Do you
+expect us to believe that stuff? It's contrary to all natural law."
+
+Let's meet the issue squarely. The Bible says that Jonah was swallowed
+by a big fish. Science is agreed that that part of the account is easily
+possible--nothing contrary to natural law so far.
+
+"But what about the three days? That surely is."
+
+Here is a challenge. Is it possible that life can be suspended, "and
+restored"? Let the scriptures testify. It was so in the case of the
+daughter of Jairus. (Mark 5:22-43.)
+
+So was it in the case of Lazarus. (John 11:23-44.)
+
+Consider the case of the Son of God Himself! Buried in the tomb,
+Jesus rose the third day. If you can believe in the resurrection, you
+can believe in the restoration of Jonah. It is interesting to note that
+Jesus Himself accepted the story of Jonah. See Matthew 12:40:
+
+   "For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's belly;
+   so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart
+   of the earth."
+
+To doubt Jonah is to question the Master. Not only so, but if a person
+throws out the story of Jonah, he faces a chain of miraculous events
+from one end of the Bible to the other from which he will have
+difficulty to escape. You ask me to explain Jonah, I shall reply by
+asking you to explain:
+
+  The creation of man.
+  The flood.
+  The confusion of Babel.
+  The parting of the Red Sea.
+  The three Hebrews and the furnace.
+  Elisha and the ax.
+  The birth of the Savior.
+  His resurrection.
+  One-third of the account given by Matthew.
+  Your own birth.
+
+May one not accept with confidence the word of God as contained in the
+Doctrine & Covenants, Sec. 35:8?
+
+"For I am God, and mine arm is not shortened; and I will show miracles,
+signs and wonders unto all those who _believe on my name_."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIII
+
+1. Discuss the proper use of stories in securing and maintaining
+interest.
+
+2. Point out the danger of bringing in foreign "funny" material.
+
+3. Show how difficult subjects may be made of even greater interest than
+easy ones.
+
+4. Use the greater part of this class hour for illustrating how to
+create interest in subjects ordinarily found hard to teach.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter XI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE MORE IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS IN TEACHING
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIV
+
+     The steps involved in the preparation of a lesson: The aim;
+     organization; illustration; application; questions.--Problems
+     involved in the presentation of a lesson: The point of contact;
+     illustration; the lesson statement.--Various possibilities.--The
+     review: questioning; application.--The matter summarized.
+
+
+So many textbooks have been written about teaching--so many points of
+view have been advanced--such a variety of terminology has been
+employed, even in the expression of a single educational notion--that
+beginning teachers are frequently at a loss to know just how to set
+about the task of teaching. Leaving for further consideration the more
+purely theoretical aspects of our problem, let us face the questions of
+most immediate concern:
+
+  HOW TO PREPARE A LESSON.
+  HOW TO PRESENT A LESSON.
+
+Is there not a common-sense procedure which we can agree to as promising
+best results in these two fundamental steps? At the outset let us agree
+that preparation and presentation are inseparable aspects of but one
+process. Preparation consists of the work done _behind the
+scenes_--presentation involves the _getting over_ of the results of that
+work to the _audience_--the class. Frequently teachers are confused
+because they mistake directions governing _preparation_ as applying to
+_presentation_. For instance, one teacher proceeded to drill a class of
+small children on the memorizing of the aim--an abstract general
+truth--unmindful of the fact that the _aim_ was set down for the
+teacher's guidance--a focus for his preparation done behind the scenes.
+
+Though in the _preparation_ of a lesson we keep the aim clearly in
+mind, and though, when we stand before our class, we let it function in
+the background of our consciousness as an objective in our procedure, we
+ought not to hurl it at our class. As a generalized truth it can make
+but little appeal to young minds, and it ought to be self-evident, at
+the end of a successful recitation, to mature minds.
+
+And so with the matter of organization. We skeletonize our thoughts
+behind the scenes, but the skeleton is rather an unsightly specimen to
+exhibit before a class. The outline should be inherent in the lesson as
+presented, but it ought not to protrude so that the means will be
+mistaken for an end. Subsequent chapters will illustrate both the
+selection of an aim and its elaboration through suitable organization.
+
+The successful preparation of a lesson involves at least five major
+steps. They are named here that the problem of preparation may be
+grasped as a whole. Later chapters will develop at length each step in
+its turn.
+
+1. _The Aim._ A generalized statement, a kernel of truth about which all
+of the facts of the lesson are made to center. A lesson may be built up
+on a passage of scripture, on the experience of a person or a people, or
+on a vital question, etc. But in any case, though we are interested in
+the facts involved, we are interested not in the facts as an end in
+themselves, but rather because of the truth involved in the facts. In
+other words, we seek to sift out of the material offered in a lesson an
+essential truth which helps us in a solution of the problems of life.
+Attention to the aim is a guarantee against mere running over of matter
+of fact.
+
+2. _Organization._ A teacher should outline his lesson so that pupils
+may easily follow him through the subject matter presented to the
+ultimate truth that lies beyond.
+
+3. _Illustration._ Illustrations are what make truth vivid. Successful
+teachers owe much of their success to their ability through story or
+incident to drive home to the experience of pupils those fundamental
+truths which in their general terms make but little appeal. One of the
+most helpful practices for teachers who would become effective is the
+habit of clipping and filing available illustrative material. There is a
+wealth of rich, concrete matter appearing regularly in our magazines and
+other publications. What is good today likely will be equally good a
+year or two years hence when we shall face the problem of teaching again
+today's lesson. An alphabetic letter file may be had for a few cents in
+which can be filed away all sorts of helpful material. It pays to
+collect and save!
+
+4. _Application._ Having selected his aim, the teacher knows the result
+he should like to have follow his lesson, in the lives of his pupils. He
+knows, too, their tendencies and their needs. In giving attention to
+application he is merely making a survey of the possible channel into
+which he can direct his pupils' activities. In considering application
+he asks, "Of what use will this material be in the experience of my
+pupils?" The test-application is the real test--both of the subject
+matter presented and of the effectiveness of the presentation.
+
+5. _Questions._ Finally, lesson preparation is not complete unless the
+teacher has formulated a few thought-provoking questions which go to the
+very heart of the lesson. The question is the great challenge to the
+seeker after truth. It is easy to ask questions, but to propound queries
+that stir pupils to an intellectual awakening is a real art. Surely no
+preparation can be fully complete unless it involves:
+
+  The selection of an aim.
+  The orderly organization of material.
+  The collecting of rich illustrations.
+  The pondering of facts to their application.
+  The formulating of at least a few thoroughly stimulating questions.
+
+Can we not agree to these steps as fundamental in the proper preparation
+of our lessons in all of our Church organizations?
+
+With the subject matter well in mind--the work behind the scenes
+completed, the teacher is then prepared for the problem of
+presentation--is ready to appear on the stage of class activity. The
+first outstanding problem in lesson presentation is that of the _Point
+of Contact_. This is a phrase variously interpreted and often
+misunderstood. Perhaps it is not the happiest expression we could wish,
+but it is so generally used and is so significant when understood that
+we ought to standardize it and interpret it as it affects our Church
+work.
+
+When a class assembles for recitation purposes its members present
+themselves with all kinds of mental attitudes and mind content. The
+various groups of a Mutual class may have been engaged in all sorts of
+activities just before entering their classroom. One group may have been
+discussing politics; another may have been engaged in a game of ball; a
+third may have been practicing as a quartette; and still a fourth may
+have been busy at office work. Facing such a collection of groups stands
+a teacher who for an hour or more has dismissed all temporal matters,
+and has been pondering the spiritual significance of prayer. Evidently
+there is a great mental chasm between them. Their coming together and
+thinking on common ground involves the _Point of Contact_. There must
+be contact if an influence for good is to be exerted. Either the teacher
+must succeed in bringing the boys to where he is "in thought," or he
+must go to "where they are."
+
+Teachers in Bible lessons all too frequently hurry off into the Holy
+Land, going back some two thousand years, and leaving their pupils in
+Utah and in the here and the present. No wonder that pupils say of such
+a teacher, "We don't 'get' him." To proceed without preparing the minds
+of pupils for the message and discussion of the lesson is like planting
+seed without having first plowed and prepared the ground.
+
+In the Bible lesson, it would be easy to bridge over from the interests
+of today to those of Bible days. Suppose our lesson is on Joseph who was
+sold into Egypt. Instead of proceeding at once with a statement as to
+the parentage of Joseph, etc., we might well center the interests of
+these various-minded boys on a current observation of today--a
+wonderfully fine harvest field of grain. They have all seen that. Make a
+striking observation relative to the grain, or put a question that will
+lead them to do that for you. Having raised an issue, you continue by
+inquiring whether or not the same conditions have prevailed elsewhere
+and at other times. Did they prevail in the days of Israel? The step
+then to the story of Joseph's dream, etc., is an easy one.
+
+This illustration, though simple and more or less crude, indicates that
+to establish a point of contact, we must reach out to where the pupil
+now is, and lead easily and naturally to where you would have him go.
+Surely we cannot presume that he has already traveled the same
+intellectual road that we have gone over.
+
+Suppose we face a group of adolescent boys to teach them a lesson on the
+importance of their attending church. If we proceed with a preachment
+on their duties and obligations, we are quite certain to lose their
+interest. Boys do not like to be preached at.
+
+We know, however, that they are interested in automobiles. By starting
+out with some vital observation or question out of the automobile world,
+we may count on their attention. Following the discussion thus raised,
+we might then inquire the purpose of the garages that we find along all
+public highways. We could dwell upon the significance of repairs in
+maintaining the efficiency of cars. Now we are prepared for the query,
+Is it not essential that we have spiritual garages for the souls of men,
+garages where supplies and repairs may be had?
+
+  The "gas" of faith.
+  The "oil" of consolation.
+  The "adjustment" of repentance.
+  The "charging" of our spiritual batteries, etc.
+
+Once led into the subject, boys can be made to see that spiritual
+problems are even more vital than material ones.
+
+The point of contact established, we next face the matter of _Lesson
+Statement_. The subject matter must either be in mind already because of
+home preparation, or the teacher must supply it. In the smaller classes
+the teacher generally will have to tell in good part what he wishes to
+convey; in the larger classes, there are the possibilities of home
+preparation, topical reports, the lecture, and the socialized recitation
+built up by questions and discussions. It is not intended here to
+discuss the various methods of lesson presentation--the thought being
+simply that in some way the lesson statement must be presented.
+
+Then there is the problem of connecting up the present lesson with those
+that have already been presented. The review is a vital factor in
+fixing in the mind the relative value of material covered.
+
+Then, too, there is the matter of questioning to test knowledge and
+stimulate discussion, together with the weaving in of illustrative
+material that has already been thought out or which may suggest itself
+as the lesson progresses. If, as all this material has been presented,
+the application has been made sufficiently clear to the pupils, the
+presentation is complete; otherwise avenues of action should be pointed
+out, care being taken to stimulate rather than to moralize.
+
+In conclusion, then, we have the matter of preparation as follows:
+
+  PREPARATION
+
+  _As it involves subject matter_:      _As it involves presentation_:
+
+  1. The Aim                            Point of Contact
+  2. Organization                       Lesson Statement
+  3. Illustration                       Review
+  4. Application                        Illustration
+  5. Questions                          Application
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIV
+
+1. Discuss the helpfulness of having a definite procedure in the matter
+of lesson preparation.
+
+2. Point out the differences between lesson preparation and lesson
+presentation.
+
+3. Name and discuss the essential steps in preparing a lesson.
+
+4. To what extent would you favor adopting these steps as the
+fundamental processes?
+
+5. Discuss the meaning and significance of "The Point of Contact."
+
+6. Why is some kind of lesson statement a prerequisite to a good
+recitation?
+
+7. Show how this statement may be made.
+
+8. What do you consider your most valuable device in the preparation of
+a lesson?
+
+9. Discuss the importance of filing away the material looked up in the
+preparation of the regular work of teaching.
+
+10. Indicate some of the best methods of filing.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School
+Teachers_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy,
+_How to Teach_; Earhart, _Types of Teaching_; Betts, _Classroom Method
+in Management_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ORGANIZING A LESSON
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XV
+
+     A review of the steps in lesson preparation.--The values of
+     outlining.--Objections answered.--Outlining a means, not an
+     end.--The essentials in outlining.--An illustrative outline on
+     prayer.
+
+
+Preparing a lesson is no easy matter, particularly for those teachers
+who are new to the calling. There are those, of course, for whom reading
+an assigned chapter through constitutes a preparation, but to the
+successful teacher this preliminary reading is only the initial step in
+the process. Adequate preparation involves the following questions:
+
+What aim shall I select out of the material available as the focus for
+my day's work?
+
+How shall I build about that aim a body of facts that will establish it
+as a fundamental truth in life?
+
+How shall I illustrate the truths presented so that they will strike
+home in the experiences of my boys and girls?
+
+How shall I make sure that members of the class will go out from the
+recitation to put into practice the teachings of the day?
+
+What questions ought I to ask to emphasize the outstanding points of my
+lesson?
+
+What method of presentation can I most safely follow to make my lesson
+effective?
+
+How may I discipline my class so that no disturbances will interfere
+with our discussions?
+
+Reduced to simple terms, the matter of preparation together with
+presentation, involves the problems of
+
+  Organization
+  Aim
+  Illustration
+  Application
+  Methods of presentation
+  Questioning
+
+It is difficult to single out any one factor and treat it as if it were
+independent of the others--teaching is a complex art with all of these
+factors inseparably contributing to the results desired--but, for
+purposes of clearness, may we not proceed to give attention to each in
+its turn that in the end the teaching process may the more definitely
+stand out in all its aspects?
+
+For convenience, then, let us in this chapter consider the problem of
+organization. How to outline a lesson is one of the most fundamental
+considerations involved in the teaching process. In fact, it is doubtful
+whether there is any one more helpful attainment than the ability
+clearly to outline subject matter. It not only enables the teacher to
+proceed systematically, thereby insuring clearness and adequate
+treatment of a lesson, but it makes it so easy and profitable for a
+class to follow the discussion. Outlining to teaching is what
+organization is to business. Just as the aim points out the goal we
+seek, so the outline indicates the route we shall follow to attain the
+goal. Outlining is simply surveying the road before the concrete is
+laid.
+
+Occasionally a teacher objects to outlining on the ground that it is too
+mechanical--that it destroys spontaneity and the flow of the Spirit of
+the Lord. It has always seemed to the writer that the Spirit of the Lord
+is quite as pleased to follow a straight path as it is to follow a
+crooked one. Outlining is not in any sense a substitute for
+inspiration--it is merely a guarantee, by way of preparation, that the
+teacher has done his part and can in good conscience ask for that
+spiritual aid and guidance which he then is entitled to. The fact that
+order is a law of heaven rather indicates that there is no divine
+injunction against outlining.
+
+Of course, outlining is not an end in itself--it is a means merely to
+more systematic procedure. Two difficulties frequently attach to
+outlining: one is that the outline is made so complex that it hinders
+rather than helps in the matter of clearness; the other is that a
+teacher may become "outline bound," in which case his teaching becomes
+mechanical and labored. Such a teacher illustrates clearly the force of
+the passage, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life."
+
+But if the outline is made simple--if it is considered as merely a
+skeleton upon which is to be built the lesson--it is one of the greatest
+assets a teacher can have. Perhaps we can make the matter clearest by
+going through the process of outlining a lesson, indicating the
+essential steps involved.
+
+Suppose we are asked to prepare a lesson on prayer. Keep in mind that in
+such a preparation we face the problems listed at the beginning of this
+chapter: the aim, the illustration, the application, etc., and keep in
+mind also that each of these subjects will be taken up in its turn and
+that for the present we are concerned primarily with the query, "How can
+I organize a lesson on prayer?" Let us assume, too, that we are
+preparing this lesson for young men and women about twenty years of age.
+
+First of all, I must decide why I am to teach the subject of prayer. In
+view of the fact that the matter of the aim is to be considered fully in
+the succeeding chapter, suppose we agree that our purpose in this lesson
+shall be to establish prayer as a habit of life.
+
+_Step number one_, then, is the selection of an aim--a focus for the
+thought of the lesson.
+
+_Step number two_ is the collection of random thoughts. As I begin to
+ponder the subject of prayer and its influence on life, all sorts of
+ideas crowd into my mind. Perhaps I read some one's discussion of
+prayer--perhaps I talk to a friend relative to it--perhaps I just ran
+the subject over in my mind. The thoughts that come to me may be vague
+and wholly disconnected. My immediate concern is content--order will
+come later. And so I jot down, either in my mind or on paper, such ideas
+as these:
+
+  "Prayer is the soul's sincere desire."
+  The Song "Sweet hour of prayer."
+  What is the use of prayer?
+  Are prayers answered?
+  How often should I pray?
+  Does the Lord hear and answer our prayers, or do we answer them
+    ourselves?
+  What kinds of prayers are there?
+  How may I know how to pray?
+  Should prayers always be answered affirmatively?
+  What are the characteristics of a good prayer?
+  What prayers have impressed me most?
+
+And so I go on. My task in step two is to scout about intellectually in
+search of available, suitable material. Many of my jottings may
+duplicate others already set down; others may not be appropriate for my
+need; still others may be wholly irrelevant. But I am seeking a wealth
+of material that I may make my recitation as rich as possible.
+
+Now, _step three_ becomes a process of correlation and elimination--a
+process of hitting upon my main headings--setting up the milestones to
+mark my course of development. And I so sift the material in my mind and
+sort it out under appropriate captions. After a good bit of intellectual
+rummaging about, I find that my random thoughts on prayer fall rather
+naturally into four main divisions, each capable of expression in a
+question:
+
+    I. What is prayer?
+   II. Why should I pray?
+  III. How should I pray?
+   IV. When should I pray?
+
+But now that I have these major headings, I still face the problems of
+enriching them and elaborating them so that they will have body enough
+to stand. In other words, I build up my sub-headings. Under the first
+question, for instance, I group these thoughts:
+
+  I. What Is Prayer?
+    1. It is communion with God.
+    2. It is the key to God's storehouse.
+    3. It is the key to God's heart.
+    4. It is "The soul's sincere desire."
+    5. It is the great anchor of faith.
+
+Under question two, I group:
+
+  II. Why Should I Pray?
+    1. Because I am commanded of the Lord to pray.
+    2. Because through prayer I keep in tune with the Spirit of the
+       Lord.
+    3. Because it is through prayer that I acknowledge the goodness of
+       God.
+    4. Because through prayer I petition for needed blessings.
+    5. Because through prayer I establish and preserve an attitude of
+       humility.
+
+Under question three:
+
+  III. How Should I Pray?
+    1. Simply.
+    2. Sincerely.
+    3. In spirit.
+    4. After the pattern of His prayer.
+    5. In secret as well as in public.
+
+Under question four:
+
+  IV. When Should I Pray?
+    1. Regularly.
+    2. Morning and evening.
+    3. To meet special needs.
+    4. My attitude should always be one of prayerfulness.
+
+This matter of organization may be diagrammatically illustrated as
+follows:
+
+  _Random Thoughts_                            _Organized Thoughts_
+
+  The hymn
+
+  The song                 ______________
+                          |              |
+  What is the use         |    FOCUS     |     I. What is Prayer?
+  of prayer?              |      or      |
+                          |     AIM      |     II. Why should I pray?
+  Are prayers answered?   |              |
+                          | To establish |     III. How Should I Pray?
+  How often should        |  prayer as a |
+  I pray?                 |  life habit. |     IV. When Should I Pray?
+                          |______________|
+  What are the
+  characteristics of
+  a good prayer, etc.?
+
+In short, organizing involves the search for thought and the bringing of
+order out of chaos. Having selected the aim, the main headings, and the
+sub-headings, we now face _step four_--the enriching of these
+sub-headings in illustration, incident, etc., so that we may link up
+these thoughts with the experience of our pupils. We may think of so
+much stimulating material that during the ordinary class hour we can
+cover well only one of these questions. Our purpose and the needs of the
+class must determine the extent of our detail. The actual material that
+could be used to enrich this lesson on prayer will be given in the
+chapter on illustration.
+
+_Step five_ involves the problem of application, or "carry-over into
+life"--a subject to which another chapter will be devoted. Of course, we
+ought to say here, in passing, that application is not something added
+to or "tacked on" a lesson. It may be emphasized at the close of a
+lesson, but in reality it pervades and is inherent in the whole lesson.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XV
+
+1. What is meant by calling teaching a composite process?
+
+2. Point out the essential advantages in outlining lessons.
+
+3. Show how outlining is not in conflict with inspiration.
+
+4. Name the essential steps in lesson organization.
+
+5. Choose a subject from one of the manuals now in use in one of our
+organizations and build up a typical lesson.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter XIV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ILLUSTRATING AND SUPPLEMENTING A LESSON
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVI
+
+     The force of illustrations.--Three kinds of illustration material:
+     1. maps; 2. pictures; 3. incidents.--The force of maps and map
+     drawing.--The appeal of good pictures.
+
+     ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+     Illustrative material for a lesson on prayer.
+
+
+Having discussed the organization of a lesson together with the
+formulation of the aim, let us now turn to the problem of illustrating
+and supplementing a lesson. In organizing a subject for teaching we
+drive the nails of major thoughts--through illustration we clinch those
+nails so that they will be less likely to pull out of the memory.
+
+The three chief classes of illustrative and supplementary material are:
+
+Maps, pictures, incidents--actual, imaginary.
+
+It is clear that in the lesson outlined on prayer, in chapter fourteen,
+we should have little occasion for the use of a map. We can, however, in
+connection with that lesson, point out the force of pictures and
+incidents.
+
+Maps naturally are of greatest service in lessons with historical and
+geographical background. The journeyings of Israel mean so much more to
+us when we can follow them from place to place on a good map. So the
+Book of Mormon account clears up if we are similarly guided. Had we
+authentic maps of the lands named in the Book of Mormon, how much
+clearer and more interesting the history would become! We would know the
+exact spot on our present-day maps where Lehi and his family landed
+from their heaven-directed barges; we would know where to find the land
+Bountiful; where may now be found the ancient site of the City of
+Zarahemla; where flows the River Sidon; what country is indicated by the
+"land northward"; the journeys of the Nephites as they were being
+driven; what states saw there continued struggles against their
+inveterate enemies, the Lamanites, and how they reached their final
+battle-ground near the Hill Cumorah. To visit with Jesus in Palestine
+adds a charm to the New Testament that is really hard to evaluate, and
+surely the travels of our own pioneers call for the aid of a good map.
+Thoroughly to appreciate all that they did requires that we travel over
+the wonderful trail they followed--that being impossible, the next
+nearest approach is to see actually drawn out the magnitude of their
+achievement. The appeal to the eye couples so forcefully with the appeal
+to the ear that no classroom ought to be without its maps. Perhaps it is
+not beyond possibilities to conceive that at a not distant date we shall
+have made available films for class use to intensify the great lessons
+we draw from history.
+
+Pictures make a wonderful appeal, particularly so to children. It is
+impossible to measure the inspirational appeal that a single masterpiece
+exerts on a class of boys and girls. A theological class in one of the
+Sunday Schools of Salt Lake County was once blessed with a most magnetic
+and powerful teacher. Upon his death, the class had his picture framed
+and hung on the front wall of the room in which he had taught. From that
+day to this the silent inspiration of that picture has stimulated scores
+of young men and women to the high ideals for which he stood.
+
+More generally applicable and more easily available, of course, is the
+_Incident_. The ability to tell a story is one of the finest attainments
+of the teacher--particularly if he will take the pains to find
+vigorously wholesome and appropriate ones. May we repeat the warning
+that stories ought not to be told merely to fill out the hour, nor to
+tickle the ears of the class, but to intensify and heighten the truths
+contained in our lessons.
+
+Included under the heading _Incident_ may be listed short poems and all
+kinds of literary bits that fit in appropriately as spice to a lesson.
+On the subject Prayer, the following are some possibilities:
+
+Under question I, "What is prayer?" the hymn, "Prayer Is the Soul's
+Sincere Desire."
+
+    Prayer is the soul's sincere desire,
+      Uttered or unexpressed;
+    The motion of a hidden fire
+      That trembles in the breast.
+
+    Prayer is the burden of a sigh,
+      The falling of a tear,
+    The upward glancing of an eye,
+      When none but God is near.
+
+    Prayer is the simplest form of speech
+      That infant lips can try;
+    Prayer, the sublimest strains that reach
+      The Majesty on high.
+
+    Prayer is the Christian's vital breath,
+      The Christian's native air;
+    His watchword at the gates of death;
+      He enters heav'n with prayer.
+
+    Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice
+      Returning from his ways,
+    While angels in their songs rejoice,
+      And cry, "Behold, he prays!"
+
+    The Saints in prayer appear as one
+      In word and deed and mind,
+    While with the Father and the Son
+      Their fellowship they find.
+
+    Nor prayer is made on earth alone,--
+      The Holy Spirit pleads,
+    And Jesus, on the Father's throne,
+      For sinners intercedes.
+
+    O thou by whom we come to God,
+      The Life, the Truth, the Way!
+    The path of prayer Thyself has trod;
+      Lord, teach us how to pray!
+
+The two songs: "Sweet Hour of Prayer," "Did You Think to Pray?"
+
+   "For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart, yea, the song of
+   the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a
+   blessing upon their heads." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 25:12.)
+
+The following selection:
+
+   "Prayer--sweet breath from out a joyous heart wafting gratitude to
+   Heaven.
+
+   "Prayer--a sacred confidence between a fearful soul and God.
+
+   "Prayer--a holy balm which soothes and heals the scars in a wounded
+   breast.
+
+   "Prayer--an angel's kiss on the longing lips of loneliness.
+
+   "Prayer--a rod that bars the way between the human soul and sin.
+
+   "Prayer--a choking sob of anguish from pain-drawn lips in plea for
+   help."
+
+Under question II. "Why should I pray?"
+
+   "And that thou mayest more fully keep thyself unspotted from the
+   world, thou shalt go to the house of prayer and offer up thy
+   sacraments upon my holy day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 59:9.)
+
+   "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide
+   the day of his coming, whether in life or in death. Even so. Amen."
+   (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:39.)
+
+   "Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and must be
+   spoken with care, and by constraint of the Spirit, and in this there
+   is no condemnation, and ye receive the Spirit through prayer;
+   wherefore, without this there remaineth condemnation." (Doc. & Cov.,
+   Sec. 63:64.)
+
+   "The keys of the kingdom of God are committed unto man on the earth,
+   and from thence shall the gospel roll forth unto the ends of the
+   earth, as the stone which is cut out of the mountain without hands
+   shall roll forth, until it has filled the whole earth;
+
+   "Yea, a voice crying--Prepare ye the way of the Lord, prepare ye the
+   supper of the Lamb, make ready for the Bridegroom;
+
+   "Pray unto the Lord, call upon his holy name, make known his
+   wonderful works among the people;
+
+   "Call upon the Lord, that his kingdom may go forth upon the earth,
+   that the inhabitants thereof may receive it, and be prepared for the
+   days to come, in the which the Son of man shall come down in heaven,
+   clothed in the brightness of his glory, to meet the kingdom of God
+   which is set up on the earth;
+
+   "Wherefore may the kingdom of God go forth, that the kingdom of
+   heaven may come, that thou, O God, mayest be glorified in heaven so
+   on earth, that thy enemies may be subdued; for thine is the honor,
+   power and glory, for ever and ever. Amen." (Doc. & Cov., Sec.
+   65:2-6.)
+
+   "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the Spirit indeed
+   is willing, but the flesh is weak." (Matt. 26:42.)
+
+The following incidents were related by a member of the B.Y.U. Course
+and are typical of scores of others available for this lesson:
+
+   _Brother Hunter's Account of the Manifestation of the Successor to
+   the Prophet Joseph_
+
+   "There was a great deal of discussion among the brethren and sisters
+   as to who should lead the Church; some thought it should be the
+   Prophet's son; some, one of his counselors, and some the President of
+   the Quorum of the Twelve. I was at a loss to come to any conclusion.
+   It worried me considerably and I prayed earnestly that God would make
+   known to me who it should be, but without avail.
+
+   "I went to the meeting that had been called and listened thoughtfully
+   to what was said and done. The longer I listened the more mystified I
+   became. I bowed my head in my hands and prayed for God to give me
+   understanding. While I was in this attitude, Brother Brigham arose to
+   speak, I suppose. I heard a voice--the Prophet's voice as natural and
+   true as I ever heard it. I raised up quickly, fully expecting to see
+   the Prophet, and I did. There he stood and there he spoke. I listened
+   breathlessly. The form of the Prophet gradually changed to that of
+   Brother Brigham, but the voice was not Brother Brigham's. It was
+   still the Prophet's. Then beside Brother Brigham I saw the Prophet,
+   who turned toward the speaker and smiled. My heart beat rapidly with
+   joy and I knew beyond the shadow of a doubt that Brother Brigham was
+   called of God to lead the Church."
+
+   _Brother Huntsman's Baby Healed_
+
+   "A fine, plump baby girl had come to the Huntsman home. As weeks and
+   months passed and the child failed to use its lower limbs, a doctor
+   was called and pronounced the trouble infantile paralysis. He said
+   that it would never walk, for experience had showed that whenever
+   this affliction affected the lower part of the body the medical
+   profession could not cure it.
+
+   "The Huntsman people were faithful Latter-day Saints and did not give
+   up hope, but called in the Elders. After a time conference was held
+   at Shelley and Elder David O. McKay and one other of the general
+   Church authorities were in attendance--I don't remember who. After
+   the afternoon session the child was administered to. While sealing
+   the anointing, Brother McKay promised the child the use of its limbs
+   and every organ of the body.
+
+   "That night it began to move them, and the next morning stood alone
+   by the aid of chairs. In a few days it walked, although being fairly
+   fleshy. Soon after I moved away from Shelley, but a year or so
+   afterwards I had occasion to go to Idaho Falls and there I met
+   Brother and Sister Huntsman. The child was with them and ran and
+   played as other children."
+
+   _A Psychology Student Receives Aid_
+
+   "A friend of mine who was a student in an eastern university told the
+   following incident of how the Lord came to his aid.
+
+   "The psychology class while studying the relationship of the brain to
+   life and intelligence entered into a discussion as to the nature of
+   intelligence, and in some way the teachings of the Prophet Joseph
+   Smith were brought into the discussion and jeered at, by all members
+   except my friend, who was a "Mormon." His defense brought forth
+   ridicule and intensified the discussion.
+
+   "As the class period had expired without completing the argument, a
+   week from that day was the time set to complete it. Of course, my
+   friend felt that he should do all possible to defend the attitude of
+   the Church, so he studied, fasted and prayed, to secure the aid of
+   inspiration, for he well knew that nothing but scientific proof would
+   be accepted.
+
+   "The day came and he realized that he was illy prepared, but still
+   hoped for divine assistance. During the giving of evidence to dispose
+   of the existence of intelligence separate from the workings of the
+   brain, and ridiculing the existence of a spirit, he prayed silently
+   and earnestly.
+
+   "His turn came and he arose to speak. After the opening sentences he
+   glanced down on the paper for his evidence and found a strange
+   handwriting there. He says a peculiar power took possession of him.
+   He spoke rapidly and fluently, he declared, without comprehending or
+   at least remembering what he said. As he finished, his own writing
+   was on the paper and he knew not what had been spoken, but there was
+   no evidence offered to offset it.
+
+   "The professor asked him to give the names of the books from which he
+   obtained his points, and on being told that God gave them to him, he
+   replied, 'It's strange, but I can't believe such nonsense.'"
+
+Under question III. "How should I pray?"
+
+The Lord's Prayer as a pattern.
+
+The prayer in Gethsemane.
+
+The Bee-Keeper's prayer--1920, June number of _Young Woman's Journal_.
+
+   "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well as in
+   thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public as
+   well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.)
+
+   "Therefore I say unto you, What things soever ye desire, when ye
+   pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." (Mark
+   11:24.)
+
+   "At that day ye shall ask in my name: and I say unto you, that I will
+   pray the Father for you." (John 16:26.)
+
+Under question IV. "When should I pray?"
+
+   "He shall pray unto God, and he will be favourable unto him: and he
+   shall see his face with joy: for he will render unto man his
+   righteousness." (Job 33:26.)
+
+   "And now concerning the residue, let them journey and declare the
+   world among the congregations of the wicked, inasmuch as it is
+   given." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:33.)
+
+   "Draw near unto me and I will draw near unto you: seek me diligently
+   and ye shall find me; ask and ye shall receive; knock and it shall be
+   opened unto you;
+
+   "Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my name it shall be given unto you,
+   that is expedient for you." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 88:63-64.)
+
+   "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide
+   the day of his coming, whether in life or in death." (Doc. & Cov.,
+   Sec. 61:39.)
+
+   "Therefore let the Church take heed and pray always, lest they fall
+   into temptation." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 20:33.)
+
+   "Behold, I manifest unto you, Joseph Knight, by these words, that you
+   must take up your cross, in the which you must pray vocally before
+   the world as well as in secret, and in your family, and among your
+   friends, and in all places." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 23:6.)
+
+   "Yea, cry unto him for mercy; for he is mighty to save.
+
+   "Yea, humble yourselves, and continue in prayer unto him;
+
+   "Cry unto him when ye are in your fields; yea, over all your flocks;
+
+   "Cry unto him in your houses; yea, over all your household, both
+   morning, mid-day and evening;
+
+   "Yea, cry unto him against the power of your enemies;
+
+   "Yea, cry unto him against the devil, who is an enemy to all
+   righteousness.
+
+   "Cry unto him over the crops of your fields, that ye may prosper in
+   them:
+
+   "Cry over the flocks in your fields, that they may increase.
+
+   "But this is not all; ye must pour out your souls in your closets,
+   and your secret places, and in your wilderness;
+
+   "Yea, and when you do not cry unto the Lord, let your hearts be full,
+   drawn out in prayer unto him continually for your welfare, and also
+   for the welfare of those who are around you.
+
+   "And now behold, my beloved brethren, I say unto you, do not suppose
+   that this is all; for after ye have done all these things, if ye turn
+   away the needy, and the naked, and visit not the sick and afflicted,
+   and impart of your substance, if ye have, to those who stand in need;
+   I say unto you, if ye do not any of these things, behold, your prayer
+   is vain, and availeth you nothing, and ye are as hypocrites who do
+   deny the faith;
+
+   "Therefore, if ye do not remember to be charitable, ye are as dross,
+   which the refiners do cast out, (it being of no worth), and is
+   trodden underfoot of men." (Alma 34:18-29.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVI
+
+1. Why need we illustrate general truths?
+
+2. Discuss the value of having pupils draw up their own maps.
+
+3. Give out of your own experience illustrations of the force of
+pictures.
+
+4. Point out the value in teaching of appealing to more than one of the
+senses.
+
+5. Discuss the importance of good stories in teaching.
+
+6. What are the characteristics of a good illustrative story?
+
+7. Take an ordinarily commonplace subject and show how to illustrate it.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Those listed in Chapter XIV.
+
+Also _Pictures in Religious Education_, by Frederica Beard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE AIM
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVII
+
+     Two illustrations of the value of an aim.--Significance of the aim
+     in religious training.--Inadequacy of eleventh-hour
+     preparation.--The teacher's obligation to see through facts to
+     truths that lie beyond.
+
+     What an aim is.--Illustration.--How to determine the aim.--How to
+     express it.
+
+
+The late Jacob Riis, noted author and lecturer, used to tell a very
+inspirational story on the force of having something to focus attention
+upon. According to his story, certain men who lived just outside of
+Chicago, in its early history, had great difficulty walking to and from
+work during stormy weather, because of the almost impassably muddy
+conditions of the sidewalks. After trudging through mud and slush for a
+long time, they conceived the idea of laying a plank walk through the
+worst sections. And so they laid two six-inch planks side by side. The
+scheme helped wonderfully, except on short winter days when the men had
+to go to work in the darkness of early morning and return in the
+darkness of evening. It often was so dark that they would step off the
+planks, and once off they were about as muddy as if there had been no
+walk at all. Finally someone suggested the idea that if a lantern were
+hung up at each end of the walk it would then be easy to fix the eye
+upon the lantern and keep on the walk. The suggestion was acted upon,
+and thereafter the light of the lantern did hold them to the plank.
+Jacob Riis argued that the lantern of an ideal held aloft would
+similarly hold young men in life's path of righteousness.
+
+A similar story is told of a farmer who experienced great difficulty in
+keeping a particular hen inside the run which he had built outside the
+hen house. He had put up a wire fence high enough, as he thought, to
+keep in the most ambitious chicken. In fact, he argued that no hen could
+fly over it. One hen persisted in getting out regularly, though the
+farmer could never discover how she did it. Finally he decided to lay
+for her (she laid for him regularly). To his great surprise, he watched
+her walk around the run carefully surveying it as she proceeded. At
+length she caught sight of a beam running along the top of the wire just
+above the gate. With her eye fixed upon it she made one mighty effort
+and was over.
+
+The moral of the two stories is self-evident. Both hens and men can "go
+over" if they have something to aim at. It is so in life generally, and
+what is true of life generally is particularly true in the matter of
+teaching. The aim is one of the most significant features in the
+teaching process.
+
+The teacher who knows where he is going can always get followers.
+
+Important as is the aim in all educational endeavor, it is doubly so in
+religious training. We teach religiously not merely to build up facts or
+make for mental power; we teach to mold character. We should see through
+facts, therefore, to the fundamental truth lying behind and beyond them.
+Such a truth constitutes an aim in religious instruction.
+
+One of the most regrettable facts connected with some of our teaching is
+that teachers leave the preparation of their lessons until the few
+minutes just preceding their recitation hour. They then hurry through a
+mass of facts, rush into class and mull over these dry husks, unable in
+the rush even to see the kernel of truth lying within. Little wonder
+pupils tire of such rations. It is the teacher's obligation to "see
+through" and discover the gems that really make lessons worth while.
+
+Forty-five minutes once a week is so meagre an allotment of time for the
+teaching of the greatest principles of life! Surely every one of those
+minutes should be sacredly guarded for the consideration of vital
+truths. The aim, coupled with careful organization, is one of the best
+safeguards possible.
+
+The aim is the great focus for a lesson's thought. It is the center
+about which all else revolves. It specifies what shall be included and
+what excluded out of the great mass of available material. A single
+chapter of scripture may contain truths enough for a dozen lessons, only
+one of which can be treated in any one recitation. The aim singles out
+what can be appropriately grouped under one unified discussion.
+
+If we turn, for instance, to the ninth chapter of Matthew, we find at
+least eight different major incidents, each one deserving a lesson in
+itself. There is the case of:
+
+  The palsy.
+  The charge of blasphemy.
+  The glorifying of God by the multitude.
+  The calling of Matthew.
+  The statement that only the sick need the physician.
+  The case of new cloth and the old garment.
+  The raising of the daughter of Jairus.
+  The healing of the two blind men.
+
+It is perfectly clear that all of these incidents could not be
+adequately considered in any one lesson. Assuming that the teacher is
+free to handle this ninth chapter as he pleases, we are forced to the
+conclusion that knowing his class, as he does, he must choose that
+incident or that combination of incidents which will mean most in the
+lives of his pupils. In other words, he centers his attention upon one
+major central truth--his aim. By so doing he guards against wandering
+and inadequacy of treatment and makes for the unified presentation of
+one forceful thought.
+
+It ought to be pointed out here that every teacher must be the judge as
+to what constitutes for him the best aim. It is quite clear that any one
+teacher could find in this ninth chapter of Matthew at least four or
+five worthy aims. Three different teachers could possibly find as many
+more, each equally worthy of development. All other things being equal,
+that aim is best which most completely and forcefully covers the chapter
+or passage in question. To illustrate: Suppose we are asked to teach a
+lesson on the Prodigal Son. One aim that could be chosen clearly is that
+of _jealousy_ on the part of the prodigal's brother. A second one might
+be repentance, as typified in the action of the prodigal. Still a third
+might be the compassion and forgiveness of the father, as typical of
+those same qualities in our heavenly Father. Which, to you, is the most
+forceful and significant? That one to you is _your_ best aim.
+
+The wording of the aim is a matter that gives rise to a good bit of
+disagreement. There are those who maintain that if the aim announces the
+subject as a sort of heading that is sufficient. Others contend that the
+aim should crystallize into axiomatic form the thought of the lesson. Of
+course, the real force of the aim lies in its serving as the focus of
+thought. The wording of it is of secondary importance. And yet it is
+very excellent practice to reduce to formal statement the truth to be
+presented. It is helpful to adopt the ruling that the aim should express
+both a cause and a result. Perhaps an illustration would indicate the
+difference between the aim stated as a mere heading, and stated fully
+and formally. Take the case of the daughter of Jairus already referred
+to,
+
+  _Mere Headings_:
+      Daughter of Jairus restored, or
+      The power of faith.
+
+  _Formal Aim_:
+      Implicit faith in God wins His choicest blessings.
+
+Surely the latter is a more significant expression and offers better
+training to the teacher than the setting down of mere headings.
+
+The ability thus to crystallize out of a great variety of facts a single
+focusing statement, coupled with the ability then to build about that
+statement a clearly organized amplification, is the sign of a real
+teacher. Instead of generalizing further, let us turn to the questions
+on this lesson where some laboratory exercises are set down calling for
+actual practice in the selection and justification of a number of aims.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVII
+
+1. What is an aim?
+
+2. Why is it particularly essential to good religious teaching?
+
+3. What are the objections to "eleventh-hour" preparation?
+
+4. To what extent is a teacher handicapped in deciding upon an aim for
+another teacher to follow?
+
+5. Turn to the following references and determine what possible aims
+might be developed under each. Is any aim adequate for the whole
+reference? In each case which do you consider your best aim? Why? How
+much of the reference would you include in a single lesson?
+
+John, Chapter I; Isaiah, Chapter II; III Nephi, Chapter X; Doctrine &
+Covenants, Section 87.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_;
+Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+APPLICATION
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVIII
+
+     The question of application.--The matter a complex one.--Various
+     conceptions of the term as it affects the intellect, the emotions,
+     or the will.--Application may be immediate or delayed.--How to make
+     the application.--Illustrations.--Making the application and
+     moralizing.--Utah moral codes as objectives behind our teaching.
+
+
+Application is one of the most important subjects in the whole range of
+religious education. It is also one concerning which there are greater
+varieties of opinions than concerning almost any other subject.
+
+What is application?
+
+How is it made?
+
+Is it inherent in the lesson, or is it added as a sort of supplement to
+the lesson?
+
+When is it best made?
+
+Does it always involve action?
+
+These questions are only typical of the uncertainty that exists relative
+to this term.
+
+Application really goes to the very heart of all teaching. Colloquially
+expressed, it raises the question in teaching, "What's the use?" Why
+should certain subject matter be presented to a class? How are class
+members better for having considered particular facts? In short,
+application involves the question, "What is the _carry-over_ value of
+the lesson?"
+
+It is impossible to dispose adequately of the matter of application in a
+single statement. It fairly epitomizes the whole process of teaching and
+therefore is so comprehensive that it calls for analysis. The ultimate
+purpose behind teaching, of course, as behind all life, is salvation.
+But salvation is not had in a day. It is not the result of a single act,
+nor does it grow out of particular thoughts and aspirations. Salvation
+is achieved as a sum total of all that we think, say, do, and _are_. Any
+lesson, therefore, that makes pupils better in thought, word, deed, or
+being, has had to that extent its application.
+
+Application of a lesson involves, then, the making sure, on the part of
+the teacher, that the truths taught carry over into the life of the
+pupil and modify it for good. Someone has said that the application has
+been made when a pupil
+
+  "Knows more,
+  Feels better,
+  Acts more nobly,"
+
+as a result of the teaching done. There is a prevalent conception that
+application has been made in a recitation only when pupils go out from a
+recitation and translate the principle studied into immediate action.
+There are lessons where such applications can be made and, of course,
+they are to be commended. Particularly are they valuable in the case of
+young children. But surely there are other justifiable interpretations
+to the term application.
+
+We need to remind ourselves that there are three distinct types of
+subject matter that constitute the body of our teaching material. These
+are, first of all, those lessons which are almost wholly intellectual.
+Debates are conducted by the hundreds on subjects that lead not to
+action but to clearer judgment. Classes study subjects by the month for
+the purpose of satisfying intellectual hunger. Such questions, for
+instance, as "Succession in the Presidency," or the "Nature of the
+Godhead"--questions gone into by thoroughly converted Latter-day
+Saints, not to bring themselves into the Church, nor to lead themselves
+into any other kind of action except the satisfying of their own souls
+as to the truth. In other words, it appears clear that there may be
+application on a purely intellectual level. Application upon application
+is made until a person builds up a structure of faith that stands upon
+the rock in the face of all difficulties.
+
+A second type of lessons appeals to the emotions. They aim to make
+pupils _feel_ better. They may or may not lead to immediate action.
+Ideally, of course, every worthy emotion aroused should find, if
+possible, suitable channels for expression. Pent up emotions may become
+positively harmful. The younger the pupils the more especially is this
+true. Practically every educator recognizes this fact and gives
+expression to it in language similar to the following quotation from
+Professor S.H. Clark:
+
+   "Never awaken an emotion unless, at the same time, you strive to open
+   a channel through which the emotion may pass into the realm of
+   elevated action. If we are studying the ideals of literature,
+   religion, etc., with our class, we have failed in the highest duty of
+   teaching if we have not given them the ideal, if we have not given
+   them, by means of some suggestion, the opportunity for realizing the
+   ideal. If there is an emotion excited in our pupils through a talk on
+   ethics or sociology, it matters not, we fail in our duty, if we do
+   not take an occasion at once to guide that emotion so that it may
+   express itself in elevated action."
+
+And yet there is a question whether this insistence upon action may not
+be exaggerated. Abraham Lincoln witnessed an auction sale of slaves in
+his younger days. He did not go out immediately and issue an
+emancipation proclamation, and yet there are few who can doubt that that
+auction sale registered an application in an ideal that persisted in the
+mind of Lincoln through all those years preceding our great civil war.
+
+Many a man has been saved in the hour of temptation, in his later life,
+by the vividness of the recollection of sacred truths taught at his
+mother's knee. There may be just a little danger of cheapening the
+process of application if it is insisted that for every ideal impressed
+upon the minds of pupils there must be a corresponding immediate
+response in daily actions of the pupils taught. May not a wonderful
+impression become the more wonderful as it is hallowed by the pondering
+of the mind through the maturing years of childhood and young manhood?
+
+Finally there is the lesson which, though it involves both the intellect
+and the emotions, appeals primarily to the will and calls for action.
+There can be no question but that this is the type of lesson of greatest
+significance in religious education. We meet our pupils so infrequently,
+at best, that at most we can do but a fraction of what we should like to
+do to modify their lives. Our concern is to change for the better their
+attitude and conduct, and therefore we must address ourselves to the
+problems they face in the every-day life which they are to live between
+recitations. As Betts in his _How to Teach Religion_ so well says:
+
+   "In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may learn
+   this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and such a
+   group of feelings, but that through these he may live better. The
+   final test of our teaching, therefore, is just like this: Because of
+   our instruction, does the child live differently here and now, as a
+   child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school, the
+   church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the lessons
+   we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer acts, and
+   stronger character, as shown in the daily run of the learner's
+   experience?
+
+   "It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's
+   learning must wait for time and experience to bring the individual to
+   fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for the
+   child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain
+   against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge
+   that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in
+   active service, guiding our thoughts and decisions from day to day.
+   Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more
+   permanent impression on the life than that left on the wave when we
+   plunge our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way
+   the interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused, without at the
+   same time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and
+   conduct, soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for
+   which they exist. The great thing in religious education is to find
+   immediate and natural outlet in expression, a way for the child to
+   use what he learns; to get the child to do those things pointed out
+   by the lessons we teach him."
+
+As the teacher faces this "carry-over" problem he is impressed that he
+must touch the lives of his pupils not only as individuals but as
+members of a social group. It becomes his obligation not only to direct
+them in matters pertaining to their own welfare, physically,
+intellectually, and morally, but he has a responsibility in helping to
+establish the standards of society to which individuals naturally
+subscribe more or less unconsciously.
+
+The strong teacher's influence can be made to affect the ideals of the
+athletic field, of the amusement hall, of the church, of the business
+center, and of the home. These agencies offer such a variety of
+possibilities that every lesson offers easily some avenue of
+application. By way of illustration let us turn to a few subjects and
+point out some possibilities in the matter of application. May it be
+said here, in passing, that the secret of making application lies in not
+getting lost in the past so that we may walk along with our heads turned
+back over the shoulder of time pondering merely the things of the past.
+All too often the teacher hurries over into the Holy Land of some four
+thousand years ago, leaving a class of twentieth century boys and girls
+here at home to wonder what all that ancient material has to do with the
+problems that confront them here and now. Not that we should ignore the
+past. Successful application lies in reaching back into the past for a
+solution of today's difficulties. But the _solution_ is our great
+concern. "We look back that we may the better go forward."
+
+To illustrate:
+
+A lesson on Cain and Abel may find its application in a solution of the
+problems of the jealousy and selfishness that exist today. This story
+ought not to be merely a recounting of murder. There is a little Cain--a
+little Abel--in all of us. Consider the case of the boy who smashed up
+his brother's new sled as well as his own, because he couldn't keep up
+in coasting. The nature of the class will determine the particular
+application. Or consider the story of Samson and Delilah: at first
+thought, a story with but little to contribute to a solution of today's
+problems. Yet out of that story application can be made beautifully,
+through either of these two truths:
+
+   He who plays with sin will eventually be conquered by it; or,
+
+   Marrying outside one's church is attended by grave dangers.
+
+A lesson on helpfulness was once beautifully and rather dramatically
+given through the story of a rescue of a train. A lad was out at play on
+a railroad track when he discovered that a recent storm had washed out
+part of the road bed. He remembered that the through passenger train was
+due in a few minutes, and so rushed along the track and by frantically
+waving his hat succeeded in stopping the train just in time to prevent a
+terrible catastrophe. A few well-directed questions called for the
+pupils' own idea of application. They, too, would flag a train if such
+an occasion should arise. They could help people generally to guard
+against danger. They even carried the idea over into rendering any kind
+of service, about the home, at school, and elsewhere, as long as it was
+helpful.
+
+And so illustrations could be multiplied. The important thing is that,
+having decided upon a central truth for a lesson, the teacher then
+conceives avenues whereby the truth may be carried over through action
+into the lives of pupils. And, of course, he must see that they are
+directed in setting about the action.
+
+The question often arises, "Isn't there danger of moralizing in making
+an application?" or "What is the difference between an application and
+moralizing?" Genuine and natural application ought to be inherent in the
+material presented. A good story ought to drive home its message without
+further comment. Moralizing consists of "tacking on" some generalized
+exhortation relative to conduct. Moralizing is either an unnecessary and
+unwelcome injunction to be or to do good, or it is an apology for a
+lesson that in and of itself drives home no message. The school boy's
+definition of moralizing is helpful and suggestive:
+
+"_Moralizing is rubbing goodness in unnecessarily._"
+
+In making application of truths presented, teachers naturally face the
+question as to what constitutes the fundamentals in character
+development that are to be achieved. As a sort of guide, the two Utah
+codes of morals, one for children and one for youths, are rich in
+suggestion, both for pupil and teacher. They are submitted herewith as
+helpful in setting up the objectives toward which we are working:
+
+
+   CHILDREN'S CODE
+
+   I want to grow up to be wise and strong, happy and able to make
+   others happy, to love and to be loved, and to do my part in the
+   world's work.
+
+   During my infancy loving hands cared for me, gave me food, clothing
+   and shelter, and protected me from harm. I am grateful for this care,
+   and I want to be worthy of the love and confidence of my mother and
+   father and to do all I can to make them happy.
+
+   I will be obedient to my parents and teachers; they are wiser than I
+   and thoughtful of my welfare.
+
+   I have already learned that good health is necessary to strength and
+   happiness, and that in order to be well and to grow strong, I must
+   have good, wholesome food, ample exercise and sleep, and abundant
+   pure water and fresh air--nature's free gifts to all.
+
+   My whole body I will keep clean and each part of it as sound as good
+   care can make it.
+
+   I will have respect for all useful work, both mental and physical. I
+   must learn to be helpful that I may know the joy of service and the
+   dignity of work well done.
+
+   I will begin now to earn some of the things I use. I must learn how
+   to spend, and how to be generous.
+
+   Waste is the mother of want, and even though the want may not be
+   mine, if I am extravagant I am likely to bring suffering to others.
+   Waste of time is as wrong as waste of things; I will not be an idler.
+
+   I will not put unnecessary burdens upon my associates by untidy,
+   careless habits; orderly ways save my own time and things as well as
+   those of others.
+
+   I will take thought for the comfort and welfare of our animal friends
+   and will always avoid cruelty.
+
+   I will strive for courage to speak the truth and for strength to be
+   fair in all my work and play, to be true to my word and faithful to
+   my trust. I hate lying and cheating; they are signs of cowardice and
+   greed. I will not seek pleasure or profit at the cost of my
+   self-respect. I will be considerate of the rights and feeling of
+   others as I would have them respect mine.
+
+   I will try to control my temper and to be cheerful, kind, and
+   courteous in all my dealings.
+
+   I will strive to be pure in thought, speech and action.
+
+   My country has provided laws and civil officers to protect me,
+   schools for my instruction, and many other aids to a happy, useful
+   life. I am grateful for these benefits and will show my patriotism by
+   obeying the laws and defending my country against evils, both within
+   and without.
+
+   I will keep my eyes and ears open to enjoy the world about me, and my
+   mind alert to understand and appreciate the good things mankind has
+   provided for me--science and art, poetry and music, history and
+   story.
+
+   May God, the kind and loving Father, help me all my life to see the
+   right way and to follow it.
+
+
+   MORAL CODE FOR YOUTHS
+
+   I am happy to be a member of that great human society which has
+   accumulated all the treasures of civilization. I have benefited by
+   the united labors of all mankind; for this I owe a debt of gratitude
+   to humanity, a debt I can pay only by serving that humanity to the
+   fullest extent of my ability. Through small services freely given
+   toward the comfort and happiness of my associates, I may grow in
+   power of usefulness and in my turn contribute to the welfare of the
+   generations that are to come.
+
+   My body is the instrument of my mind and the foundation of my
+   character. Every organ must be conserved to perform its proper
+   function in the development and perfection of my life. I will,
+   therefore, eat only wholesome food, breathe pure air, take ample
+   exercise and sleep, and keep my body clean and sound. To this end, I
+   will refrain from the use of intoxicating drinks, narcotics and
+   stimulants; these lend only a seeming strength, but in reality they
+   undermine my powers of service and of lasting happiness. By
+   abstaining from these indulgences I can, moreover, help others to
+   abstain, and thereby increase their strength and happiness. By
+   temperate living and plenty of exercise in the open I can preserve my
+   health and the more easily refrain from evil thoughts and evil deeds.
+
+   I will not pollute my body or that of another by any form of
+   self-indulgence or perverse yielding to passion. Such indulgence is a
+   desecration of the fountains of life and an insult to the dignity of
+   manhood and womanhood.
+
+   Through the formation of sane, health-promoting habits I can avoid
+   having my usefulness diminished and my happiness impaired by the
+   consequences of my own folly.
+
+   I will be modest in dress and manner, that I may in no wise encourage
+   sensuality.
+
+   I will be thoughtful of the effects of my actions and so restrain
+   myself that no act of mine may mar the life or detract from the
+   happiness of my associates or of my successors.
+
+   I will deal honestly, fairly and kindly with my fellows--always
+   mindful that their lives and their happiness are as sacred to them as
+   mine are to me.
+
+   I will avoid impatience and ill temper and will endeavor to be
+   courteous always.
+
+   I will try to save individuals rather than to condemn them, even
+   though their evil deeds must be condemned and offenders punished.
+
+   I will have respect for the time of my fellows as I respect their
+   property.
+
+   I will not engage in games of chance, since I do not desire reward at
+   the expense of others.
+
+   In all my dealings I will strive for courage to speak the truth; I
+   despise cowardice and lying. I will do what I know to be right,
+   though others may ridicule or scorn me.
+
+   I will be personally responsible for all that I do, and, recognizing
+   my limited wisdom, I will ever seek Divine Guidance to lead me in the
+   right way.
+
+   I will strive for independence of judgment, but with due regard for
+   the superior wisdom of my elders. I must grant to my fellows the same
+   right of independent judgment that I claim for myself.
+
+   Whatever I undertake I will do with my might, and, win or lose,
+   accept the result with good cheer. I would rather be worthy of
+   success than to secure it unworthily.
+
+   I will be prompt and orderly in all my affairs, otherwise I become a
+   hindrance to social efficiency. I will avoid waste and extravagance
+   lest I bring needless privation and suffering to others as well as to
+   myself.
+
+   It is my privilege to have a part in the world's work--a part I must
+   choose and perform with all diligence. "What can I do best that
+   society needs most?" When I have answered this question I will pursue
+   my vocation intelligently and energetically; first, as a means of
+   service to my fellow-men; and second, as a means of self-support and
+   aid to those that may be dependent upon me.
+
+   May the love and appreciation I have for my country never be
+   dishonored by any act of lawlessness or want of loyalty, but may I
+   ever honor, uphold and obey the law and defend my country against
+   unrighteousness, injustice and violence. When it becomes my privilege
+   to vote I will use the right of suffrage as a patriotic means of
+   co-operating with my fellow citizens for the promotion of social
+   justice, peace and progress. Should I be called to public office, I
+   will strive for moral courage to exercise authority in accord with
+   justice and humanity; and, whether in or out of office, I will
+   respond freely to every opportunity for public service.
+
+   I am grateful for the beauties of nature and for the great works of
+   art, music, literature and science, it is my privilege to enjoy.
+   These I will seek to understand and appreciate, that I may cultivate
+   broader sympathies and fellowship with mankind, the world, and the
+   Creator of all.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVIII
+
+1. How does application go to the very heart of teaching?
+
+2. Discuss the various conceptions of the term.
+
+3. Distinguish between immediate and delayed application.
+
+4. Discuss the possibility of intellectual application.
+
+5. How can applications best be made?
+
+6. When can applications best be made?
+
+7. Distinguish between making an application and moralizing.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How to Teach
+Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Betts, _The
+Recitation_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Thorndike,
+_Principles of Teaching_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+METHODS OF THE RECITATION
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIX
+
+     The question of method raised.--Danger of an entire disregard of
+     method.--The case of the "born" teacher.--Sound pedagogy largely a
+     matter of common sense.--Danger of being committed to a single
+     method.--The five possible methods: The Story Method; Reading
+     'Round; The Special Topic; The Lecture; The Discussion.
+
+
+Two of the most practical questions that a teacher ever has to solve
+are:
+
+How shall I go about to prepare a lesson?
+
+Having prepared a lesson, how shall I set about to teach it to my class?
+
+The first of these questions has already been discussed in preceding
+chapters; the second now calls for our consideration.
+
+Is there a _one best method_? If so, what is it? What steps does it
+involve? Instead of answering these questions directly, perhaps it will
+be better to point out the various methods of the recitation, set down
+their characteristics and relative values, and then formulate a
+conclusion.
+
+At the outset it may be advisable to sound two notes of warning. One is
+against an entire disregard of methods. There are those persons who
+believe that teachers are born, not made, and that therefore a
+discussion of methods is useless. The born teacher, say these persons,
+just teaches naturally according to his own personality. To change his
+method would be to destroy his effectiveness. If he isn't a teacher then
+the study of methods will not make him one. In either case work done on
+methods is lost.
+
+Of course, experience refutes both contentions. It is admittedly true
+that great teachers are born to their work--that some individuals just
+naturally impress others and stimulate them to high ideals. And yet
+there is no one so gifted that he cannot improve through a study of the
+game he is to play. Most great athletes are by nature athletic. And yet
+every one of them trains to perfect himself. The best athletes America
+sent to the Olympic games were wonderfully capable men, but they were
+wonderfully trained men, as well. They had studied the _methods_ of
+their particular sports. Great singers are born with great vocal
+potentialities, but the greatest singers become so as the result of
+thorough training. _Methods_ elevate them to fame. What is true of the
+other arts ought also to be true of teaching.
+
+As to the class of teachers not born to the calling, it seems perfectly
+clear that here is the great opportunity for a study of the fundamentals
+underlying good teaching. Sound pedagogy is just a matter of good,
+common sense. Any normal person by studying how to do anything ought in
+the end to come to do that thing better than if he ignored it. I may not
+know how to operate an automobile. But if I study how to operate one, if
+I observe those who do know how, and if I practice operating one--surely
+I shall come to be more efficient as a chauffeur.
+
+But while many will admit that this law of development applies in the
+mechanical world, they hold that there is something mystic about
+teaching for which only a pedagogical birthright is a solution. The
+fallacy of such a contention seems too evident to call for argument. At
+least the only sensibly hopeful view to take in such a Church as ours,
+in which so many members must perforce be called to be teachers, is that
+power in teaching can be developed as it can in any other field of
+endeavor.
+
+The other bit of warning applies to the kind of teacher who is
+unalterably committed to a single method, not only as the best method,
+but the only one worth following. Method depends so essentially on the
+personality of the teacher, on the nature of the pupils taught, and on
+the subject matter to be presented, that it is a very dangerous thing to
+say that, in spite of circumstances, one method is invariably the best
+method.
+
+Let us, then, turn to the different methods and consider their relative
+values. Five possibilities immediately suggest themselves:
+
+  1. The story method.
+  2. The "reading 'round" method.
+  3. The special topic method.
+  4. The lecture method.
+  5. The discussion method, built up through questions and answers.
+
+1. _The Story Method._ The story is the method for childhood. "All the
+world loves a story." Children certainly are a part of that world. How
+they thrill in response to the appeal of a good story. Their little
+souls fairly seem to open to receive it. What an opportunity--what a
+sacred trust--is the teacher's as he undertakes to satisfy that soul
+hunger! The subject, the story, has been so fully gone into by Brother
+Driggs in his book, _The Art of Teaching_, that we need not attempt to
+discuss it fully here. Then, too, so many other excellent books have
+been written on the art of the story that the teacher need only be
+referred to them. Suffice it here to make two observations in passing.
+The best stories for purposes of religious instruction should possess
+four essential characteristics:
+
+Point--Brevity--Message--Adaptation to the experience of pupils.
+
+And, of course, this message should be a truth appropriate to the
+occasion--a message heightened by the spirit of the Gospel of Jesus
+Christ.
+
+The second observation has to do with the telling of the story.
+Naturally it should be well told. But the story hour should not be one
+of mere telling. The child, in addition to listening to the story,
+should be given opportunity to express its reaction to the story
+told--should be directed in discovering the avenue through which it will
+carry into action the emotion aroused by the story.
+
+2. _The "Reading 'Round" Method._ The old idea of a class coming
+together and sitting through a process of reading in turn from the one
+book in the class as it was passed about is largely a thing of the past.
+Let us hope that the day when neither teacher nor pupil prepared his
+lesson is gone forever. Surely "reading 'round" is a poor substitute for
+preparation. And it clearly is a dull, routine method of procedure. But
+there was one merit attached to it that is worthy our consideration. It
+did bring the scriptures into the hands of our pupils. Whatever method
+we may follow, this contact with the actual word of the Lord is a
+valuable asset. We cannot advocate resorting to the old notion of
+"reading 'round" as an apology for a recitation, but we can well point
+out the merit of seeing to it that pupils see and read the scriptures.
+If the lesson can be so conducted that reading is indulged in as a
+supplementary laboratory exercise--a turning through of gems that entice
+the reader to make further study of the book--then reading can be made a
+very valuable factor in the teaching process. Then, too, it is
+educational just to have members of a class turn through the scriptures
+to know what they are--what books are involved and where they may be
+found. Ignorance with respect to the scriptures is alarmingly prevalent.
+The following report taken from the _New York Tribune_ relative to a
+simple test in Bible literature, given by an Eastern university to 139
+students, is significant:
+
+"Out of 139 only 12 reached 75%; 90 received less than 50%; 10 could not
+name a single book of the Old Testament. Some who did spelled them
+Salms, Joob, etc. Some named Paul, Babylonians, and Gentiles as Old
+Testament books."
+
+Surely much might be said in favor of the use of books in our classes.
+
+3. _The Special Topic Method._ Much can be said both for and against the
+topic method. At least three objections to its use can be raised:
+
+A. It makes for piece-meal preparation. The lesson is partitioned off
+into segments, one of which may be prepared by a particular pupil who
+does not concern himself at all with the rest of the lesson. This
+method, therefore, encourages fragmentary and incomplete preparation.
+
+B. It makes for a disconnected presentation which makes it quite
+impossible for pupils to get a unified conception of the whole lesson.
+This is doubly bad, because of the fact that frequently those who are
+assigned parts absent themselves from class.
+
+C. It often results in dull, commonplace recitations. All too
+frequently, especially if topic assignments are the usual method of
+procedure, those pupils given the various topics to work up content
+themselves with very meagre preparation. They come to class, therefore,
+and merely run over so many facts wholly without inspiration and often
+by constant reference to notes or the text.
+
+Of course, these difficulties can be overcome largely by the judicious
+use of the topic method. It ought not generally to be followed as the
+regular order of business, but rather as a supplementary means of
+enriching the lesson. It ought not to be used so as to excuse all class
+members from regular preparation of the lesson as a whole. If the
+teacher will assign the lesson proper to all of the class and then
+select certain aspects--certain suggested problems--for more intensive
+research, the reports on special topics can be made to contribute
+wonderfully to the richness of the class hour. The topic method, then,
+is primarily a supplemental method, and if wisely used has these
+advantages:
+
+A. It makes for an enriched lesson. It makes possible expert opinion,
+and the results of special, careful investigation which the class as a
+whole would be unable to make.
+
+B. It lends variety to class procedure and guarantees that the teacher
+will not do all the talking.
+
+C. It fosters individual expression. It trains pupils to formulate an
+attack, to organize findings, and to stand and deliver a connected and
+well thought out message.
+
+D. It promotes a habit of investigation--it leads pupils to work out for
+themselves the problems of the Gospel which they encounter.
+
+4. _The Lecture Method._ The comment of a student of the Brigham Young
+University on the lecture method was unique: "The lecture method
+wouldn't be so bad if a teacher really lectured--he usually just talks.
+And talking a lot when you haven't much to say is pretty discouraging to
+a class."
+
+Aimless talking which indulges in the main in vague generalities can
+never be justified. _Preaching_ presumes a pulpit and has little place
+in classwork. The teacher who persists in talking most of the time
+overvalues his own thoughts and minimizes the ideas of others. Much
+talking stifles initiative and independent thinking. Then, too, it gives
+no opportunity for developing pupils' power of self-expression and
+provides no means for the teacher to check the reaction going on in the
+pupils' minds--assuming that one goes on! It is astonishing what
+erroneous notions members of a class can get from merely hearing a
+lesson presented. Given a chance to express their conclusions, they will
+themselves correct many of their false impressions.
+
+There are occasions, however, when a lecture is extremely valuable.
+Frequently after several weeks of discussion a class is hungry to hear
+"the truth about the matter." There is then afforded a splendid
+opportunity for the teacher to drive home a real message. Then, too,
+specialists, because of their advanced study on a particular subject,
+can often present in an hour the results of years of investigation.
+
+Furthermore, in a lecture, the teacher can make an emotional appeal
+which is practically out of the question in other methods. His
+enthusiasm and conviction can be made to "carry" his pupils to the
+contemplation of new truths. Used with discretion, the _real lecture_ is
+a valuable asset in teaching; indulged in regularly as _mere talking_ or
+_preaching_, the method ought certainly to be discouraged.
+
+5. _The Discussion Method._ This method, built upon questions and their
+answers, is commendable for its democracy and because of the fact that
+it stimulates both thought and discussion on the part of most if not all
+of the pupils. Questions are so vital to good teaching that Chapter XXI
+will be devoted to their consideration. Suffice it to say here that for
+all practical purposes it is the basis of the best teaching. Discussions
+make it possible to reach pupils "Where they are"--make it possible for
+everyone to contribute of his experience to everyone else.
+
+The one outstanding difficulty with the discussion method lies in the
+fact that it calls for such skilful direction. It so easily runs off on
+tangents that the teacher is kept on his mettle holding to the subject
+in hand.
+
+After all, each method has its advantages and its disadvantages. There
+are times when any one of them can be profitably used; it is clear that
+any one of them can be abused--can be made more or less monotonous.
+Perhaps we can wisely conclude that, "_The best method is a variety of
+methods._"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIX
+
+1. Why is it essential that teachers study methods of the recitation?
+
+2. What method do you regularly follow? Why?
+
+3. To what extent is it that a born teacher teaches without method?
+
+4. What is pedagogy?
+
+5. Discuss the relative value of each of the five methods listed in this
+chapter.
+
+6. Discuss the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods."
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Betts, _The Recitation_; Earhart, _Types
+of Teaching_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_; Strayer and Norsworthy,
+_How to Teach_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+REVIEW AND PREVIEW
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XX
+
+     The need of review in our Church teaching.--Review a real help to
+     learning in that it makes for: repetition, proper connection,
+     proper evaluation of truth.
+
+     An intelligent review is the result only of thorough preparation on
+     the part of the teacher.--Assignment and preparation.--Ability to
+     make assignments a test of good teaching.
+
+     Characteristics of a good assignment: It is definite.--It raises a
+     problem.--It connects with the experience of pupils.--It stimulates
+     to action.
+
+     General and specific assignments.--When to make assignments.
+
+
+Each organization within the Church follows regularly its own course of
+study. At the beginning of the year it sets out upon a prescribed
+subject subdivided according to the number of meetings scheduled for the
+year's work. As a result, no one lesson stands out independent of all
+others, but rather fits in naturally in a sequence of chapters each of
+which develops some aspects of one big subject. Because of such a plan
+the matters of review and preview take on vital significance. Each
+lesson should be made to link up naturally with what has already been
+presented and should point out by way of anticipation what is to follow.
+Many educators maintain that the ability to conduct a good review and to
+make an effective assignment are two of the surest tests of a good
+teacher.
+
+The problem of review is really one of the most fundamental processes in
+education. It is the great key to learning. Anyone who has enjoyed the
+fun of teaching young children how to read has been impressed with the
+fact that the child has to be led to see and repeat the simplest words
+over and over again before they are really mastered. It is really
+astonishing how many times as simple a word as "ran" has to be repeated
+before the beginner in reading gets it fully into his consciousness.
+This very difficulty of teaching mere words or letters has led to the
+abandonment of the old "A-B-C" drill as the first step in reading, and
+the substitution for it of an indirect method wherein, through the laws
+of association, groups of words and sentences are mastered as the
+symbols which express concrete and objectified ideas. But by way of
+experiment, one of the most impressive experiences open to teachers is
+to take a child of four or five that has not been taught to read and
+attempt to drill into its consciousness a group of half a dozen words as
+simple as these: cat, fan, hat, get, man, jam. To the teacher who has
+attempted such an experiment no argument is necessary to prove the
+significance of review and repetition.
+
+Review, then, first of all, is vitally essential because it makes
+possible impression through repetition which insures the fixing of
+ideas. Literally, review means to view again. Psychologically it is to
+repeat the processes of mind which were called into operation the first
+time the stimulus in question started a mental reaction. The nervous
+system of man is so constituted that in the acquirement of knowledge,
+each time the nerve centers react to the same stimulus, the tendency so
+to react becomes stronger, under the mere presence of the stimulus,
+starts up an automatic sort of reaction, and we say that the child knows
+the meaning of the object constituting the stimulus.
+
+Not only is review thus essential in the beginning of the learning
+process with children, but it remains a vital factor as long as men and
+women undertake to learn. Review guarantees recall, and recall
+re-establishes "nerve connections" to the permanent fixing of
+impressions. Very little of our knowledge remains ours to a purpose
+unless it is gone over and over until it is thoroughly established. A
+truth that is taught in a Mutual lesson on a particular Tuesday night,
+but which is never referred to again, and therefore never recalled, very
+likely will soon be gone out of consciousness and usefulness. Those
+truths and facts which are of greatest functioning value to us are those
+which we continue to run over in our minds and ponder. The reinforcement
+of review is what establishes our permanent working stock of truth.
+
+Not only is review valuable as a matter of recall, but it makes for an
+enrichment of mental content which is altogether desirable. The real art
+of review lies in calling up an old truth in a new setting. Upon second
+perusal it is seen in skilful review from a slightly different angle so
+that each recall adds a reinforcement that makes for a clinching of
+thought which makes it permanent. It very often happens that the first
+time an idea is called to our attention it means but little, because our
+mental reaction is limited in the particular field of the presentation;
+the same idea in a new setting more in keeping with our experience may
+take on an entirely different significance. That teaching is best,
+therefore, which presents truth from the greatest number of angles
+possible, thereby guaranteeing the richest kind of associations in the
+minds of pupils.
+
+Another value that attaches to the review lies in the fact that it makes
+possible proper connection between new material and old. It is axiomatic
+in teaching that pupils learn new truths and take on new experiences, in
+terms of the old. Teaching that unfolds--that develops new ideas that
+are built upon those already understood--is the kind of teaching
+attended by best results. In our organizations, meeting as we do only
+once a week, we must appreciate the fact that in the intervening time,
+between meetings, hundreds of ideas have crowded into the mind and have
+displaced those that may have been there as a result of our teaching. By
+calling to mind those ideas of a week ago, we not only reinforce them,
+but we start a chain of thought to which it will be very much easier to
+add the link of today's work than to proceed as if forging an entirely
+new chain.
+
+No farmer goes out and plants grain on the unplowed field. He plows and
+harrows that the soil may be prepared not only to receive the seed, but
+to make generation possible.
+
+A review simply turns over the stubble field of the preceding week's
+work, making ready for the planting of new seeds that they may generate
+and develop.
+
+Still a further value in the matter of review lies in the fact that the
+review makes more easily possible the proper evaluation of the facts
+taught. In every lesson there are major facts and truths presented and
+also those minor or subordinate ones that serve to amplify and
+illustrate. All too frequently a class becomes so involved in the minor
+details that it may fail to grasp fully the big, underlying truth. By
+careful review, the teacher can make the essentials stand out in relief.
+These are the things that need to be pondered. If they are properly
+grasped, thanks to the laws of association, most of the minor facts will
+naturally attach themselves, so that truths can be retained in all of
+their richness of detail.
+
+It is surprising to find how frequently pupils who have spent a year on
+the Book of Mormon have very little notion of the big, outstanding
+features of the book. They apparently have run over each week's lesson
+as so many independent facts, never coming back to single out the
+essential things in that early American civilization. Surely no class
+ought to complete the course without clearly comprehending such major
+items as:
+
+  The contribution each of the three colonies made to Book of Mormon
+  civilization.
+
+  The general geographical location of each colony.
+
+  The outstanding characters in the book.
+
+  The coming forth of the book.
+
+  Why it is essential.
+
+  How our faith depends largely upon it.
+
+  The ministry of the Savior on this continent.
+
+  Gospel teachings of the Book of Mormon.
+
+What is true of the study of the Book of Mormon is equally true of all
+other subjects. It is so easy to get lost in a maze of facts, in a
+course in the principles of the Gospel, and yet if a teacher will hold
+to such basic considerations as the articles of faith, coming back to
+them regularly and linking facts presented under the appropriate
+article, it is equally easy to complete the course with a clearly
+defined, skeletonized basis for all future study. Two conclusions seem
+obvious: as teachers we ought to conduct reviews regularly and
+frequently; we ought to prepare for them as one of the most vital
+factors in teaching.
+
+Important as is the review, the preview or assignment is equally vital.
+To quote from Colgrove's _The Teacher and the School_:
+
+   "_Importance and Value of Good Lesson Assignment._ From the foregoing
+   consideration it is clear that no other part of the teacher's work
+   exceeds in value and importance the proper planning and assignment of
+   the daily lessons. It is supplying the class and the school with a
+   definite plan of work. It is preparing the mind of each individual
+   pupil for the reception of new truths and whetting his intellectual
+   appetite for a feast of good things. It inspires confidence by
+   pointing out to the pupil just how he can use his past lessons and
+   acquisitions to make new conquests. It prevents pupils from
+   misunderstanding the lesson or approaching it with indifference or
+   positive aversion. It enables the pupil to approach the new lesson in
+   a perceiving mood, and helps pupils to form the habit of being
+   successful in their work and of making a daily application of their
+   old knowledge. It prevents the teacher from degenerating into a mere
+   talker, and, where textbooks are used, should be the most vital part
+   of the recitation."
+
+The assignment is the great guarantee of a good recitation. It sets up
+objectives--it points the way--it starts the thought process that is to
+produce a discussion worth while at the subsequent meeting of the class.
+
+Much has been said recently against the practice on the part of the
+teacher of saying, "Take chapter three for next time." There are
+superintendents of schools who refuse to keep such teachers in their
+service. To make such an assignment, particularly in classes that meet
+only once a week, and especially if the assignment is made, as is too
+usually the case, after the signal for class dismissal has been given,
+is to promise the pupils a week in advance that their next lesson will
+be very much of a failure.
+
+A good assignment is characterized by several very definite features. In
+the first place it is perfectly clear. Given at a time when pupils are
+following it, it gives specific direction as to the work to be done
+ahead in preparation. It indicates the direction of intellectual travel,
+points out sources of material, and indicates what is to be looked for.
+Reference or textbooks are so pointedly referred to that pupils not only
+remember their names, they want to turn to them to enjoy their
+contributions.
+
+In the second place, a good assignment raises a problem which is a
+challenge to the mental powers of pupils. It should carry a force of
+anticipation that capitalizes on that great mover to action--curiosity.
+For instance, if the lesson to be assigned is one on baptism, instead of
+simply naming certain pages in a text to be read, the skilful teacher
+may well challenge his class by bringing in a clipping from a periodical
+or from some other source attempting to prove that sprinkling is the
+correct method of baptism, or that baptism is not essential to a man's
+obtaining salvation? How can members of the class meet such an argument?
+One of their first thoughts will likely be a query as to where available
+material may be turned to. How easy, then, to give references, etc. Some
+such problem can be raised relative to every lesson taught, and it is a
+wonderful force as an intellectual appetizer. It should both prompt to
+action and point to the path to be followed.
+
+The question is often raised as to whether the assignment should be
+general or specific. Perhaps the best answer involves both kinds. There
+ought ordinarily to be a general assignment that affects all of the
+members of a class. The class is made up of all the individuals in the
+group--its discussing ought therefore to be so made up. But in addition
+to this general assignment, specific topics given to particular members
+add an enrichment to the recitation of very great value. The services of
+the specialist are always of inestimable value. That class is best
+wherein each member in turn becomes a specialist in looking up and
+bringing in vital observations on life.
+
+As to the best time for making assignments, it is rather hard to give a
+ruling that best fits all cases. Preferably the assignment should grow
+out of the discussion of the lesson in hand, and therefore logically
+comes at the end of the recitation rather than at the beginning. There
+are teachers, however, who, fearing interruption at the end of the hour,
+map out their work so carefully that they can make the assignment at the
+outset, merely calling attention to it at the close of the hour. All
+other things being equal, if the teacher will make himself hold sacred
+the time necessary at the end of the hour for this all important matter
+of assignment, it is likely that best results will follow having the
+assignment of the next lesson grow naturally out of the work of today.
+The important thing, however, is that at some point in the recitation,
+the teacher shall take plenty of time to make a carefully planned and
+challenging announcement of the work ahead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XX
+
+1. Why is it essential to good teaching that regular reviews be
+conducted?
+
+2. Why are reviews more necessary in our religious work than in regular
+school work?
+
+3. What are the chief purposes of a review?
+
+4. By taking a current lesson of one of the auxiliary organizations,
+illustrate the work done in a good review.
+
+5. Why it is of vital importance that a teacher give special preparation
+to a review?
+
+6. Show how good class preparation is conditional upon the proper kind
+of assignment.
+
+7. What are the characteristics of a good assignment?
+
+8. What is the best time for making the assignment?
+
+9. Show how to make a good assignment of a current lesson from one of
+the organizations.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Betts, _The Recitation_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Colvin, _The
+Learning Process_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Strayer and
+Norsworthy, _How to Teach_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE QUESTION AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXI
+
+     Taking Stock.--Miss Stevens' study on questioning.--Miss Stevens
+     quoted.--Various types of questions: a. The review question; b. The
+     fact question; c. The leading question; d. The thought or
+     challenging question.--Some questions on questioning.
+
+
+How many questions do you ask regularly during a recitation?
+
+What proportion of those questions are answered in full and complete
+statements?
+
+How many of the answers to your questions are a matter merely of memory?
+How many reveal original, creative thinking?
+
+Such questions as these not only impress us with the force of the
+question as a means of teaching, but they lead us to examine into our
+own method of asking them. The whole teaching process so easily and
+unconsciously develops into a matter of routine that it is good practice
+occasionally to take stock of ourselves. It is surprising to find how
+many teachers develop a particular type of question which becomes their
+sole stock in trade.
+
+Miss Ronniett Stevens, in her thesis, _The Question as a Measure of
+Efficiency in Instruction_, has made one of the most enlightening
+studies yet made on the matter of questioning. Her results are quoted by
+Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, in a passage of
+interest, not only because of Miss Stevens' findings, but also because
+of Mr. Weigle's own conclusions:
+
+   "One of the outstanding differences, in present practice, between the
+   public and the Sunday school, is that most public school teachers ask
+   too many questions and most Sunday school teachers do not ask
+   questions enough. For the first half of this statement there is
+   ample evidence in the careful study by Miss Ronniett Stevens on _The
+   Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction_. Miss Stevens
+   secured complete stenographic reports of twenty high school lessons
+   in English, history, science, Latin, modern languages, and
+   mathematics; she observed one hundred more such lessons chosen at
+   random, with a view to counting and noting the number and nature of
+   the questions asked in each; and she followed each ten classes
+   through an entire day's work for the purpose of studying the
+   aggregate question-stimulus to which each was subjected in the course
+   of the day.
+
+   "The results of her study are surprising. In only eight of the twenty
+   lessons completely reported the teacher asked less than ninety
+   questions in the period of forty-five minutes, the average being
+   sixty-eight. In each of the remaining twelve lessons more than ninety
+   questions were asked in the same period of time, the average being
+   128. A freshman class in high school, in a day's work of five periods
+   of forty minutes each, not counting gymnasium, was subjected to 516
+   questions and expected to return 516 answers, which is at the rate of
+   2:58 questions and 2:58 answers per minute. The lowest number of
+   questions recorded in a day's work for a class was 321, and the
+   average number 395.
+
+   "Such rapid-fire questioning, Miss Stevens rightly holds, defeats its
+   own ends. It maintains a nervous tension in the classroom that must
+   in the long run be injurious. More than that, it is a symptom of the
+   fact that the real work of the hour is being done by the teacher, and
+   the pupil's share is reduced simply to brief, punctuation-like
+   answers to the teacher's questions. Such questions appeal to mere
+   memory or to superficial judgment rather than to real thought; they
+   cultivate in the pupil neither independent judgment nor the power of
+   expression; they ignore individual needs and discourage initiative;
+   they make out of the classroom a place to display knowledge, rather
+   than a laboratory in which to acquire it.
+
+   "The second half of the proposition, that most Sunday school teachers
+   do not ask questions enough, has not been established by any such
+   investigation as that of Miss Stevens. A similar study, on the basis
+   of complete stenographic reports, of typical Sunday school lessons,
+   would be a most valuable addition to our resources in the field of
+   religious pedagogy. Till such a study is made, one must simply record
+   his conviction that Sunday school teachers, as a general rule, ask
+   too few, rather than too many questions. This conviction is based
+   upon general observation and upon the frequency of such remarks as,
+   'I just can't get my class to study,' 'There are only two or three
+   who ever answer my questions,' 'My pupils don't know anything about
+   the Bible,' 'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,'
+   etc." Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_.
+
+The whole matter of questioning can be made to stand out most clearly,
+perhaps, by listing the various types of question, the purposes which
+each type serves, and the characteristics of a good question.
+
+First of all there is the _Review question_. The great purpose of this
+type of question is to systematize knowledge. Of course, it is valuable
+as an aid to recollection--it is a challenge to memory--but it is
+particularly helpful in that it makes the big essential points in a
+course stand out in relief with minor points properly correlated and
+subordinated. The review question is a guide to the pupil whereby he may
+see the relative significance of the work he has covered. One of our
+great difficulties lies in the fact that our teaching is so largely
+piece-meal. Today's lesson is hurried through, isolated as it is from
+all that has gone before and all that may follow. The successful teacher
+through the review makes each lesson a link in the chain of thought that
+underlies the whole development of the subject in hand.
+
+The review question is essentially a carefully thought out, searching
+inquiry. It calls for a turning over, in the mind, of the material of
+the whole course and therefore should allow ample time for pondering. If
+it does not stimulate a "weighing process," it likely is merely a fact
+question--a test of memory. Of course, there is a place at times for
+this hurried type of question, but it serves the purpose only of
+"connecting up" and should not be mistaken for the evaluating question
+of review.
+
+The following questions on the expulsion of the Saints from Missouri are
+illustrative review questions:
+
+1. To what extent, if any, were the Latter-day Saints themselves
+responsible for their expulsion from Missouri?
+
+2. To what extent were the persecutions of Missouri political?
+Religious?
+
+3. How do you account for the fact that the Lord's people have always
+been a chastened people?
+
+4. Show how the Missouri persecutions have been ultimately a blessing to
+the Latter-day Saints.
+
+The second type of question is the _fact_ question. It serves to check
+up on mental alertness and recall. It is often helpful in arresting
+attention and therefore has a certain disciplinary function. The
+teacher, of course, must make sure that his pupils are grasping the
+subject-matter presented, and the fact question serves admirably as a
+test of knowledge. It is usually a short question calling for a short
+answer, and therefore may be used in a rapid-fire way that stimulates
+thought. It is this type of question that is hurled so frequently at
+classes with the consequences pointed out in the quotation from Miss
+Stevens.
+
+The same author lists as objections to the continued use of these
+rapid-fire questions the following bad features. They result in:
+
+1. Nervous tension.
+
+2. The teacher's doing most of the work.
+
+3. Emphasis upon memory and superficial judgment.
+
+4. Little time for the art of expression.
+
+5. Little attention to the needs of particular individuals in a class.
+
+6. The class being made a place for displaying knowledge.
+
+7. Little self-reliant, independent thinking.
+
+As illustrative of the fact question may we set down the following:
+
+Who was Joseph Smith?
+
+What was his father's name?
+
+What was his mother's name?
+
+Where was he born?
+
+How old was he when he received his first vision?
+
+When did he receive the plates?
+
+The _challenging question_ and the _leading question_ are closely enough
+allied that we may well discuss them together. They are both intended to
+provoke creative thinking. The leading question aims to capitalize on
+what is already in the pupil's mind in getting him to go one step
+further to a conclusion we already have in mind. Instead of telling a
+class of young children that Joseph Smith prayed to the Lord for help in
+choosing the church to which he might best belong, we might proceed by
+saying that the Prophet had asked his father and mother--he had asked
+his best friends--he had talked with all the ministers he could find--he
+had read in all of the available books--now who can tell what else he
+could do? The chief merit of the leading question lies in the fact that
+it paves the way for the answer. It is particularly helpful in
+encouraging young and backward pupils. But is easily subject to abuse.
+So much so that its use is very largely restricted in law courts. It
+results too frequently in the teacher's thinking for the pupil, and
+therefore ought to be used with care.
+
+The challenging question is the question that fosters originality of
+thought, independence of judgment. It simply raises a problem and leaves
+pupils free to arrive at their own conclusions. It makes for an
+intelligent faith so much desired in a democratic Church such as ours.
+It is the one question above all others that guarantees a vital class
+distinction.
+
+Of course, there is a place for all four of these types of questions.
+As was said relative to the methods of the recitation, the best method
+is a variety of methods. So with questions. It is perfectly clear,
+however, that for general purposes that question which prompts greatest
+reflection and independent thinking is the best one to indulge most
+frequently. The following questions out of a lesson on Joseph Smith's
+First Vision are set down as typical of thought-provoking questions:
+
+1. In view of the fact that when men choose a man for president of a
+bank they look for a man of maturity and experience, how do you explain
+that Joseph Smith, a mere boy, with little training or experience, was
+entrusted with the great responsibility of founding what we claim is the
+greatest institution of these latter days?
+
+2. How can you convince the world that a just God would declare that
+none of their churches is right?
+
+3. What vital truths are announced to the world through his first
+vision?
+
+Let us conclude this chapter with one more quotation from Miss Stevens.
+When asked to name the three outstanding characteristics of a good
+question, she set them down as follows:
+
+1. A good question should stimulate reflection.
+
+2. It should be adapted to the experience of the pupil.
+
+3. It should draw forth a well-rounded answer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON QUESTIONING
+
+Do I call on my pupils to recite in a fixed order, according to alphabet
+or seating, so that they are warned not to attend till their turn comes?
+
+Do I name the pupil who is to answer before I put the question?
+
+Do I ask direct questions or alternative questions which can be
+answered without knowledge or thought?
+
+Do I ask chiefly fact questions?
+
+Do I ask leading or suggestive questions?
+
+Do I repeat my questions? Attention.
+
+Do I answer my own questions?
+
+Do I ask confusing, changed questions?
+
+Do I ask foolish questions that no one can answer?
+
+Do my questions make pupils think?
+
+Do my questions follow up the answer and lead to new organization of
+knowledge?
+
+Do I repeat the pupil's answer?
+
+Do my questions reach all the members of the class?
+
+Do I make the recitation an inquisition, or do I pursue a slow pupil and
+listen while pupils express themselves freely and naturally?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXI
+
+1. Why is it essential that we prepare questions as we do other
+material?
+
+2. What are the dangers that attend the asking of a great number of fact
+questions?
+
+3. Discuss the relative value of the "W's"--what, who, when, where, and
+why.
+
+4. Discuss each of the questions on questioning in this chapter.
+
+5. Bring in three thought-provoking questions on one of the current
+lessons in the month's work of one of the auxiliary organizations.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Fitch, _The Art of Questioning_; Stevens, _The Question as a Measure of
+Efficiency in Instruction_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_;
+Horne, _Story Telling, Questioning, and Studying_; Brumbaugh, _The
+Making of a Teacher_; Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXII
+
+     A popular misconception of discipline.--Discipline inherent in
+     teaching.--Importance of discipline in our religious
+     teaching.--Changed attitude within the past three centuries toward
+     discipline.--What discipline is.
+
+     Methods of securing discipline: The method of rewards; The method
+     of "pleasing the teacher"; The method of punishment; The method of
+     social appeal; The method of interest.
+
+     The importance of a proper attitude on the part of one who
+     disciplines.--What constitutes such an attitude?
+
+
+Back in 1916 the writer of these chapters was invited to address a group
+of teachers on the subject of discipline. This particular lecture came
+toward the end of a series of lectures given on the various pedagogical
+truths underlying teaching. One particular teacher, who had listened to
+all of the lectures, expressed appreciation of the fact that discipline
+was to be discussed--it apparently was his one concern, as indicated in
+his remark:
+
+"We have listened to some excellent theories in these lectures. But I
+have to teach a class of real live boys and girls. How can I keep the
+little rascals quiet long enough to work the theories out?"
+
+The remark expresses admirably the attitude of very many teachers
+relative to discipline. They regard teaching as one thing--discipline as
+quite another. With them discipline involves some sort of magic process
+or the application of some iron rule authority, which secures order that
+teaching may then be indulged in. As a matter of fact, discipline is
+inherent in good teaching. It is not a matter of correction so much as a
+matter of prevention. The good disciplinarian anticipates
+disorder--directs the energies of his pupils so that the disorder is
+made impossible by attention to legitimate interests.
+
+Discipline is one of the most pressing problems in the quorums and
+organizations of the Church today. On every hand the complaint is
+registered that proper respect is not shown, either for those in
+important positions or for our places of worship.
+
+The spirit that accompanies the political rally or basketball game, held
+in our amusement halls, too frequently is carried into our sacred
+meetings. The spirit of unconcern is carried into our classrooms until
+all too often to call the condition one of disorder is a very inadequate
+description of the procedure.
+
+It is interesting to note the changing attitude generally in the matter
+of discipline. The harshness of other days is largely replaced by a
+leniency that borders on "easiness." Our whole attitude toward criminals
+has been revolutionized, and our human impulses have carried over into
+the realm of teaching, until now, at least in the opinion of very many
+critics, we have drifted largely into "soft pedagogy"--a process of
+trying to please regardless of the consequences.
+
+Earlier treatises on education devoted a good bit of space to the amount
+and kind of punishment that should be administered in a well-ordered
+school. Punishment is decidedly out of taste these days. The biography
+of an old German master discloses the fact that during his teaching
+career he had administered 911,527 raps with his cane, 20,989 with a
+ruler, 136,715 with his hand, and that he was responsible for 1,115,800
+slaps on the head. The same attitude is reflected in the fact that in
+England, as late as the year 1800, two hundred twenty-three offenses
+were punishable by death. The offenses included shooting rabbits,
+stealing, defacing Westminster Bridge, etc. In our day we hesitate to
+apply the extreme penalty even to the murderer.
+
+The attitude toward the content of teaching has undergone a change quite
+in keeping with that attached to method. There was a time when
+pedagogical philosophy rather hinted, "It doesn't make any difference
+what you teach a boy, as long as he doesn't like it." The hint these
+days might more nearly read: "It doesn't make any difference how
+valuable certain material is for a boy, don't attempt to teach it to him
+unless it fascinates him." Our effort to interest our pupils has
+practically resulted in taking the scriptures, particularly the Old
+Testament, out of our organizations. Of course, the doctrine of interest
+is a very vital one, but there are bounds beyond which we ought not to
+push it.
+
+It is, therefore, perfectly obvious that there is urgent need of
+discipline. Any effort at social control demands it. The army succeeds
+as it does because of its discipline. Wherever a group of individuals
+undertake action in common, every member must be willing to sink
+_interests_ of _self_ in _welfare_ of _others_. As was pointed out in
+the chapter on Individual Differences, a class is made up of all kinds
+of individuals. They vary in capacity, in ideals, in training, in
+attitude, in disposition, and in purpose. Manifestly group progress will
+be made possible in any such case by a mutual willingness to
+co-operate--a willingness to attend a discussion even though not
+particularly interested in it, but because it may be of concern to
+someone else whose interests I have undertaken to promote. My very
+presence in the class imposes such a responsibility upon me.
+
+It is essential in a discussion of discipline that we agree as to just
+what discipline is. It is not _mere silence_. Silent "quietness" may be
+agreeable, but it certainly does not make for achievement. Such silence
+would be of little worth if it could be achieved, and it cannot be
+achieved with twentieth century human beings. The question of the lad
+who had been taken to task for his disturbance is always refreshing. The
+teacher, after a somewhat prolonged scolding, had concluded:
+
+"Now, Tommie, do be quiet."
+
+"What fur?"
+
+The English may not be the choicest, but the sense is wonderfully
+significant to the teacher who would really understand the problem of
+discipline.
+
+Discipline is not repression. The _D_ of discipline and the _D_ of don't
+have been confused all too often. Just as the too frequent use of the
+brakes on an automobile ruins the lining, so the too frequent "don't" of
+repression ruins the "goodwill lining" of the boy, and when that lining
+is gone the "brake squeaks," and in emergencies doesn't hold at all.
+
+Discipline rather consists in that direction of wholesome activity which
+creates an atmosphere of intellectual endeavor in which every individual
+of a group can profitably follow his own interests while allowing every
+other individual to do the same thing free from interference. Discipline
+makes it possible for all to do the thing to be done to advantage. It
+may at times require silence, it may involve vigorous action--it always
+presumes intelligent direction that holds those concerned to the orderly
+pursuit of an established goal.
+
+Various means have been devised for the securing of discipline. The
+_doctrine of rewards_ has been and still is being followed extensively.
+To give an individual something for being good has never appealed to
+educators as fundamentally sound. It puts a false evaluation upon
+virtue. It may be that such a policy must be resorted to in emergencies,
+but followed regularly it is likely to be attended with disastrous
+results. The boy who has regularly to be bought into doing what he
+should will likely raise his price until the method of rewards becomes
+ruinous both to the father and the boy. To "heroize" a boy in class
+every time he does a meritorious act will very likely spoil him.
+Encouragement, of course, is helpful, but it ought not to be
+overindulged. A stick of candy may induce a child to go to bed agreeably
+each night, but the candy may spoil other things than the bedspread.
+Moral fibre is built up by developing the habit of doing a thing because
+it is right--because it ought to be done. There are teachers and
+preachers who hold the interest of those taught by tickling their ears
+with material, either funny or nonsensical. There is a question whether
+it is not a dangerous practice in an effort to win them to what should
+be an attitude of religious devotion.
+
+Then there is the doctrine that children should be good to please their
+parents and teachers. This doctrine is akin to that of rewards. It sets
+up something of a false ideal, though of course it is a splendid thing
+to teach appreciation of those who help us. Much can be defended which
+seeks to inculcate in the minds of children reverence for their elders.
+The chief difficulty lies in the fact that this doctrine may not
+continue to appeal as fundamentally sound.
+
+A third method for securing discipline is to compel it. This is to
+resort to the law of things. A certain amount of law should characterize
+both the home and the classroom. Obedience and order are the first laws
+of heaven and are essential to good social environment. But the law
+should be so administered that the obedience exacted rests upon an
+intelligent understanding of the purpose behind the law. Otherwise there
+comes a time when mere authority fails to control. It is a good thing to
+train children to abide by regulations out of a sense of duty. If duty
+and love can be coupled, the combination makes for permanent
+law-abiding. Arbitrary authority and blind obedience have produced
+Germany. Strong leadership coupled with democratic co-operation and
+loyalty have produced America.
+
+Still another doctrine of discipline rests upon a social appeal. Members
+of a group agree that in the interest of everyone's welfare each
+individual will subscribe to certain conditions regardless of their
+application to him. This principle, fundamental in all democracies, can
+safely be trusted to secure desired results in groups mature enough to
+assure sound judgment. The sense of justice in the human soul is a safe
+guarantee of both liberty and good order. Many of our classes no doubt
+could be improved noticeably if we could enlist the co-operation of the
+members to the extent that they would assume to govern themselves.
+
+Finally there is the doctrine of interest as a means of maintaining
+discipline. This doctrine implies that a teacher should get his class so
+interested in doing what he wants it to do that it hasn't any
+inclination to do what it ought not to do. This doctrine is not the
+pernicious doctrine hinted at earlier in this chapter of cheapening
+everything into "easiness." Genuine interest may lead not only to
+effort, but to sacrifice. The boy who plays football does not play
+because of the ease of the game--he is fascinated by his interest in the
+struggle. Ample preparation and a complete understanding of pupils will
+make possible an interest that disciplines without any evidence of
+discipline. Surely this is the modern doctrine of discipline, though
+with it should be coupled that wholesome respect for authority that
+prompts citizens to abide by the law.
+
+No discussion of discipline would be complete which did not mention at
+least the significance of attitude on the part of one who disciplines.
+In so many cases when a boy is corrected he complains of the teacher,
+
+"Oh, well, he's got it in for me."
+
+It is always interesting to know whether a parent or teacher disciplines
+a child because the child needs it, or because the parent or teacher is
+unnerved and has to give expression to his feelings. The disciplinarian
+who can correct, when correction is necessary, both in firmness yet in
+fairness, so that the person who is corrected is made to feel that the
+correction grows out of a desire to help rather than merely to
+punish--that disciplinarian will exert an influence for good that is
+hard to estimate. He is both a friend and a benefactor.
+
+Let us conclude this chapter with that wonderful passage from the
+Doctrine & Covenants which gives us the word of the Lord on this matter
+of controlling others:
+
+   "Behold, there are many called, but few are chosen. And why are they
+   not chosen?
+
+   "Because their hearts are set so much upon the things of this world,
+   and aspire to the honors of men, that they do not learn this one
+   lesson--
+
+   "That the rights of the Priesthood are inseparably connected with the
+   powers of heaven, and that the powers of heaven cannot be controlled
+   nor handled only upon the principles of righteousness.
+
+   "That they may be conferred upon us, it is true; but when we
+   undertake to cover our sins, or to gratify our pride, our vain
+   ambitions, or to exercise control, or dominion, or compulsion, upon
+   the souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness,
+   behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is
+   grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the Priesthood, or the
+   authority of that man.
+
+   "Behold! ere he is aware, he is left unto himself, to kick against
+   the pricks; to persecute the Saints, and to fight against God.
+
+   "We have learned, by sad experience, that it is the nature and
+   disposition of almost all men, as soon as they get a little
+   authority, as they suppose, they will immediately begin to exercise
+   unrighteous dominion.
+
+   "Hence many are called, but few are chosen.
+
+   "No power or influence can or ought to be maintained by virtue of the
+   Priesthood, only by persuasion, by long suffering, by gentleness, and
+   meekness, and by love unfeigned;
+
+   "By kindness, and pure knowledge, which shall greatly enlarge the
+   soul without hypocrisy, and without guile;
+
+   "Reproving betimes with sharpness, when moved upon by the Holy Ghost,
+   and then showing forth afterwards an increase of love toward him whom
+   thou hast reproved, lest he esteem thee to be his enemy;
+
+   "That he may know that thy faithfulness is stronger than the cords of
+   death;
+
+   "Let thy bowels also be full of charity towards all men, and to the
+   household of faith, and let virtue garnish thy thoughts unceasingly,
+   then shall thy confidence wax strong in the presence of God, and the
+   doctrine of the Priesthood shall distil upon thy soul as the dews
+   from heaven.
+
+   "The Holy Ghost shall be thy constant companion, and thy sceptre an
+   unchanging sceptre of righteousness and truth, and thy dominion shall
+   be an everlasting dominion, and without compulsory means it shall
+   flow unto thee forever and ever." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 121:34-46.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXII
+
+1. What constitutes good discipline?
+
+2. What factors contribute to make discipline a real problem in our
+Church?
+
+3. Discuss our attitude toward discipline today as compared with the
+attitude toward it a generation ago.
+
+4. Name the various methods of securing discipline.
+
+5. Discuss their relative values.
+
+6. Why is the teacher's attitude so important a factor in discipline?
+
+7. What qualities are involved in the proper attitude?
+
+8. Discuss preparation in its bearing upon discipline.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Doctrine & Covenants; Bagley, _School Discipline_; O'Shea, _Everyday
+Problems in Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Dewey,
+_Interest and Effort in Education_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+CREATING CLASS SPIRIT
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIII
+
+     The "pull" of a good class.--The appeal of an attractive
+     classroom.--Making it "our room."--The teacher and class
+     spirit.--Capitalizing on the leadership of the class.--Stimulating
+     free participation.--Out of class activities.--Some possibilities.
+
+
+There is a "pull" to certain classes--a pull that has all the force of a
+magnet. Pupils not only go to such a class willingly, but anticipate
+with pleasure the approach of the recitation hour. When duty is coupled
+with pleasure, there is a force for righteousness that is beyond
+measure. Of the various factors that contribute to the creation of a
+class spirit, the following are offered as being among the most helpful.
+
+1. _An Attractive Classroom._ While it is true that most of the
+organizations in the Church do not have surplus funds for beautifying
+their buildings, and while it is equally true that many a good lesson
+has been conducted on the dirt floors of long cabins, it is equally true
+that rooms can be beautified, and that pleasant surroundings can be made
+a potent force in holding to our organizations the men and women and
+boys and girls of the Church. Of course, elaborate, expensive
+decorations ought to be discouraged. Simplicity always is more
+consistent with the spirit of worship than is extravagance. But contrast
+the difference in effect on children of a bare, untidy, makeshift room
+as against a cozy room decorated with a few beautiful pictures or
+draperies and made homelike with comfortable seats and tidy arrangement.
+
+Nor is any great expense involved. The writer recalls visiting a
+kindergarten class in one of the schools in Salt Lake County. The ward
+authorities had not been asked for a dollar to fit up the room, and yet
+it had one of the "homiest" atmospheres imaginable. The teacher of the
+class, in addition to having an interest in the class, had an artistic
+temperament. She had collected through a number of years the most
+beautiful pictures that had appeared in the magazines. These in their
+home-made frames transformed the walls of her room into a veritable art
+gallery--wherever the eye of the visitor rested, it was greeted by a
+picture that, through its beauty, drove home an appreciation of the
+finer things of life. The children, too, had been stimulated to a pride
+in their room. They had brought in the available old rags from their
+homes and, as the result of a Sunday School entertainment which they had
+put on with the co-operation of the other departments of the school,
+they had had the rags woven into one of those cheerful, old-fashioned
+home-made carpets. It was perfectly clear that the children took delight
+in going to this "their room" each Sunday morning. Their pride prompted
+them to take care of what they regarded as their room, and made for a
+spirit of quiet and good order hard to surpass.
+
+During the course in teacher-training at Provo, last summer, one of the
+members of the class courteously took the pains to see that a bouquet of
+flowers adorned the teacher's desk each day that the class met. It is
+impossible to estimate the effect of those flowers. Their beauty,
+coupled with the thoughtfulness that brought them in, made for a
+"fragrance of spirit" that exerted a remarkable influence.
+
+Once the idea becomes established, pupils will take delight in making
+their classroom a place in which they will love to meet.
+
+2. _The Teacher._ We have already discussed at length the personality of
+the teacher and its force in teaching. We need only emphasize the fact
+here that the magnetism of the teacher, either through what he is or
+what he gives, is the one great factor that makes for class spirit. The
+class inevitably reflects the attitude of the man who directs it. He
+must radiate enthusiasm before it can be caught by his pupils. His
+inspiration in making them feel that their class is "the one class" of
+an organization is only too gladly responded to by those whom he
+teaches. If he impresses the class with the fact that he joins with them
+because he loves so to do rather than because he has a duty to
+perform--if he makes suggestions in the interest of a better class--if
+he starts out by doing something himself by way of a contribution to the
+class and its spirit--he can be reasonably sure that his class will come
+more than half-way to join in his plans.
+
+Not only his attitude is a vital factor--his preparation must be of the
+same enthusiastic type. A pupil of a very successful teacher in Salt
+Lake City recently made the remark, "I wouldn't think of missing
+Brother ----'s class. He gives me food for a week." Pressed as to the
+explanation of this enthusiasm, he added, "Brother ---- is unique. He
+always attacks a subject in such a new and thorough way. He goes below
+the surface and really teaches us the Gospel." It is not strange, of
+course, that such advertising on the part of class members has built up
+an enrollment of some seventy-five pupils. Let us, then, remind
+ourselves that boys like a teacher
+
+  "Who has pep,"
+  "Who tells us something new,"
+  "Who doesn't preach at us."
+
+3. _Capitalizing on the Leadership of the Class._ Just as in every band
+of horses there is a leader, so there is in every group of boys and
+girls. And as with the leaders, so with the followers. "Get the
+leaders," says a veteran horseman, "and you have all the rest." It is
+frequently the case that a teacher does not know intimately all of his
+pupils. Perhaps in many cases that teacher can know well a few of the
+outstanding leaders. He can well accompany them on hikes, can take them
+to a theatre, a ball game, or for a ride. If he wins them they become
+his lieutenants--they make his class. A word from him and these "under
+officers" lead the whole class to the desired reaction. "Take your
+leading pupils into your confidence and they will establish you in the
+confidence of all the rest." The experience is related of a teacher sent
+into southern Utah to take charge of a class of boys who had "dismissed"
+three teachers already, within the first half year of school. When the
+newcomer arrived, the air was full of rumblings as to what was to become
+of number four. He was variously cautioned to make an early departure,
+to go into school "armed" to "expect anything." But this particular
+teacher appreciated the fact that he was best armed when backed by the
+confidence and good will of his class. It was an easy matter to have
+pointed out for him "the meanest boy of the lot." This boy he sought out
+and found playing a game of horseshoe. Invited to take a place in the
+game, he entered the circle of the "outlaws" by winning decisively from
+their champion--"the meanest boy." To this boy, the new teacher was a
+"real fellow." Whatever he said, went! The word was circulated overnight
+among the boys of the town. The teacher already was master of the
+situation. "The meanest boy," instead of being the chief outlaw, now
+took pride in being chief lieutenant. Winning the leader won the group,
+and teacher number four not only stayed the year out, but was petitioned
+to come back a second year. As a matter of fact, he says, he taught
+school in that town for seven years.
+
+4. _Putting a Premium on Participation._ One of the most interesting
+classes the writer has ever visited was a theological class in the
+Granite Stake. The teacher was committed to the policy of taking as
+little as possible of the class period himself, but he was also
+committed to the policy of getting his pupils to do the most possible.
+For the particular day in question he had assigned a discussion of
+baptism. One member of the class had been asked to discuss sprinkling as
+the correct method, another had been assigned immersion. The two young
+men brought in their findings as if they had been trained for a debate.
+Within the forty minutes devoted to the recitation baptism had been gone
+into as thoroughly as the writer has ever seen it gone into during the
+course of a single lesson, and the members of the class had been
+delightfully entertained and enlightened. When the bell rang announcing
+the close of the recitation, the class petitioned to have the discussion
+continued the following Sunday. It was perfectly clear how the teacher
+had built up his enrollment.
+
+It is fundamental in human nature to love social combat. The clash of
+mind versus mind makes a wonderful appeal. Witness a political
+convention or an open forum debate! Let it be known that a vital subject
+is to be discussed by men who are really prepared and other men bestir
+themselves to be in attendance. Surely no subjects are full of more
+vital significance than questions of life and life eternal. If a teacher
+will take the pains to select attention-compelling headings and then
+stimulate representative members of his class really to work out
+something of a contribution, he need have no fear of the success of his
+class. Such procedure not only guarantees a good class--it promotes
+faith on the part of those participating as few other things can. Too
+frequently we content ourselves with the routine of commonplace "talk."
+There is no enthusiasm in mere routine as there is none in listless
+listening to generalities. Our effort should be to make our classes
+intellectual social centers with everybody participating.
+
+5. _Promoting Class Activities Out of Hours._ The Seventies who
+harvested the grain for the widow of one of their members did a splendid
+bit of service, not only for her but for their own quorum. A common
+objective in service made for a common bond in fellowship.
+
+The Primary class that was stimulated to take a basket of flowers to one
+of its sick members was helped not only in the making of someone happy,
+but in building up a class spirit that guaranteed success.
+
+There are so many possibilities open to the teacher who really cares.
+Just the other evening the teacher of a class of Bee Hive girls called
+them together for a little social entertainment that they might talk
+over plans for the approaching season. What a capital attitude? Not to
+wait till the season opened, but to take the pains to look up the
+available, prospective class members and make ready for an enthusiastic
+campaign. Of course, such a teacher will succeed.
+
+Class socials of all sorts, baseball teams, authors' clubs, bits of ward
+service, visits to institutions of interest--scores of worthy
+opportunities present themselves always to the teacher who is anxious to
+build up a genuine class spirit. And that spirit is the one great
+guarantee of real joy in teaching--it makes a class one which its
+members will always hold in memory.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIII
+
+1. Why is it essential that a teacher build up a class spirit?
+
+2. Give three practical suggestions on the subject of beautifying
+classrooms.
+
+3. Discuss the importance of the attitude of a teacher in promoting
+class spirit.
+
+4. Point out possible methods for enlisting the co-operation of class
+leaders.
+
+5. What do you consider your best method of stimulating members to
+participate in class discussions?
+
+6. What kind of class activities contribute most to the life of your
+class?
+
+7. Discuss the advisability of promoting class athletic teams.
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School
+Teachers_; Dewey, _Interest and Effort in Education_; O'Shea, _Everyday
+Problems in Teaching_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of
+Childhood_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+CONVERSION--THE REAL TEST OF TEACHING
+
+     OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIV
+
+     Character, a great power in conversion.--Our concern the converted
+     teacher and also the converted pupil.--The converted teacher
+     believes what he teaches.--The converted teacher practices what he
+     teaches.--The force of "Come, follow me."--What makes for
+     conversion.--The teacher's obligation to kindle the spiritual
+     fire.--His obligation to feature testimony-bearing.--His obligation
+     to take his pupils where they will feel the spirit of testimony.
+
+
+A number of years ago a young graduate of one of our eastern
+universities was employed to teach science in a school in Japan. He was
+employed with the understanding that though he was free to advance
+whatever scientific theories he chose he should say nothing about his
+Christian religion. He accepted the conditions gladly, and during the
+first year of his service was careful not even to mention Christianity.
+He not only taught his classes in science, but he joined with the boys
+in their athletics and in their social life generally. Being both an
+athlete and a leader, he was soon looked to as the life of the school.
+His clean life was an inspiration. He inevitably set a Christian
+standard. Before the end of the second year, though he had preached
+never a word, forty young men made application for membership in his
+church. His life and ideals had converted them as no preaching could
+have done.
+
+What was true in this case is inevitably true in the case of all real
+teachers. What a man is breathes a power of conversion that no force or
+argument can equal. Hence this concluding chapter--Conversion, the Real
+Test of Teaching.
+
+First of all, we are concerned with the conversion of the teacher;
+secondly, with the conversion of the pupil. They are inseparably
+interwoven. Only the converted teacher can make converts of his pupils.
+And surely there is very great need of this very thing--_the making of
+real converts of our boys and girls_ that they may come fully to
+appreciate the significance of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon them
+rests the carrying forward of that great work which only the
+_conversion_ of our pioneer forefathers could have achieved.
+
+In the first place, the converted teacher _believes_ what he teaches.
+There is no half-hearted attitude toward the subject in hand. To him it
+is both true and vital. He teaches with a positiveness and an assurance
+which grip pupils. What a difference between the speech in which a
+speaker merely makes certain observations--sets forth certain specified
+facts--and the speech in which those same facts are heightened by that
+glow of conviction which stamps them as indispensably essential to
+proper living. The prayer of a man who does not believe in prayer is an
+example of the emptiness of unbelief. There is one minister in Chicago
+who openly announces that God does not and can not answer the prayers of
+mankind. And yet he prays. And what mockery is his praying. Mere words.
+No man is ever touched by such an empty form. Such prayers have none of
+that _Heaven Force_ which establishes communion with the Lord. Surely
+"They draw near me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me."
+
+To everyone comes the experience of listening to the heavy phrases of
+him who would argue and harrangue his auditors into salvation. How his
+words seem not only to close their minds, but to shut their hearts as
+well. He fairly talks so loudly that they can't hear him. And then some
+humble follower of Him who shunned the orator's eloquence moves to
+tears the same audience by his simple utterance of what he knows and
+feels to be true. He adds the conviction of conversion to mere
+"hard-headedness." When a man knows that which he teaches is true there
+is a spirit that gives power to what he says. "The letter killeth, but
+the spirit giveth life."
+
+The experience of a Montana railroad executive gives force to this
+thought. He told one of our leaders how he had always been impressed
+with the achievements of our Church. In fact, he became such an admirer
+of the wonderful organization of the "Mormon" Church that he decided to
+adopt the same kind of organization in his railroad. To quote: "I
+thought if I could apply the same system up here that you have in the
+'Mormon' Church it would work just the same for me as it did for you. I
+have copied its plan with the First Presidency, the Council of the
+Twelve, the Presiding Bishop, and all the other officers. I have tried
+it--but it wouldn't work for me." Only a Latter-day Saint can fully
+understand why.
+
+And so the teacher who would become a converter must feel the truth of
+what he teaches so that a spirit of conviction extends from him to his
+class and so takes hold of the members that they, too, feel the truth of
+what he says. In short, the real teacher must have a testimony of the
+truthfulness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. He must be caught up by that
+same spirit that opened the heavens to the Prophet Joseph Smith--only
+then can he really teach. The Lord has so revealed:
+
+   "And they shall observe the covenants and church articles to do them,
+   and these shall be their teaching, as they shall be directed by the
+   Spirit;
+
+   "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the prayer of faith, and
+   if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec.
+   42:13, 14.)
+
+   "Verily I say unto you, he that is ordained of me and sent forth to
+   preach the word of truth by the Comforter, in the Spirit of Truth,
+   doth he preach it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?
+
+   "And if it be by some other way, it is not of God.
+
+   "And again, he that receiveth the word of truth, doth he receive it
+   by the Spirit of Truth or some other way?
+
+   "If it be some other way it be not of God:
+
+   "Therefore, why is it that ye cannot understand and know that he that
+   receiveth the word by the Spirit of Truth, receiveth it as it is
+   preached by the Spirit of Truth?
+
+   "Wherefore, he that preacheth and he that receiveth, understandeth
+   one another, and both are edified and rejoice together;
+
+   "And that which doth not edify is not of God and is darkness;
+
+   "That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light and
+   continueth in God, receiveth more light, and that light groweth
+   brighter and brighter until the perfect day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec.
+   50:17-24.)
+
+In the second place, the teacher's belief must be translated into daily
+life. "Come, follow me," is the admonition that makes for conversion. A
+young man recently, in characterizing the biggest failure among teachers
+that he had ever known, remarked, "He simply couldn't teach us anything.
+He started in by giving us a vigorous lecture against tobacco, but
+before a week had passed we all knew that he himself smoked. He might
+just as well have given up teaching right there. We couldn't see any
+truth in him after that, for the 'smoke' of his own deception."
+
+Of course, he was not converted. A similar experience is related of the
+principal of a school who, with his faculty of teachers, made it a
+school rule that there should be no playing of cards on the part of the
+students. The rule recorded, however, the principal proceeded to
+participate in downtown card parties until he established a reputation,
+in the language of the boys, as a "card shark." Not only did that
+principal find it impossible thereafter to combat the evil of students
+cutting classes to play cards, he lost that confidence on the part of
+the student body without which school discipline cannot be achieved.
+Lack of conversion--such conversion as leads a man to practice what he
+preaches--cost him his position.
+
+To the teacher who would develop the power of conversion, may we make
+reference by way of review to those suggestions in an earlier chapter
+that make for spiritual growth:
+
+  1. Live a clean life.
+  2. Read the word of the Lord.
+  3. Do the duties assigned by those in authority.
+  4. Subscribe to all the principles of the Gospel.
+  5. Cultivate a real spirit of prayer.
+
+If the teacher is really converted, of course the conversion of his
+pupils follows very largely as a corollary. But by way of practical
+suggestion, it may be helpful to list some things that may be done to
+promote a spirit of testimony on the part of the pupils. At the outset a
+teacher ought to appreciate just what a testimony is and how it varies
+with the age and experience of children. It is clearly a mistake as a
+general rule to expect young children to give expression to a testimony
+such as might be borne by an adult. True, some children enjoy at an
+early age the spirit of testimony to such an extent that they do seem to
+know that the Gospel is true. But it is wiser not to expect too much.
+Then, too, testimonies vary with individuals. Teachers ought to look out
+for expressions which are characteristic of the pupil in question rather
+than to expect all pupils to measure up to a set standard.
+
+With a proper conception of a testimony, the teacher then owes certain
+rather definite obligations to his class.
+
+He ought to feature testimony bearing rather than to apologize for it.
+In the teaching of the Gospel of Jesus Christ there can be no more
+sacred opportunity than that which allows pupils to open their hearts to
+their Creator.
+
+Then, too, the teacher owes it to his class to _kindle_ the spiritual
+fire which alone can make for testimony bearing. Brother Maeser had a
+very effective way of illustrating the significance of this obligation.
+As he expressed the thought, no one would feel that he had completed his
+task of warming a house if he merely put into the grate the necessary
+paper, wood and coal. He might have all these, but until he struck the
+match which would kindle the fire, no warmth would be felt. And so,
+spiritually, the fire of a testimony-meeting needs to be kindled. All
+too often, a teacher opens the class hour with some such statement as
+this, "Now, boys and girls, today is Fast Day. I hope you won't let the
+time go to waste." What inspiration in such an opening! That teacher has
+not only not kindled the fire, he has brought in a lump or two of
+coal--hard at that--with no kindling even as a promise of a fire. On the
+other hand, the successful teacher comes before his class with a vital
+truth that thrills him and gives it a concrete expression which prompts
+pupils to add similar experiences out of their own lives.
+
+Then, too, the teacher may well bring into his class by way of
+inspiration someone well established in the faith whose experiences are
+full of the spirit of conversion. There are in every ward in the Church
+those men and women who know of a surety that the gospel is true. Why
+not bring them in occasionally to stimulate testimony bearing? Might it
+not be well, also, to take the class as a class to our Fast Day
+Sacrament service, there to let them enjoy the wonderful spirit of
+testimony that is so characteristic of these meetings? There is a
+feeling of conversion that attends these meetings that all boys and
+girls must feel--must feel so keenly that they in turn will want to give
+expression to their own convictions.
+
+And finally, as teachers, let us remind ourselves that in this matter of
+promoting the bearing of testimonies we should exercise a patience that
+is full of tolerance and forbearance. Some few individuals are
+converted suddenly; others respond to the truth gradually; and there are
+those who do well if they really respond to the feeling of conversion at
+the end of a lifetime. As one of our leaders has so beautifully pointed
+out, the Master, Himself, did not convert the world in a day, nor a
+year--He has not converted it in all these centuries. His plan seems to
+be to teach the truth and wait patiently until the divinity in man
+asserts itself--until man walks by his own light into eternal truth.
+Under the inspiration of such example may teachers well labor on in
+earnestness, happy in the thought that He will hasten in His own due
+time what to them may seem a long, slow process.
+
+    "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me
+      Some blessed Saint will come and say,
+    'All hail, beloved; but for thee
+      My soul to death had fallen a prey';
+    And oh! what rapture in the thought,
+      One soul to glory to have brought."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIV
+
+1. Why is conversion the real test of religious teaching?
+
+2. What are the outstanding characteristics of a person newly converted
+to the Church?
+
+3. Discuss the significance of each of the factors that make for
+conversion.
+
+4. Illustrate how to kindle the spiritual fire.
+
+5. State why or why not you favor making assignments for testimony day.
+
+6. What is a testimony?
+
+7. How may children best cultivate a testimony?
+
+8. What principle or practice means most to you by way of affirming your
+own testimony?
+
+
+HELPFUL REFERENCES
+
+The Doctrine & Covenants, The Bible, The Book of Mormon, The Voice of
+Warning, Rays of Living Light.
+
+
+
+
+_Bibliography_
+
+
+_The Art of Teaching_
+    Driggs                                Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake.
+
+_The Art of Questioning_
+    Fitch                                 A. Flanigan Co., Chicago.
+
+_Story Telling, Questioning and Studying_
+    Horne                                 MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_Principles of Psychology_
+    James                                 H. Holt & Co., New York.
+
+_Fundamentals of Child Study_
+    Kirkpatrick                           MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_A Study of Child Nature_
+    Harrison                              R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago.
+
+_Psychology of Childhood_
+    Norsworthy and Whitley                MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_The Essentials of Character_
+    Sisson                                MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_Principles of Teaching_
+    Thorndike                             A.G. Seiler, New York.
+
+_Education for Character_
+    Sharp                                 Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+_The Ideal Teacher_
+    G.H. Palmer                           Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.
+
+_The Seven Laws of Teaching_
+    J.M. Gregory                          The Pilgrim Press, Chicago.
+
+_The Point of Contact in Teaching_
+    Dubois                                Dodd, Mead & Co., New York.
+
+_Interest and Effort in Education_
+    Dewey                                 Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.
+
+_The Boy Problem_
+    Forbush                               The Pilgrim Press, Chicago.
+
+_Training the Boy_
+    McKeever                              MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_Types of Teaching_
+    Earhart                               Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.
+
+_How to Teach Religion_
+    Betts                                 The Abingdon Press, New York.
+
+_Talks to Sunday School Teachers_
+    Weigle                                Doran Publishing Co., New York.
+
+_Everyday Problems in Teaching_
+    O'Shea                                Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+_Talks to Teachers_
+    James                                 H. Holt & Co., New York.
+
+_How to Teach_
+    Strayer and Norsworthy                MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_The Making of a Teacher_
+    Brumbaugh                             Sunday School Times Co., Phila.
+
+_The Learning Process_
+    Colvin                                MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_The Teacher and the School_
+    Colgrove                              Chas. Scribner & Co., New York.
+
+_Pictures in Religious Education_
+    Beard                                 Geo. H. Doran Co., New York.
+
+_The Nervous System_
+    Stiles                                W.B. Saunders Co., Phila.
+
+_The Classroom Teacher_
+    Strayer and Englehardt                American Book Co., New York.
+
+_The Recitation_
+    Betts                                 Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York.
+
+_Attention_
+    Pillsbury                             MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+_Religious Education in the Family_
+    Cope                                  University of Chicago Press.
+
+_Classroom Method and Management_
+    Betts                                 Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+_Classroom Management_
+    Bagley                                MacMillan Co., New York.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed below.
+
+
+Chapter I     "a Church built upon revelation"
+              Corrected typo: "builded"
+
+Chapter VI    "using an average of thirty-two minutes"
+              Corrected typo: "mintues"
+
+              "their employees that they subscribe regularly"
+              Corrected typo: "reguarly"
+
+Chapter VII   "A Child's characteristics--his"
+              Corrected typo: "charactertistics"
+
+              "These organic, vital activities"
+              Corrected typo: "acitivities"
+
+              "All nuerones have"
+              "nuerones must be active"
+              Corrected typos: "neurones"
+
+Chapter VIII  "method of rewards and punishment;"
+              Corrected typo: "punishment:"
+
+              "will be found an interesting tabulation"
+              Corrected typo: "tabluation"
+
+              "few of them can safely be developed"
+              Corrected typo: "devoloped"
+
+Chapter IX    "wasn't worrying about what he was"
+              Corrected typo: "worying"
+
+              "concerning which there may be some uncertainty."
+              Corrected typo: "uncertainty?"
+
+Chapter X     "group themselves with a certain uniformity"
+              Corrected typo: "cerain"
+
+              "indicate that there is little"
+              Corrected typo: "their is"
+
+              "sent his way than the cheerful one"
+              Corrected typo: "cheeful"
+
+Chapter XIII  "Let the scriptures testify"
+              Corrected typo: "sciptures"
+
+              "Consider the case of the Son"
+              Corrected typo: "case of of the Son"
+
+Chapter XIV   "is so significant when understood"
+              Corrected typo: "signficant"
+
+              "going back some two thousand years"
+              Corrected typo: "thouand"
+
+Chapter XVI   "the silent inspiration of that picture"
+              Corrected typo: "pciture"
+
+Chapter XIX   "the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods.""
+              Closing quote missing in original
+
+Chapter XX    "map out their work so carefully"
+              Corrected typo: "map our"
+
+Chapter XXI   "a. The review question;"
+              Corrected typo: "question:"
+
+              "'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,'"
+              Closing single quote was double quote in original
+
+              "when, where, and why."
+              Missing period in original
+
+Chapter XXII  "to go to bed agreeably"
+              Corrected typo: "agreebly"
+
+Chapter XXIII "to participate in class discussions?"
+              Corrected typo: "discussions."
+
+
+In addition, in Chapter XVI a full line was missing. The original reads:
+
+   "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well
+   as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.)
+
+The corrected text is:
+
+   "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well
+   as in thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public
+   as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Principles of Teaching, by Adam S. Bennion
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