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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Public Speaking, by Clarence Stratton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Public Speaking
+
+Author: Clarence Stratton
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17318]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SPEAKING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Sankar Viswanathan,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                            PUBLIC SPEAKING
+
+                                  BY
+                       CLARENCE STRATTON; PH.D.
+
+                          DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH
+                            IN HIGH SCHOOL
+
+                               CLEVELAND
+
+
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                        HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1920
+                                  BY
+                        HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+                            _January, 1924_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER
+I. SPEECH
+II. THE VOICE
+III. WORDS AND SENTENCES
+IV. BEGINNING THE SPEECH
+V. CONCLUDING THE SPEECH
+VI. GETTING MATERIAL
+VII. PLANNING THE SPEECH
+VIII. MAKING THE OUTLINE OR BRIEF
+IX. EXPLAINING
+X. PROVING AND PERSUADING
+XI. REFUTING
+XII. DEBATING
+XIII. SPEAKING UPON SPECIAL OCCASIONS
+XIV. DRAMATICS
+APPENDIX A
+APPENDIX B
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+To
+C.C.S.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC SPEAKING
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SPEECH
+
+
+Importance of Speech. There never has been in the history of the world
+a time when the spoken word has been equaled in value and importance
+by any other means of communication. If one traces the development of
+mankind from what he considers its earliest stage he will find that
+the wandering family of savages depended entirely upon what its
+members said to one another. A little later when a group of families
+made a clan or tribe the individuals still heard the commands of the
+leader, or in tribal council voiced their own opinions. The beginnings
+of poetry show us the bard who recited to his audiences. Drama, in all
+primitive societies a valuable spreader of knowledge, entertainment,
+and religion, is entirely oral. In so late and well-organized
+communities as the city republics of Greece all matters were discussed
+in open assemblies of the rather small populations.
+
+Every great epoch of the world's progress shows the supreme importance
+of speech upon human action--individual and collective. In the Roman
+Forum were made speeches that affected the entire ancient world.
+Renaissance Italy, imperial Spain, unwieldy Russia, freedom-loving
+England, revolutionary France, all experienced periods when the power
+of certain men to speak stirred other men into tempestuous action.
+
+The history of the United States might almost be written as the
+continuous record of the influence of great speakers upon others. The
+colonists were led to concerted action by persuasive speeches. The
+Colonial Congresses and Constitutional Convention were dominated by
+powerful orators. The history of the slavery problem is mainly the
+story of famous speeches and debates. Most of the active
+representative Americans have been leaders because of their ability to
+impress their fellows by their power of expressing sentiments and
+enthusiasms which all would voice if they could. Presidents have been
+nominated and candidates elected because of this equipment.
+
+During the Great War the millions of the world were as much concerned
+with what some of their leaders were saying as with what their other
+leaders were doing.[1]
+
+Speech in Modern Life. There is no aspect of modern life in which the
+spoken work is not supreme in importance. Representatives of the
+nations of the world deciding upon a peace treaty and deliberating
+upon a League of Nations sway and are swayed by speech. National
+assemblies--from the strangely named new ones of infant nations to the
+century-old organizations--speak, and listen to speeches. In state
+legislatures, municipal councils, law courts, religious organizations,
+theaters, lodges, societies, boards of directors, stockholders'
+meetings, business discussions, classrooms, dinner parties, social
+functions, friendly calls--in every human relationship where two
+people meet there is communication by means of speech.
+
+[Footnote 1: See _Great American Speeches_, edited by Clarence
+Stratton, Lippincott and Company.]
+
+Scientific invention keeps moving as rapidly as it can to take
+advantage of this supreme importance. Great as was the advance marked
+by the telegraph, it was soon overtaken and passed by the convenience
+of the telephone. The first conveys messages at great distance, but it
+fails to give the answer at once. It fails to provide for the rapid
+_interchange_ of ideas which the second affords. Wireless telegraphy
+has already been followed by wireless telephony. The rapid intelligent
+disposal of the complicated affairs of our modern world requires more
+than mere writing--it demands immediate interchange of ideas by means
+of speech.
+
+Many people who in their habitual occupations are popularly said to
+write a great deal do nothing of the sort. The millions of typists in
+the world do no writing at all in the real sense of that word; they
+merely reproduce what some one else has actually composed and
+dictated. This latter person also does no actual writing. He speaks
+what he wants to have put into writing. Dictating is not an easily
+acquired accomplishment in business--as many a man will testify.
+Modern office practice has intensified the difficulty. It may be
+rather disconcerting to deliver well-constructed, meaningful sentences
+to an unresponsive stenographer, but at any rate the receiver is
+alive. But to talk into the metallic receiver of a mechanical
+dictaphone has an almost ridiculous air. Men have to train themselves
+deliberately to speak well when they first begin to use these
+time-saving devices. Outside of business, a great deal of the material
+printed in periodicals and books--sometimes long novels--has been
+delivered orally, and not written at all by its author. Were anything
+more needed to show how much speech is used it would be furnished by
+the reports of the telephone companies. In one table the number of
+daily connections in 1895 was 2,351,420. In 1918 this item had
+increased to 31,263,611. In twenty-three years the calls had grown
+fifteen times as numerous. In 1882 there were 100,000 subscriber
+stations. In 1918 this number had swelled to 11,000,000.
+
+Subordinates and executives in all forms of business could save
+incalculable time and annoyance by being able to present their
+material clearly and forcefully over the telephone, as well as in
+direct face-to-face intercourse.
+
+The Director of high schools in a large municipality addressed a
+circular letter to the business firms of the city, asking them to
+state what is most necessary in order to fit boys for success in
+business. Ninety-nine per cent laid stress on the advantage of being
+able to write and speak English accurately and forcibly.
+
+Testimony in support of the statement that training in speaking is of
+paramount importance in all careers might be adduced from a score of
+sources. Even from the seemingly far-removed phase of military
+leadership comes the same support. The following paragraph is part of
+a letter issued by the office of the Adjutant-General during the
+early months of the participation of this country in the Great War.
+
+    "A great number of men have failed at camp because of
+    inability to articulate clearly. A man who cannot impart his
+    idea to his command in clear distinct language, and with
+    sufficient volume of voice to be heard reasonably far, is not
+    qualified to give command upon which human life will depend.
+    Many men disqualified by this handicap might have become
+    officers under their country's flag had they been properly
+    trained in school and college. It is to be hoped therefore
+    that more emphasis will be placed upon the basic principles
+    of elocution in the training of our youth. Even without
+    prescribed training in elocution a great improvement could be
+    wrought by the instructors in our schools and colleges,
+    regardless of the subjects, by insisting that all answers be
+    given in a loud, clear, well rounded voice which, of course,
+    necessitates the opening of the mouth and free movement of
+    the lips. It is remarkable how many excellent men suffer from
+    this handicap, and how almost impossible it is to correct
+    this after the formative years of life."
+
+Perhaps the most concise summary of the relative values of exercise in
+the three different forms of communication through language was
+enunciated by Francis Bacon in his essay entitled _Studies_, published
+first in 1597: "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and
+writing an exact man."
+
+Speech and Talk. The high value here placed upon speech must not be
+transferred to mere talk. The babbler will always be justly regarded
+with contempt. Without ideas, opinions, information, talk becomes the
+most wasteful product in the world, wasteful not only of the time of
+the person who insists upon delivering it, but more woefully and
+unjustifiably wasteful of the time and patience of those poor victims
+who are forced to listen to it. Shakespeare put a man of this
+disposition into _The Merchant of Venice_ and then had his discourse
+described by another.
+
+    "Gratiano speaks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any
+    man in all Venice. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid
+    in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek all day 'ere you find
+    them, and when you have them, they are not worth the search."
+
+But the man who has ideas and can best express them is a leader
+everywhere. He does the organizing, he makes and imparts the plans, he
+carries his own theories and beliefs into execution, he is the
+intrusted agent, the advanced executive. He can act for himself. He
+can influence others to significant and purposeful action. The
+advantages that come to men who can think upon their feet, who can
+express extempore a carefully considered proposition, who can adapt
+their conversation or arguments to every changing condition, cannot be
+emphasized too strongly.
+
+Speech an Acquired Ability. We frequently regard and discuss speech as
+a perfectly natural attribute of all human beings. In some sense it
+is. Yet an American child left to the care of deaf-mutes, never
+hearing the speech of his own kind, would not develop into a speaker
+of the native language of his parents. He doubtless would be able to
+imitate every natural sound he might hear. He could reproduce the cry
+or utterance of every animal or bird he had ever heard. But he would
+no more speak English naturally than he would Arabic. In this sense,
+language is not a natural attribute as is hunger. It is an imitative
+accomplishment acquired only after long years of patient practice and
+arduous effort. Some people never really attain a facile mastery of
+the means of communication. Some mature men and women are no more
+advanced in the use of speech than children of ten or fifteen. The
+practice is life-long. The effort is unceasing.
+
+A child seems to be as well adapted to learning one language as another.
+There may be certain physical formations or powers inherited from a race
+which predispose the easier mastery of a language, but even these
+handicaps for learning a different tongue can be overcome by imitation,
+study, and practice. Any child can be taught an alien tongue through
+constant companionship of nurse or governess. The second generation of
+immigrants to this country learns our speech even while it may continue
+the tongue of the native land. The third generation--if it mix
+continuously with speakers of English--relinquishes entirely the
+exercise of the mother tongue. The succeeding generation seldom can
+speak it, frequently cannot even understand it.
+
+Training to Acquire Speech Ability. The methods by which older persons
+may improve their ability to speak are analogous to those just
+suggested as operative for children, except that the more mature the
+person the wider is his range of models to imitate, of examples from
+which to make deductions; the more resources he has within himself and
+about him for self-development and improvement. A child's vocabulary
+increases rapidly through new experiences. A mature person can create
+new surroundings. He can deliberately widen his horizon either by
+reading or association. The child is mentally alert. A man can keep
+himself intellectually alert. A child delights in his use of his
+powers of expression. A man can easily make his intercourse a source
+of delight to himself and to all with whom he comes in contact. A
+child's imagination is kept stimulated continually. A man can
+consciously stimulate either his imagination or his reason. In the
+democracy of childhood the ability to impress companions depends to a
+great extent upon the ability to speak. There is no necessity of
+following the parallel any farther.
+
+Good speakers, then, are made, not born. Training counts for as much
+as natural ability. In fact if a person considers carefully the
+careers of men whose ability to speak has impressed the world by its
+preeminence he will incline to the conclusion that the majority of
+them were not to any signal extent born speakers at all. In nearly all
+cases of great speakers who have left records of their own progress in
+this powerful art their testimony is that without the effort to
+improve, without the unceasing practice they would have always
+remained no more marked for this so-called gift than all others.
+
+Overcoming Drawbacks. According to the regularly repeated tradition
+the great Greek orator, Demosthenes, overcame impediments that would
+have daunted any ordinary man. His voice was weak. He lisped, and his
+manner was awkward. With pebbles in his mouth he tried his lungs
+against the noise of the dashing waves. This strengthened his voice
+and gave him presence of mind in case of tumult among his listeners.
+He declaimed as he ran uphill. Whether these traditions be true or
+not, their basis must be that it was only by rigorous training that he
+did become a tolerable speaker. The significant point, however, is
+that with apparent handicaps he did develop his ability until he
+became great.
+
+Charles James Fox began his parliamentary career by being decidedly
+awkward and filling his speeches with needless repetitions, yet he
+became renowned as one of Great Britain's most brilliant speakers and
+statesmen.
+
+Henry Clay clearly describes his own exercises in self-training when
+he was quite a grown man.
+
+    "I owe my success in life to one single fact, namely, at the
+    age of twenty-seven I commenced, and continued for years, the
+    practice of daily reading and speaking upon the contents of
+    some historical or scientific book. These offhand efforts
+    were made sometimes in a corn field, at others in the
+    forests, and not infrequently in some distant barn with the
+    horse and ox for my auditors. It is to this early practice in
+    the art of all arts that I am indebted to the primary and
+    leading impulses that stimulated me forward, and shaped and
+    molded my entire destiny."
+
+Abraham Lincoln never let pass any opportunity to try to make a
+speech. His early employers, when called upon after his fame was won
+to describe his habits as a young man, admitted that they might have
+been disposed to consider him an idle fellow. They explained that he
+was not only idle himself but the cause of idleness in others. Unless
+closely watched, he was likely to mount a stump and, to the intense
+delight of his fellow farm hands, deliver a side-splitting imitation
+of some itinerant preacher or a stirring political harangue.
+
+The American whose reputation for speech is the greatest won it more
+through training than by natural gift.
+
+    "I could not speak before the school," said Daniel Webster.
+    ... "Many a piece did I commit to memory and rehearse in my
+    room over and over again, but when the day came, and the
+    schoolmaster called my name, and I saw all eyes turned upon
+    my seat, I could not raise myself from it.... Mr. Buckminster
+    always pressed and entreated, most winningly, that I would
+    venture, but I could never command sufficient resolution.
+    When the occasion was over I went home and wept bitter tears
+    of mortification."
+
+Results of Training. The significance of all these illustrations is
+that no great speaker has come by his ability without careful and
+persistent training. No molder of the world's destinies springs fully
+equipped from the welter of promiscuous events. He has been training
+for a long time. On the other hand the much more practical lesson to
+be derived from these biographical excerpts is that these men started
+from ordinary conditions to make themselves into forceful thinkers
+with powers of convincing expression. They overcame handicaps. They
+strengthened their voices. They learned how to prepare and arrange
+material. They made themselves able to explain topics to others. They
+knew so well the reasons for their own belief that they could convince
+others.
+
+In a smaller way, to a lesser degree, any person can do the same
+thing, and by the same or similar methods. Barring some people who
+have physical defects or nervous diseases, any person who has enough
+brains to grasp an idea, to form an opinion, or to produce a thought,
+can be made to speak well. The preceding sentence says "barring some
+people who have physical defects" because not all so handicapped at
+the beginning need despair of learning to improve in speaking ability.
+By systems in which the results appear almost miraculous the dumb are
+now taught to speak. Stutterers and stammerers become excellent
+deliverers of speeches in public. Weak voices are strengthened.
+Hesitant expressions are made coherent. Such marvels of modern science
+belong, however, to special classes and institutions. They are cited
+here to prove that in language training today practically nothing is
+impossible to the teacher with knowledge and patience in educating
+students with alertness and persistence.
+
+Practical Help. This book attempts to provide a guide for such
+teachers and students. It aims to be eminently practical. It is
+intended to help students to improve in speech. It assumes that those
+who use it are able to speak their language with some facility--at
+least they can pronounce its usual words. That and the realization
+that one is alive, as indicated by a mental openness to ideas and an
+intellectual alertness about most things in the universe, are all that
+are absolutely required of a beginner who tries to improve in
+speaking. Practically all else can be added unto him.
+
+As this volume has a definite aim it has a simple practical basis. It
+will not soar too far above the essentials. It tries not to offer an
+elaborate explanation of an enthymeme when the embryonic speaker's
+knees are knocking together so loudly that he can not hear the
+instructor's correcting pronunciation of the name. It takes into
+account that when a beginner stands before an audience--and this is
+true not only the first time--even his body is not under his control.
+Lips grow cold and dry; perspiration gushes from every pore of the
+brow and runs down the face; legs grow weak; eyes see nothing; hands
+swell to enormous proportions; violent pains shoot across the chest;
+the breath is confined within the lungs; from the clapper-like tongue
+comes only a faint click. Is it any wonder that under such physical
+agonies the mind refuses to respond--rather, is incapable of any
+action whatever?
+
+Speech Based on Thought and Language. Every speech is a result of the
+combination of thought and language, of material and expression. It
+would be quite possible to begin with considerations of the thought
+content of speeches--the material; but this book begins with the
+other;--the language, the expression. If this order have no other
+advantage, it does possess this one;--that during the informal
+discussions and expressions of opinion occasioned by the early
+chapters and exercises, members of the class are attaining a feeling
+of ease in speaking among themselves which will later eradicate a
+great deal of the nervousness usually experienced when speaking
+_before_ the class. In addition, some attention to such topics as
+voice, tone, pronunciation, common errors, use of the dictionary,
+vocabulary, may instil habits of self-criticism and observation which
+may save from doubt and embarrassing mistakes later.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Recall some recent speech you heard. In parallel columns make lists
+of its excellences and deficiencies.
+
+2. Give the class an account of the occasion, the purpose of the
+speaker, and his effect upon his audience, or upon you.
+
+3. Explain how children learn to speak.
+
+4. From your observation give the class an account of how young
+children enlarge their vocabularies.
+
+5. Using the material of this chapter as the basis of your remarks,
+show the value of public speaking.
+
+6. Of what value is public speaking to women?
+
+7. What effects upon speeches by women will universal suffrage have?
+
+8. Choose some profession--as law, engineering--and show how an
+ability to speak may be of value in it.
+
+9. Choose some business position, and show how an ability to speak is
+a decided advantage in it.
+
+10. What is the best method of acquiring a foreign language? For
+example, how shall the alien learn English?
+
+11. Choose some great man whom you admire. Show how he became a
+speaker. Or give an account of one of his speeches.
+
+12. Show the value of public speaking to a girl--in school; in
+business; in other careers.
+
+13. Explain the operation of a dictaphone.
+
+14. How can training in public speaking help an applicant for a
+position?
+
+15. Explain the sentence quoted from Bacon's essay on studies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOICE
+
+
+Organs of Speech. Although the effects produced by the human voice are
+myriad in their complexity, the apparatus involved in making the
+sounds which constitute speech is extremely simple. In construction it
+has been usually compared to an organ pipe, a comparison justifiable
+for imparting a non-technical understanding of its operation.
+
+An organ pipe is a tube in which a current of air passing over the
+edge of a piece of metal causes it to vibrate, thus putting into
+motion the column of air in the pipe which then produces a note. The
+operating air is forced across the sounding piece of metal from a
+bellows. The tube in which the thin sounding plate and the column of
+air vibrate acts as a resonator. The resulting sound depends upon
+various sizes of the producing parts. If the tube is quite long the
+sound is low in pitch. If the tube is short the sound is high.
+Stopping the end of the pipe or leaving it open alters the pitch. A
+stopped pipe gives a note an octave lower than an open pipe of the
+same length. The amount of the vibrating plate which is allowed to
+move also determines the pitch of a note. If the air is under great
+pressure the note is loud. If the air is under little pressure the
+note is soft.
+
+It is quite easy to transfer this explanation to the voice-producing
+apparatus in the human body.
+
+To the bellows correspond the lungs from which the expelled air is
+forced upwards through the windpipe. The lungs are able to expel air
+regularly and gently, with no more expense of energy than ordinary
+breathing requires. But the lungs can also force air out with
+tremendous power--power enough to carry sound over hundreds of yards.
+In ordinary repose the outward moving breath produces no sound
+whatever, for it meets in its passage no obstruction.
+
+Producing Tone. At the upper end of the windpipe is a triangular
+chamber, the front angle of which forms the Adam's apple. In this are
+the vocal cords. These cords are two tapes of membrane which can be
+brought closely together, and by muscular tension stretched until
+passing air causes them to vibrate. They in turn cause the air above
+them to vibrate, much as the air in an organ pipe vibrates. Thus tone
+is produced.
+
+The air above the vocal cords may fill all the open spaces above the
+larynx--the throat, the mouth, the nasal cavity in the head, the
+nostrils. This rather large amount of air, vibrating freely, produces
+a sound low in pitch. The larger the cavities are made the lower the
+pitch. You can verify this by producing a note. Then place your finger
+upon your Adam's apple. Produce a sound lower in pitch. Notice what
+your larynx does. Sing a few notes down the scale or up to observe the
+same principle of the change of pitch in the human voice.
+
+Producing Vowels. If the mouth be kept wide open and no other organ be
+allowed to modify or interrupt the sound a vowel is produced. In
+speech every part of the head that can be used is brought into action
+to modify these uninterrupted vibrations of vocal cords and air. The
+lips, the cheeks, the teeth, the tongue, the hard palate, the soft
+palate, the nasal cavity, all cooeperate to make articulate speech.
+
+As in its mechanism, so in the essence of its modifications, the human
+voice is a marvel of simplicity. If the mouth be opened naturally and
+the tongue and lips be kept as much out of the way as in ordinary
+breathing, and then the vocal cords be made to vibrate, the resulting
+sound will be the vowel _a_ as in _father_. If now, starting from that
+same position and with that same vowel sound, the tongue be gradually
+raised the sound will be modified. Try it. The sound will pass through
+other vowels. Near the middle position it will sound like _a_ in
+_fate_; and when the tongue gets quite close to the roof of the mouth
+without touching it the vowel will be the _e_ of _feet_. Others--such
+as the _i_ of _it_--can be distinguished clearly.
+
+Starting again from that same open position and with that same vowel
+sound, _ah_, if the tongue be allowed to lie flat, but the lips be
+gradually closed and at the same time rounded, the sound will pass
+from _ah_ to the _o_ of _hope_, then on to the _oo_ of _troop_. The
+_oa_ of _broad_ and other vowels can be distinguished at various
+positions.
+
+By moving lips and tongue at the same time an almost infinite variety
+of vowel sounds can be made.
+
+Producing Consonants. In order to produce consonant sounds the other
+parts of the speaking apparatus are brought into operation. Everyone
+of them has some function in the formation of some consonant by
+interrupting or checking the breath. A student, by observing or
+feeling the motions of his mouth can easily instruct himself in the
+importance of each part if he will carefully pronounce a few times all
+the various consonant sounds of the language.
+
+The lips produce the sounds of _p_, _b_, _wh_, and _w_. The lips and
+teeth produce the sounds of _f_, _v_. The tongue and teeth together
+make the sounds of _th_ and _dh_. The tongue in conjunction with the
+forward portion of the hard palate produces several sounds--_t_, _d_,
+_s_, _z_, _r_, and _l_. The tongue operating against or near the rear
+of the hard palate pronounces _ch_, _j_, _sh_, _zh_, and a different
+_r_. To make the consonant _y_ the tongue, the hard palate, and the
+soft palate operate. The tongue and soft palate make _k_ and _g_. A
+strong breathing makes the sound of _h_. By including the nasal
+passages in conjunction with some of the other parts here listed the
+so-called nasals, _m_, _n_, and _ng_, are made. According to the organ
+involved our consonant sounds are conveniently grouped as labials
+(lips), dentals (teeth), linguals (tongue), palatals (palate), and
+nasals (nose).
+
+The correct position and action of the vocal organs are of supreme
+importance to all speakers. Many an inveterate stammerer, stutterer,
+or repeater can be relieved, if not cured, of the embarrassing
+impediment by attention to the position of his speech organs and by
+careful, persistent practice in their manipulation. In fact every
+speaker must be cognizant of the placement of these parts if he
+desires to have control over his speech. Frequently it is such correct
+placement rather than loud noise or force which carries expressions
+clearly to listeners.
+
+While it is true that singing will strengthen the lungs and help in
+control of breath, it is not always the fact--as might be
+expected--that singing will develop the speaking voice. Not every
+person who can sing has a pleasant or forceful voice in ordinary
+discourse. In singing, to secure purity of musical tone, the vowels
+are likely to be disproportionately dwelt upon. Thus we have the
+endless _la-la-la_ and _ah-ah_ of so many vocal show-pieces. The same
+practice leads to the repeated criticism that it makes no difference
+whether a song be in English or a foreign language--the listeners
+understand just as much in either case.
+
+In speaking effectively the aim and method are the exact opposite.
+When a man speaks he wants to be listened to for the meaning of what
+he is uttering. There are so many words in the language with the same
+or similar vowel sounds that only the sharpest discrimination by means
+of consonants permits of their being intelligible. The speaker,
+therefore, will exercise the greatest care in pronouncing consonants
+distinctly. As these sounds usually begin and end words, and as they
+are produced by rather sudden checks or interruptions, they can be
+made to produce a wave motion in the air which will carry the entire
+word safely and clearly beyond the ear into the understanding. In
+public speaking no amount of care and attention bestowed upon
+pronouncing consonants can be spared.
+
+Tone. The most marked quality of a person's voice is its tone. It will
+be enough for the purposes of this manual to assert that the tone
+should be both clear and agreeable. In public speaking the first of
+these is all important, though an absence of the second qualification
+may almost neutralize all the advantages of the first. Clearness may
+be impaired by several causes. The speaker may feel that his throat
+closes up, that he becomes choked. His tongue may become stiff and
+"cleave to the roof of his mouth"--as the feeling is popularly
+described. He may breathe so energetically that the escaping or
+entering air makes more noise than the words themselves. He may be
+more or less conscious of all these. The others he may not discover
+for himself. The instructor or members of the class will inform him of
+their presence. Set jaws will prevent him from opening his mouth wide
+enough and operating his lips flexibly enough to speak with a full
+tone. A nasal quality results mainly from lack of free resonance in
+the head and nose passages. Adenoids and colds in the head produce
+this condition. It should be eradicated by advice and practice.
+
+Usually whatever corrections will make the tone clearer will also make
+it more agreeable. The nasal pessimistic whine is not a pleasant
+recommendation of personality. High, forced, strident tones produce
+not only irritation in the listener but throat trouble for the
+speaker.
+
+Articulate--that is, connected--speech may be considered with
+reference to four elements, all of which are constantly present in any
+spoken discourse.
+
+Speed. First, there is the speed of delivery. An angry woman can utter
+more words in a minute than any one wants to hear. The general
+principle underlying all speech delivery is that as the audience
+increases in number the rapidity of utterance should be lessened.
+Those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences, or to speaking
+in the open air, speak very slowly. A second consideration is the
+material being delivered. Easily grasped narrative, description, and
+explanation, simply phrased and directly constructed, may be delivered
+much more rapidly than involved explanation, unfamiliar phraseology,
+long and intricate sentence constructions, unusual material, abstract
+reasoning, and unwelcome sentiments. The beginnings of speeches move
+much more slowly than later parts. A speaker who intends to lead an
+audience a long distance, or to hold the attention for a long time,
+will be extremely careful not to speak at the beginning so rapidly
+that he leaves them far behind.
+
+This does not mean that a speaker must drawl his words. One of our
+national characteristics is that we shorten our words in pronouncing
+them--_ing_ generally loses the _g, does not_ has become _doesn't_ and
+quite incorrectly _don't, yes_ is _yeeh_, etc. In many cases nothing
+more is required than the restoration of the word to its correct form.
+Some words can easily be lengthened because of the significance of
+their meanings. Others must be extended in order to carry. The best
+method of keeping down the rate of delivery is by a judicious use of
+pauses. Pauses are to the listener what punctuation marks are to the
+reader. He is not conscious of their presence, but he would be left
+floundering if they were absent. Some of the most effective parts of
+speeches are the pauses. They impart clearness to ideas, as well as
+aiding in emphasis and rhythm.
+
+Pitch. A second quality of speech is its pitch. This simply means its
+place in the musical scale. Speaking voices are high, medium, or low.
+Unfortunate tendencies of Americans seem to be for women to pitch
+their voices too high, with resultant strain and unpleasantness, and
+for men to pitch their voices too low, with resultant growls and
+gruffness. The voices of young children should be carefully guarded in
+this respect; so should the changing voices of growing boys. To secure
+a good pitch for the speaking voice the normal natural pitch of usual
+conversation should be found. Speech in that same pitch should be
+developed for larger audiences. Frequently a better pitch can be
+secured by slightly lowering the voice. If the natural pitch be too
+low for clearness or agreeableness it should be slightly raised--never
+more than is absolutely necessary.
+
+No connected group of words should be delivered in a monotonously
+level pitch. The voice must rise and fall. These changes must answer
+intelligently to the meaning of the material. Such variations are
+called inflections. The most disagreeable violations of required
+inflections are raising the voice where it should fall--as at the
+completion of an idea, and letting it drop where it should remain
+up--as before the completion of an idea, frequently answering to a
+comma. Other variations of pitch depend upon emphasis.
+
+Emphasis. Emphasis is giving prominence to a word or phrase so that
+its importance is impressed upon a listener. This result is most
+easily secured by contrast. More force may be put into its delivery
+than the rest of the speech. The word may be made louder or not so
+loud. The voice may be pitched higher or lower. The word may be
+lengthened. Pauses will make it prominent. In speaking, combinations
+of these are employed to produce emphasis.
+
+While all qualities of speech are important, emphasis is of cardinal
+value. Listeners will never recall everything that a speaker has said.
+By a skilful employment of emphasis he will put into their
+consciousness the main theme of his message, the salient arguments of
+his contention, the leading motives of action. Here again is that
+close interdependence of manner and material referred to in the
+preceding chapter. In later chapters will be discussed various methods
+of determining and securing emphasis of larger sections than mere
+words and phrases.
+
+Phrasing. Somewhat related to emphasis is phrasing. This is the
+grouping together of words, phrases, clauses, and other units so that
+their meaning and significance may be easily grasped by a listener. As
+has been already said, pauses serve as punctuation marks for the
+hearer. Short pauses correspond to commas, longer ones to colons and
+semi-colons, marked ones to periods. Speakers can by pauses clearly
+indicate the conclusions of sections, the completion of topics, the
+passage from one part of the material to another, the transfer of
+attention from one subject to its opposite. Within smaller range
+pauses can add delightful variety to delivery as they can signally
+reinforce the interpretation. No speaker should fall into the habit of
+monotonously letting his pauses mark the limit of his breath capacity,
+nor should he take any regular phrase, clause, or sentence length to
+be indicated by pauses. In this as in all other aspects variety is the
+charm of speech.
+
+Enunciation. No matter what handicaps a person may have he may
+overcome them to secure a distinct, agreeable enunciation. Care in
+enunciating words will enable a speaker to be heard almost anywhere.
+It is recorded that John Fox, a famous preacher of South Place Chapel,
+London, whose voice was neither loud nor strong, was heard in every
+part of Covent Garden Theatre, seating 3500, when he made
+anti-corn-law orations, by the clearness with which he pronounced the
+final consonants of the words he spoke.
+
+One of the orators best known to readers is Edmund Burke, whose
+speeches are studied as models of argumentative arrangement and style.
+Yet in actual speech-making Burke was more or less a failure because
+of the unfortunate method of his delivery. Many men markedly inferior
+in capacity to Burke overcame disadvantageous accidents, but he was
+frequently hurried and impetuous. Though his tones were naturally
+sonorous, they were harsh; and he never divested his speech of a
+strong Irish accent. Then, too, his gestures were clumsy. These facts
+will explain to us who read and study leisurely these masterpieces
+why they failed of their purpose when presented by their gifted but
+ineffective author.
+
+Pronunciation. Enunciation depends to a great degree upon
+pronunciation. The pronunciation of a word is no fixed and
+unchangeable thing. Every district of a land may have its peculiar
+local sounds, every succeeding generation may vary the manner of
+accenting a word. English people today pronounce _schedule_ with a
+soft _ch_ sound. _Program_ has had its accent shifted from the last to
+the first syllable. Many words have two regularly heard
+pronunciations--_neither, advertisement, Elizabethan, rations,
+oblique, route, quinine_, etc. Fashions come and go in pronunciation
+as in all other human interests. Some sounds stamp themselves as
+carelessnesses or perversions at once and are never admitted into
+educated, cultured speech. Others thrive and have their day, only to
+fade before some more widely accepted pronunciation. The first rule in
+pronunciation is to consult a good dictionary. This will help in most
+cases but not in all, for a dictionary merely records all accepted
+sounds; only partly can it point out the better of disputed sounds by
+placing it first. Secondly, speech is a living, growing, changing
+thing. Dictionaries drop behind the times surprisingly rapidly. The
+regularly accepted sound may have come into general use after the
+dictionary was printed. New activities, unusual phases of life may
+throw into general conversation thousands of unused, unheard words.
+This was true of the recent Great War, when with little or no
+preparation thousands of military, industrial, naval, and
+aeronautical terms came into daily use. Discussions still flutter
+mildly around _cantonment_ and _rations_, and a score of others.
+
+Next to authoritative books, the best models are to be secured from
+the speech of authorities in each branch to which the term
+specifically belongs. Thus the military leaders have made the
+pronunciation of _oblique_ with the long _i_ the correct one for all
+military usages. The accepted sound of _cantonments_ was fixed by the
+men who built and controlled them. As it is not always possible for
+the ordinary person to hear such authorities deliver such terms in
+discourse one can merely say that a familiarity with correct
+pronunciation can be secured only like liberty--at the price of
+eternal vigilance.
+
+Constant consultation of the dictionary and other books of recognized
+reference value, close observance of the speech of others, scrutiny of
+one's own pronunciation, mental criticism of others' slips, and
+determination to correct one's own errors, are the various methods of
+attaining certainty of correct delivery of word sounds.
+
+Poise. When a speaker stands before an audience to address its members
+he should be perfectly at ease. Physical ease will produce an effect
+upon the listeners. Mental ease because of mastery of the material
+will induce confidence in the delivery. Bodily eccentricities and
+awkwardness which detract from the speech itself should be eradicated
+by strenuous practice. Pose and poise should first command respectful
+attention. The body should be erect, but not stiff. Most of the
+muscles should be relaxed. The feet should be naturally placed, not
+so far apart as to suggest straddling, not so close together as to
+suggest the military stand at "attention."
+
+What should be done with the hands? Nothing. They should not be
+clasped; they should not be put behind the back; they should not be
+jammed into pockets; the arms should not be held akimbo; they should
+not be folded. Merely let the arms and hands hang at the sides
+naturally.
+
+Gestures. Should a speaker make gestures? Certainly never if the
+gesture detracts from the force of an expression, as when a preacher
+pounds the book so hard that the congregation cannot hear his words.
+Certainly yes, when the feeling of the speaker behind the phrase makes
+him enforce his meaning by a suitable movement. In speaking today
+fewer gestures are indulged in than years ago. There should never be
+many. Senseless, jerky, agitated pokings and twitchings should be
+eradicated completely. Insincere flourishes should be inhibited.
+Beginners should beware of gestures until they become such practised
+masters of their minds and bodies that physical emphasis may be added
+to spoken force.
+
+A speaker should feel perfectly free to change his position or move
+his feet during his remarks. Usually such a change should be made to
+correspond with a pause in delivery. In this way it reinforces the
+indication of progress or change of topic, already cited in discussing
+pauses.
+
+Delivery. A speaker should never begin to talk the very instant he has
+taken his place before his audience. He should make a slight pause to
+collect the attention before he utters his salutation (to be
+considered later) and should make another short pause between it and
+the opening sentences of his speech proper. After he has spoken the
+last word he should not fling away from his station to his seat. This
+always spoils the effect of an entire address by ruining the
+impression that the last phrase might have made.
+
+As for the speech itself, there are five ways of delivering it:
+
+1. To write it out in full and read it.
+
+2. To write it out in full and commit it to memory.
+
+3. To write out and memorize the opening and closing sentences and
+other especially important parts, leaving the rest for extempore
+delivery.
+
+4. To use an outline or a brief which suggests the headings in logical
+order.
+
+5. To speak without manuscript or notes.
+
+Reading the Speech. The first of these methods--to read the speech
+from a prepared manuscript--really changes the speech to a lecture or
+reading. True, it prevents the author from saying anything he would
+not say in careful consideration of his topic. It assures him of
+getting in all he wants to say. It gives the impression that all his
+utterances are the result of calm, collected thinking. On the other
+hand, so few people can read from a manuscript convincingly that the
+reproduction is likely to be a dull, lifeless proceeding in which
+almost anything might be said, so little does the material impress the
+audience. This method can hardly be considered speech-making at all.
+
+Memorizing the Speech. The second method--of repeating memorized
+compositions--is better. It at least seems alive. It has an appearance
+of direct address. It possesses the other advantages of the first
+method--definite reasoning and careful construction. But its dangers
+are grave. Few people can recite memorized passages with the personal
+appeal and direct significance that effective spoken discourse should
+have. Emphasis is lacking. Variety is absent. The tone becomes
+monotonous. The speech is so well committed that it flows too easily.
+If several speakers follow various methods, almost any listener can
+unerringly pick the memorized efforts. Let the speaker in delivery
+strive for variety, pauses, emphasis; let him be actor enough to
+simulate the feeling of spontaneous composition as he talks, yet no
+matter how successful he may be in his attempts there will still be
+slight inconsistencies, trifling incongruities, which will disturb a
+listener even if he cannot describe his mental reaction. The secret
+lies in the fact that written and spoken composition differ in certain
+details which are present in each form in spite of the utmost care to
+weed them out.
+
+Memorizing Parts. The third manner can be made effective if the
+speaker can make the gap just described between written and spoken
+discourse extremely narrow. If not, his speech will appear just what
+it is--an incongruous patchwork of carefully prepared, reconsidered
+writing, and more or less spontaneously evolved speaking.
+
+Speaking from Outline or Brief. The fourth method is by far the best
+for students training themselves to become public speakers. After a
+time the brief or outline can be retained in the mind, and the speaker
+passes from this method to the next. A brief for an important law case
+in the United States Supreme Court is a long and elaborate instrument.
+But a student speaker's brief or outline need not be long.
+
+Directions, models, and exercises for constructing and using outlines
+will be given in a later chapter.
+
+The Best Method. The last method is unquestionably the best. Let a man
+so command all the aspects of a subject that he fears no breakdown in
+his thoughts, let him be able to use language so that he need never
+hesitate for the best expression, let him know the effect he wants to
+make upon his audience, the time he has to do it in, and he will know
+by what approaches he can best reach his important theme, what he may
+safely omit, what he must include, what he may hurry over, what he
+must slowly unfold, what he may handle lightly, what he must treat
+seriously; in short, he will make a great speech. This manner is the
+ideal towards which all students, all speakers, should strive.
+
+Attributes of the Speaker. Attributes of the speaker himself will aid
+or mar his speech. Among those which help are sincerity, earnestness,
+simplicity, fairness, self-control, sense of humor, sympathy. All
+great speakers have possessed these traits. Reports upon significant
+speakers describing their manner emphasize them. John Bright, the
+famous English parliamentarian of the middle of the last century, is
+described as follows:
+
+    His style of speaking was exactly what a conventional
+    demagogue's ought not to be. It was pure to austerity; it was
+    stripped of all superfluous ornament. It never gushed or
+    foamed. It never allowed itself to be mastered by passion.
+    The first peculiarity that struck the listener was its superb
+    self-restraint. The orator at his most powerful passages
+    appeared as if he were rather keeping in his strength than
+    taxing it with effort.
+
+    JUSTIN MCCARTHY: _History of Our Own Time_
+
+In American history the greatest speeches were made by Abraham
+Lincoln. In Cooper Union, New York, he made in 1860 the most powerful
+speech against the slave power. The _New York Tribune_ the next day
+printed this description of his manner.
+
+Mr. Lincoln is one of nature's orators, using his rare powers solely
+to elucidate and convince, though their inevitable effect is to
+delight and electrify as well. We present herewith a very full and
+accurate report of this speech; yet the tones, the gestures, the
+kindling eye, and the mirth-provoking look defy the reporter's skill.
+The vast assemblage frequently rang with cheers and shouts of
+applause, which were prolonged and intensified at the close. No man
+ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York
+audience.
+
+Shakespeare's Advice. Some of the best advice for speakers was written
+by Shakespeare as long ago as just after 1600, and although it was
+intended primarily for actors, its precepts are just as applicable to
+almost any kind of delivered discourse. Every sentence of it is full
+of significance for a student of speaking. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark,
+is airing his opinions about the proper manner of speaking upon the
+stage.
+
+HAMLET'S SPEECH
+
+Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on
+the tongue; but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as
+lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much
+with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent,
+tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must
+acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. Oh, it
+offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear
+a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the
+groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but
+inexplicable dumb-shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped
+for o'erdoing Termagant. It out-herods Herod. Pray you, avoid it.
+
+Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor.
+Suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special
+observance, that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature. For anything
+so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the
+first and now, was and is, to hold, as 't were, the mirror up to
+nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the
+very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this
+overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh,
+cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one
+must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theater of others. Oh, there
+be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that
+highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of
+Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted
+and bellowed that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had made
+men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.
+
+Oh, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no
+more than is set down for them; for there be of them that will
+themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to
+laugh too, though in the meantime some necessary question of the play
+be then to be considered. That's villainous, and shows a most pitiful
+ambition in the fool that uses it. Go make you ready.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. 'Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff.
+
+2. The first sip of love is pleasant; the second, perilous; the third,
+pestilent.
+
+3. Our ardors are ordered by our enthusiasms.
+
+4. She's positively sick of seeing her soiled, silk, Sunday dress.
+
+5. The rough cough and hiccough plowed me through.
+
+6. She stood at the gate welcoming him in.
+
+7. Five miles meandering with a mazy motion.
+
+8. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers: if Peter Piper picked
+a peck of pickled peppers, where is the peck of pickled peppers that
+Peter Piper picked?
+
+9. Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted a sieve of unsifted
+thistles. If Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted a sieve of
+unsifted thistles, where is the sieve of unsifted thistles that
+Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted?
+
+10. Alone, alone, all, all alone,
+      Alone on a wide, wide sea!
+
+11. The splendor falls on castle walls,
+      And snowy summits old in story.
+
+12. Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow
+    Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
+    To the last syllable of recorded time.
+
+13. The moan of doves in immemorial elms,
+    And murmurings of innumerable bees.
+
+14. The Ladies' Aid ladies were talking about a conversation they had
+overheard, before the meeting, between a man and his wife.
+
+"They must have been at the Zoo," said Mrs. A.; "because I heard her
+mention 'a trained deer.'"
+
+"Goodness me!" laughed Mrs. B. "What queer hearing you must have! They
+were talking about going away, and she said, 'Find out about the
+train, dear.'"
+
+"Well, did anybody ever!" exclaimed Mrs. C. "I am sure they were
+talking about musicians, for she said, 'a trained ear,' as distinctly
+as could be."
+
+The discussion began to warm up, and in the midst of it the lady
+herself appeared. They carried the case to her promptly, and asked for
+a settlement.
+
+"Well, well, you do beat all!" she exclaimed, after hearing each one.
+"I'd been out in the country overnight and was asking my husband if it
+rained here last night."
+
+15. Learning condemns beyond the reach of hope
+    The careless lips that speak of s[)o]ap for soap;
+    Her edict exiles from her fair abode
+    The clownish voice that utters r[)o]ad for road;
+    Less stern to him who calls his coat a c[)o]at,
+    And steers his boat believing it a b[)o]at.
+    She pardoned one, our classic city's boast,
+    Who said at Cambridge, m[)o]st instead of most,
+    But knit her brows and stamped her angry foot
+    To hear a Teacher call a root a r[)o]ot.
+
+16.        Hear the tolling of the bells--
+               Iron bells!
+    What a world of solemn thought their monody compels!
+           In the silence of the night,
+           How we shiver with affright
+    At the melancholy menace of their tone!
+    For every sound that floats
+    From the rust within their throats
+        Is a groan.
+    And the people--ah, the people--
+    They that dwell up in the steeple,
+            All alone,
+      And who, tolling, tolling, tolling,
+        In that muffled monotone,
+      Feel a glory in so rolling
+        On the human heart a stone--
+They are neither man nor woman--
+They are neither brute nor human--
+          They are Ghouls:
+    And their king it is who tolls;
+    And he rolls, rolls, rolls,
+          Rolls
+      A Paean from the bells!
+    And his merry bosom swells
+    With the paean of the bells!
+    And he dances, and he yells;
+    Keeping time, time, time,
+    In a sort of Runic rhyme,
+    To the paean of the bells--
+         Of the bells.
+
+17. Collecting, projecting,
+    Receding and speeding,
+    And shocking and rocking,
+    And darting and parting.
+    And threading and spreading,
+    And whizzing and hissing,
+    And dripping and skipping,
+    And hitting and splitting,
+    And shining and twining,
+    And rattling and battling,
+    And shaking and quaking,
+    And pouring and roaring,
+    And waving and raving,
+    And tossing and crossing,
+    And flowing and going,
+    And running and stunning,
+    And foaming and roaming,
+    And dinning and spinning,
+    And dropping and hopping,
+    And working and jerking,
+    And guggling and struggling,
+    And heaving and cleaving,
+    And moaning and groaning;
+
+    And glittering and frittering,
+    And gathering and feathering,
+    And whitening and brightening,
+    And quivering and shivering,
+    And hurrying and skurrying,
+    And thundering and floundering;
+
+    Dividing and gliding and sliding,
+    And falling and brawling and sprawling,
+    And driving and riving and striving,
+    And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling,
+    And sounding and bounding and rounding,
+    And bubbling and troubling and doubling,
+    And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling,
+    And clattering and battering and shattering;
+
+    Retreating and beating and meeting and sheeting,
+    Delaying and straying and playing and spraying,
+    Advancing and prancing and glancing and dancing,
+    Recoiling, turmoiling and toiling and boiling,
+    And gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming,
+    And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing,
+    And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping,
+    And curling and whirling and purling and twirling,
+    And thumping and plumping and bumping and jumping,
+    And dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing;
+    And so never ending, but always descending,
+    Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending,
+    All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar;
+    And this way the water comes down at Lodore.
+
+18.   Sister Susie's sewing shirts for soldiers,
+    Such skill at sewing shirts our shy young
+              Sister Susie shows.
+        Some soldiers send epistles
+        Say they'd rather sleep in thistles
+    Than the saucy, soft, short shirts for soldiers
+              Sister Susie sews.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WORDS AND SENTENCES
+
+
+Vocabularies. The collection of words a person can command either in
+use or understanding is a vocabulary. Every person has three distinct
+ones: his reading vocabulary, his writing vocabulary, his speaking
+vocabulary. Of these, the reading vocabulary is the largest. There are
+thousands of words he recognizes in reading and although he might not
+be able to construct a dictionary definition for everyone, he has a
+sufficiently clear idea to grasp the meaning. In this rude
+approximation to sense he is aided by the context, but for all
+practical purposes he understands the word. If he were writing,
+carefully taking time to note exactly what he was expressing, he might
+recall that word and so consciously put it into a sentence. He might
+use it in exactly the same sense in which he had seen it in print. But
+never in the rush of ideas and words in spoken discourse would he risk
+using a word he knew so slightly. If nothing more, he would beware of
+mispronunciation.
+
+Thus a person could easily deduce from his reading that a _hangar_ is
+a building to house airplanes. He might--to avoid repeating the word
+_shed_ too frequently--use it in writing. But until he was absolutely
+certain of its significance and its sound he would hardly venture to
+say it to other men.
+
+Spoken discourse is so alive, it moves so rapidly, that it is never so
+precise, so varied in its choice of words, as written material. The
+phraseology of written discourse sounds slightly or markedly stilted,
+bookish, if repeated by the tongue. This difference--though it may
+appear almost trifling--is apparent to everyone. Its recognition can
+be partly illustrated by the fact that after President Lowell and
+Senator Lodge had debated on the topic, the League of Nations, in
+Boston and were shown the reports of their speeches, each made changes
+in certain expressions. The version for print and reading is a little
+more formal than the delivered sentences. The Senator said, "I want"
+but preferred to write "I wish"; then he changed "has got to be" into
+"must," and "nothing to see" into "nothing visible."
+
+One might say that all three vocabularies should correspond, but there
+is no real need of this. So long as people read they will meet
+thousands of words for which they have no need in speaking. Everybody
+must be able to understand the masterpieces of the past with their
+archaic (old-fashioned) words like _eftsoons_ or _halidom_, but no one
+need use such expressions now. So there is no discredit in the fact
+that one's speaking vocabulary is more restricted than his reading
+vocabulary.
+
+New Ideas, New Words. It is true, however, that an educated person
+should never rest content with the size of his usable speaking
+vocabulary. The addition of every new word is likely to indicate the
+grasp of a new idea. Likewise, every new idea is almost certain to
+require its individual terms for expression. An enlarging vocabulary
+is the outward and visible sign of an inward and intellectual growth.
+No man's vocabulary can equal the size of a dictionary, the latest of
+which in English is estimated to contain some 450,000 words. Life may
+be maintained upon a surprisingly meager group of words, as travelers
+in foreign lands can testify. Shakespeare's vocabulary is said to have
+included as many as 15,000 words. Figures for that of the average
+person vary considerably.
+
+Increasing the Vocabulary. The method of increasing a vocabulary is a
+quite simple process. Its procedure is a fascinating exercise. It
+covers four steps. When a new word is encountered it should be noticed
+with keen attention. If heard, its pronunciation will be fixed upon
+the ear. If seen, its spelling should be mastered at once. The next
+step is to consult a dictionary for either spelling or pronunciation.
+Then all its meanings should be examined. Still the word is not yours
+until you have used it exactly. This you should do at the first
+opportunity. If the opportunity seems long in coming make it for
+yourself by discussing with some one the topic with which it was used
+or frankly discuss the word itself. How many unfamiliar words have you
+heard or seen recently? How many do you easily use now in your own
+remarks? You might find it a good plan to take a linguistic inventory
+every night. A little practice in this will produce amazingly
+interesting and profitable results in both use and understanding. A
+keenness for words will be rapidly developed. Word-lists of all kinds
+will take on entirely new meanings. A spontaneous receptivity will
+develop into permanent retention of words and phrases.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Tell of some new word you have added to your vocabulary recently.
+Explain when you met it, how it happened to impress you, what you
+learned of it.
+
+2. In studying a foreign language how did you fix in your mind the
+words which permanently stuck there?
+
+3. Look over a page in a dictionary. Report to the class on some
+interesting material you find.
+
+4. Make a list of ten slang or technical expressions. Explain them in
+exact, clear language.
+
+5. Find and bring to class a short printed passage, which because of
+the words, you cannot understand. Unusual books, women's fashion
+magazines, technical journals, books of rules for games, financial
+reports, contain good examples.
+
+6. How much do you know about any of the following words?
+
+chassis      fuselage   orthodox    sable
+comptometer  germicide  plebescite  self-determination
+covenant     layman     purloin     soviet
+ethiopian    morale     querulous   vers libre
+farce        nectar     renegade    zoom
+
+7. Comment on the words in the following extracts:
+
+    "Of enchanting crimson brocade is the slipover blouse which
+    follows the lines of the French cuirasse. Charmingly simple,
+    this blouse, quite devoid of trimming, achieves smartness by
+    concealing the waistline with five graceful folds."
+
+    "The shift bid consists in bidding a suit, of which you have
+    little or nothing, with the ultimate object of transferring
+    later to another declaration, which is perfectly sound. The
+    idea is to keep your adversaries from leading this suit up
+    to your hand, which they will likely avoid doing, thinking
+    that you are strong in it."
+
+    "While sentiment is radically bearish on corn there is so
+    little pressure on the market other than from shorts that a
+    majority of traders are inclined to go slow in pressing the
+    selling side on breaks until the situation becomes more
+    clearly defined. The weekly forecast for cool weather is
+    regarded as favorable for husking and shelling, and while
+    there was evening up on the part of the pit operators for the
+    double holiday, some of the larger local professionals went
+    home short expecting a lower opening Tuesday."
+
+8. Make a list of ten new words you have learned recently.
+
+Suffixes and Prefixes. Definite steps for continuous additions can be
+mapped out and covered. Careful attention to prefixes and suffixes
+will enlarge the vocabulary.
+
+PREFIXES
+
+1. a = on, in, at, to; _abed, aboard, afield, afire_
+
+2. ab (a, abs) = from, away; _absent, abstract, abdicate_
+
+3. ad, etc. = to, in addition to; _adapt, admit, adduce_
+
+4. ante = before, _anteroom, antebellum_
+
+5. anti = against, opposite; _anticlimax, antipodes, antipathy_
+
+6. bi= two; _bicycle, biennial, biped, biplane_
+
+7. circum = around, about; _circumnavigate, circumscribe,
+circumvent_
+
+8. con (col, com, co, cor, etc.) = with, together; _consent,
+collect, cooerdinate, composite, conspiracy_
+
+9. contra (counter) = against; _contradict, counteract, countermand_
+
+10. de = down, from, away; _depose, desist, decapitate,
+denatured_
+
+11. demi, hemi, semi = half; _demi-tasse, hemisphere, semiannual,
+semitransparent_
+
+12. di (dis) = twice, double; _dissyllable_
+
+13. dis (di, dif) = apart, away, not; _distract, diverge, diversion,
+disparage_
+
+14. en (em) = in, on, into; _engrave, embody, embrace_
+
+15. extra = beyond; _extraordinary, extravagant_
+
+16. hyper = above; _hypercritical_
+
+17. in (il, im, ir) = in, into, not; _inclose, illustrate, irrigate,
+inform, illiterate, impious, irregular_
+
+18. ex (e, ec, ef) = out of, from, beyond, thoroughly, formerly
+but not now; _exclude, excel, ex-senator._
+
+19. inter = between, among; _intercede, interchange, interfere,
+interurban, interlude_
+
+20. mis = wrongly, badly; _miscalculate, misspell, misadventure_
+
+21. mono = one; _monoplane_
+
+22. per = through, thoroughly, by; _perchance, perfect, per-adventure_
+
+23. poly = many; _polygon, polytheism_
+
+24. post = behind, after; _postgraduate, post-mortem, postlude_,
+_postscript, post-meridian_ (P.M.)
+
+25. pre = before (in time, place, or order); _preeminent, predict,
+prefer, prefix, prejudge, prejudice_
+
+26. preter = beyond; _preternatural_
+
+27. pro = before, forth, forward; _proceed, prosecute_
+
+28. pro = siding with; _pro-ally_
+
+29. re = back, again; _recover, renew, recall_
+
+30. sub, etc. = under; _submerge, subscribe, subterranean,
+subterfuge_
+
+31. super (sur) = over, above; _superintend, supercargo_
+
+32. trans (tra) = across; _translate, transmit, transfer_
+
+33. vice (vis) = instead of; _vice-president, vice-admiral_
+
+SUFFIXES
+
+1. ee, er = one who; _absentee_, _profiteer_, _mower_
+
+2. ard, art= term of disparagement; _drunkard_, _braggart_
+
+3. esque = like; _statuesque_
+
+4. ism = state of being; _barbarism_, _atheism_
+
+5. et, let = little; _brooklet_, _bracelet_, _eaglet_
+
+6. ling = little, young; _duckling_, _gosling_
+
+7. kin = little; _lambkin_, _Peterkin_
+
+8. stead = a place; _bedstead_, _homestead_, _instead_
+
+9. wright = a workman; _wheelwright_
+
+Thesaurus. Besides frequently consulting a good modern dictionary a
+student speaker should familiarize himself with a _Thesaurus_ of words
+and phrases. This is a peculiarly useful compilation of expressions
+according to their meaning relations. A dictionary lists words, then
+gives their meanings. A Thesaurus arranges meanings, then gives the
+words that express those ideas. The value of such a book can be best
+illustrated by explaining its use.
+
+Suppose a speaker is going to attack some principle, some act, some
+party. He knows that his main theme will be denunciation of something.
+In the index of a Thesaurus he looks under _denunciation_, finding two
+numbers of paragraphs. Turning to the first he has under his eye a
+group of words all expressing shades of this idea. There are further
+references to other related terms. Let us look at the first group,
+taken from Roget's _Thesaurus_.
+
+MALEDICTON, curse, imprecation, denunciation, execration, anathema,
+ban, proscription, excommunication, commination, fulmination.
+
+Cursing, scolding, railing, Billingsgate language.
+
+_V_. To curse, accurse, imprecate, scold, rail, execrate.
+
+To denounce, proscribe, excommunicate, fulminate.
+
+_Adj_. Cursing, &c, cursed, &c.
+
+THREAT, menace, defiance, abuse, commination, intimidation.
+
+_V_. To threaten, menace, defy, fulminate; to intimidate.
+
+_Adj_. Threatening, menacing, minatory, abusive.
+
+The second reference leads us farther. It presents the expressions
+dealing with the methods and results of _denunciation_, providing
+hundreds of words and phrases to use in various ways. It does even
+more, for in a parallel column it gives a list of opposites for the
+words indicating _condemnation_. This more than doubles its value.
+Finally having reached the word _punishment_ it lists its cognates
+until the idea _penalty_ is reached, where it balances that idea with
+_reward_ and its synonyms. A portion of this section follows.
+
+LAWSUIT, suit, action, cause, trial, litigation.
+
+Denunciation, citation, arraignment, persecution, indictment,
+impeachment, apprehension, arrest, committal, imprisonment.
+
+Pleadings, writ, summons, plea, bill, affidavit, &c.
+
+Verdict, sentence, judgment, finding, decree, arbitrament,
+adjudication, award.
+
+_V_. To go to law; to take the law of; to appeal to the law; to join
+issue; file a bill, file a claim.
+
+To denounce, cite, apprehend, arraign, sue, prosecute, bring to trial,
+indict, attach, distrain, to commit, give in charge or custody; throw
+into prison.
+
+To try, hear a cause, sit in judgment.
+
+To pronounce, find, judge, sentence, give judgment; bring in a
+verdict; doom, to arbitrate, adjudicate, award, report.
+
+ACQUITTAL, absolution, _see_ Pardon, 918, clearance, discharge,
+release, reprieve, respite.
+
+Exemption from punishment; impunity.
+
+_V_. To acquit, absolve, clear, discharge, release, reprieve, respite.
+
+_Adj_. Acquitted, &c.
+
+Uncondemned, unpunished, unchastised.
+
+CONDEMNATION, conviction, proscription; death warrant.
+
+Attainder, attainment.
+
+_V_. To condemn, convict, cast, find guilty, proscribe.
+
+_Adj_. Condemnatory, &c.
+
+PUNISHMENT, chastisement, castigation, correction, chastening,
+discipline, infliction, etc.
+
+An observer will see at once just how far these lists go and what must
+supplement them. They do not define, they do not discriminate, they do
+not restrict. They are miscellaneous collections. A person must
+consult the dictionary or refer to some other authority to prevent
+error or embarrassment in use. For instance, under the entry
+_newspaper_ occurs the attractive word _ephemeris_. But one should be
+careful of how and where he uses that word.
+
+Another exercise which will aid in fixing both words and meanings in
+the mind and also help in the power of recalling them for instant use
+is to make some kind of word-list according to some principle or
+scheme. One plan might be to collect all the words dealing with the
+idea of _book_. Another might be to take some obvious word root and
+then follow it and other roots added to it through all its forms,
+meanings, and uses. One might choose _tel_ (distant) and _graph_
+(record) and start with _telegraph_. _Telephone_ will introduce
+_phone_, _phonograph_; they will lead on to _dictaphone_,
+_dictagraph_; the first half links with _dictation_; that may lead as
+far away as _dictatorial_. In fact there is no limit to the extent,
+the interest, and the value of these various exercises. The single aim
+of all of them should be, of course, the enlargement of the speaking
+vocabulary. Mere curiosities, current slang, far-fetched metaphors,
+passing foreign phrases, archaisms, obsolete and obsolescent terms,
+too new coinages, atrocities, should be avoided as a plague.
+
+Consistent, persistent, insistent word-study is of inestimable value
+to a speaker. And since all people speak, it follows that it would
+benefit everybody.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Explain what is meant by each entry in the foregoing list.
+
+2. List some verbal curiosities you have met recently. Examples: "Mr.
+Have-it-your-own-way is the best husband." "He shows a great deal of
+stick-to-it-iveness."
+
+3. What should be the only condition for using foreign expressions?
+Can you show how foreign words become naturalized? Cite some foreign
+words used in speech.
+
+4. Are archaic (old-fashioned), obsolete (discarded), and obsolescent
+(rapidly disappearing) terms more common in speech or books? Explain
+and illustrate.
+
+Synonyms. As has already been suggested, a copious vocabulary must not
+be idle in a person's equipment. He must be able to use it. He must be
+able to discriminate as to meaning. This power of choosing the exact
+word results from a study of synonyms. It is a fact that no two words
+mean _exactly_ the same thing. No matter how nearly alike the two
+meanings may appear to be, closer consideration will unfailingly show
+at least a slight difference of dignity, if nothing more--as _red_ and
+_crimson_, _pure_ and _unspotted_. Synonyms, then, are groups of words
+whose meanings are almost the same. These are the words which give so
+much trouble to learners of our language. A foreigner is told that
+_stupid_ means _dull_, yet he is corrected if he says _a stupid
+knife_. Many who learn English as a native tongue fail to comprehend
+the many delicate shades of differences among synonyms.
+
+In this matter, also, a dictionary goes so far as to list synonyms,
+and in some cases, actually adds a discussion to define the various
+limits. For fuller, more careful discrimination a good book of
+synonyms should be consulted. Except for some general consideration of
+words which everyone is certain to use or misuse, it is better to
+consult a treatise on synonyms when need arises than to study it
+consecutively. In consultation the material will be fixed by instant
+use. In study it may fade before being employed; it may never be
+required.
+
+The subjoined paragraphs show entries in two different volumes upon
+synonyms:
+
+    Adjacent, adjoining, contiguous. Adjacent, in Latin,
+    _adjiciens_, participle of _adjicio_, is compounded of _ad_
+    and _jacio_, to lie near. _Adjoining_, as the word implies,
+    signifies being joined together. Contiguous, in French
+    _contigu_, Latin _contiguus_, comes from _contingo_, or
+    _con_ and _tango_, signifying to touch close.
+
+    What is _adjacent_ may be separated altogether by the
+    intervention of some third object; what is _adjoining_ must
+    touch in some part; and what is _contiguous_ must be fitted
+    to touch entirely on one side. Lands are _adjacent_ to a
+    house or town; fields are _adjoining_ to each other; and
+    houses _contiguous_ to each other.
+
+    CRABBE: _English Synonyms_
+
+    Victory: Synonyms: achievement, advantage, conquest, mastery,
+    success, supremacy, triumph. _Victory_ is the state resulting
+    from the overcoming of an opponent or opponents in any
+    contest, or from the overcoming of difficulties, obstacles,
+    evils, etc., considered as opponents or enemies. In the
+    latter sense any hard-won _achievement_, _advantage,_ or
+    _success_ may be termed a victory. In _conquest_ and
+    _mastery_ there is implied a permanence of state that is not
+    implied in _victory_. _Triumph_, originally denoting the
+    public rejoicing in honor of a _victory_, has come to signify
+    also a peculiarly exultant, complete, and glorious _victory_.
+    Compare _conquer_. Antonyms: defeat, destruction,
+    disappointment, disaster, failure, frustration, miscarriage,
+    overthrow, retreat, rout.
+
+    FERNALD: _English Synonyms, Antonyms and Prepositions_
+
+Antonyms. Notice that this second paragraph adds a new
+word-list--_antonyms_. To reinforce the understanding of what a thing
+is, it is desirable to know what it is not, or what its opposite is.
+This kind of explanation or description is especially valuable to a
+speaker. He can frequently impress an audience more definitely by
+explaining the opposite of what he wants them to apprehend. At times
+the term is not the extreme opposite; it is merely the negative of the
+other. Logically the other side of _white_ is _not white_, while the
+antonym is the extreme _black_. Trained speakers use with great effect
+the principle underlying such groups of words. When Burke argued
+before the House of Commons for a plan to secure harmony with the
+American colonies he described the scheme he considered necessary by
+showing what it should not be. "No partial, narrow, contracted,
+pinched, occasional system will be at all suitable to such an object."
+Describing the peace he hoped would be secured he used this principle
+of opposites. "Not peace through the medium of war; not peace to be
+hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations,
+not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle
+in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical
+determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the
+shadowy boundaries of a complex government."
+
+We are told by an investigator that one of the reasons for a
+Frenchman's keen insight into the capabilities of his language is the
+early training received in schools covering differences among words.
+This continual weighing of the meaning or the suitability of an
+expression is bound to result in a delicate appreciation of its value
+as a means of effective communication. In all mental action the sense
+of contrast is an especially lively one. In a later chapter this
+principle, as applied to explanation and argument, will be discussed.
+Just here, the point is that the constant study of contrasts will
+sharpen the language sense and rapidly enlarge the vocabulary.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Put down a group of five words having similar meanings. Explain the
+differences among them.
+
+2. Choose any word. Give its exact opposite.
+
+3. From any short paragraph copy all the nouns. In a parallel column
+put opposites or contrasts.
+
+4. Do the same for the adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.
+
+5. Write down all the common nouns which correspond to _a man_, _a
+girl_, _a leader_, _a house_, _a costume_, _a crime_.
+
+Composition of the English Language. Turning now from the means of
+improving the speaker's language equipment let us pass to some remarks
+upon his use of words. The English language is the largest, the most
+varied in the universe. Almost entirely free from difficulties of
+inflection and conjugation, with a simplified grammar, and a great
+freedom of construction, it suffers from only two signal
+drawbacks--its spelling and its pronunciation. While it has preserved
+to a great degree its original Anglo-Saxon grammar, it has enriched
+its vocabulary by borrowings from everywhere. Its words have no
+distinctive forms, so every foreign word can usually be naturalized by
+a mere change of sound. No matter what their origin, all belong to one
+family now; _gnu_ is as much English as _knew_, _japan_ as _pogrom_,
+_fete_ as _papoose_, _batik_ as _radii_, _ohm_ as _marconigram_,
+_macadamized_ as _zoomed_. Most of the modern borrowings--as just
+illustrated--were to serve for new things or ideas. But there was one
+time when a great reduplication of the vocabulary occurred. After the
+French conquered England in 1066, English and Norman-French were
+spoken side by side. The resultant tongue, composed of both, offered
+many doubles for the same idea. In some instances the fashionable and
+aristocratic French word marked a difference of meaning as is clearly
+indicated by such pairs as _beef_ and _ox_, _veal_ and _calf, mutton_
+and _sheep_, _pork_ and _pig_. In many other cases words of French and
+English origin are separated by differences less distinct. Such are
+_love_ and _affection_, _worship_ and _adoration_. A speaker must take
+thought of such groups, and consciously endeavor to use the more
+appropriate for his purpose.
+
+Anglo-Saxon and Romance. It may help him to remember that the
+Anglo-Saxon words are the more homely, the closer to our everyday
+feelings and experiences, the expression of our deepest ideas and
+sentiments, the natural outspoken response to keen emotion. On the
+other hand, the Romance words--as they are called, whether from the
+French or directly from the Latin--are likely to be longer; they
+belong generally to the more complicated relationships of society and
+government; they are more intellectual in the sense that they
+represent the operations of the brain rather than the impulses of the
+heart. They deal with more highly trained wills, with more abstruse
+problems; they reason, they argue, they consider; they are
+philosophical, scientific, legal, historical. Listen to a soldier
+relate his war experiences. What will his vocabulary be? Listen to a
+diplomat explaining the League of Nations. What will his vocabulary
+be? Have you ever heard a speaker who gave you the impression that all
+his words ended in _tion_? This was because his vocabulary was
+largely Romance.
+
+The inferences from the foregoing are perfectly plain. Subject and
+audience will determine to a large extent what kinds of words a
+speaker will choose. The well-equipped speaker will be master of both
+kinds; he will draw from either as occasion offers. He will not insult
+one audience by talking below their intelligence, nor will he bore
+another by speaking over their heads.
+
+General and Specific Terms. Effective speaking depends to a large
+extent upon the inclusion of specific terms as contrasted with general
+terms. "Glittering generalities" never make people listen. They mean
+nothing because they say too much. Study the following selections to
+see how the concrete phraseology used makes the material more telling,
+how it enforces the meaning. Pick out the best expressions and explain
+why they are better than more general terms. In the first, note how
+the last sentence drives home the meaning of the first two. Listeners
+may understand the first two, they remember the last.
+
+    Civil and religious liberty in this country can be preserved
+    only through the agency of our political institutions. But
+    those institutions alone will not suffice. It is not the ship
+    so much as the skilful sailing that assures the prosperous
+    voyage.
+
+    GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated
+    Men_, 1877
+
+Describe the significance of the best expressions in the following
+speech made in Parliament by Thomas Babington Macaulay.
+
+    All those fierce spirits whom you hallooed on to harass us
+    now turn round and begin to worry you. The Orangeman raises
+    his war-whoop; Exeter Hall sets up its bray; Mr. Macneill
+    shudders to see more costly cheer than ever provided for the
+    Priest of Baal at the table of the Queen; and the Protestant
+    operatives of Dublin call for impeachments in exceedingly bad
+    English. But what did you expect? Did you think when, to
+    serve your turn, you called the devil up that it was as easy
+    to lay him as to raise him? Did you think when you went on,
+    session after session, thwarting and reviling those whom you
+    knew to be in the right, and flattering all the worst
+    passions of those whom you knew to be in the wrong, that the
+    day of reckoning would never come? It has come. There you
+    sit, doing penance for the disingenuousness of years.
+
+Why was the style of the extract below especially good for the evident
+purpose and audience? Why did the author use names for the candidates?
+
+    When an American citizen is content with voting merely, he
+    consents to accept what is often a doubtful alternative. His
+    first duty is to help shape the alternative. This, which was
+    formerly less necessary, is now indispensable. In a rural
+    community such as this country was a hundred years-ago,
+    whoever was nominated for office was known to his neighbors,
+    and the consciousness of that knowledge was a conservative
+    influence in determining nominations. But in the local
+    elections of the great cities of today, elections that
+    control taxation and expenditure, the mass of the voters vote
+    in absolute ignorance of the candidates. The citizen who
+    supposes that he does all his duty when he votes, places a
+    premium upon political knavery. Thieves welcome him to the
+    polls and offer him a choice, which he has done nothing to
+    prevent, between Jeremy Diddler and Dick Turpin. The party
+    cries for which he is responsible are: "Turpin and Honesty,"
+    "Diddler and Reform." And within a few years, as a result of
+    this indifference to the details of public duty, the most
+    powerful politicians in the Empire State of the Union was
+    Jonathan Wild, the Great, the captain of a band of
+    plunderers.
+
+    GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated
+    Men_, 1877
+
+Appropriate Diction. The final test of any diction is its
+appropriateness. The man who talks of dignified things as he would of
+a baseball game--unless he is doing it deliberately for humor,
+caricature, or burlesque--is ruining his own cause. The man who
+discusses trifles in the style of philosophy makes himself an
+egregious bore. As Shakespeare said, "Suit the action to the word, the
+word to the action; with this special observance, that you o'erstep
+not the modesty of nature."
+
+Beware of the flowery expression; avoid metaphorical speech; flee from
+the lure of the overwrought style. In the first place it is so
+old-fashioned that audiences suspect it at once. It fails to move
+them. It may plunge its user into ridiculous failure. In the
+excitement of spontaneous composition a man sometimes takes risks. He
+may--as Pitt is reported to have said he did--throw himself into a
+sentence and trust to God Almighty to get him out. But a beginner had
+better walk before he tries to soar. If he speaks surely rather than
+amazingly his results will be better. The temptation to leave the
+ground is ever present in speaking.
+
+A Parliamentary debater describing the Church of England wound up in a
+flowery conclusion thus: "I see the Church of England rising in the
+land, with one foot firmly planted in the soil, the other stretched
+toward Heaven!"
+
+An American orator discussing the character of Washington discharged
+the following.
+
+    The higher we rise in the scale of being--material,
+    intellectual, and moral--the more certainly we quit the
+    region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts
+    which belong to a vulgar greatness. Order and proportion
+    characterize the primordial constitution of the terrestrial
+    system; ineffable harmony rules the heavens. All the great
+    eternal forces act in solemn silence. The brawling torrent
+    that dries up in summer deafens you with its roaring
+    whirlpools in March; while the vast earth on which we dwell,
+    with all its oceans and all its continents and its thousand
+    millions of inhabitants, revolves unheard upon its soft axle
+    at the rate of a thousand miles an hour, and rushes
+    noiselessly on its orbit a million and a half miles a day.
+    Two storm-clouds encamped upon opposite hills on a sultry
+    summer's evening, at the expense of no more electricity,
+    according to Mr. Faraday, than is evolved in the
+    decomposition of a single drop of water, will shake the
+    surrounding atmosphere with their thunders, which, loudly as
+    they rattle on the spot, will yet not be heard at the
+    distance of twenty miles; while those tremendous and
+    unutterable forces which ever issue from the throne of God,
+    and drag the chariot wheels of Uranus and Neptune along the
+    uttermost path-ways of the solar system, pervade the
+    illimitable universe in silence.
+
+Of course, today, nobody talks like that. At least no one should.
+
+Trite Expressions. Less easily guarded against is the delivery of
+trite expressions. These are phrases and clauses which at first were
+so eloquent that once heard they stuck in people's minds, who then in
+an endeavor themselves to be emphatic inserted continually into their
+speeches these overworked, done-to-death expressions, which now
+having been used too frequently have no real meaning. One of the most
+frequently abused is "of the people, by the people, for the people."
+Others are words and phrases made popular by the war. Many are no more
+than jargon--meaningless counterfeits instead of the legal tender of
+real speech. It is amazing to notice how persistently some of them
+recur in the remarks of apparently well-trained men who should know
+better than to insert them. The following were used by a prominent
+United States political leader in a single speech. He could; easily
+have replaced them by living material or dispensed with them entirely.
+
+Jot or tittle; the plain unvarnished truth; God forbid; the jackal
+press; that memorable occasion; tooth and nail; the God of our
+fathers; the awful horrors of Valley Forge; the blood-stained heights
+of Yorktown; tell it not in Gath; proclaim it not in the streets of
+Askalon; peace with honor; the Arabian Nights; Munchausen; the
+fathers; our globe-encircling domain; I am a Democrat; the pirates of
+the Barbary Coast; Democratic gospel pure and undefiled; Janus-faced
+double; Good Lord, good devil; all things to all men; God-fearing
+patriots; come what may; all things are fair in love or war; the
+silken bowstring; the unwary voter; bait to catch gudgeons; to live by
+or to die by; these obsequious courtiers; Guttenburg; rubber stamp; at
+all hazards; the most unkindest cut of all.
+
+With the artificiality, the stiltedness of the foregoing contrast the
+simplicity, the sincerity of these two extracts from Abraham Lincoln.
+
+    And now, if they would listen--as I suppose they will not--I
+    would address a few words to the Southern people.
+
+    I would say to them: You consider yourselves a reasonable and
+    a just people; and I consider that in the general qualities
+    of reason and justice you are not inferior to any other
+    people. Still, when you speak of us Republicans, you do so
+    only to denounce us as reptiles, or, at the best, as no
+    better than outlaws. You will grant a hearing to pirates or
+    murderers, but nothing like it to "Black Republicans." In all
+    your contentions with one another, each of you deems an
+    unconditional condemnation of "Black Republicanism" as the
+    first thing to be attended to. Indeed, such condemnation of
+    us seems to be an indispensable prerequisite--license, so to
+    speak--among you to be admitted or permitted to speak at all.
+    Now can you or not be prevailed upon to pause and to consider
+    whether this is quite just to us, or even to yourselves?
+    Bring forward your charges and specifications, and then be
+    patient long enough to hear us deny or justify.
+
+    _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860
+
+    My Friends: No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my
+    feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place, and the
+    kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived
+    a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an
+    old man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried.
+    I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may return,
+    with a task before me greater than that which rested upon
+    Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who
+    ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance I
+    cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain
+    with you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope
+    that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I
+    hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an
+    affectionate farewell.
+
+    _Farewell Address at Springfield_, 1861
+
+Kinds of Sentences. What kinds of sentences shall a speaker construct
+as he speaks? That there is a difference between those a person
+composes when he writes and those the same person is likely to evolve
+when he speaks is realized by everyone. We hear that a speaker is
+"booky," or conversational, that he is stilted or lively, that he is
+too formal, that his discourse is dull and flat. To a great degree
+these criticisms are based upon the sentence structure.
+
+The Simple Sentence. The simple sentence contains only one subject and
+one predicate. The complex sentence contains one independent clause
+and at least one subordinate clause. The compound sentence contains
+two or more independent clauses. It would be good advice to urge the
+employment of the simple sentence were it not for the fact that a long
+succession of sentences constructed exactly alike, making the same
+impression of form and sound and length, is likely to produce a deadly
+monotony of emphasis and pause, an impression of immaturity on the
+part of the speaker and of lack of skill in molding his phrases. Yet,
+in the main, the simple sentence is a valuable kind to know how to
+deliver. Containing but a single thought it is likely to make a
+definite impression upon a listener. It offers him not too much to
+grasp. It leads him a single step along the way. It speaks clearly,
+concisely. Its advantages follow from its qualities. At the beginning
+of addresses it is especially efficient in leading the audience at the
+same rate--slowly, it should be--as the speaker. In intricate
+explanation, in close reasoning, in matters of paramount importance,
+it should be employed.
+
+Management of the short, simple sentence in written prose is
+difficult. In spoken discourse, as well, it is so easy to fall into
+the First Primer style that while the advantages of the use of the
+simple sentence are great, the ability to produce good sentences in
+succession must be developed.
+
+The Complex Sentence. The complex sentence offers a good form for
+introducing pertinent, minor details, which are necessary, yet which
+do not merit inclusion in the general level of the speech. Aided by
+proper pitch and inflection of the voice, they can be skilfully
+subordinated to main ideas, yet introduced so adroitly that they at
+times relieve attention, at others briefly explain, at others keep
+adding up in a series the effect of which is a large total. Frequently
+such sentences indicate clearly the progress of the discussion. A
+topic introduced in a subordinate clause may later be raised to more
+importance without abruptness, for hearers are already familiar with
+it. A topic already treated may be recalled by citation in a later
+clause. So various parts of a speech may be closely knit together to
+present a coherent, progressive, unified whole.
+
+In easily grasped general, descriptive, narrative, explanatory
+material, complex sentences will allow the covering of a wide field,
+or a long time, in short order by condensing facts into the few words
+of subordinate clauses.
+
+The Compound Sentence. Somewhat like the use of complex sentences for
+general material is the use of compound ones for informal topics,
+familiar discourse, easy address, lighter material. Valuable, too, is
+this form for the speaker who knows accurately the meaning of
+conjunctions, who can avoid the stringing together of what should be
+simple sentences by a dozen senseless _ands_. A good rule for the
+beginner is to allow no _ands_ in his speeches except those so
+imbedded in phrases--husband and wife, now and then, principal and
+interest--that he cannot avoid them. Let him never speak such
+sentences as, "I came to this meeting and discovered only when I got
+here that I was scheduled to speak." Let him be careful of beginning
+sentence's with _and_ after he has made a pause.
+
+The Exclamatory Sentence. Many speakers yield to the temptation to
+strive for effect by delivering exclamatory sentences--sometimes only
+clauses and phrases so enunciated. The disposition to do this is born
+of the desire to be emphatic. Strong feeling makes one burst out in
+ejaculation. Used sparingly this form may be extremely effective. Used
+too frequently it reduces a speech to a mere series of ejaculations of
+little more value than a succession of grunts, groans, and sobs.
+Exclamatory sentences seldom convey much meaning. They indicate
+emotion. But a speech, to be worth listening to, must convey ideas.
+
+The Interrogative Sentence. A second sentence which may be classed
+with the preceding is the interrogative. There is a disposition on the
+part of speakers to ask direct questions of the audience. Frequently
+the rhetorical question--which is one asked because the answer is the
+quite apparent fact the speaker wants to impress upon his hearers--is
+an effective method of making a seemingly personal appeal to sluggish
+intellects or lazy wills. The interrogative form has the same
+disadvantage as the exclamatory. Except when its answer is perfectly
+plain it transfers no meaning. It would be easily possible for a
+speaker with no ideas at all, no knowledge of a topic, to engage time
+and attention by merely constructing a series of questions. At the
+conclusion the audience would wonder why in the world he spoke, for he
+had so little to say.
+
+Long and Short Sentences. So far as long and short sentences are
+concerned some general rules have already been hinted at in dealing
+with other kinds. The advantages of the short sentence are mainly
+those of clearness, directness, emphasis. Its dangers are monotony,
+bareness, over-compactness. The advantages of the long--that is, quite
+long--sentence, are rather difficult to comprehend. A wordy sentence
+is likely to defeat its own purpose. Instead of guiding it will lose
+its hearer. Somewhat long sentences--as already said--will serve in
+general discussions, in rapidly moving descriptive and narrative
+passages, in rather simple explanation and argument. No one can state
+at just what number of words a short sentence becomes medium, and when
+the division of medium becomes long. Yet there must be some limits. A
+sentence in _Les Miserables_ includes nearly one thousand words in
+both French original and English translation. John Milton produced
+some extraordinarily long sentences. But these are in written
+discourse. Some modern speakers have come dangerously near the limit.
+In one printed speech one sentence has four hundred ten words in it; a
+later one goes to five hundred forty. This second would fill about
+half a column of the usual newspaper. Surely these are much too long.
+A speaker can frequently make a long sentence acceptable by breaking
+it up into shorter elements by sensible pauses. Yet the general
+direction must surely be: avoid sentences which are too long.
+
+Variety. The paramount rule of sentence structure in speech-making is
+certainly: secure variety. Long, medium, short; declarative,
+exclamatory, interrogative; simple, loose, periodic; use them all as
+material permits and economy of time and attention prescribes. With
+the marvelous variety possible in English sentence structure, no
+person with ideas and language at command need be a monotonous
+speaker.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Criticize this selection for its diction and sentence structure.
+What excellences has it? What can you find fault with? Does its date
+explain it?
+
+    "The books in the library, the portraits, the table at which
+    he wrote, the scientific culture of the land, the course of
+    agricultural occupation, the coming-in of harvests, fruit of
+    the seed his own hand had scattered, the animals and
+    implements of husbandry, the trees planted by him in lines,
+    in copses, in orchards by thousands, the seat under the noble
+    elm on which he used to sit to feel the southwest wind at
+    evening, or hear the breathings of the sea, or the not less
+    audible music of the starry heavens, all seemed at first
+    unchanged. The sun of a bright day from which, however,
+    something of the fervors of midsummer were wanting, fell
+    temperately on them all, filled the air on all sides with the
+    utterances of life, and gleamed on the long line of ocean.
+    Some of those whom on earth he loved best, still were there.
+    The great mind still seemed to preside; the great presence to
+    be with you; you might expect to hear again the rich and
+    playful tones of the voice of the old hospitality. Yet a
+    moment more, and all the scene took on the aspect of one
+    great monument, inscribed with his name, and sacred to his
+    memory. And such it shall be in all the future of America!
+    The sensation of desolateness, and loneliness, and darkness,
+    with which you see it now, will pass away; the sharp grief of
+    love and friendship will become soothed; men will repair
+    thither as they are wont to commemorate the great days of
+    history; the same glance shall take in, and same emotions
+    shall greet and bless, the Harbor of the Pilgrims and the
+    Tomb of Webster."
+
+    RUFUS CHOATE: _A Discourse Commemorative of Daniel
+    Webster_, 1853
+
+2. What is the effect of the questions in the following? Are the
+sentences varied? If the occasion was momentous, what is the style?
+
+    "And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been
+    in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten
+    years, to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been
+    pleased to solace themselves and the house? Is it that
+    insidious smile with which our petition has been lately
+    received? Trust it not, Sir; it will prove a snare to your
+    feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask
+    yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition
+    comports with those warlike preparations which cover our
+    water and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to
+    a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so
+    unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to
+    win back our love?"
+
+    PATRICK HENRY: _Speech in the Virginia Convention_,
+    1775
+
+3. List the concrete details given below. What effect have they? What
+elements give the idea of the extent of the Colonies' fisheries? Are
+the sentences long or short? Does their success justify them?
+
+    "Look at the manner in which the people of New England have
+    of late carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we follow them
+    among the tumbling mountains of ice, and behold them
+    penetrating into the deepest frozen recess of Hudson's Bay
+    and Davis' Straits, whilst we are looking for them beneath
+    the arctic circle, we hear that they have pierced into the
+    opposite region of polar cold, that they are at the
+    antipodes, and engaged under the frozen Serpent of the South.
+    Falkland Islands, which seemed too remote and romantic an
+    object for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage and
+    resting-place in the progress of their victorious industry.
+    Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than
+    the accumulated winter of both the poles. We know that whilst
+    some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the
+    coast of Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their
+    gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is
+    vexed by their fisheries; no climate that is not witness to
+    their toil. Neither the perseverance of Holland, nor the
+    activity of France, nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of
+    English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of
+    hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by,
+    this recent people; a people who are still, as it were, but
+    in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone of
+    manhood."
+
+    EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775
+
+4. Is the following clear? What kind of sentence is it? What minor
+phrase? Is this phrase important? Why? Why did Lincoln repeat this
+sentence, practically with no change, twelve times in a single speech?
+
+    "The sum of the whole is that of our thirty-nine fathers who
+    framed the original Constitution, twenty-one--a clear
+    majority of the whole--certainly understood that no proper
+    division of local from Federal authority, nor any part of the
+    Constitution, forbade the Federal Government to control
+    slavery in the Federal Territories."
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860
+
+5. Is the following well phrased? What makes it so? Is any expression
+too strong? Do you object to any? How many of the words would you be
+likely not to use?
+
+    "It is but too true that there are many whose whole scheme of
+    freedom is made up of pride, perverseness, and insolence.
+    They feel themselves in a state of thraldom; they imagine
+    that their souls are cooped and cabined in, unless they have
+    some man, or some body of men, dependent on their mercy. The
+    desire of having some one below them descends to those who
+    are the very lowest of all; and a Protestant cobbler, debased
+    by his poverty, but exalted by his share of the ruling
+    church, feels a pride in knowing it is by his generosity
+    alone that the peer, whose footman's instep he measures, is
+    able to keep his chaplain from a gaol. This disposition is
+    the true source of the passion which many men, in very humble
+    life, have taken to the American war. Our subjects in
+    America; our colonies; our dependents. This lust of party
+    power is the liberty they hunger and thirst for; and this
+    Siren song of ambition has charmed ears that we would have
+    thought were never organized to that sort of music."
+
+    EDMUND BURKE: _Speech at Bristol_, 1780
+
+6. Describe the effects of the questions in the next. How is sentence
+variety secured? What effects have the simple, declarative sentences?
+
+    "And from what have these consequences sprung? We have been
+    involved in no war. We have been at peace with all the world.
+    We have been visited with no national calamity. Our people
+    have been advancing in general intelligence, and, I will add,
+    as great and alarming as has been the advance of political
+    corruption among the mercenary corps who look to government
+    for support, the morals and virtue of the community at large
+    have been advancing in improvement. What, I again repeat, is
+    the cause?"
+
+    JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on the Force Bill_, 1833
+
+7. What quality predominates in the following? Does it lower the tone
+of the passage too much? Is the interrogative form of the last
+sentence better than the declarative? Why? Has the last observation
+any close connection with the preceding portion? Can it be justified?
+
+    "Modesty is a lovely trait, which sets the last seal to a
+    truly great character, as the blush of innocence adds the
+    last charm to youthful beauty. When, on his return from one
+    of his arduous campaigns in the Seven Years' War, the Speaker
+    of the Virginia Assembly, by order of the House, addressed
+    Colonel Washington in acknowledgment of his services, the
+    youthful hero rose to reply; but humility checked his
+    utterance, diffidence sealed his lips. 'Sit down, Colonel
+    Washington,' said the Speaker; 'the House sees that your
+    modesty is equal to your merit, and that exceeds my power of
+    language to describe.' But who ever heard of a modest
+    Alexander or a modest Caesar, or a modest hero or statesman
+    of the present day?--much as some of them would be improved
+    by a measure of that quality."
+
+    EDWARD EVERETT: _Character of Washington_, 1858
+
+8. Look up the meaning of every unfamiliar expression in this extract.
+Is the quotation at the end in good taste? Give reasons for your
+answer. For what kinds of audiences would this speech be fitting?
+
+    "The remedy for the constant excess of party spirit lies, and
+    lies alone, in the courageous independence of the individual
+    citizen. The only way, for instance, to procure the party
+    nomination of good men, is for every self-respecting voter to
+    refuse to vote for bad men. In the medieval theology the
+    devils feared nothing so much as the drop of holy water and
+    the sign of the cross, by which they were exorcised. The evil
+    spirits of party fear nothing so much as bolting and
+    scratching. _In hoc signo vinces_. If a farmer would reap a
+    good crop, he scratches the weeds out of his field. If we
+    would have good men upon the ticket, we must scratch bad men
+    off. If the scratching breaks down the party, let it break:
+    for the success of the party, by such means would break down
+    the country. The evil spirits must be taught by means that
+    they can understand. 'Them fellers,' said the captain of a
+    canal-boat of his men, 'Them fellers never think you mean a
+    thing until you kick 'em. They feel that, and understand.'"
+
+    GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated
+    Men_, 1877
+
+9. Describe the quality of the next extract. What is its style? Are
+repetitions allowable? What then of variety? Point out contrasts of
+words and phrases.
+
+    "What, then it is said, would you legislate in haste? Would
+    you legislate in times of great excitement concerning matters
+    of such deep concern? Yes, Sir, I would; and if any bad
+    consequences should follow from the haste and excitement, let
+    those be answerable who, when there was no need to haste,
+    when there existed no excitement, refused to listen to any
+    project of reform; nay, made it an argument against reform
+    that the public mind was not excited.... I allow that hasty
+    legislation is an evil. But reformers are compelled to
+    legislate fast, just because bigots will not legislate early.
+    Reformers are compelled to legislate in times of excitement,
+    because bigots will not legislate in times of tranquillity."
+
+    THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _On the Reform Bill_,
+    1832
+
+10. Describe the diction of the next extract. Describe the prevailing
+kind of sentences. Do you approve of these in such an instance?
+Explain your answer. Does it remind you--in tone--of any other passage
+already quoted in this book? What is your opinion of the style?
+
+    "There has been a change of government. It began two years
+    ago, when the House of Representatives became Democratic by a
+    decisive majority. It has now been completed. The Senate
+    about to assemble will also be Democratic. The offices of
+    President and Vice-President have been put into the hands of
+    Democrats. What does the change mean? That is the question
+    that is uppermost in our minds today. That is the question I
+    am going to try to answer in order, if I may, to interpret
+    the occasion.
+
+    "This is not a day of triumph; it is a day of dedication.
+    Here muster, not the forces of party, but the forces of
+    humanity. Men's hearts wait upon us; men's lives hang in the
+    balance; men's hopes call upon us to say what we will do. Who
+    shall live up to the great trust? Who dares fail to try? I
+    summon all honest men, all patriotic, all forward-looking men
+    to my side. God helping me, I will not fail them, if they
+    will but counsel and sustain me."
+
+    WOODROW WILSON: _Inaugural_, 1918
+
+11. Consider sentence length in the following: Which words are
+significant? How is concreteness secured?
+
+    "Ours is a government of liberty by, through, and under the
+    law. No man is above it and no man is below it. The crime of
+    cunning, the crime of greed, the crime of violence, are all
+    equally crimes, and against them all alike the law must set
+    its face. This is not and never shall be a government either
+    of plutocracy or of a mob. It is, it has been, and it will be
+    a government of the people; including alike the people of
+    great wealth, of moderate wealth, the people who employ
+    others, the people who are employed, the wage worker, the
+    lawyer, the mechanic, the banker, the farmer; including them
+    all, protecting each and everyone if he acts decently and
+    squarely, and discriminating against any one of them, no
+    matter from what class he comes, if he does not act squarely
+    and fairly, if he does not obey the law. While all people are
+    foolish if they violate or rail against the law, wicked as
+    well as foolish, but all foolish--yet the most foolish man in
+    this Republic is the man of wealth who complains because the
+    law is administered with impartial justice against or for
+    him. His folly is greater than the folly of any other man who
+    so complains; for he lives and moves and has his being
+    because the law does in fact protect him and his property."
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Spokane, 1903
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+BEGINNING THE SPEECH
+
+
+Speech-making a Formal Matter. Every speech is more or less a formal
+affair. The speaker standing is separated from the other persons
+present by his prominence. He is removed from them by standing while
+they sit, by being further away from them than in ordinary
+conversation. The greater the distance between him and his listeners
+the more formal the proceeding becomes. When a person speaks "from the
+floor" as it is called, that is, by simply rising at his seat and
+speaking, there is a marked difference in the manner of his delivery
+and also in the effect upon the audience. In many gatherings, speeches
+and discussions "from the floor" are not allowed at all, in others
+this practice is the regular method of conducting business. Even in
+the schoolroom when the student speaks from his place he feels less
+responsibility than when he stands at the front of the room before his
+classmates. As all formal exercises have their regular rules of
+procedure it will be well to list the more usual formulas for
+beginnings of speeches.
+
+The Salutation. In all cases where speeches are made there is some
+person who presides. This person may be the Vice-President of the
+United States presiding over the Senate, the Speaker of the House of
+Representatives, the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme
+Court, the president of a city board of aldermen, the judge of a
+court, the president of a corporation, of a lodge, of a church
+society, of a club, the pastor of a church, the chancellor or provost
+or dean of a college, the principal of a school, the chairman of a
+committee, the toastmaster of a banquet, the teacher of a class. The
+first remark of a speaker must always be the recognition of this
+presiding officer.
+
+Then there are frequently present other persons who are distinct from
+the ordinary members of the audience, to whom some courtesy should be
+shown in this salutation. Their right to recognition depends upon
+their rank, their importance at the time, some special peculiar reason
+for separating them from the rest of the audience. The speaker will
+have to decide for himself in most cases as to how far he will
+classify his hearers. In some instances there is no difficulty.
+Debaters must recognize the presiding officer, the judges if they be
+distinct from the regular audience, the members of the audience
+itself. Lawyers in court must recognize only the judge and the
+"gentlemen of the jury." In a debate on the first draft for the League
+of Nations presided over by the Governor of Massachusetts, Senator
+Lodge's salutation was "Your Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen, My
+Fellow Americans." The last was added unquestionably because patriotic
+feeling was so strong at the time that reference to our nationality
+was a decidedly fitting compliment, and also perhaps, because the
+speaker realized that his audience might be slightly prejudiced
+against the view he was going to advance in criticizing the League
+Covenant. At times a formal salutation becomes quite long to include
+all to whom recognition is due. At a university commencement a speaker
+might begin: "Mr. Chancellor, Members of the Board of Trustees,
+Gentlemen of the Faculty, Candidates for Degrees, Ladies and
+Gentlemen."
+
+Other salutations are Your Honor, Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Madame
+President, Madame Chairman, Mr. Chairman, Mr. Stevenson, Sir, Mr.
+Toastmaster, Mr. Moderator, Honorable Judges, Ladies, Gentlemen,
+Fellow Citizens, Classmates, Fellow Workers, Gentlemen of the Senate,
+Gentlemen of the Congress, Plenipotentiaries of the German Empire, My
+Lord Mayor and Citizens of London; Mr. Mayor, Mr. Secretary, Admiral
+Fletcher and Gentlemen of the Fleet; Mr. Grand Master, Governor
+McMillan, Mr. Mayor, My Brothers, Men and Women of Tennessee.
+
+The most important thing about the salutation is that it should never
+be omitted. To begin to speak without having first recognized some
+presiding officer and the audience stamps one immediately as
+thoughtless, unpractised, or worse still--discourteous.
+
+Having observed the propriety of the salutation the speaker should
+make a short pause before he proceeds to the introduction of his
+speech proper.
+
+Length of the Introduction. There was a time when long elaborate
+introductions were the rule, and textbooks explained in detail how to
+develop them. The main assumption seems to have been that the farther
+away from his topic the speaker began, the longer and more indirect
+the route by which he approached it, the more sudden and surprising
+the start with which it was disclosed to the audience, the better the
+speech. Such views are no longer held. One of the criticisms of the
+speeches of the English statesman, Burke, is that instead of coming at
+once to the important matter under consideration--and all his speeches
+were upon paramount issues--he displayed his rhetorical skill and
+literary ability before men impatient to finish discussion and provide
+for action by casting their votes. If a student will read the
+beginning of Burke's famous _Speech on Conciliation_ he will readily
+understand the force of this remark, for instead of bringing forward
+the all-important topic of arranging for colonial adjustment Burke
+uses hundreds of words upon the "flight of a bill for ever," his own
+pretended superstitiousness and belief in omens. So strong is the
+recognition of the opposite practice today that it is at times
+asserted that speeches should dispense with introductions longer than
+a single sentence.
+
+Purpose of the Introduction. So far as the material of the speech is
+concerned the introduction has but one purpose--to bring the topic of
+the succeeding remarks clearly and arrestingly before the audience. It
+should be clearly done, so that there shall be no misunderstanding
+from the beginning. It should be arrestingly done, so that the
+attention shall be aroused and held from this announcement even until
+the end. A man should not declare that he is going to explain the
+manufacture of paper-cutters, and then later proceed to describe the
+making of those frames into which rolls of wrapping paper are fitted
+underneath a long cutting blade, because to most people the
+expression "paper-cutters" means dull-edged, ornamental knives for
+desks and library tables. His introduction would not be clear. On the
+other hand if a minister were to state plainly that he was going to
+speak on the truth that "it is more blessed to give than to receive"
+his congregation might turn its attention to its own affairs at once
+because the topic promises no novelty. But if he declares that he is
+going to make a defense of selfishness he would surely startle his
+hearers into attention, so that he could go on to describe the
+personal satisfaction and peace of mind which comes to the doers of
+good deeds. A speaker could arrest attention by stating that he
+intended to prove the immorality of the principle that "honesty is the
+best policy," if he proceeded to plead for that virtue not as a
+repaying _policy_ but as an innate guiding principle of right, no
+matter what the consequences. In humorous, half-jesting, ironical
+material, of course, clearness may be justifiably sacrificed to
+preserving interest. The introduction may state the exact opposite of
+the real topic.
+
+When nothing else except the material of the introduction need be
+considered, it should be short. Even in momentous matters this is
+true. Notice the brevity of the subjoined introduction of a speech
+upon a deeply moving subject.
+
+    Gentlemen of the Congress:
+
+    The Imperial German Government on the 31st day of January
+    announced to this Government and to the Governments of the
+    other neutral nations that on and after the 1st day of
+    February, the present month, it would adopt a policy with
+    regard to the use of submarines against all shipping seeking
+    to pass through certain designated areas of the high seas, to
+    which it is clearly my duty to call your attention.
+
+    WOODROW WILSON, 1917
+
+The following, though much longer, aims to do the same thing--to
+announce the topic of the speech clearly. Notice that in order to
+emphasize this endeavor to secure clearness the speaker declares that
+he has repeatedly tried to state his position in plain English. He
+then makes clear that he is not opposed to _a_ League of Nations; he
+is merely opposed to the terms already submitted for the one about to
+be formed. This position he makes quite clear in the last sentence
+here quoted.
+
+    Your Excellency, Ladies and Gentlemen, My Fellow Americans:
+
+    I am largely indebted to President Lowell for this
+    opportunity to address this great audience. He and I are
+    friends of many years, both Republicans. He is the president
+    of our great university, one of the most important and
+    influential places in the United States. He is also an
+    eminent student and historian of politics and government. He
+    and I may differ as to methods in this great question now
+    before the people, but I am sure that in regard to the
+    security of the peace of the world and the welfare of the
+    United States we do not differ in purposes.
+
+    I am going to say a single word, if you will permit me, as to
+    my own position. I have tried to state it over and over
+    again. I thought I had stated it in plain English. But there
+    are those who find in misrepresentation a convenient weapon
+    for controversy, and there are others, most excellent people,
+    who perhaps have not seen what I have said and who possibly
+    have misunderstood me. It has been said that I am against
+    any League of Nations. I am not; far from it. I am anxious to
+    have the nations, the free nations of the world, united in a
+    league, as we call it, a society, as the French call it, but
+    united, to do all that can be done to secure the future peace
+    of the world and to bring about a general disarmament.
+
+    SENATOR HENRY CABOT LODGE in a debate in Boston,
+    1919
+
+The Introduction and the Audience. When we turn from the material of
+the introduction or the speech we naturally consider the audience.
+Just as the salutations already listed in this chapter indicate how
+careful speakers are in adapting their very first words to the special
+demands of recognition for a single audience, so a study of
+introductions to speeches which have been delivered will support the
+same principle. A speech is made to affect a single audience,
+therefore it must be fitted as closely as possible to that audience in
+order to be effective. A city official invited to a neighborhood
+gathering to instruct citizens in the method of securing a children's
+playground in that district is not only wasting time but insulting the
+brains and dispositions of his listeners if he drawls off a long
+introduction showing the value of public playgrounds in a crowded
+city. His presence before that group of people proves that they accept
+all he can tell them on that topic. He is guilty of making a bad
+introduction which seriously impairs the value of anything he may say
+later concerning how this part of the city can induce the municipal
+government to set aside enough money to provide the open space and the
+apparatus. Yet this speech was made in a large American city by an
+expert on playgrounds.
+
+People remembered more vividly his wrong kind of opening remarks than
+they did his advice concerning a method of procedure.
+
+Effect of the Introduction upon the Audience. Many centuries ago a
+famous and successful Roman orator stipulated the purpose of an
+introduction with respect to the audience. Cicero stated that an
+introduction should render its hearers "_benevolos, attentos,
+dociles_"; that is, kindly disposed towards the speaker himself,
+attentive to his remarks, and willing to be instructed by his
+explanations or arguments. Not everyone has a pleasing personality
+but he can strive to acquire one. He can, perhaps, not add many
+attributes to offset those nature has given him, but he can always
+reduce, eradicate, or change those which interfere with his reception
+by others. Education and training will work wonders for people who are
+not blessed with that elusive quality, charm, or that winner of
+consideration, impressiveness. Self-examination, self-restraint,
+self-development, are prime elements in such a process. Great men have
+not been beyond criticism for such qualities. Great men have
+recognized their value and striven to rid themselves of hindrances and
+replace them by helps.
+
+Every reader is familiar with Benjamin Franklin's account of his own
+method as related in his _Autobiography_, yet it will bear quotation
+here to illustrate this point:
+
+    While I was intent on improving my language, I met with an
+    English Grammar (I think it was Greenwood's), at the end of
+    which there were two little sketches of the arts of rhetoric
+    and logic, the latter "finishing with a specimen of a
+    dispute in the Socratic method; and soon after I procured
+    Xenophon's Memorable Things of Socrates, wherein there are
+    many instances of the same method. I was charmed with it,
+    adopted it, dropt my abrupt contradiction and positive
+    argumentation, and put on the humble inquirer and doubter....
+    I found this method safest for myself and very embarrassing
+    to those against whom I used it; therefore I took a delight
+    in it, practised it continually, and grew very artful and
+    expert in drawing people, even of superior knowledge, into
+    concessions, the consequences of which they did not foresee,
+    entangling them in difficulties out of which they could not
+    extricate themselves, and so obtaining victories that neither
+    myself nor my cause always deserved. I continued this method
+    some few years, but gradually left it, retaining only the
+    habit of expressing myself in terms of modest diffidence;
+    never using, when I advanced anything that may possibly be
+    disputed, the words _Certainly, Undoubtedly_, or any others
+    that give the air of positiveness to an opinion; but rather
+    say, I conceive or apprehend a thing to be so and so; it
+    appears to me, or _I should think it so or so_, for such and
+    such reasons; or _I imagine it to be so_; or _it is so if I
+    am not mistaken_. This habit, I believe, has been of great
+    advantage to me when I have had occasion to inculcate my
+    opinions, and persuade men into measures that I have been
+    from time to time engaged in promoting; and as the chief ends
+    of conversation are to _inform_ or to be _informed_, to
+    _please_ or to _persuade_, I wish well-meaning, sensible men
+    would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive,
+    assuming manner, that seldom fails to disgust, tends to
+    create opposition, and to defeat everyone of those purposes
+    for which speech was given to us, to wit, giving or receiving
+    information or pleasure. For if you would inform, a positive
+    and dogmatical manner in advancing your sentiments may
+    provoke contradiction and prevent a candid attention. If you
+    wish information and improvement from the knowledge of
+    others, and yet at the same time express yourself as firmly
+    fixed in your present opinions, modest, sensible men who do
+    not love disputation will probably leave you undisturbed in
+    the possession of your error. And by such a manner you can
+    seldom hope to recommend yourself in _pleasing_ your hearers,
+    or to persuade those whose concurrence you desire. Pope says,
+    judiciously:
+
+        "Men should be taught as if you taught them not,
+         And things unknown propos'd as things forgot;"
+
+    farther recommending to us
+
+        "To speak, tho' sure, with seeming diffidence."
+
+Of course an audience must be induced to listen. The obligation is
+always with the speaker. He is appealing for consideration, he wants
+to affect the hearers, therefore he must have at his command all the
+resources of securing their respectful attention. He must be able to
+employ all the legitimate means of winning their attention. A good
+speaker will not stoop to use any tricks or devices that are not
+legitimate. A trick, even when it is successful, is still nothing but
+a trick, and though it secure the temporary attention of the lower
+orders of intellect it can never hold the better minds of an audience.
+Surprises, false alarms, spectacular appeals, may find their
+defenders. One widely reputed United States lawyer in speaking before
+audiences of young people used to advance theatrically to the edge of
+the stage, and, then, pointing an accusing finger at one part of the
+audience, declare in loud ringing tones, "You're a sneak!" It is
+questionable whether any attempt at arousing interest could justify
+such a brusque approach. Only in broadly comic or genuinely humorous
+addresses can it be said that the end justifies the means.
+
+When the audience has been induced to listen, the rest should be easy
+for the good speaker. Then comes into action his skill at explanation,
+his ability to reason and convince, to persuade and sway, which is the
+speaker's peculiar art. If they will listen to him, he should be able
+to instruct them. The introduction must, so far as this last is
+concerned, clear the way for the remainder of the speech. The methods
+by which such instruction, reasoning, and persuasion are effected best
+will be treated later in this book.
+
+Having covered the preceding explanation of the aims and forms of
+introductions, let us look at a few which have been delivered by
+regularly practising speech-makers before groups of men whose
+interest, concern, and business it was to listen. All men who speak
+frequently are extremely uneven in their quality and just as irregular
+in their success. One of the best instances of this unevenness and
+irregularity was Edmund Burke, whose career and practice are bound to
+afford food for thought and discussion to every student of the power
+and value of the spoken word. Some of Burke's speeches are models for
+imitation and study, others are warnings for avoidance. At one time
+when he felt personally disturbed by the actions of the House of
+Commons, because he as a member of the minority could not affect the
+voting, he began a speech exactly as no man should under any
+circumstances. No man in a deliberative assembly can be excused for
+losing control of himself. Yet Burke opened his remarks with these
+plain words.
+
+    "Mr. Speaker! I rise under some embarrassment occasioned by a
+    feeling of delicacy toward one-half of the House, and of
+    sovereign contempt for the other half."
+
+This is childish, of course. A man may not infrequently be forced by
+circumstances to speak before an audience whose sentiments, opinions,
+prejudices, all place them in a position antagonistic to his own. How
+shall he make them well-disposed, attentive, willing to be instructed?
+The situation is not likely to surround a beginning speaker, but men
+in affairs, in business, in courts, must be prepared for such
+circumstances. One of the most striking instances of a man who
+attempted to speak before an antagonistic group and yet by sheer power
+of his art and language ended by winning them to his own party is in
+Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_ when Mark Antony speaks over his dead
+friend's body. Brutus allows it, but insists on speaking to the people
+first that he may explain why he and his fellow conspirators
+assassinated the great leader. It was a mistake to allow a person from
+the opposite party to have the last word before the populace, but that
+is not the point just here. Brutus is able to explain why a group of
+noble Romans felt that for the safety of the state and its
+inhabitants, they had to kill the rising favorite who would soon as
+King rule them all. When he ceases speaking, the citizens approve the
+killing. Mark Antony perceives that, so at the beginning of his speech
+he seems to agree with the people. Caesar was his friend, yet Brutus
+says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man. Thus the
+skilful orator makes the populace well-disposed towards him, then
+attentive.
+
+Having secured those things he proceeds slowly and unobtrusively to
+instruct them. It takes only a few lines until he has made them
+believe all he wants them to; before the end of his oration he has
+them crying out upon the murderers of their beloved Caesar, for whose
+lives they now thirst. Yet only ten minutes earlier they were loudly
+acclaiming them as deliverers of their country. The entire scene
+should be analyzed carefully by the student. It is the second scene of
+the third act of the play.
+
+In actual life a man would hardly have to go so far as seemingly to
+agree with such opposite sentiments as expressed in this situation
+from a stage tragedy. It is general knowledge that during the early
+years of the American Civil War England sympathized with the southern
+states, mainly because the effective blockade maintained by the North
+prevented raw cotton from reaching the British mills. Henry Ward
+Beecher attempted to present the union cause to the English in a
+series of addresses throughout the country. When he appeared upon the
+platform in Liverpool the audience broke out into a riot of noise
+which effectively drowned all his words for minutes. The speaker
+waited until he could get in a phrase. Finally he was allowed to
+deliver a few sentences. By his patience, his appeal to their English
+sense of fair play, and to a large degree by his tolerant sense of
+humor, he won their attention. His material, his power as a speaker
+did all the rest.
+
+    It is a matter of very little consequence to me, personally,
+    whether I speak here tonight or not. [_Laughter and cheers._]
+    But one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak
+    here tonight, you will hear very plain talking. [_Applause
+    and hisses_.] You will not find me to be a man that dared to
+    speak about Great Britain three thousand miles off, and then
+    is afraid to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her
+    shores. [_Immense applause and hisses_.] And if I do not
+    mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen they had rather
+    have a man who opposes them in a manly way [_applause from
+    all parts of the hall_] than a sneak that agrees with them in
+    an unmanly way. [_Applause and "Bravo!"_] Now, if I can carry
+    you with me by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad
+    [_applause_]; but if I cannot carry you with me by facts and
+    sound arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and
+    all that I ask is simply fair play. [_Applause, and a voice:
+    "You shall have it too."_.]
+
+    Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my
+    speaking--and you will observe that my voice is slightly
+    husky, from having spoken almost every night in succession
+    for some time past--those who wish to hear me will do me the
+    kindness simply to sit still and to keep still; and I and my
+    friends the Secessionists will make the noise. [_Laughter._]
+
+    HENRY WARD BEECHER, in speech at Liverpool, 1863
+
+The beginning of one of Daniel Webster's famous speeches was a triumph
+of the deliverer's recognition of the mood of an audience. In the
+Senate in 1830 feeling had been running high over a resolution
+concerning public lands. Innocent enough in its appearance, this
+resolution really covered an attempt at the extension of the slavery
+territory. Both North and South watched the progress of the debate
+upon this topic with almost held breath. Hayne of South Carolina had
+spoken upon it during two days when Webster rose to reply to him. The
+Senate galleries were packed, the members themselves were stirred up
+to the highest pitch of keen intensity. Nearly the entire effect of
+Webster's statement and argument for the North depended upon the
+effect he could make upon the Senators at the very opening of his
+speech.
+
+Webster began in a low voice, with a calm manner, to speak very
+slowly. In a second he had soothed the emotional tension, set all the
+hearers quite at ease, and by the time the Secretary had read the
+resolution asked by Webster, he had them in complete control. His task
+was to make them attentive, but more especially, ready to be
+instructed.
+
+    Mr. President: When the mariner has been tossed for many days
+    in thick weather and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails
+    himself of the first pause in the storm, the earliest glance
+    of the sun, to take his latitude and ascertain how far the
+    elements have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate
+    this prudence; and, before we float farther on the waves of
+    this debate, refer to the point from which we departed, that
+    we may, at least, be able to conjecture where we now are. I
+    ask for the reading of the resolution before the Senate.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _Reply to Hayne_, 1830
+
+Linking the Introduction to Preceding Speeches. So many speeches are
+replies to preceding addresses that many introductions adapt
+themselves to their audiences by touching upon such utterances. In
+debates, in pleas in court, in deliberative assemblies, this is more
+usually the circumstance than not. The following illustrates how
+courteously this may be done, even when it serves merely to make all
+the clearer the present speaker's position. In moments of tensest
+feeling great speakers skilfully move from any one position or
+attitude to another as Patrick Henry did. While you are regarding
+these paragraphs as an example of introduction do not overlook their
+vocabulary and sentences.
+
+    Mr. President: No man thinks more highly than I do of the
+    patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy
+    gentlemen who have just addressed the house. But different
+    men often see the same subject in different lights; and,
+    therefore, I hope it will not be thought disrespectful to
+    those gentlemen, if, entertaining as I do opinions of a
+    character very opposite to theirs, I shall speak forth my
+    sentiments freely, and without reserve. This is no time for
+    ceremony. The question before the house is one of awful
+    moment to the country. For my own part, I consider it as
+    nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery. And in
+    proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the
+    freedom of the debate. It is only in this way that we can
+    hope to arrive at truth, and fulfill the great responsibility
+    which we hold to God and our country. Should I keep back my
+    opinions at such a time, through fear of giving offense, I
+    should consider myself as guilty of treason towards my
+    country, and of an act of disloyalty toward the Majesty of
+    Heaven, which I revere above all earthly things.
+
+    Mr. President, it is natural to man to indulge in the
+    illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a
+    painful truth, and listen to the song of that Siren till she
+    transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men,
+    engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we
+    disposed to be of the number of those who having eyes see
+    not, and having ears hear not, the things which so nearly
+    concern their temporal salvation? For my part, whatever
+    anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole
+    truth; to know the worst and to provide for it.
+
+    PATRICK HENRY in the Virginia Convention, 1775
+
+Difficulties of Introductions. People who are scheduled to make
+speeches are heard to declare that they know exactly what they want to
+say but they do not know how to begin. Another way they have of
+expressing this is that they do not know how to bring their material
+before their hearers. Undoubtedly the most difficult parts of speeches
+are the beginnings and conclusions. In Chapter II one of the methods
+of preparing for delivery recognized this difference by recording that
+one way is to memorize the beginning and ending, the opening and
+closing sentences. Practised speakers are more likely not to fix too
+rigidly in their minds any set way for starting to speak. They realize
+that a too carefully prepared opening will smack of the study. The
+conditions under which the speech is actually delivered may differ so
+widely from the anticipated surroundings that a speaker should be able
+to readjust his ideas instantly, seize upon any detail of feeling,
+remark, action, which will help him into closer communication with his
+audience. Many practised speakers, therefore, have at their wits' ends
+a dozen different manners, so that their appearance may fit in best
+with the circumstances, and their remarks have that air of easy
+spontaneity which the best speaking should have. Thus, sometimes, the
+exactly opposite advice of the method described above and in Chapter
+II is given. A speaker will prepare carefully his speech proper, but
+leave to circumstances the suggestion of the beginning he will use.
+This does not mean that he will not be prepared--it means that he will
+be all the more richly furnished with expedients. A speaker should
+carefully think over all the possibilities under which his speech will
+be brought forward, then prepare the best introduction to suit each
+set.
+
+Spirit of the Introduction. The combination of circumstances and
+material will determine what we shall call the spirit of the
+introduction. In what spirit is the introduction treated? There are as
+many different treatments as there are human feelings and sentiments.
+The spirit may be serious, informative, dignified, scoffing,
+argumentative, conversational, startling, humorous, ironic. The
+student should lengthen this list by adding as many other adjectives
+as he can.
+
+The serious treatment is always effective when it is suitable. There
+is a conviction of earnestness and sincerity about the speech of a man
+who takes his subject seriously. Without arousing opposition by too
+great a claim of importance for his topic he does impress its
+significance upon listeners. This seriousness must be justified by the
+occasion. It must not be an attempt to bolster up weakness of ideas or
+commonplaceness of expression. It must be straightforward, manly,
+womanly. Notice the excellent effect of the following which
+illustrates this kind of treatment.
+
+    MAY IT PLEASE YOUR HONOR: I was desired by one of
+    the court to look into the books, and consider the question
+    now before them concerning Writs of Assistance. I have
+    accordingly considered it, and appear not only in obedience
+    to your order, but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants of
+    this town, who have presented another petition, and out of
+    regard to the liberties of the subject. And I take this
+    opportunity to declare, that whether under a fee or not (for
+    in such a cause as this I despise a fee) I will to my dying
+    day oppose with all the powers and faculties God has given
+    me, all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and
+    villainy on the other, as this Writ of Assistance is.
+
+    It appears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the
+    most destructive of English liberty and the fundamental
+    principles of law, that ever was found in an English
+    law-book.
+
+    JAMES OTIs: _On Writs of Assistance_, 1761
+
+Informative and argumentative introductions are quite usual. They
+abound in legislative bodies, business organizations, and courts of
+law. Having definite purposes to attain they move forward as directly
+and clearly as they can. In such appearances a speaker should know how
+to lead to his topic quickly, clearly, convincingly. Introductions
+should be reduced to a minimum because time is valuable. Ideas count;
+mere talk is worthless.
+
+Attempts at humorous speeches are only too often the saddest
+exhibitions of life. The mere recital of "funny stories" in succession
+is in no sense speech-making, although hundreds of misguided
+individuals act as though they think so. Nor is a good introduction
+the one that begins with a comic incident supposedly with a point pat
+to the occasion or topic, yet so often miles wide of both. The funny
+story which misses its mark is a boomerang. Even the apparently
+"sure-fire" one may deliver a disturbing kick to its perpetrator. The
+grave danger is the "o'er done or come tardy off" of Hamlet's advice
+to the players. Humor must be distinctly marked off from the merely
+comic or witty, and clearly recognized as a wonderful gift bestowed on
+not too many mortals in this world. The scoffing, ironic introduction
+may depend upon wit and cleverness born in the head; the humorous
+introduction depends upon a sympathetic instinct treasured in the
+heart. Look back at the remarks made by Beecher to his turbulent
+disturbers in Liverpool. Did he help his cause by his genial
+appreciation of their sentiments?
+
+The student should study several introductions to speeches in the
+light of all the preceding discussions so that he may be able to
+prepare his own and judge them intelligently. Printed speeches will
+provide material for study, but better still are delivered remarks. If
+the student can hear the speech, then see it in print, so much the
+better, for he can then recall the effect in sound of the phrases.
+
+Preparing and Delivering Introductions. Actual practice in preparation
+and delivery of introductions should follow. These should be delivered
+before the class and should proceed no farther than the adequate
+introduction to the hearers of the topic of the speech. They need not
+be so fragmentary as to occupy only three seconds. By supposing them
+to be beginnings of speeches from six to fifteen minutes long these
+remarks may easily last from one to two minutes.
+
+Aside from the method of its delivery--pose, voice, speed, vocabulary,
+sentences--each introduction should be judged as an actual
+introduction to a real speech. Each speaker should keep in mind these
+questions to apply during his preparation. Each listener should apply
+them as he hears the introduction delivered.
+
+Is the topic introduced gracefully?
+Is it introduced clearly?
+Is the introduction too long?
+Does it begin too far away from the topic?
+Is it interesting?
+Has it any defects of material?
+Has it any faults of manner?
+Can any of it be omitted?
+Do you want to hear the entire speech?
+Can you anticipate the material?
+Is it adapted to its audience?
+Is it above their heads?
+Is it beneath their intelligences?
+
+Topics for these exercises in delivering introductions should be
+furnished by the interests, opinions, ideas, experiences, ambitions of
+the students themselves. Too many beginning speakers cause endless
+worry for themselves, lower the quality of their speeches, bore their
+listeners, by "hunting" for things to talk about, when near at hand in
+themselves and their activities lie the very best things to discuss.
+The over-modest feeling some people have that they know nothing to
+talk about is usually a false impression. In Elizabethan England a
+young poet, Sir Phillip Sidney, decided to try to tell his sweetheart
+how much he loved her. So he "sought fit words, studying inventions
+fine, turning others' leaves, to see if thence would flow, some fresh
+and fruitful showers upon my sunburnt brain." But "words came halting
+forth" until he bit his truant pen and almost beat himself for spite.
+Then said the Muse to him, "Fool, look in thy heart and write." And
+without that first word, this is the advice that should be given to
+all speakers. "Look in your heart, mind, life, experiences, ideas,
+ideals, interests, enthusiasms, and from them draw the material of
+your speeches--_yours_ because no one else could make that speech, so
+essentially and peculiarly is it your own."
+
+The following may serve as suggestions of the kind of topic to choose
+and the various methods of approaching it. They are merely hints, for
+each student must adapt his own method and material.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. By a rapid historical survey introduce the discussion that women
+will be allowed to vote in the United States.
+
+2. By a historical survey introduce the topic that war will cease upon
+the earth.
+
+3. Using the same method introduce the opposite.
+
+4. Using some history introduce the topic that equality for all men is
+approaching.
+
+5. Using the same method introduce the opposite.
+
+6. Starting with the amount used introduce an explanation of the
+manufacture of cotton goods. Any other manufactured article may be
+used.
+
+7. Starting with an incident to illustrate its novelty, or speed, or
+convenience, or unusualness, lead up to the description or explanation
+of some mechanical contrivance.
+
+Dictaphone
+Adding machine
+Comptometer
+Wireless telegraph
+Knitting machine
+Moving picture camera
+Moving picture machine
+Self-starter
+Egg boiler
+Newspaper printing press
+Power churn
+Bottle-making machine
+Voting machine
+Storm in a play
+Pneumatic tube
+Periscope, etc.
+
+8. Describe some finished product (as a cup of tea, a copper cent) as
+introduction to an explanation of its various processes of
+development.
+
+9. Start with the opinion that reading should produce pleasure to
+introduce a recommendation of a book.
+
+10. Start with the opinion that reading should impart information to
+introduce a recommendation of a book.
+
+11. Start with the money return a business or profession offers to
+introduce a discussion advising a person to follow it or not.
+
+12. Beginning with the recent war lead up to the topic that military
+training should be a part of all regular education.
+
+13. Beginning from the same point introduce the opposite.
+
+14. Beginning with an item--or a fictitious item--from a newspaper
+recounting an accident lead up to workmen's compensation laws, or
+preventive protective measures in factories, or some similar topic.
+
+15. Using a personal or known experience introduce some topic dealing
+with the survival of superstitions.
+
+16. Choosing your own material and treatment introduce some theme
+related to the government, or betterment of your community.
+
+17. Introduce a topic dealing with the future policy of your city,
+county, state, or nation.
+
+18. Lead up to the statement of a change you would like to recommend
+strongly for your school.
+
+19. In as interesting a manner as possible lead up to a statement of
+the business or profession you would like to follow.
+
+20. Introduce a speech in which you intend to condemn something, by
+dealing with your introductory material ironically.
+
+21. Imagine that you are presiding at a meeting of some club, society,
+or organization which has been called to discuss a definite topic.
+Choose the topic for discussion and deliver the speech bringing it
+before the session.
+
+22. You have received a letter from a member of some organization who
+suggests that a society to which you belong join with it in some kind
+of contest or undertaking. Present the suggestion to your society.
+
+23. You believe that soma memorial to the memory of some person should
+be established in your school, lodge, church, club. Introduce the
+subject to a group of members so that they may discuss it
+intelligently.
+
+24. Introduce some topic to the class, but so phrase your material
+that the announcement of the topic will be a complete surprise to the
+members. Try to lead them away from the topic, yet so word your
+remarks that later they will realize that everything you said applies
+exactly to the topic you introduce.
+
+25. Lead up to the recital of some mystery, or ghostly adventure.
+
+26. Lead up to these facts. "For each 10,000 American-born workmen in
+a steel plant in eight years, 21 were killed; and for each non-English
+speaking foreign born, 26 were killed. Non-English speaking show 65
+permanently disabled as compared with 28 who spoke English. Of
+temporarily disabled only 856 spoke English as compared with 2035 who
+did not."
+
+27. Introduce the topic: Training in public speaking is valuable for
+all men and women.
+
+28. In a genial manner suitable to the season's feelings introduce
+some statement concerning New Year's resolutions.
+
+29. Frame some statement concerning aviation. Introduce it.
+
+30. Introduce topics or statements related to the following:
+
+The eight-hour day.
+The principles of Socialism.
+Legitimate methods of conducting strikes.
+Extending the Monroe Doctrine.
+Studying the classics, or modern languages.
+Private fortunes.
+College education for girls.
+Direct presidential vote.
+A good magazine.
+Some great woman.
+Sensible amusements.
+Fashions.
+Agriculture.
+Business practice.
+Minimum wages.
+Equal pay for men and women.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CONCLUDING THE SPEECH
+
+
+Preparing the Conclusion. No architect would attempt to plan a
+building unless he knew the purpose for which it was to be used. No
+writer of a story would start to put down words until he knew exactly
+how his story was to end. He must plan to bring about a certain
+conclusion. The hero and heroine must be united in marriage. The
+scheming villain must be brought to justice. Or if he scorn the usual
+ending of the "lived happily ever after" kind of fiction, he can plan
+to kill his hero and heroine, or both; or he can decide for once that
+his story shall be more like real life than is usually the case, and
+have wickedness triumph over virtue. Whatever he elects to do at the
+conclusion of his story, whether it be long or short, the principle of
+his planning is the same--he must know what he is going to do and
+adequately prepare for it during the course of, previous events.
+
+One other thing every writer must secure. The ending of a book must be
+the most interesting part of it. It must rise highest in interest. It
+must be surest of appeal. Otherwise the author runs the risk of not
+having people read his book through to its conclusion, and as every
+book is written in the hope and expectation that it will be read
+through, a book which fails to hold the attention of its readers
+defeats its own purpose.
+
+The foregoing statements are self-evident but they are set down
+because their underlying principles can be transferred to a
+consideration of the preparation of conclusions for speeches.
+
+Is a Conclusion Necessary? But before we use them let us ask whether
+all speeches require conclusions.
+
+There are some people--thoughtless, if nothing worse--who habitually
+end letters by adding some such expression as "Having nothing more to
+say, I shall now close." Is there any sense in writing such a
+sentence? If the letter comes only so far and the signature follows,
+do not those items indicate that the writer has nothing more to say
+and is actually closing? Why then, when a speaker has said all he has
+to say, should he not simply stop and sit down? Will that not indicate
+quite clearly that he has finished his speech? What effect would such
+an ending have?
+
+In the first place the speaker runs the risk of appearing at least
+discourteous, if not actually rude, to his audience. To fling his
+material at them, then to leave it so, would impress men and women
+much as the brusque exit from a group of people in a room would or the
+slamming of a door of an office.
+
+In the second place the speaker runs the graver risk of not making
+clear and emphatic the purpose of his speech. He may have been quite
+plain and effective during the course of his explanation or argument
+but an audience hears a speech only once. Can he trust to their
+recollection of what he has tried to impress upon them? Will they
+carry away exactly what he wants them to retain? Has he made the main
+topics, the chief aim, stand out prominently enough? Can he merely
+stop speaking? These are quite important aspects of a grave
+responsibility.
+
+In the third place--though this may be considered less important than
+the preceding--the speaker gives the impression that he has not
+actually "finished" his speech. No one cares for unfinished articles,
+whether they be dishes of food, pieces of furniture, poems, or
+speeches. Without unduly stressing the fact that a speech is a
+carefully organized and constructed product, it may be stated that it
+is always a profitable effort to try to round off your remarks. A good
+conclusion gives an impression of completeness, of an effective
+product. Audiences are delicately susceptible to these impressions.
+
+Twenty-two centuries ago Aristotle, in criticizing Greek oratory,
+declared that the first purpose of the conclusion was to conciliate
+the audience in favor of the speaker. As human nature has not changed
+much in the ages since, the statement still holds true.
+
+Speakers, then, should provide conclusions for all their speeches.
+
+Although the entire matter of planning the speech belongs to a later
+chapter some facts concerning it as they relate to the conclusion must
+be set down here.
+
+Relation of the Conclusion to the Speech. The conclusion should
+reflect the purpose of the speech. It should enforce the reason for
+the delivery of the speech. As it emphasizes the purpose of the speech
+it should be in the speaker's mind before he begins to plan the
+development of his remarks. It should be kept constantly in his mind
+as he delivers his material. A train from Chicago bound for New York
+is not allowed to turn off on all the switches it meets in its
+journey. A speaker who wants to secure from a jury a verdict for
+damages from a traction company does not discuss presidential
+candidates. He works towards his conclusion. A legislator who wants
+votes to pass a bill makes his conclusion and his speech conform to
+that purpose. In all likelihood, his conclusion plainly asks for the
+votes he has been proving that his fellow legislators should cast. A
+school principal pleading with boys to stop gambling knows that his
+conclusion is going to be a call for a showing of hands to pledge
+support of his recommendations. A labor agitator knows that his
+conclusion is going to be an appeal to a sense of class prejudice, so
+he speaks with that continually in mind. An efficiency expert in shop
+management knows that his conclusion is going to enforce the saving in
+damages for injury by accident if a scheme of safety devices be
+installed, so he speaks with that conclusion constantly in his mind.
+In court the prosecuting attorney tells in his introduction exactly
+what he intends to prove. His conclusion shows that he has proved what
+he announced.
+
+One is tempted to say that the test of a good speech, a well-prepared
+speech, is its conclusion. How many times one hears a speaker
+floundering along trying to do something, rambling about, making no
+impression, not advancing a pace, and then later receives from the
+unfortunate the confession, "I wanted to stop but I didn't know how to
+do it." No conclusion had been prepared beforehand. It is quite as
+disturbing to hear a speaker pass beyond the place where he could have
+made a good conclusion. If he realizes this he slips into the state of
+the first speaker described in this paragraph. If he does not realize
+when he reaches a good conclusion he talks too long and weakens the
+effect by stopping on a lower plane than he has already reached. This
+fault corresponds to the story teller whose book drops in interest at
+the end. The son of a minister was asked whether his father's sermon
+the previous Sunday had-not had some good points in it. The boy
+replied, "Yes, three good points where he should have stopped."
+
+Length of the Conclusion. It must not be inferred from anything here
+stated concerning the importance of the conclusion that it need be
+long. A good rule for the length of the conclusion is the same rule
+that applies to the length of the introduction. It should be just long
+enough to do best what it is intended to do. As in the case of the
+introduction, so for the conclusion, the shorter the better, if
+consistent with clearness and effect. If either introduction or
+conclusion must deliberately be reduced the conclusion will stand the
+most compression. A conclusion will frequently fail of its effect if
+it is so long that the audience anticipates its main points. It fails
+if it is so long that it adds nothing of clearness or emphasis to the
+speech itself. It will end by boring if it is too long for the
+importance of its material. It will often produce a deeper, more
+lasting impression by its very conciseness. Brevity is the soul of
+more than mere humor. A brief remark will cut deeper than a long
+involved sentence. The speaker who had shown that the recent great
+war fails unless the reconstruction to be accomplished is worthy
+needed no more involved conclusion than the statement, "It is what we
+do tomorrow that will justify what we did yesterday."
+
+Coupled with this matter of effect is the length of the speech itself.
+Short speeches are likely to require only short conclusions. Long
+speeches more naturally require longer conclusions.
+
+Consider the following conclusions. Comment upon them. It would be
+interesting to try to decide the length of the speeches from which
+they are taken, then look at the originals, all of which are easily
+procurable at libraries.
+
+    That is in substance my theory of what our foreign policy
+    should be. Let us not boast, not insult any one, but make up
+    our minds coolly what it is necesary to say, say it, and then
+    stand to it, whatever the consequences may be.
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Waukesha, 1903
+
+The foregoing is quite matter-of-fact. It contains no emotional appeal
+at all. Yet even a strong emotional feeling can be put into a short
+conclusion. From the date and the circumstances surrounding the next
+the reader can easily picture for himself the intense emotion of the
+audience which listened to these words from the leader of the free
+states against the South.
+
+    Neither let us be slandered from our duty by false
+    accusations against us, nor frightened from it by menaces of
+    destruction to the government, nor of dungeons to ourselves.
+    Let us have faith that right makes might, and in that faith
+    let us to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it.
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860
+
+While the student planning his own speech must determine exactly what
+he shall put into his conclusion--depending always upon his material
+and his purpose--there are a few general hints which will help him.
+
+The Retrospective Conclusion. A conclusion may be entirely
+retrospective. This means merely that it may refer back to the remarks
+which have been delivered in the body of the speech. A speaker does
+this to emphasize something he has already discussed by pointing out
+to his audience that he wants them to remember that from what he has
+said. Conclusions of this kind usually have no emotional appeal. They
+are likely to be found in explanatory addresses, where the clearness
+of the exposition should make hearers accept it as true. If a man has
+proven a fact--as in a law court--he does not have to make an appeal
+to feeling to secure a verdict. Juries are supposed to decide on the
+facts alone. This kind of conclusion emphasizes, repeats, clarifies,
+enforces. The first of the following is a good illustration of one
+kind of conclusion which refers to the remarks made in the speech
+proper. Notice that it enforces the speaker's opinions by a calm
+explanation of his sincerity.
+
+    I want you to think of what I have said, because it
+    represents all of the sincerity and earnestness that I have,
+    and I say to you here, from this platform, nothing that I
+    have not already stated in effect, and nothing I would not
+    say at a private table with any of the biggest corporation
+    managers in the land.
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Fitchburg, 1902
+
+The next, while it is exactly the same kind in material, adds some
+elements of stronger feeling. Yet in the main it also enforces the
+speaker's opinion by a clear explanation of his action. From this
+conclusion alone we know exactly the material and purpose of the
+entire speech.
+
+    Sir, I will detain you no longer. There are some parts of
+    this bill which I highly approve; there are others in which I
+    should acquiesce; but those to which I have now stated my
+    objections appear to me so destitute of all justice, so
+    burdensome and so dangerous to that interest which has
+    steadily enriched, gallantly defended, and proudly
+    distinguished us, that nothing can prevail upon me to give it
+    my support.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Tariff_, 1824
+
+The Anticipatory Conclusion. Just as a conclusion may be
+retrospective, so it may be anticipatory. It may start from the
+position defined or explained or reached by the speech and look
+forward to what may happen, what must be done, what should be
+instituted, what should be changed, what votes should be cast, what
+punishment should be inflicted, what pardons granted. The student
+should make a list of all possible things in the future which could be
+anticipated in the conclusions of various speeches. If one will think
+of the purposes of most delivered speeches he will realize that this
+kind of conclusion is much more frequent than the previous kind as so
+many speeches anticipate future action or events. Dealing with
+entirely different topics the three following extracts illustrate this
+kind of conclusion. Washington was arguing against the formation of
+parties in the new nation, trying to avert the inevitable.
+
+    There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful
+    checks upon the administration of the government, and serve
+    to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within certain
+    limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical
+    cast, patriotism may look with indulgence if not with favor
+    upon the spirit of party. But in those of the popular
+    character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not
+    to be encouraged. From their natural tendency it is certain
+    there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary
+    purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the
+    effort ought to be by force of public opinion to mitigate and
+    assuage it. A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform
+    vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead
+    of warming, it should consume.
+
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796
+
+With the dignity and the calmness of the preceding, contrast the
+Biblical fervor of the next--the magnanimous program of the reuniter
+of a divided people.
+
+    With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness
+    in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive
+    on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's
+    wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and
+    for his widow and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and
+    cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with
+    all nations.
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Second Inaugural_, 1865
+
+In totally different circumstances the next conclusion was delivered,
+yet it bears the same aspect of anticipation. There is not a single
+hint in it of the material of the speech which preceded it, it takes
+no glance backward, it looks forward only. Its effectiveness comes
+from the element of leadership, that gesture of pointing the way for
+loyal Americans to follow.
+
+    No nation as great as ours can expect to escape the penalty
+    of greatness, for greatness does not come without trouble and
+    labor. There are problems ahead of us at home and problems
+    abroad, because such problems are incident to the working out
+    of a great national career. We do not shrink from them. Scant
+    is our patience with those who preach the gospel of craven
+    weakness. No nation under the sun ever yet played a part
+    worth playing if it feared its fate overmuch--if it did not
+    have the courage to be great. We of America, we, the sons of
+    a nation yet in the pride of its lusty youth, spurn the
+    teachings of distrust, spurn the creed of failure and
+    despair. We know that the future is ours if we have in us the
+    manhood to grasp it, and we enter the new century girding our
+    loins for the contest before us, rejoicing in the struggle,
+    and resolute so to bear ourselves that the nation's future
+    shall even surpass her glorious past.
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Philadelphia, 1902
+
+Grave times always make men look into the future. All acts are judged
+and justified after they are performed. All progress depends upon this
+straining the vision into the darkness of the yet-to-be. Upon the eve
+of great struggles anticipation is always uppermost in men's minds. In
+the midst of the strife it is man's hope. In the next extract, only
+one sentence glances backward.
+
+     For us there is but one choice. We have made it. Woe be to
+     the man or group of men that seeks to stand in our way in
+     this day of high resolution when every principle we hold
+     dearest is to be vindicated and made secure for the
+     salvation of the nations. We are ready to plead at the bar
+     of history, and our flag shall wear a new luster. Once more
+     we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great
+     faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in
+     the face of our people.
+
+     WOODROW WILSON: _Flag Day Address_, 1917
+
+Retrospective and Anticipatory Conclusion. While it does not occur so
+frequently as the two kinds just illustrated it is possible for a
+conclusion to be both retrospective and anticipatory--to look both
+backward and forward. The conclusion may enforce what the speech has
+declared or proved, then using this position as a safe starting point
+for a new departure, look forward and indicate what may follow or what
+should be done. The only danger in such an attempt is that the dual
+aspect may be difficult to make effective. Either one may neutralize
+the other. Still, a careful thinker and master of clear language may
+be able to carry an audience with him in such a treatment. The
+division in the conclusion between the backward glance and the forward
+vision need not be equal. Here again the effect to be made upon the
+audience, the purpose of the speech, must be the determining factor.
+Notice how the two are blended in the following conclusion from a much
+read commemorative oration.
+
+    And now, friends and fellow-citizens, it is time to bring
+    this discourse to a close.
+
+    We have indulged in gratifying recollections of the past, in
+    the prosperity and pleasures of the present, and in high
+    hopes for the future. But let us remember that we have
+    duties and obligations to perform, corresponding to the
+    blessings which we enjoy. Let us remember the trust, the
+    sacred trust, attaching to the rich inheritance which we have
+    received from our fathers. Let us feel our personal
+    responsibility, to the full extent of our power and
+    influence, for the preservation of the principles of civil
+    and religious liberty. And let us remember that it is only
+    religion, and morals, and knowledge, that can make men
+    respectable, under any form of government....
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _Completion of Bunker Hill
+    Monument_, 1843
+
+Conclusions are classified in general under three headings: 1.
+Recapitulation; 2. Summary; 3. Peroration.
+
+The Recapitulation. The first of these--recapitulation--is exactly
+defined by the etymology of the word itself. Its root is Latin
+_caput_, head. So recapitulation means the repetition of the heads or
+main topics of a preceding discussion. Coming at the end of an
+important speech of some length, such a conclusion is invaluable. If
+the speaker has explained clearly or reasoned convincingly his
+audience will have been enlightened or convinced. Then at the end, to
+assure them they are justified in their knowledge or conviction, he
+repeats in easily remembered sequence the heads which he has treated
+in his extended remarks. It is as though he chose from his large
+assortment a small package which he does up neatly for his audience to
+carry away with them. Frequently, too, the recapitulation corresponds
+exactly to the plan as announced in the introduction and followed
+throughout the speech. This firmly impresses the main points upon the
+brains of the hearers.
+
+A lawyer in court starts by announcing that he will prove a certain
+number of facts. After his plea is finished, in the conclusion of his
+speech, he recapitulates, showing that he has proved these things. A
+minister, a political candidate, a business man, a social worker--in
+fact, every speaker will find such a clear-cut listing an informative,
+convincing manner of constructing a conclusion. This extract shows a
+clear, direct, simple recapitulation.
+
+    To recapitulate what has been said, we maintain, first, that
+    the Constitution, by its grants to Congress and its
+    prohibitions on the states, has sought to establish one
+    uniform standard of value, or medium of payment. Second,
+    that, by like means, it has endeavored to provide for one
+    uniform mode of discharging debts, when they are to be
+    discharged without payment. Third, that these objects are
+    connected, and that the first loses much of its importance,
+    if the last, also, be not accomplished. Fourth, that, reading
+    the grant to Congress and the prohibition on the States
+    together, the inference is strong that the Constitution
+    intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws
+    on Congress. Fifth, that the prohibition in the tenth section
+    reaches to all contracts, existing or future, in the same way
+    that the other prohibition, in the same section, extends to
+    all debts, existing or future. Sixth, that, upon any other
+    construction, one great political object of the Constitution
+    will fail of its accomplishment.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _Ogden vs. Saunders_, 1827
+
+The Summary. The second kind--a summary--does somewhat the same thing
+that the recapitulation does, but it effects it in a different matter.
+Note that the recapitulation _repeats_ the main headings of the
+speech; it usually uses the same or similar phrasing.
+
+The summary does not do this. The summary condenses the entire
+material of the speech, so that it is presented to the audience in
+shortened, general statements, sufficient to recall to them what the
+speaker has already presented, without actually repeating his previous
+statements. This kind of conclusion is perhaps more usual than the
+preceding one. It is known by a variety of terms--summing up, resume,
+epitome, review, precis, condensation.
+
+In the first of the subjoined illustrations notice that the words
+"possible modes" contain practically all the speech itself. So the
+four words at the end, "faction, corruption, anarchy, and despotism,"
+hold a great deal of the latter part of the speech. These expressions
+do not repeat the heads of divisions; they condense long passages. The
+extract is a summary.
+
+    I have thus presented all possible modes in which a
+    government founded upon the will of an absolute majority will
+    be modified; and have demonstrated that, in all its forms,
+    whether in a majority of the people, as in a mere democracy,
+    or in a majority of their representatives, without a
+    constitution, to be interpreted as the will of the majority,
+    the result will be the same: two hostile interests will
+    inevitably be created by the action of the government, to be
+    followed by hostile legislation, and that by faction,
+    corruption, anarchy, and despotism.
+
+    JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on the Force Bill, 1833_
+
+From the following pick out the expressions which summarize long
+passages of the preceding speech. Amplify them to indicate what they
+might cover.
+
+    I firmly believe in my countrymen, and therefore I believe
+    that the chief thing necessary in order that they shall work
+    together is that they shall know one another--that the
+    Northerner shall know the Southerner, and the man of one
+    occupation know the man of another occupation; the man who
+    works in one walk of life know the man who works in another
+    walk of life, so that we may realize that the things which
+    divide us are superficial, are unimportant, and that we are,
+    and must ever be, knit together into one indissoluble mass by
+    our common American brotherhood.
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Chattanooga, 1902
+
+The Peroration. A peroration is a conclusion which--whatever may be
+its material and treatment--has an appeal to the feelings, to the
+emotions. It strives to move the audience to act, to arouse them to an
+expression of their wills, to stir them to deeds. It usually comes at
+the end of a speech of persuasion. It appeals to sentiments of right,
+justice, humanity, religion. It seldom merely concludes a speech; it
+looks forward to some such definite action as casting a vote, joining
+an organization or movement, contributing money, going out on strike,
+returning to work, pledging support, signing a petition.
+
+These purposes suggest its material. It is usually a direct appeal,
+personal and collective, to all the hearers. Intense in feeling,
+tinged with emotion, it justifies itself by its sincerity and honesty
+alone. Its apparent success is not the measure of its merit. Too
+frequently an appeal to low prejudices, class sentiment and prejudice,
+base motives, mob instincts will carry a group of people in a certain
+direction with as little sense and reason as a flock of sheep display.
+Every student can cite a dozen instances of such unwarranted and
+unworthy responses to skilful perverted perorations. Answering to its
+emotional tone the style of a peroration is likely to rise above the
+usual, to become less simple, less direct. In this temptation for the
+speaker lies a second danger quite as grave as the one just indicated.
+In an attempt to wax eloquent he is likely to become grandiloquent,
+bombastic, ridiculous. Many an experienced speaker makes an unworthy
+exhibition of himself under such circumstances. One specimen of such
+nonsense will serve as a warning.
+
+When the terms for the use of the Panama Canal were drawn up there
+arose a discussion as to certain kinds of ships which might pass
+through the canal free of tolls. A treaty with Great Britain prevented
+tolls-exemption for privately owned vessels. In a speech in Congress
+upon this topic one member delivered the following inflated and
+inconsequential peroration. Can any one with any sanity see any
+connection of the Revolutionary War, Jefferson, Valley Forge, with a
+plain understanding of such a business matter as charging tolls for
+the use of a waterway? To get the full effect of this piece of
+"stupendous folly"--to quote the speaker's own words--the student
+should declaim it aloud with as much attempt at oratorical effect as
+its author expended upon it.
+
+    Now, may the God of our fathers, who nerved 3,000,000
+    backwoods Americans to fling their gage of battle into the
+    face of the mightiest monarch in the world, who guided the
+    hand of Jefferson in writing the charter of liberty, who
+    sustained Washington and his ragged and starving army amid
+    the awful horrors of Valley Forge, and who gave them complete
+    victory on the blood-stained heights of Yorktown, may He
+    lead members to vote so as to prevent this stupendous
+    folly--this unspeakable humiliation of the American republic.
+
+When the circumstances are grave enough to justify impassioned
+language a good speaker need not fear its effect. If it be suitable,
+honest, and sincere, a peroration may be as emotional as human
+feelings dictate. So-called "flowery language" seldom is the medium of
+deep feeling. The strongest emotions may be expressed in the simplest
+terms. Notice how, in the three extracts here quoted, the feeling is
+more intense in each succeeding one. Analyze the style. Consider the
+words, the phrases, the sentences in length and structure. Explain the
+close relation of the circumstances and the speaker with the material
+and the style. What was the purpose of each?
+
+    Sir, let it be to the honor of Congress that in these days of
+    political strife and controversy, we have laid aside for once
+    the sin that most easily besets us, and, with unanimity of
+    counsel, and with singleness of heart and of purpose, have
+    accomplished for our country one measure of unquestionable
+    good.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _Uniform System of Bankruptcy_, 1840
+
+Lord Chatham addressed the House of Lords in protest against the
+inhumanities of some of the early British efforts to suppress the
+American Revolution.
+
+    I call upon that right reverend bench, those holy ministers
+    of the Gospel, and pious pastors of our Church--I conjure
+    them to join in the holy work, and vindicate the religion of
+    their God. I appeal to the wisdom and law of this learned
+    bench, to defend and support the justice of their country. I
+    call upon the Bishops to interpose the unsullied sanctity of
+    their lawn; upon the learned Judges, to interpose their
+    purity upon the honor of your Lordships, to reverence the
+    dignity of your ancestors and to maintain your own. I call
+    upon the spirit and humanity of my country, to vindicate the
+    national character. I invoke the genius of the Constitution.
+    From the tapestry that adorns these walls the immortal
+    ancestor of this noble Lord frowns with indignation at the
+    disgrace of his country....
+
+    I again call upon your Lordships, and the united powers of
+    the state, to examine it thoroughly and decisively, and to
+    stamp upon it an indelible stigma of the public abhorrence.
+    And I again implore those holy prelates of our religion to do
+    away with these iniquities from among us! Let them perform a
+    lustration; let them purify this House, and this country,
+    from this sin.
+
+    My Lords, I am old and weak, and at present unable to say
+    more; but my feelings and indignation were too strong to have
+    said less. I could not have slept this night in my bed, nor
+    reposed my head on my pillow, without giving vent to my
+    eternal abhorrence of such preposterous and enormous
+    principles.
+
+At about the same time the same circumstances evoked several famous
+speeches, one of which ended with this well-known peroration.
+
+    It is in vain, Sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may
+    cry, Peace, Peace--but there is no peace. The war is actually
+    begun! The next gale that sweeps from the North will bring to
+    our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are
+    already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that
+    gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or
+    peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
+    slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course
+    others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me
+    death!
+
+    PATRICK HENRY in the Virginia Convention, 1775
+
+Preparing and Delivering Conclusions. Students cannot very well be
+asked to prepare and deliver conclusions to speeches which do not yet
+exist, so there is no way of devising conclusions until later. But
+students should report upon conclusions to speeches they have recently
+listened to, and explain to the class their opinions concerning their
+material, methods, treatment, delivery, effect. The following
+questions will help in judging and criticizing:
+
+Was the conclusion too long?
+Was it so short as to seem abrupt?
+Did it impress the audience?
+How could it have been improved?
+Was it recapitulation, summary, peroration?
+Was it retrospective, anticipatory, or both?
+What was its relation to the main part of the speech?
+Did it refer to the entire speech or only a portion?
+What was its relation to the introduction?
+Did the speech end where it began?
+Did it end as it began?
+Was the conclusion in bad taste?
+What was its style?
+What merits had it?
+What defects?
+What suggestions could you offer for its improvement?
+With reference to the earlier parts of the speech, how was it delivered?
+
+The following conclusions should be studied from all the angles
+suggested in this chapter and previous ones. An air of reality will be
+secured if they are memorized and spoken before the class.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1.  There are many qualities which we need alike in private
+    citizen and in public man, but three above all--three for the
+    lack of which no brilliancy and no genius can atone--and
+    those three are courage, honesty, and common sense.
+
+    THEODORE ROOSEVELT at Antietam, 1903
+
+2.  Poor Sprat has perished despite his splendid tomb in the
+    Abbey. Johnson has only a cracked stone and a worn-out
+    inscription (for the Hercules in St. Paul's is
+    unrecognizable) but he dwells where he would wish to
+    dwell--in the loving memory of men.
+
+    AUGUSTINE BIRRELL: _Transmission of Dr. Johnson's
+    Personality_, 1884
+
+3.  So, my fellow citizens, the reason I came away from
+    Washington is that I sometimes get lonely down there. There
+    are so many people in Washington who know things that are not
+    so, and there are so few people who know anything about what
+    the people of the United States are thinking about. I have to
+    come away and get reminded of the rest of the country. I have
+    to come away and talk to men who are up against the real
+    thing and say to them, "I am with you if you are with me."
+    And the only test of being with me is not to think about me
+    personally at all, but merely to think of me as the
+    expression for the time being of the power and dignity and
+    hope of the United States.
+
+    WOODROW WILSON: _Speech to the American Federation
+    of Labor_, 1917
+
+4.  But if, Sir Henry, in gratitude for this beautiful tribute
+    which I have just paid you, you should feel tempted to
+    reciprocate by taking my horses from my carriage and dragging
+    me in triumph through the streets, I beg that you will
+    restrain yourself for two reasons. The first reason is--I
+    have no horses; the second is--I have no carriage.
+
+    SIMEON FORD: _Me and Sir Henry_ (Irving), 1899
+
+5.  Literature has its permanent marks. It is a connected growth
+    and its life history is unbroken. Masterpieces have never
+    been produced by men who have had no masters. Reverence for
+    good work is the foundation of literary character. The
+    refusal to praise bad work or to imitate it is an author's
+    professional chastity.
+
+    Good work is the most honorable and lasting thing in the
+    world. Four elements enter into good work in literature:--
+
+    An original impulse--not necessarily a new idea, but a new
+    sense of the value of an idea.
+
+    A first-hand study of the subject and material.
+
+    A patient, joyful, unsparing labor for the perfection of
+    form.
+
+    A human aim--to cheer, console, purify, or ennoble the life
+    of the people. Without this aim literature has never sent an
+    arrow close to the mark.
+
+    It is only by good work that men of letters can justify their
+    right to a place in the world. The father of Thomas Carlyle
+    was a stone-mason, whose walls stood true and needed no
+    rebuilding. Carlyle's prayer was: "Let me write my books as
+    he built his houses."
+
+    HENRY VAN DYKE: _Books, Literature and the People_,
+    1900
+
+6.  All this, I know well enough, will sound wild and chimerical
+    to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical
+    politicians who have no place among us--a sort of people who
+    think that nothing exists but what is gross and material; and
+    who, therefore, far from being qualified to be directors of
+    the great movement of empire, are unfit to turn a wheel in
+    the machine. But to men truly initiated and rightly taught,
+    these ruling and master principles, which in the opinion of
+    such men as I have mentioned have no substantial existence,
+    are in truth everything and all in all. Magnanimity in
+    politics is not seldom the truest wisdom: and a great empire
+    and little minds go ill together. If we are conscious of our
+    station, and glow with zeal to fill our places as becomes our
+    situation and ourselves, we ought to auspicate all our public
+    proceedings on America with the old warning of the church,
+    _Sursum corda!_ We ought to elevate our minds to the
+    greatness of that trust to which the order of Providence has
+    called us. By adverting to the dignity of this high calling,
+    our ancestors have turned a savage wilderness into a glorious
+    empire; and have made the most extensive, and the only
+    honorable conquests, not by destroying, but by promoting the
+    wealth, the number, the happiness of the human race. Let us
+    get an American revenue as we have got an American empire.
+    English privileges have made it all that it is; English
+    privileges alone will make it all it can be.
+
+    In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod
+    felix faustumque sit!_) lay the first stone of the Temple of
+    Peace; and I move you;--
+
+    That the colonies and plantations of Great Britain in North
+    America, consisting of fourteen separate governments, and
+    containing two millions and upwards of free inhabitants, have
+    not had the liberty and privilege of electing and sending any
+    knights and burgesses, or others, to represent them in the
+    high court of Parliament.
+
+    EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775
+
+7.  Now, Mr. Speaker, having fully answered all the arguments of
+    my opponents, I will retire to the cloak-room for a few
+    moments, to receive the congratulations of admiring mends.
+
+    JOHN ALLEN in a speech in Congress
+
+8.  Relying then on the patronage of your good will, I advance
+    with obedience to the work, ready to retire from it whenever
+    you become sensible how much better choice it is in your
+    power to make. And may that Infinite Power which rules the
+    destinies of the universe lead our councils to what is best,
+    and give them a favorable issue for your peace and
+    prosperity.
+
+    THOMAS JEFFERSON, _First Inaugural_, 1801
+
+9.  My friends, this is wholly an unprepared speech. I did not
+    expect to be called or to say a word when I came here. I
+    supposed I was merely to do something toward raising a flag.
+    I may, therefore, have said something indiscreet. But I have
+    said nothing but what I am willing to live by, and, if it be
+    the pleasure of Almighty God, to die by.
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN at Philadelphia, 1861
+
+10. I have spoken plainly because this seems to me the time when
+    it is most necessary to speak plainly, in order that all the
+    world may know that even in the heat and ardor of the
+    struggle and when our whole thought is of carrying the war
+    through to its end we have not forgotten any ideal or
+    principle for which the name of America has been held in
+    honor among the nations and for which it has been our glory
+    to contend in the great generations that went before us. A
+    supreme moment of history has come. The eyes of the people
+    have been opened and they see. The hand of God is laid upon
+    the nations. He will show them favor, I devoutly believe,
+    only if they rise to the clear heights of His own justice and
+    mercy.
+
+    WOODROW WILSON in a speech to Congress, 1917
+
+11. This is what I have to say--ponder it; something you will
+    agree with, something you will disagree with; but think about
+    it, if I am wrong, the sooner the wrong is exposed the better
+    for me--this is what I have to say: God is bringing the
+    nations together. We must establish courts of reason for the
+    settlement of controversies between civilized nations. We
+    must maintain a force sufficient to preserve law and order
+    among barbaric nations; and we have small need of an army
+    for any other purpose. We must follow the maintenance of law
+    and the establishment of order and the foundations of
+    civilization with the vitalizing forces that make for
+    civilization. And we must constantly direct our purpose and
+    our policies to the time when the whole world shall have
+    become civilized; when men, families, communities, will yield
+    to reason and to conscience. And then we will draw our sword
+    Excalibur from its sheath and fling it out into the sea,
+    rejoicing that it is gone forever.
+
+    LYMAN ABBOTT: _International Brotherhood_, 1899
+
+12. I give you, gentlemen, in conclusion, this sentiment: "The
+    Little Court-room at Geneva--where our royal mother England,
+    and her proud though untitled daughter, alike bent their
+    heads to the majesty of Law and accepted Justice as a greater
+    and better arbiter than Power."
+
+    WILLIAM M. EVARTS: _International Arbitration_, 1872
+
+13. You recollect the old joke, I think it began with Preston of
+    South Carolina, that Boston exported no articles of native
+    growth but granite and ice. That was true then, but we have
+    improved since, and to these exports we have added roses and
+    cabbages. Mr. President, they are good roses, and good
+    cabbages, and I assure you that the granite is excellent hard
+    granite, and the ice is very cold ice.
+
+    EDWARD EVERETT HALE: _Boston_, 1880
+
+14. Long live the Republic of Washington! Respected by mankind,
+    beloved of all its sons, long may it be the asylum of the
+    poor and oppressed of all lands and religions--long may it be
+    the citadel of that liberty which writes beneath the Eagle's
+    folded wings, "We will sell to no man, we will deny to no
+    man, Right and Justice."
+
+    Long live the United States of America! Filled with the free,
+    magnanimous spirit, crowned by the wisdom, blessed by the
+    moderation, hovered over by the guardian angel of
+    Washington's example; may they be ever worthy in all things
+    to be defended by the blood of the brave who know the rights
+    of man and shrink not from their assertion--may they be each
+    a column, and altogether, under the Constitution, a perpetual
+    Temple of Peace, unshadowed by a Caesar's palace, at whose
+    altar may freely commune all who seek the union of Liberty
+    and Brotherhood.
+
+    Long live our Country! Oh, long through the undying ages may
+    it stand, far removed in fact as in space from the Old
+    World's feuds and follies, alone in its grandeur and its
+    glory, itself the immortal monument of Him whom Providence
+    commissioned to teach man the power of Truth, and to prove to
+    the nations that their Redeemer liveth.
+
+    JOHN W. DANIEL: _Washington_, 1885
+
+15. When that great and generous soldier, U.S. Grant gave back to
+    Lee, crushed, but ever glorious, the sword he had surrendered
+    at Appomattox, that magnanimous deed said to the people of
+    the South: "You are our brothers." But when the present ruler
+    of our grand republic on awakening to the condition of war
+    that confronted him, with his first commission placed the
+    leader's sword in the hands of those gallant Confederate
+    commanders, Joe Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee, he wrote between
+    the lines in living letters of everlasting light the words:
+    "There is but one people of this Union, one flag alone for
+    all."
+
+    The South, Mr. Toastmaster, will feel that her sons have been
+    well given, that her blood has been well spilled, if that
+    sentiment is to be indeed the true inspiration of our
+    nation's future. God grant it may be as I believe it will.
+
+    CLARE HOWELL: _Our Reunited Country_, 1898
+
+16. Two years ago last autumn, we walked on the sea beach
+    together, and with a strange and prophetic kind of poetry, he
+    likened the scene to his own failing health, the falling
+    leaves, the withered sea-weed, the dying grass upon the
+    shore, and the ebbing tide that was fast receding from us. He
+    told me that he felt prepared to go, for he had forgiven his
+    enemies, and could even rejoice in their happiness. Surely
+    this was a grand condition in which to step from this world
+    across the threshold to the next!
+
+    JOSEPH JEFFERSON: _In Memory of Edwin Booth_, 1893
+
+17. A public spirit so lofty is not confined to other lands. You
+    are conscious of its stirrings in your soul. It calls you to
+    courageous service, and I am here to bid you obey the call.
+    Such patriotism may be yours. Let it be your parting vow that
+    it shall be yours. Bolingbroke described a patriot king in
+    England; I can imagine a patriot president in America. I can
+    see him indeed the choice of a party, and called to
+    administer the government when sectional jealousy is fiercest
+    and party passion most inflamed. I can imagine him seeing
+    clearly what justice and humanity, the national law and the
+    national welfare require him to do, and resolved to do it. I
+    can imagine him patiently enduring not only the mad cry of
+    party hate, the taunt of "recreant" and "traitor," of
+    "renegade" and "coward," but what is harder to bear, the
+    amazement, the doubt, the grief, the denunciation, of those
+    as sincerely devoted as he to the common welfare. I can
+    imagine him pushing firmly on, trusting the heart, the
+    intelligence, the conscience of his countrymen, healing angry
+    wounds, correcting misunderstandings, planting justice on
+    surer foundations, and, whether his party rise or fall,
+    lifting his country heavenward to a more perfect union,
+    prosperity, and peace. This is the spirit of a patriotism
+    that girds the commonwealth with the resistless splendor of
+    the moral law--the invulnerable panoply of states, the
+    celestial secret of a great nation and a happy people.
+
+    GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated
+    Men_, 1877
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GETTING MATERIAL
+
+
+The Material of Speeches. So far this book has dealt almost entirely
+with the manner of speaking. Now it comes to the relatively more
+important consideration of the material of speech. Necessary as it is
+that a speaker shall know how to speak, it is much more valuable that
+he shall know what to speak. We frequently hear it said of a speaker,
+"It wasn't what he said, it was the way he said it," indicating
+clearly that the striking aspect of the delivery was his manner; but
+even when this remark is explained it develops frequently that there
+was some value in the material, as well as some charm or surprise or
+novelty in the method of expression. In the last and closest analysis
+a speech is valuable for what it conveys to its hearers' minds, what
+it induces them to do, not what temporary effects of charm and
+entertainment it affords.
+
+Persons of keen minds and cultivated understandings have come away
+from gatherings addressed by men famous as good speech-makers and
+confessed to something like the following: "I was held spellbound all
+the time he was talking, but for the life of me, I can't tell you one
+thing he said or one idea he impressed upon me." A student should
+judge speeches he hears with such things in mind, so that he can hold
+certain ones up as models, and discard others as "horrible examples."
+
+It should be the rule that before a man attempts to speak he should
+have something to say. This is apparently not always the case. Many a
+man tries to say something when he simply has nothing at all to say.
+Recall the description of Gratiano's talk, quoted earlier in this
+book.
+
+A speaker then must have material. He must get material. The clergyman
+knows that he must deliver about a hundred sermons a year. The lawyer
+knows he must go into court on certain days. The lecturer must
+instruct his various audiences. The business man must address
+executive boards, committees, conventions, customers. The student must
+address classes, societies. The beginner in speech training must seize
+every opportunity to talk. Certainly the natural reserve stock of
+ideas and illustrations will soon be exhausted, or it will grow so
+stale that it will be delivered ineffectively, or it will be
+unsuitable to every occasion. A celebrated Frenchman, called upon
+unexpectedly to speak, excused himself by declaring, "What is suitable
+to say I do not know, and what I know is not suitable."
+
+Getting Material. There are three ways of getting material. The first
+is by observation, the second by interview, the third by reading.
+
+Observation. The value of securing material by observation is apparent
+at first glance. That which you have experienced you know. That which
+you have seen with your own eyes you can report correctly. That which
+has happened to you you can relate with the aspect of absolute truth.
+That which you have done you can teach others to do. That which has
+touched you you can explain correctly. That which you know to be the
+fact is proof against all attack.
+
+These are the apparent advantages of knowledge gained at first hand.
+The faculty of accurate observation is one of the most satisfying that
+can enter into a person's mental equipment. It can be trained,
+broadened, and made more and more accurate. In some trades and
+professions it is an indispensable part of one's everyday ability. The
+faculty may be easily developed by exercise and test for accuracy.
+
+Everyone acknowledges the weight and significance of material gained
+by observation. In America especially we accord attention and regard
+to the reports and accounts made by men who have done things, the men
+who have experienced the adventures they relate. There is such a
+vividness, a reality, a conviction about these personal utterances
+that we must listen respectfully and applaud sincerely. Magazines and
+newspapers offer hundreds of such articles for avid readers. Hundreds
+of books each year are based upon such material.
+
+With all its many advantages the field of observation is limited. Not
+every person can experience or see all he is interested in and wants
+to talk about. We must choose presidents but we cannot observe the
+candidates themselves and their careers. We must have opinions about
+the League of Nations, the Mexican situation, the radical labor
+movements, the changing taxes, but we cannot observe all phases of
+these absorbing topics. If we restrict speeches to only what we can
+observe we shall all be uttering merely trivial personalities based
+upon no general knowledge and related to none of the really important
+things in the universe.
+
+Nor is it always true that the person who does a thing can report it
+clearly and accurately. Ask a woman or girl how she hemstitches a
+handkerchief, or a boy how he swims or throws a curve, and note the
+involved and inaccurate accounts. If you doubt this, explain one of
+these to the class. It is not easy to describe exactly what one has
+seen, mainly because people do not see accurately. People usually see
+what they want to see, what they are predisposed to see. Witnesses in
+court, testifying upon oath concerning an accident, usually produce as
+many different versions as there are pairs of eyes. Books upon
+psychology report many enlightening and amusing cases of this defect
+of accurate observation in people.[1]
+
+The two negative aspects of material secured in this first manner--1,
+limited range of observation, 2, inaccuracy of observation--placed
+beside the advantages already listed will clearly indicate in what
+subjects and circumstances this method should be relied upon for
+securing material for speeches.
+
+[Footnote 1: Good cases are related by Swift, E.J.: _Psychology and
+the Day's Work_.]
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a list of recent articles based upon observation which you
+have seen or read in newspapers and magazines.
+
+2. With what kind of material does each deal?
+
+3. Which article is best? Why?
+
+4. List four topics upon which your observation has given you
+material which could be used in a speech.
+
+5. What kind of speech? A speech for what purpose?
+
+6. Consider and weigh the value of your material.
+
+7. Why is it good?
+
+8. What limits, or drawbacks has it?
+
+9. What could be said against it from the other side?
+
+Interview. If a person cannot himself experience or observe all he
+wants to use for material his first impulse will be to interview
+people who have had experience themselves. In this circumstance the
+speaker becomes the reporter of details of knowledge furnished by
+others. The value of this is apparent at once. Next to first-hand
+knowledge, second-hand knowledge will serve admirably.
+
+Every newspaper and magazine in the world uses this method because its
+readers' first query, mental or expressed, of all its informative
+articles is "Is this true?" If the author is merely repeating the
+experience of an acknowledged expert in the field under discussion,
+the value of the interview cannot be questioned. In this case the
+resulting report is almost as good as the original testimony or
+statement of the man who knows.
+
+The first requisite, therefore, of material gathered in such a manner
+is that it be reproduced exactly as first delivered. The man who told
+a woman that a critic had pronounced her singing "heavenly" had good
+intentions but he was not entirely accurate in changing to that
+nattering term the critic's actual adjective "unearthly." The
+frequency with which alleged statements published in the daily press
+are contradicted by the supposed utterers indicates how usual such
+misrepresentation is, though it may be honestly unintentional. The
+speaker before an audience must be scrupulously correct in quoting.
+This accuracy is not assured unless a stenographic transcript be taken
+at the time the information is given, or unless the person quoted
+reads the sentiments and statements credited to him and expresses his
+approval.
+
+Signed statements, personal letters, printed records, photographs,
+certified copies, and other exhibits of all kinds are employed to
+substantiate material secured from interviews and offered in speeches.
+If you notice newspaper accounts of lectures, political speeches,
+legislative procedure, legal practice, you will soon become familiar
+with such usages as are described by the expressions, filing as part
+of the record, taking of a deposition in one city for use in a lawsuit
+in another, Exhibit A, photograph of an account book, statement made
+in the presence of a third party, as recorded by a dictaphone, etc.
+
+The first danger in securing material by the personal interview is the
+natural error of misunderstanding. The second danger is the natural
+desire--not necessarily false, at that--to interpret to the user's
+benefit, the material so secured, or to the discredit of all views
+other than his own. It is so easy, so tempting, in making out a strong
+case for one's own opinions to omit the slight concession which may
+grant ever so little shade of right to other beliefs. Judicious
+manipulation of any material may degenerate into mere juggling for
+support. Quotations and reports, like statistics, can be made to prove
+anything, and the general intellectual distrust of mere numbers is
+cleverly summed up in the remark, "Figures can't lie, but liars can
+figure."
+
+To have the material accepted as of any weight or value the person
+from whom it is secured must be recognized as an authority. He must be
+of such eminence in the field for which his statements are quoted as
+not only to be accepted by the speaker using his material but as
+unqualifiedly recognized by all the opponents of the speaker. His
+remarks must have the definiteness of the expert witness whose
+testimony in court carries so much weight. To secure due
+consideration, the speaker must make perfectly clear to his audience
+the position of his authority, his fitness to be quoted, his
+unquestioned knowledge, sincerity, and honesty.
+
+Knowledge secured in this manner may be used with signal effect in a
+speech, either to supply all the material or to cover certain
+portions. If you listen to many speeches (and you should), notice how
+often a speaker introduces the result of his interviews--formal or
+merely conversational--with persons whose statement he is certain will
+impress his audience.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a list of five topics of which you know so little that you
+would have to secure information by interviews.
+
+2. Of these choose two, define your opinion or feeling in each, and
+tell to whom you could apply for material.
+
+3. Choose one dealing with some topic of current interest in your
+locality; define your own opinion or feeling, and tell to whom you
+could apply for material.
+
+4. Explain exactly why you name this person.
+
+5. Prepare a set of questions to bring out material to support your
+position.
+
+6. Prepare some questions to draw out material to dispose of other
+views.
+
+7. Interview some person upon one of the foregoing topics or a
+different one, and in a speech present this material before the class.
+
+8. In general discussion comment on the authorities reported and the
+material presented.
+
+Reading. The best way and the method most employed for gathering
+material is reading. Every user of material in speeches must depend
+upon his reading for the greatest amount of his knowledge. The old
+expression "reading law" shows how most legal students secured the
+information upon which their later practice was based. Nearly all real
+study of any kind depends upon wide and careful reading.
+
+Reading, in the sense here used, differs widely from the entertaining
+perusal of current magazines, or the superficial skimming through
+short stories or novels. Reading for material is done with a more
+serious purpose than merely killing time, and is regulated according
+to certain methods which have been shown to produce the best results
+for the effort and time expended.
+
+The speaker reads for the single purpose of securing material to serve
+his need in delivered remarks. He has a definite aim. He must know how
+to serve that end. Not everyone who can follow words upon a printed
+page can read in this sense. He must be able to read, understand,
+select, and retain. The direction is heard in some churches to "read,
+mark, learn, and inwardly digest." This is a picturesque phrasing of
+the same principles.
+
+You must know how to read. Have you often in your way through a book
+suddenly realized at the bottom of a page that you haven't the
+slightest recollection of what your eye has been over? You may have
+felt this same way after finishing a chapter. People often read poetry
+in this manner. This is not really reading. The speaker who reads for
+material must concentrate. If he reaches the bottom of a page without
+an idea, he must go back to get it. It is better not to read too
+rapidly the first time, in order to save this repetition. The ability
+to read is trained in exactly the same way as any other ability.
+Accuracy first, speed later. Perhaps the most prevalent fault of
+students of all kinds is lack of concentration.
+
+Understanding. After reading comes understanding. To illustrate this,
+poetry again might be cited, for any one can _read_ poetry, though
+many declare they cannot understand it. The simplest looking prose may
+be obscure to the mind which is slow in comprehending. When we read we
+get general ideas, cursory impressions; we catch the drift of the
+author's meaning. Reading for material must be more thorough than
+that. It must not merely believe it understands; it must preclude the
+slightest possibility of misunderstanding.
+
+A reader who finds in a printed speech approval of a system of
+_representation_ but a condemnation of a system of _representatives_
+must grasp at once, or must work out for himself, the difference
+between these two: the first meaning a relationship only, the second
+meaning men serving as delegates. When he meets an unusual word like
+_mandatory_, he must not be content to guess at its significance by
+linking it with _command_ and _mandate_, for as used in international
+affairs it means something quite definite. To secure this complete
+understanding of all his reading he will consult consistently every
+book of reference. He should read with a good dictionary at his elbow,
+and an atlas and an encyclopedia within easy reach. If he is able to
+talk over with others what he reads, explaining to them what is not
+clear, he will have an excellent method of testing his own
+understanding. The old-fashioned practice of "saying lessons over" at
+home contributed to this growth of a pupil's understanding.
+
+Selecting. Third, the reader for material must know how to select. As
+he usually reads to secure information or arguments for a certain
+definite purpose, he will save time by knowing quickly what not to
+read. All that engages his attention without directly contributing to
+his aim is wasting time and energy. He must learn how to use books. If
+he cannot handle alphabetized collections quickly he is wasting time.
+If he does not know how material is arranged he will waste both time
+and energy. He must know books.
+
+Every printed production worthy of being called a book should have an
+index. Is the index the same as the table of contents? The table of
+contents is printed at the beginning of the volume. It is a synopsis,
+by chapter headings or more detailed topics, of the plan of the book.
+It gives a general outline of the contents of the book. You are
+interested in public speaking. You wonder whether a book contains a
+chapter on debating. Does this one? You notice that a speaker used a
+series of jerky gesticulations. You wonder whether this book contains
+a chapter upon gestures. Does it?
+
+The table of contents is valuable for the purposes just indicated. It
+appears always at the beginning of a work. If the work fills more than
+one volume, the table of contents is sometimes given for all of them
+in the first; sometimes it is divided among the volumes; sometimes
+both arrangements are combined.
+
+The table of contents is never so valuable as the index. This always
+comes at the end of the book. If the work is in more than one volume
+the index comes at the _end of the last volume_. What did you learn of
+the topic _gestures_ in this book from your reference to the table of
+contents? Now look at the index. What does the index do for a topic?
+If a topic is treated in various parts of a long work the volumes are
+indicated by Roman numerals, the pages by ordinary numerals.
+
+Interpret this entry taken from the index of _A History of the United
+States_ by H.W. Elson.
+
+    Slavery, introduced into Virginia, i, 93; in South Carolina,
+    122; in Georgia, 133; in New England, 276; in the South, 276;
+    during colonial period, iii, 69, 70; in Missouri, 72;
+    attacked by the Abolitionists, 142-6; excluded from
+    California, 184; character of, in the South, 208 _seq_.;
+    population, iv, 82; abolished in District of Columbia, in new
+    territories, 208; abolished by Thirteenth Amendment, 320,
+    321.
+
+Retaining Knowledge. The only valid test of the reader's real
+equipment is what he retains and can use. How much of what you read do
+you remember? The answer depends upon education, training in this
+particular exercise, and lapse of time. What method of remembering do
+you find most effective in your own case? To answer this you should
+give some attention to your own mind. What kind of mind have you? Do
+you retain most accurately what you see? Can you reproduce either
+exactly or in correct substance what you read to yourself without any
+supporting aids to stimulate your memory? If you have this kind of
+mind develop it along that line. Do not weaken its power by letting it
+lean on any supports at all. If you find you can do without them, do
+not get into the habit of taking notes. If you can remember to do
+everything you should do during a trip downtown don't make a list of
+the items before you go. If you can retain from a single reading the
+material you are gathering, don't make notes. Impress things upon your
+memory faculty. Develop that ability in yourself.
+
+Have you a different kind of mind, the kind which remember best what
+it tells, what it explains, what it does? Do you fix things in your
+brain by performing them? Does information become rooted in your
+memory because you have imparted it to others? If so you should secure
+the material you gather from your reading by adapting some method
+related to the foregoing. You may talk it over with some one else, you
+may tell it aloud to yourself, you may imagine you are before an
+audience and practise impressing them with what you want to retain.
+Any device which successfully fixes knowledge in your memory is
+legitimate. You should know enough about your own mental processes to
+find for yourself the best and quickest way. It is often said of
+teachers that they do not actually feel that they _know_ a subject
+until they have tried to teach it to others.
+
+Taking Notes. Another kind of mind recalls or remembers material it
+has read when some note or hint suggests all of it. This kind of mind
+depends upon the inestimably valuable art of note-taking, a method
+quite as worthy as the two just considered if its results justify its
+employment. Note-taking does not mean a helter-skelter series of
+exclamatory jottings. It means a well-planned, regularly organized
+series of entries so arranged that reference to any portion recalls
+vividly and exactly the full material of the original. Books and
+speeches are well planned. They follow a certain order. Notes based
+upon them should reproduce that plan and show the relative value of
+parts.
+
+When completed, such notes, arranged in outline form, should enable
+the maker to reproduce the extended material from which they were
+made. If he cannot do that, his reading and his note-taking were to
+little purpose. A speaker who has carefully written out his full
+speech and delivers it form the manuscript can use that speech over
+and over again. But that does not indicate that he really _knows_ much
+about the topic he is discussing. He did know about it once. But the
+man who from a series of notes can reconstruct material worked up long
+before proves that he has retained his knowledge of it. Besides, this
+method gives him the chance to adapt his presentation to the changing
+conditions and the new audience.
+
+In using this method, when a particularly important bit of information
+is met, it should be set down very carefully, usually verbatim, as it
+may be quoted exactly in the speech. This copy may be made upon the
+paper where the regular notes are being entered so that it may be
+found later embodied in the material it supports. Or it may later be
+cut from this sheet to be shifted about and finally fixed when
+planning the speech, or preparing the outline (discussed in the next
+two chapters). Many practised speech-makers copy such material upon
+the regularly sized library catalog cards (3 by 5 inches), some
+distinguishing by the colors of cards the various kinds of material,
+such as arguments supporting a position, opposite arguments,
+refutation, statistics, court judgments, etc. The beginner will find
+for himself what methods he can use best. Of course he must never let
+his discriminating system become so elaborate that he consumes
+unjustifiable time and thought in following its intricate plan.
+
+In all cases of quotations--either verbatim or in resume--the
+authority must be noted. Author, official title or position, title of
+work, circumstances, date, volume, page, etc., should be clearly set
+down. In law cases the date is especially important as so frequently
+the latest decision reverses all the earlier ones. For convenience of
+filing and handling these items are placed at the top of the card.
+
+    Monroe Doctrine--Meaning
+
+    W. Wilson--Hist. Amer. People, V, 245
+
+    The U.S. had not undertaken to maintain an actual formal
+    protectorate over the S. Amer. states, but it did frankly
+    undertake to act as their nearest friend in the settlement of
+    controversies with European nations, and no President,
+    whether Rep. or Dem., had hesitated since this critical
+    dispute concerning the boundaries of Brit. Guiana arose to
+    urge its settlement upon terms favorable to Venezuela.
+
+The following notes were made by a student in preparation for a speech
+upon the opposition to the Covenant of the League of Nations. These
+excerpts are from the notes upon the newspaper reports of the debate
+in Boston in 1919 between Senator Lodge and President Lowell of
+Harvard. Notice how accurately they suggest the material of the
+original. The numbers represent the paragraph numbers.
+
+
+    [Sidenote: Monroe Doctrine.]
+
+    35. Monroe Doctrine a fence that cannot be extended by taking
+    it down.
+
+    36. Monroe Doctrine a corollary of Washington's foreign
+    policy.
+
+    37. Geographical considerations on which Monroe Doctrine
+    rested still obtain.
+
+    38. Systems of morality and philosophy are not transient,
+    because they rest on verities.
+
+    39. Monroe Doctrine rests on law of self-preservation.
+
+    40. Offers a larger reservation of Monroe Doctrine as third
+    constructive criticism.
+
+    SENATOR LODGE
+
+    [Sidenote: What a League should provide.]
+
+    3. Wants to consider what such a league must contain.
+
+    4. Must have provision for obligatory arbitration.
+
+    5. Obligation not to resort to war must be compulsory.
+
+    6. Compulsion must be such that no nation will venture to
+    incur it.
+
+    7. Nation that does not submit to arbitration must be treated
+    as outlaw.
+
+    8. If decisions of arbitrations are clear and generally
+    considered just, a nation desiring to wage war should be
+    prevented.
+
+    9. Points of contact are not points of friction except when
+    made too infrequent.
+
+    10. Travel, intercourse, frequent meetings help amicable
+    adjustments.
+
+    11. League should provide councils where men can meet and
+    talk over differences.
+
+    12. Penalty for violating agreements should be automatic.
+
+    13. All should be obliged to make war on attacking nation.
+
+    PRESIDENT LOWELL.
+
+Using the Library. A reader must know how to use libraries. This means
+he must be able to find books by means of the card catalogs. These are
+arranged by both authors and subjects. If he knows the author of a
+book or its title he can easily find the cards and have the book
+handed to him. Very often he will seek information upon topics
+entirely new to him. In this case he must look under the entry of the
+topic for all the books bearing upon his. From the titles, the brief
+descriptions, and (sometimes) the tables of contents upon the cards he
+can select intelligently the books he needs. For instance, if he is
+searching for arguments to support a new kind of city government he
+could discard at once several books cataloged as follows, while he
+could pick unerringly the four which might furnish him the material he
+wants. These books are listed under the general topic "Cities."
+
+    _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. Old English Towns.
+    Municipal Administration. The Modern City and its Problems.
+    Personality of American Cities. Historic Towns of the
+    Southern States. Romantic Germany. Cities of Italy. American
+    Municipal Progress_.
+
+Cross references are also valuable. In addition to books cataloged
+under the topic consulted, others grouped under other subjects may
+contain related information. Here are three actual cross references
+taken from a library catalog.
+
+    Land: Ownership, rights, and rent. See also conservation,
+    production, agriculture.
+
+    Laboring classes: Morals and habits. See also ethics,
+    amusements, Sunday.
+
+    Church. See also church and state, persecutions.
+
+The continual use of a library will familiarize a student with certain
+classes of books to which he may turn for information. If he is
+permitted to handle the books themselves upon the shelves he will soon
+become skilful in using books. Many a trained speaker can run his eye
+over titles, along tables of contents, scan the pages, and unerringly
+pick the heart out of a volume. Nearly all libraries now are arranged
+according to one general plan, so a visitor who knows this scheme can
+easily find the class of books he wants in almost any library he uses.
+This arrangement is based upon the following decimal numbering and
+grouping of subject matter.
+
+
+LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION
+
+000 to 090, _General works_. Bibliography. Library economy.
+Cyclopedias. Collections. Periodicals. Societies, museums. Journalism,
+newspapers. Special libraries, polygraphy. Book rarities.
+
+100 to 190, _Philosophy_. Metaphysics. Special topics. Mind and body.
+Philosophic systems. Mental faculties, psychology. Logic, dialectics.
+Ethics. Ancient philosophers. Modern.
+
+200 to 290, _Religion_. Natural Theology. Bible. Doctrinal dogmatics,
+theology. Devotional, practical. Homiletic, pastoral, parochial.
+Church, institutions, work. Religious history. Christian churches and
+sects. Ethnic, non-christian.
+
+300 to 390, _Sociology_. Statistics. Political science. Political
+economy. Law. Administration. Associations, institutions. Education.
+Commerce, communication. Customs, costumes, folklore.
+
+400 to 490, _Philology_. Comparative. English. German. French.
+Italian. Spanish. Latin. Greek. Minor literatures.
+
+500 to 590, _Natural science_. Mathematics, Astronomy. Physics.
+Chemistry. Geology. Paleontology. Biology. Botany. Zooelogy.
+
+600 to 690, _Useful arts_. Medicine. Engineering. Agriculture.
+Domestic economy. Communication, commerce. Chemic technology.
+Manufactures. Mechanic trades. Building.
+
+700 to 790, _Fine arts_. Landscape gardening. Architecture. Sculpture.
+Drawing, decoration, design. Painting. Engraving. Photography. Music.
+Amusements.
+
+800 to 890, _Literature_ (same order as under _Philology_, 400).
+
+900 to 990, _History_. Geography and travels. Biography. Ancient
+history. Modern Europe. Asia. Africa. North America. South America.
+Oceanica and polar regions.
+
+M. DEWEY: _Decimal Classification_
+
+Using Periodicals. In the section on taking notes the direction was
+given that in citing legal decisions the latest should be secured.
+Why? That same principle applies to citing any kind of information in
+a speech. Science, history, politics, government, international
+questions, change so rapidly in these times that the fact of yesterday
+is the fiction of today, and _vice versa._ A speaker must be up to
+date in his knowledge. This he can be only by consulting current
+periodicals. He cannot read them all so he must use the aids provided
+for him. The best of these is the _Reader's Guide to Periodical
+Literature_ issued every month and kept in the reference room of all
+libraries. In it, arranged under both subject and author's name, are
+listed the articles which have appeared in the various magazines. The
+December issue contains the entries for the entire year. A group of
+topics from a recent monthly issue will show its value to the speaker
+securing material.
+
+    Eastern Question. British case in the East. H. Sidebotham,
+    Asia 19:261-1263 Mr '19.--England and her eastern policy. H.
+    Sidebotham. Asia, 19:158-161. F '19.--Khanates of the Middle
+    East. Ikbal Ali Shah. Contemp. 115:183-187 F '19.--More
+    secret treaties in the Near East. L. Stoddard. Maps. World's
+    Work. 37: 589-591. Mr '19.--Part of the United States in the
+    Near East. R of Rs 59:305-306 Mr '19.--Should America act as
+    trustee of the Near East? Asia, 19:141-144 F'19.
+
+By this time the student speaker will have that mental alertness
+referred to early in this book. He will be reading regularly some
+magazine--not to pass the time pleasantly--but to keep himself posted
+on current topics and questions of general interest, in which the
+articles will direct him to other periodicals for fuller treatment of
+the material he is gathering. The nature of some of these is suggested
+here.
+
+    _The Outlook_, "An illustrated weekly journal of current
+    events."
+
+    _Current Opinion_, Monthly. Review of the World, Persons in
+    the Foreground, Music and Drama, Science and Discovery,
+    Religion and Social Ethics, Literature and Art, The
+    Industrial World, Reconstruction.
+
+    _The Literary Digest_, Weekly. Topics of the Day, Foreign
+    Comment, Science and Invention, Letters and Art, Religion and
+    Social Service, Current Poetry, Miscellaneous, Investments
+    and Finance.
+
+    _The Independent_, an illustrated weekly.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Describe to the class the contents of a recent issue of a magazine.
+Concentrate upon important departments, articles, or policies, so that
+you will not deliver a mere list.
+
+2. Tell how an article in some periodical led you to read more widely
+to secure fuller information.
+
+3. Explain why you read a certain periodical regularly.
+
+4. Speak upon one of the following topics:
+
+Freak magazines.
+My magazine.
+Policies of magazines.
+Great things magazines have done.
+Technical magazines.
+Adventures at a magazine counter.
+Propaganda periodicals.
+
+5. Explain exactly how you study.
+
+6. How would you secure an interview with some person of prominence?
+
+7. Is the "cramming" process of studying a good one?
+
+8. Is it ever justifiable?
+
+9. Explain how, why, and when it may be used by men in their
+profession.
+
+10. Give the class an idea of the material of some book you have read
+recently.
+
+11. Explain how reading a published review or hearing comments on a
+book induced you to read a volume which proved of value to you.
+
+12. Can you justify the reading of the last part only of a book?
+Consider non-fiction.
+
+13. For preserving clippings, notes, etc., which method is
+better--cards filed in boxes or drawers, scrap-books, or slips and
+clippings grouped in envelopes?
+
+14. Report to the class some information upon one of the following.
+Tell exactly how and where you secured your information.
+
+Opium traffic in China.
+Morphine habit in the United States.
+Women in literature.
+A drafted army as compared with a volunteer army.
+Orpheum as a theater name.
+Prominent business women.
+War time influence of D'Annunzio.
+Increasing cost of living.
+Secretarial courses.
+The most beautiful city of the American continent.
+Alfalfa.
+Women surgeons.
+The blimp.
+Democracy in Great Britain compared with that of the United States.
+The root of the Mexican problem.
+San Marino.
+Illiteracy in the United States.
+How women vote.
+
+(NOTE.--The teacher should supply additions, substitutes, and
+modifications.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PLANNING THE SPEECH
+
+
+Selecting Material. It can be assumed, by the time you have reached
+this point in the study and practice of making speeches, that you have
+words to express your thoughts and some fair skill of delivery, that
+you know something about preparing various kinds of introductions and
+conclusions, that you know how your own mind operates in retaining new
+information, and that you know how to secure material for various
+purposes. Either clearly assimilated in your brain or accurately noted
+upon paper you have all the ideas that are to appear in your speech.
+
+The Length of the Speech. Look over this material again. Consider it
+carefully in your thoughts, mentally deciding how long a time or how
+many words you will devote to each topic or entry. Can you from such a
+practical consideration determine how long in time your speech will
+be? Are you limited by requirements to a short time as were the Four
+Minute Speakers? Have you been allotted a half hour? Will you hold
+your audience longer?
+
+These may appear simple things, but they cover the first essential of
+planning any speech. It should be just the correct length--neither too
+long nor too short. Many beginners--timid, hesitant, untrained--will
+frequently fill too short a time, so that they must drill themselves
+into planning longer productions. On the other hand, it may be stated,
+as a general criticism, that many speakers talk too long.
+
+A United States Senator, in order to block the vote on a bill he was
+opposing, decided to speak until Congress had to adjourn, so he
+deliberately planned to cover a long time. He spoke for some
+twenty-two hours. Of course he did not say much, nor did he talk
+continuously; to get rests, he requested the clerk to call the roll,
+and while the list was being marked, he ate and drank enough to
+sustain him. Technically his speech was uninterrupted, for he still
+had the floor. Though we may not approve of such methods of
+legislative procedure we must see that for this speech the first
+element of its plan was its length.
+
+Keep this consideration of time always in mind. Speakers always ask
+how long they are to speak, or they stipulate how much time they
+require. Legislative bodies frequently have limiting rules. Courts
+sometimes allow lawyers so much time. A minister must fit his sermon
+to the length of the service. A business man must not waste his
+hearers' time. A lecturer must not tire his audience. In Congress
+members must be given chances to eat. In Parliament, which meets in
+the evening, men grow anxious for bed.
+
+Making the Speech too Long. The rule is fundamental, yet it is
+violated continually. I have known of instances when four men, asked
+to present material in a meeting announced months in advance as
+lasting two hours, have totally disregarded this fact, and prepared
+enough material to consume over an hour each. In such cases the
+presiding officer should state to each that he will be allowed exactly
+thirty minutes and no more. He may tap on the table after twenty-five
+have elapsed to warn the speaker to pass to his conclusion, and at the
+expiration of the time make him bring his remarks to a close and give
+way to the next speaker. There is no unfairness in this. The real
+offense is committed by the speaker who proves himself so
+inconsiderate, so discourteous of the conditions that he places
+himself in such an embarrassing circumstance. He deserves only justice
+tempered by no mercy. I have heard the first of two speakers who were
+to fill an hour of a commemorative service in a church talk on for an
+hour and ten minutes, boring the congregation to fidgety restlessness
+and completely preventing the second speaker--the more important--from
+delivering a single word.
+
+Mark Twain tells how he went to church one hot night to hear a city
+mission worker describe his experiences among the poor people of the
+crowded districts who, though they needed help, were too modest or
+proud to ask for it. The speaker told of the suffering and bravery he
+found. Then he pointed out that the best gifts to charity are not the
+advertised bounties of the wealthy but the small donations of the less
+fortunate. His appeals worked Mark Twain up to great enthusiasm and
+generosity. He was ready to give all he had with him--four hundred
+dollars--and borrow more. The entire congregation wanted to offer all
+it had. But the missionary kept on talking. The audience began to
+notice the heat. It became hotter and hotter. They grew more and more
+uncomfortable. Mark's generosity began to shrink. It dwindled to less
+and less as the speech lengthened until when the plate did finally
+reach him, he stole ten cents from it. He adds that this simply proves
+how a little thing like a long-winded speech can induce crime.
+
+Plan your speech so that it will be the proper length.
+
+Discarding Material. This first consideration very likely indicates to
+you that you have much more material than you can use in the time
+allowed or assigned you. You must discard some. Strange as it may
+seem, this is one of the must difficult directions to carry out. It
+seems such a waste of time and material to select for actual
+presentation so small a part of all you have carefully gathered. There
+is always the temptation to "get it all in somehow." Yet the direction
+must remain inflexible. You can use only part of it. You must
+carefully select what will serve your purpose. What is the purpose of
+your speech? What is the character of your audience? These two things
+will determine to a large extent, what and how much you must
+relinquish. Your finished speech will be all the better for the
+weeding-out process. Better still, in all your preliminary steps for
+subsequent speeches you will become skilful in selecting while you are
+gathering the material itself. Finally you will become so practised
+that you will not burden yourself with waste, although you will always
+secure enough to supply you with a reserve supply for assurance and
+emergency.
+
+Relation of Material to the Purpose of the Speech. A few examples will
+show the wide application of this principle. A boy who has explained
+to his father the scholarship rules of his school concerning athletes
+will discard a great deal of that material when he addresses a student
+gathering. A speaker on child labor in a state where women have voted
+for a long time will discard much of the material presented in a
+neighboring state where general franchise has just been granted. If in
+a series of remarks you want to emphasize the thrilling experience you
+have had with a large fish which jerked you out of a boat, you would
+not include such material as the trip on the train to the lake where
+you had your adventure. Why not?
+
+These are humble instances, but the principle of selection is the same
+for all speeches.
+
+A man who was asked to lecture on Mark Twain knew the contents of the
+thirty published volumes written by him, all the biographies,
+practically every article written about him; he had conversed with
+people who had known him; he had visited scenes of his life; yet when
+he planned to talk for an hour he had to reject everything except two
+striking periods of his life with their effects upon his writing.
+
+Burke, in one great effort, declared he had no intention of dealing
+with the _right_ of taxation; he confined himself merely to the
+_expediency_ of Great Britain's revenue laws for America. Other great
+speakers have--in their finished speeches--just as clearly indicated
+the plans they have decided to follow. Such definite announcements
+determine the material of many introductions.
+
+    My task will be divided under three different heads: first,
+    The Crime Against Kansas, in its origin and extent; secondly,
+    The Apologies for the Crime; and, thirdly, The True Remedy.
+
+    CHARLES SUMNER: _The Crime against Kansas_, 1856
+
+    Mr. President and Fellow Citizens of New York:
+
+    The facts with which I shall deal this evening are mainly old
+    and familiar; nor is there anything new in the general use I
+    shall make of them. If there shall be any novelty, it will be
+    in the mode of presenting the facts, and the inferences and
+    observations following that presentation. In his speech last
+    autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the _New York
+    Times_, Senator Douglas said: "Our fathers, when they framed
+    the government under which we live, understood this question
+    just as well, and even better, than we do now."
+
+    I fully indorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this
+    discourse. I so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and
+    an agreed starting-point for a discussion between Republicans
+    and that wing of the Democracy headed by Senator Douglas. It
+    simply leaves the inquiry: What was the understanding those
+    fathers had of the question mentioned?
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860
+
+Indicating the Plan in the Speech. In some finished and long speeches
+parts of the plan are distributed to mark the divisions in the
+progress of the development. The next quotation shows such an
+insertion.
+
+    And now sir, against all these theories and opinions, I
+    maintain--
+
+    1. That the Constitution of the United States is not a
+    league, confederacy, or compact between the people of the
+    several States in their sovereign capacities; but a
+    government proper, founded on the adoption of the people, and
+    creating direct relations between itself and individuals.
+
+    2. That no State authority has power to dissolve these
+    relations; that nothing can dissolve them but revolution; and
+    that, consequently, there can be no such thing as secession
+    without revolution.
+
+    3. That there is a supreme law, consisting of the
+    Constitution of the United States, and acts of Congress
+    passed in pursuance of it, and treaties; and that, in cases
+    not capable of assuming the character of a suit in law or
+    equity, Congress must judge of, and finally interpret, this
+    supreme law so often as it has occasion to pass acts of
+    legislation; and in cases capable of assuming, and actually
+    assuming, the character of a suit, the Supreme Court of the
+    United States is the final interpreter.
+
+    4. That an attempt by a State to abrogate, annul, or nullify
+    an act of Congress, or to arrest its operation within her
+    limits, on the ground that, in her opinion, such law is
+    unconstitutional, is a direct usurpation on the just powers
+    of the general Government, and on the equal rights of other
+    States; a plain violation of the Constitution, a proceeding
+    essentially revolutionary in its character and tendency.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact
+    between Sovereign States_, 1833
+
+Such a statement to the audience is especially helpful when the
+speaker is dealing with technical subjects, or material with which
+most people are not usually and widely conversant. Scientific
+considerations always become clearer when such plans are simply
+constructed, clearly announced, and plainly followed.
+
+    So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses which ever
+    have been entertained, or which well can be entertained,
+    respecting the past history of Nature. I will, in the first
+    place, state the hypotheses, and then I will consider what
+    evidence bearing upon them is in our possession, and by what
+    light of criticism that evidence is to be interpreted. Upon
+    the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that phenomena of
+    Nature similar to those exhibited by the present world have
+    always existed; in other words, that the universe has existed
+    from all eternity in what may be broadly termed its present
+    condition.
+
+    The second hypothesis is, that the present state of things
+    has had only a limited duration; and that, at some period in
+    the past, a condition of the world, essentially similar to
+    that which we now know, came into existence, without any
+    precedent condition from which it could have naturally
+    proceeded. The assumption that successive states of Nature
+    have arisen, each without any relation of natural causation
+    to an antecedent state, is a mere modification of this second
+    hypothesis.
+
+    The third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of
+    things has had but a limited duration; but it supposes that
+    this state has been evolved by a natural process from an
+    antecedent state, and that from another, and so on; and, on
+    this hypothesis, the attempt to assign any limit to the
+    series of past changes is, usually, given up.
+
+    THOMAS H. HUXLEY: _Lectures on Evolution_, 1876
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. According to what methods are the foregoing plans arranged? Which
+division in Sumner's speech was the most important? Was he trying to
+get his listeners to do anything? What do you think that object was?
+
+2. In Lincoln's speech do you think he planned the material
+chronologically? Historically? What reasons have you for your answer?
+
+3. Which of Webster's four parts is the most important? Give reasons
+for your answer.
+
+4. Which hypothesis (what does the word mean?) did Huxley himself
+support? What induces you to think thus? Is this plan in any respect
+like Sumner's? Explain your answer.
+
+5. Make a list of the ways in which material of speeches may be
+arranged.
+
+Arrangement. Importance. If you have several topics to cover in a
+single speech where would you put the most important? First or last?
+Write upon a piece of paper the position you choose. You have given
+this plan some thought so you doubtlessly put down the correct
+position. What did you write? First? That is usually the answer of
+nine pupils out of every ten. Are you with the majority? If you wrote
+that the most important topic should be treated first, you are wrong.
+The speech would be badly planned. Think for a moment. Which should be
+the most important part of a story or a play? The beginning or the
+ending? If it is the early part, why should any one read on to the end
+or stay for the curtain to come down the last time? So in speeches the
+importance of topics should always increase as the speech proceeds.
+This, then, is a principle of planning. Arrange your topics in an
+ascending order of importance. Work up to what is called the climax.
+
+The list you made in response to direction 5 given above should now be
+presented to the class and its contents discussed. What kind of
+material is likely to be arranged according to each of your
+principles? You have put down the chronological order, or the order of
+time, or some similar phrase. Just what do you mean by that? Do you
+mean, begin with the earliest material and follow in chronological
+order down to the latest? Could the reverse order ever be used? Can
+you cite some instance? Is contrast a good order to follow in
+planning? Cite material which could be so arranged. Would an
+arrangement from cause to effect be somewhat like one based on time?
+Explain your answer. Under what circumstances do you think the
+opposite might be used--from effect to cause?
+
+While there are almost countless methods of arrangements--for any one
+used in one part of a speech may be combined with any other in some
+different portion--the plan should always be determined by three
+fundamental matters; the material itself, the audience to which it is
+to be presented, and the effect the speaker wants to produce.
+
+Even during this preliminary planning of the speech the author must be
+careful that when his arrangement is decided upon it possesses the
+three qualities necessary to every good composition. These three are
+unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+Unity. Unity explains itself. A speech must be about one single thing.
+A good speech produces one result. It induces action upon one single
+point. It allows no turning aside from its main theme. It does not
+stray from the straight and narrow road to pick flowers in the
+adjacent fields, no matter how enticing the temptation to loiter may
+be. In plain terms it does not admit as part of its material anything
+not closely and plainly connected with it. It does not step aside for
+everything that crops into the speaker's mind. It advances steadily,
+even when not rapidly. It does not "back water." It goes somewhere.
+
+To preserve unity of impression a speaker must ruthlessly discard all
+material except that which is closely associated with his central
+intention. He must use only that which contributes to his purpose. The
+same temptation to keep unrelated material--if it be good in
+itself--will be felt now as when the other unsuitable material was set
+aside.
+
+This does not prevent variety and relief. Illustrative and interesting
+minor sections may be, at times must be, introduced. But even by their
+vividness and attractiveness they must help the speech, not hinder it.
+The decorations and ornaments must never be allowed to detract from
+the utility of the composition.
+
+Unity may be damaged by admitting parts not in the direct line of the
+theme. It may be violated by letting minor portions become too long.
+The illustration may grow so large by the introduction of needless
+details that it makes the listeners forget the point it was designed
+to enforce. Or it may be so far-fetched as to bear no real relation to
+the thread of development. Here lies the pitfall of the overworked
+"funny," story, introduced by "that reminds me." Too often it is not
+humorous enough to justify repetition; or--what is worse--it does not
+fit into the circumstances. Another fault of many speakers is
+over-elaboration of expression, not only for non-essentials, but in
+the important passages as well. Involved language demands explanation.
+The attempts to clear up what should have been simply said at first
+may lead a speaker to devote too many words to a single point.
+
+This matter of unity must not be misunderstood as prohibiting the
+inclusion of more than one topic in a speech. A legislator in urging
+the repeal of a law might have several topics, such as how the law was
+passed, its first operations, its increasing burdens upon people, the
+disappearance of the necessity for it, better methods of securing the
+same or better results, etc., yet all grouped about the motivating
+theme of securing the repeal of the law. To emphasize the greatness of
+a man's career a speaker might introduce such topics as his obscure
+origin, his unmarked youth, the spur that stimulated his ambition, his
+early reverses, provided that they contribute to the impression
+intended, to make vivid his real achievements.
+
+In early attempts at delivering speeches don't be afraid to pause at
+certain places to consider whether what you are about to say really
+contributes to the unity or destroys it. Aside from helping you to
+think upon your feet, this mental exercise will help your speech by
+making you pause at times--a feature of speaking often entirely
+disregarded by many persons.
+
+Coherence. The second quality a finished composition should have is
+coherence. If you know what _cohere_ and _cohesion_ mean (perhaps you
+have met these words in science study) you have the germ of the term's
+meaning. It means "stick-together-itive-ness." The parts of a speech
+should be so interrelated that every part leads up to all that
+follows. Likewise every part develops naturally from all that goes
+before, as well as what immediately precedes. There must be a
+continuity running straight through the material from start to finish.
+Parts should be placed where they fit best. Each portion should be so
+placed--at least, in thought--that all before leads naturally and
+consistently up to it, and it carries on the thread to whatever
+follows. This prevents rude breaks in the development of thought.
+Skilfully done, it aids the hearer to remember, because so easily did
+the thought in the speech move from one point to another, that he can
+carry the line of its progression with him long after. So the
+attainment of coherence in a speech contributes directly to that
+desired end--a deep impression.
+
+Incoherent speeches are so mainly because of absence of plan, whether
+they be short or long, conversational or formal.
+
+Emphasis. The third quality a speech should have is emphasis. Applied
+to a connected sequence of words this means that what is of most
+importance shall stand out most forcefully; that what is not so
+important shall show its subordinate relation by its position, its
+connection with what goes before and after; that what is least
+important shall receive no emphasis beyond its just due. Such
+manipulation requires planning and rearranging, careful weighing of
+the relative importance of all portions. Recall what was said of the
+place of the most important part.
+
+Throughout the speech there must also be variety of emphasis. It would
+not be fitting to have everything with a forceful emphasis upon it. To
+secure variation in emphasis you must remember that in speeches the
+best effects will be made upon audiences by offering them slight
+relief from too close attention or too impressive effects. If you
+observe the plans finally followed by good speakers you will be able
+to see that they have obeyed this suggestion. They have the power to
+do what is described as "swaying the audience." In its simplest form
+this depends upon varying the emphasis.
+
+In making an appeal for funds for destitute portions of Europe a
+telling topic would surely be the sufferings of the needy. Would it be
+wise to dwell upon such horrors only? Would a humorous anecdote of the
+happy gratitude of a child for a cast-off toy be good to produce
+emphasis? Which would make the most emphatic ending--the absolute
+destitution, the amount to be supplied, the relief afforded, or the
+happiness to donors for sharing in such a worthy charity? You can see
+how a mere mental planning, or a shuffling of notes, or a temporary
+numbering of topics will help in clearing up this problem of how to
+secure proper and effective emphasis.
+
+Making the First Plan. It would be a helpful thing at this point in
+the planning to make a pencil list of the topics to be included. This
+is not a final outline but a mere series of jottings to be changed,
+discarded, and replaced as the author considers his material and his
+speech. It is hardly more than an informal list, a scrap of paper. In
+working with it, don't be too careful of appearances. Erase, cross
+out, interline, write in margins, draw lines and arrows to carry
+portions from one place to another, crowd in at one place, remove from
+another, cut the paper sheets, paste in new parts, or pin slips
+together. Manipulate your material. Mold it to suit your purposes.
+Make it follow your plan. By this you will secure a good plan. If
+this seems a great deal to do, compare it with the time and energy
+required to learn how to swim, how to play a musical instrument, how
+to "shoot" in basketball, how to act a part in a play.
+
+Knowing how to speak well is worth the effort. Every time you plan a
+speech these steps will merge into a continuous process while you are
+gathering the material. In informal discussion upon topics you are
+familiar with, you will become able to arrange a plan while you are
+rising to your feet.
+
+Transitions. As this preliminary plan takes its form under your
+careful consideration of the material you will decide that there are
+places between topics or sections which will require bridging over in
+order to attain coherence and emphasis. These places of division
+should be filled by transitions. A transition is a passage which
+carries over the meaning from what precedes to what follows. It serves
+as a connecting link. It prevents the material from falling apart. It
+preserves the continuity of ideas. A transition may be as short as a
+single word, such as _however_, _consequently_, _nevertheless_. It may
+be a sentence. It may grow into a paragraph.
+
+The purpose of transitions--to link parts together--may induce
+beginners to consider them as of little importance since they
+manifestly add no new ideas to the theme. This opinion is entirely
+erroneous. Even in material for reading, transitions are necessary. In
+material to be received through the ear they are the most valuable
+helps that can be supplied to have the listener follow the
+development. They mark the divisions for him. They show that a
+certain section is completed and a new one is about to begin. They
+show the relation in meaning of two portions.
+
+The shorter forms of transitions--words and phrases--belong rather to
+the expression, the language, of the speech than to this preliminary
+planning.
+
+A speaker should never fail to use such phrases as _on the other
+hand_, _continuing the same line of reasoning_, _passing to the next
+point_, _from a different point of view_, because they so clearly
+indicate the relation of two succeeding passages of a speech.
+
+In planning, the speaker frequently has to consider the insertion of
+longer transitions--paragraphs or even more extended passages. Just
+how such links appear in finished speeches the following extracts
+show. In the first selection Washington when he planned his material
+realized he had reached a place where he could conclude. He wanted to
+add more. What reason should he offer his audience for violating the
+principle discussed in the chapter on conclusions? How could he make
+clear to them his desire to continue? We cannot assert that he
+actually did this, but he might have jotted down upon the paper
+bearing a first scheme of his remarks the phrase, "my solicitude for
+the people." That, then, was the germ of his transition paragraph.
+Notice how clearly the meaning is expressed. Could any hearer fail to
+comprehend? The transition also announces plainly the topic of the
+rest of the speech.
+
+    Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your
+    welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the
+    apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me
+    on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn
+    contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some
+    sentiments which are the result of much reflection, of no
+    inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me
+    all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people.
+    These will be offered to you with the more freedom, as you
+    can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting
+    friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his
+    counsels. Nor can I forget, as an encouragement to it, your
+    indulgent reception of my sentiment on a former and not
+    dissimilar occasion.
+
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796
+
+The next selection answers to a part of the plan announced in a
+passage already quoted in this chapter. Notice how this transition
+looks both backward and forward: it is both retrospective and
+anticipatory. If you recall that repetition helps to emphasize facts,
+you will readily understand why a transition is especially valuable if
+it adheres to the same language as the first statement of the plan. In
+a written scheme this might have appeared under the entry, "pass from
+1 to 2; list 4 apologies for crime." This suggests fully the material
+of the passage.
+
+    And with this exposure I take my leave of the Crime against
+    Kansas. Emerging from all the blackness of this Crime, where
+    we seem to have been lost, as in a savage wood, and turning
+    our backs upon it, as upon desolation and death, from which,
+    while others have suffered, we have escaped, I come now to
+    the Apologies which the Crime has found....
+
+    They are four in number, and fourfold in character. The first
+    is the Apology tyrannical; the second, the Apology imbecile;
+    the third, the Apology absurd; and the fourth, the Apology
+    infamous. That is all. Tyranny, imbecility, absurdity, and
+    infamy all unite to dance, like the weird sisters, about this
+    Crime.
+
+    The Apology tyrannical is founded on the mistaken act of
+    Governor Reeder, in authenticating the Usurping Legislature,
+    etc.
+
+    CHARLES SUMNER: _The Crime against Kansas_, 1856
+
+The beginning speaker should not hesitate to make his transitions
+perfectly clear to his audience. When they add to the merely bridging
+use the additional value of serving as short summaries of what has
+gone before and as sign posts of what is to follow, they are trebly
+serviceable. The attempt to be clear will seldom be waste of time or
+effort. The obvious statements of the preceding selections, the use of
+figures, are excellent models for speakers to imitate. With practice
+will come skill in making transitions of different kinds, in which the
+same purposes will be served in various other ways, in what may be
+considered more finished style. The next extracts represent this kind
+of transition.
+
+    Sir, like most questions of civil prudence, this is neither
+    black nor white, but gray. The system of copyright has great
+    advantages and great disadvantages; and it is our business to
+    ascertain what these are, and then to make an arrangement
+    under which the advantages may be as far as possible secured,
+    and the disadvantages as far as possible excluded. The charge
+    which I bring against my honorable and learned friend's bill
+    is this, that it leaves the advantages nearly what they are
+    at present, and increases the disadvantages at least
+    fourfold.
+
+    THOMAS B. MACAULAY: _Copyright Bill_, 1841
+
+    One-third of the population of the South is of the Negro
+    race. No enterprise seeking the material, civil, or moral
+    welfare of this section can disregard this element of our
+    population and reach the highest success. I but convey to
+    you, Mr. President and Directors, the sentiment of the masses
+    of my race when I say that in no way have the value and
+    manhood of the American Negro been more fittingly and
+    generously recognized than by the managers of this
+    magnificent Exposition at every stage of its progress. It is
+    a recognition that will do more to cement the friendship of
+    the two races than any occurrence since the dawn of our
+    freedom.
+
+    BOOKER T. WASHINGTON in a speech at the Atlanta
+    Exposition, 1895
+
+Thinking before You Speak. While students may feel that the steps
+outlined here demand a great deal of preparation before the final
+speech is delivered, the explanation may be given that after all, this
+careful preparation merely carries out the homely adage--think before
+you speak. If there were more thinking there would be at once better
+speaking. Anybody can talk. The purpose of studying is to make one a
+better speaker. The anticipation of some relief may be entertained,
+for it is comforting to know that after one has followed the processes
+here explained, they move more rapidly, so that after a time they may
+become almost simultaneous up to the completion of the one just
+discussed--planning the speech. It is also worth knowing that none of
+this preliminary work is actually lost. Nor is it unseen. It appears
+in the speech itself. The reward for all its apparent slowness and
+exacting deliberation is in the clearness, the significance of the
+speech, its reception by the audience, its effect upon them, and the
+knowledge by the speaker himself that his efforts are producing
+results in his accomplishments.
+
+All speakers plan carefully for speeches long in advance.
+
+A famous alumnus of Yale was invited to attend a banquet of Harvard
+graduates. Warned that he must "speak for his dinner" he prepared more
+than a dozen possible beginnings not knowing of course, in what manner
+the toastmaster would call upon him. The remainder of his speech was
+as carefully planned, although not with so many possible choices. Note
+that from each possible opening to the body of the speech he had to
+evolve a graceful transition.
+
+Edmund Burke, in his great speech on conciliation with the American
+colonies, related that some time before, a friend had urged him to
+speak upon this matter, but he had hesitated. True, he had gone so far
+as to throw "my thoughts into a sort of parliamentary form"--that is,
+he made a plan or an outline, but the passage of a certain bill by the
+House of Commons seemed to have taken away forever the chance of his
+using the material. The bill, however, was returned from the House of
+Lords with an amendment and in the resulting debate he delivered the
+speech he had already planned.
+
+Daniel Webster said that his reply to Hayne had been lying in his desk
+for months already planned, merely waiting the opportunity or need for
+its delivery.
+
+Henry Ward Beecher, whose need for preliminary preparation was reduced
+to its lowest terms, and who himself was almost an instantaneous
+extemporizer, recognized the need for careful planning by young
+speakers and warned them against "the temptation to slovenliness in
+workmanship, to careless and inaccurate statement, to repetition, to
+violation of good taste."
+
+Slovenliness in planning is as bad as slovenliness in expression.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Choose any topic suggested in this book. Make a short preliminary plan
+of a speech upon it. Present it to the class. Consider it from the
+following requirements:
+
+1. Does it show clearly its intention?
+
+2. How long will the speech be?
+
+3. Too long? Too short?
+
+4. For what kind of audience is it intended?
+
+5. Has it unity?
+
+6. Has it coherence?
+
+7. Where are transitions most clearly needed?
+
+8. What suggestions would you make for rearranging any parts?
+
+9. What reasons have you for these changes?
+
+10. Is proper emphasis secured?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MAKING THE OUTLINE OR BRIEF
+
+
+Orderly Arrangement. A speech should have an orderly arrangement. The
+effect upon an audience will be more easily made, more deeply
+impressed, more clearly retained, if the successive steps of the
+development are so well marked, so plainly related, that they may be
+carried away in a hearer's understanding. It might be said that one
+test of a good speech is the vividness with which its framework is
+discernible. Hearers can repeat outlines of certain speeches. Those
+are the best. Of others they can give merely confused reports. These
+are the badly constructed ones.
+
+The way to secure in the delivered speech this delight of orderly
+arrangement is by making an outline or brief. Most pupils hate to make
+outlines. The reason for this repugnance is easily understood. A
+teacher directs a pupil to make an outline before he writes a
+composition or delivers a speech. The pupil spends hours on the list
+of entries, then submits his finished theme or address. He feels that
+the outline is disregarded entirely. Sometimes he is not even required
+to hand it to the instructor. He considers the time he has spent upon
+the outline as wasted. It is almost impossible to make him feel that
+his finished product is all the better because of this effort spent
+upon the preliminary skeleton, so that in reality his outline is not
+disregarded at all, but is judged and marked as embodied in the
+finished article. Most students carry this mistaken feeling about
+outlines to such an extent that when required to hand in both an
+outline and a finished composition they will write in haphazard
+fashion the composition first, and then from it try to prepare the
+outline, instead of doing as they are told, and making the outline
+first. It is easier--though not as educating or productive of good
+results--to string words together than it is to do what outline-making
+demands--to think.
+
+Professional Writers' Use of Outlines. Professional writers realize
+the helpfulness of outline-making and the time it saves. Many a
+magazine article has been sold before a word of the finished
+manuscript was written. The contributor submitted an outline from
+which the editor contracted for the finished production. Many a play
+has been placed in the same form. Books are built up in the same
+manner. The ubiquitous moving-picture scenario is seldom produced in
+any other manner.
+
+Macaulay advised a young friend who asked how to keep his brain active
+to read a couple of solid books, making careful outlines of their
+material at the same time. One of these should be--if possible--a work
+in a foreign tongue, so that the strangeness of the language would
+necessitate slow, careful reading and close thinking. All good
+students know that the best way to prepare for an examination is to
+make outlines of all the required reading and study.
+
+It is just because the making of the outline demands such careful
+thinking that it is one of the most important steps in the production
+of a speech.
+
+The Outline in the Finished Speech. If the outline really shows in the
+finished speech, let us see if we can pick the entries out from a
+portion of one. Edmund Burke in 1775 tried to prevent Great Britain
+from using coercive measures against the restive American colonies.
+Many Englishmen were already clamoring for war when Burke spoke in
+Parliament upon conciliating the Colonies.
+
+    I am sensible, Sir, that all which I have asserted in my
+    detail, is admitted in the gross; but that quite a different
+    conclusion is drawn from it. America, gentlemen say, is a
+    noble object. It is an object well worth fighting for.
+    Certainly it is, if fighting a people be the best way of
+    gaining them. Gentlemen in this respect will be led to their
+    choice of means by their complexions and their habits. Those
+    who understand the military art, will of course have some
+    predilection for it. Those who wield the thunder of the
+    state, may have more confidence in the efficacy of arms. But
+    I confess, possibly for want of this knowledge, my opinion is
+    much more in favor of prudent management, than of force;
+    considering force not as an odious, but a feeble instrument,
+    for preserving a people so numerous, so active, so growing,
+    so spirited as this, in a profitable and subordinate
+    connexion with us.
+
+    First, Sir, permit me to observe, that the use of force alone
+    is but _temporary_. It may subdue for a moment; but it does
+    not remove the necessity of subduing again; and a nation is
+    not governed which is perpetually to be conquered.
+
+    My next objection is its _uncertainty_. Terror is not always
+    the effect of force; and an armament is not a victory. If you
+    do not succeed, you are without resource; for, conciliation
+    failing, force remains; but, force failing, no further hope
+    of reconciliation is left. Power and authority are sometimes
+    bought by kindness; but they can never be begged as alms by
+    an impoverished and defeated violence.
+
+    A further objection to force is, that you _impair the object_
+    by your very endeavors to preserve it. The thing you fought
+    for is not the thing which you recover; but depreciated,
+    sunk, wasted, and consumed in the contest. Nothing less will
+    content me, than _whole America_. I do not choose to consume
+    its strength along with our own; because in all parts it is
+    the British strength that I consume. I do not choose to be
+    caught by a foreign enemy at the end of this exhausting
+    conflict, and still less in the midst of it. I may escape;
+    but I can make no assurance against such an event. Let me
+    add, that I do not choose wholly to break the American
+    spirit; because it is the spirit that has made the country.
+
+    Lastly, we have no sort of _experience_ in favor of force as
+    an instrument in the rule of our colonies. Their growth and
+    their utility has been owing to methods altogether different.
+    Our ancient indulgence has been said to be pursued to a
+    fault. It may be so. But we know if feeling is evidence that
+    our fault was more tolerable than our attempt to mend it; and
+    our sin far more salutary than our penitence.
+
+    These, Sir, are my reasons for not entertaining that high
+    opinion of untried force, by which many gentlemen, for whose
+    sentiments in other particulars I have great respect, seem to
+    be so greatly captivated. But there is still behind a third
+    consideration concerning this object, which serves to
+    determine my opinion on the sort of policy which ought to be
+    pursued in the management of America, even more than its
+    population and its commerce, I mean its _temper and
+    character_.
+
+    EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775
+
+Reconstructing the Outline. In the preliminary arrangement Burke knew
+that he was going to give his reasons against the use of military
+force. In his first plan he may not have decided just where he was
+going to place his four arguments. So they very likely appeared as
+four topic entries:
+
+Against use of force.
+  1. temporary
+  2. uncertain
+  3. damages America
+  4. no experience
+
+Notice that these are jottings to suggest the germs of the arguments.
+When Burke revised this section he may have changed the expression to
+indicate more certainty.
+
+Force should not be used against the colonies, because:
+  1. it is only temporary
+  2. it is uncertain in its results
+  3. it would damage the wealth of the colonies
+  4. it is based on no experience of Great Britain with
+     colonies
+
+Of course, a practised statesman would not have to analyze farther,
+perhaps not so far, but to illustrate for a student how he might build
+up his outline, let us analyze one degree farther. Just what is meant
+by such terms as _temporary, uncertain?_ Under each statement, then,
+might be added a detailed explanation. The finished part of the
+outline would then appear somewhat like this.
+
+Force should not be used against the colonies, because:
+  1. it is only temporary, for
+    _a._ though it subdue for a time, it would have to
+       be used again.
+
+    2. it is uncertain in its results, for
+       _a._ Great Britain might not subdue the colonies.
+
+    3. it would damage the wealth of the colonies, for
+       _a._ we would fight to retain a wealthy land, yet
+         after the war we should have a ruined one.
+
+    4. it is based on no experience of Great Britain with
+       colonies, for
+       _a._ Great Britain has always been indulgent
+          rather than severely strict.
+
+Speaking or writing from such a detailed outline as this, consider how
+much thinking has already been done. With these entries under his eye
+the speaker need think only of the phrasing of his remarks. He would
+feel perfectly certain that he would not wander from his theme. Notice
+how the ideas can be emphasized. The suggestion of damage can be
+expressed in _impair the object_, and in _depreciated, sunk, wasted,
+consumed_.
+
+So far this outline--though it covers all its own material--does not
+indicate the place at which it shall be used in the speech. It could
+be used near the conclusion where Burke planned to answer all the
+supporters of plans other than his own. That would be a good place for
+it. But Burke found a better one. He separated this from his other
+remarks against his opponents, and brought it in much earlier, thereby
+linking it with what it most concerned, emphasizing it, and disposing
+of it entirely so far as his speech was concerned. He had just
+enumerated the wealth of the colonies as represented by their
+commerce. He knew that the war party would argue, "If America is so
+wealthy, it is worth fighting for." That was the place, then, to
+refute them. To introduce his material he had to make clear the
+transition from the colonial wealth to his arguments. Notice how
+plainly the first paragraph quoted here does this. Having given his
+four reasons against the use of force, notice that he must bring his
+audience back to the theme he has been discussing. The last paragraph
+does this in a masterly manner. He has cited two facts about the
+colonies. To make understanding doubly certain he repeats
+them--population and commerce--and passes to the next, plainly
+numbering it as the third.
+
+This recital of the process is not an account of what actually took
+place in Burke's preparation, but it will give to the student the
+method by which great speakers _may_ have proceeded; we do know that
+many did follow such a scheme. No amateur who wants to make his
+speeches worth listening to should omit this helpful step of outline
+or brief making. Whether he first writes out his speeches in full, or
+composes them upon his feet, every speaker should prepare an outline
+or brief of his material. This is a series of entries, so condensed
+and arranged as to show the relative significance of all the parts of
+the speech in the proper order of development.
+
+Outline, Brief, Legal Brief. An outline contains entries which are
+merely topics, not completed statements or sentences.
+
+A brief contains completed statements (sentences).
+
+A legal brief is a formally prepared document (often printed)
+submitted to a certain court before a case is tried, showing the
+material the lawyer intends to produce, citing all his authorities,
+suggesting interpretations of laws and legal decisions to support his
+contentions, and giving all his conclusions. It is prepared for the
+use of the court, to reduce the labor in examining records, etc.
+Practice in the drawing up of such briefs is an important phase of
+legal study.
+
+The Outline. An outline may recall to a person's mind what he already
+has learned, but it is seldom definite and informative enough to be as
+helpful as a brief. A good distinction of the two--besides the one
+respecting the forms already given--is that the outline represents the
+point of view of the speaker while the brief represents that of the
+hearer. Consider again the analyses of Burke in this chapter. Notice
+that the first list does not give nearly so clear an idea of what
+Burke actually said as the third. A person seeing only the first might
+_guess_ at what the speaker intended to declare. A person who looked
+at the third could not fail to _know exactly_ the opinions of the
+speaker and the arguments supporting them.
+
+Pupils frequently make this kind of entry:
+
+Introduction--Time
+              Place
+              Characters
+
+The main objections to such an outline are that it tells nothing
+definite, and that it might fit a thousand compositions. Even an
+outline should say more than such a list does.
+
+In one edition of Burke's speech the page from which the following is
+quoted is headed "Brief." Is it a brief?
+
+Part II. How to deal with America.
+
+  A. Introduction.
+  B. First alternative and objections.
+  C. Second alternative and objections.
+  D. Third alternative.
+  E. Introduction.
+  F. Considerations.
+
+      1. Question one of policy, not of abstract right.
+      2. Trade laws.
+      3. Constitutional precedents.
+      4. Application of these.
+
+The Brief. One of the shortest briefs on record was prepared by
+Abraham Lincoln for use in a suit to recover $200 for the widow of a
+Revolutionary veteran from an agent who had retained it out of $400
+pension money belonging to her. It formed the basis of his speech in
+court.
+
+    No contract.--Not professional services.--Unreasonable
+    charge.--Money retained by Def't not given to
+    Pl'ff.--Revolutionary War.--Describe Valley Forge
+    privations.--Pl'ff's husband.--Soldier leaving for
+    army.--_Skin Def't_.--Close.
+
+The following will give some idea of the form and definiteness of
+briefs for debate.
+
+CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
+
+_Resolved:_ That capital punishment should be abolished.[1]
+
+_Brief for the Affirmative_
+
+I. Capital punishment is inexpedient.
+  (_a_) It is contrary to the tendency of civilization.
+  (_b_) It fails to protect society.
+      (1) It does not prevent murder.
+      (2) New crimes follow hard on executions.
+  (_c_) It makes punishment uncertain.
+      (1) Many criminals are acquitted who would
+          be convicted if the penalty were imprisonment.
+  (_d_) It is not reformatory.
+
+II. Capital punishment is immoral.
+  (_a_) It rests on the old idea of retribution.
+  (_b_) It tends to weaken the sacredness of human life.
+  (_c_) It endangers the lives of innocent people.
+  (_d_) Executions and the sensational newspaper
+        accounts which follow have a corrupting influence.
+
+III. Capital punishment is unjust.
+  (_a_) Its mistakes are irremediable.
+  (_b_) Many men are criminals from force of
+        circumstances.
+      (1) From heredity.
+      (2) From environment.
+  (_c_) Inequalities in administration are marked.
+      (1) In some states men are hung, in others
+        imprisoned for the same crime.
+
+[Footnote 1: Taken from Brookings and Ringwalt: _Briefs for Debate_,
+Longmans, Green and Co., where specific references of material for
+many of the topics are given, as well as general references for the
+entire subject.]
+
+      (2) Many jurors have conscientious scruples
+        against condemning a man to death.
+      (3) Men of wealth and influence are rarely
+        convicted.
+
+IV. The abolition of capital punishment has been followed
+    by satisfactory results,
+  (_a_) In Europe.
+      (1) Russia.
+      (2) Switzerland.
+      (3) Portugal.
+      (4) Belgium.
+      (5) Holland.
+      (6) Finland.
+  (_b_) In the United States.
+      (1) Michigan.
+      (2) Rhode Island.
+      (3) Maine.
+      (4) Wisconsin.
+
+_Brief for the Negative_
+
+I. Capital punishment is permissible.
+  (_a_) It has the sanction of the Bible.
+      (1) Genesis ix, 2-6.
+  (_b_) It has the sanction of history.
+      (1) It has been in vogue since the beginning
+        of the world.
+  (_c_) It has the sanction of reason.
+      (1) The most fitting punishment is one equal
+        and similar to the injury inflicted.
+
+II. Capital punishment is expedient.
+  (_a_) It is necessary to protect society from anarchy
+      and private revenge.
+      (1) Death is the strongest preventative of
+        crime.
+  (_b_) No sufficient substitute has been offered.
+      (1) Life imprisonment is a failure.
+      (2) Few serve the sentence.
+  (_c_) Its abolition has not been successful.
+      (1) In Rhode Island.
+      (2) In Michigan.
+III. The objections made to capital punishment are not
+     sound.
+  (_a_) Prisons are not reformatory.
+  (_b_) The fact that crimes have decreased in some
+      places where executions have stopped is
+      not a valid argument.
+      (1) All causes which increase the moral well-being
+        of the race decrease crime.
+  (_c_) The objection that the innocent suffer is not
+      strong.
+      (1) The number of innocent thus suffering is
+        inconsiderable when compared with the
+        great number of murders prevented.
+  (_d_) The objection that the penalty is uncertain may
+      be overcome by making it certain.
+
+A few paragraphs back it was said that an outline or brief shows the
+relative significance of all the parts of a speech. This is done by a
+systematic use of margins and symbols. From the quoted forms in this
+chapter certain rules can easily be deduced.
+
+Margins. The speech will naturally divide into a few main parts. These
+can be designated by spaces and general titles such as introduction,
+body, development, main argument, answer to opposing views,
+conclusion. Other captions will be suggested by various kinds of
+material. Main topics next in importance are placed the farthest to
+the left, making the first margin. A reader can run his eye down this
+line and pick out all the main topics of equal importance. Entries
+just subordinate to these are put each on a separate line, starting
+slightly to the right. This separation according to connection and
+value is continued as long as the maker has any minor parts to
+represent in the brief. It should not be carried too far, however, for
+the purpose of the entries is to mark clearness and accuracy. If the
+helping system becomes too elaborate and complicated it destroys its
+own usefulness.
+
+It is perfectly plain that such an outline might be made and be quite
+clear, without the addition of any symbols at all, especially if it
+was short.
+
+Discrimination in the use of words is secured by
+
+The study of synonyms
+             antonyms
+             homonyms
+and care in employing them.
+
+Symbols. Some scheme of marking the entries is a great help. There is
+no fixed system. Every student may choose from among the many used. If
+there are many main topics it might be a mistake to use Roman numerals
+(I, XVIII) as few people can read them quickly enough to follow their
+sequence. Capital letters may serve better to mark the sequences, but
+they do not indicate the numerical position. For instance, most of us
+do not know our alphabets well enough to translate a main topic marked
+N into the fourteenth point. By combinations of Roman numerals,
+capitals, usual (Arabic) numerals, small letters, parentheses, enough
+variety to serve any student purpose can easily be arranged.
+
+The following are samples of systems used.
+
+            _Specimen_ 1
+
+    Introduction
+    Argument
+
+I--------------------------------------------------
+  A------------------------------------------------
+    1----------------------------------------------
+      _a_--------------------------------------------
+      _b_--------------------------------------------
+      _c_--------------------------------------------
+        (1)----------------------------------------
+        (2)----------------------------------------
+        (3)----------------------------------------
+    2----------------------------------------------
+  B------------------------------------------------
+    1----------------------------------------------
+    2----------------------------------------------
+II-------------------------------------------------
+    Conclusion
+
+
+            _Specimen_ 2
+
+A--------------------------------------------------
+  I------------------------------------------------
+    _a_----------------------------------------------
+      1--------------------------------------------
+      2--------------------------------------------
+    _b_----------------------------------------------
+  II-----------------------------------------------
+    _a_----------------------------------------------
+    _b_----------------------------------------------
+    _c_----------------------------------------------
+      1--------------------------------------------
+      2--------------------------------------------
+      3--------------------------------------------
+
+            _Specimen_ 3
+
+1--------------------------------------------------
+  1^1----------------------------------------------
+  2^1----------------------------------------------
+    _a_^1--------------------------------------------
+    _b_^1--------------------------------------------
+    _c_^1--------------------------------------------
+2--------------------------------------------------
+  1^2----------------------------------------------
+  2^2----------------------------------------------
+    _a_^2--------------------------------------------
+    _b_^2--------------------------------------------
+    _c_^2--------------------------------------------
+3--------------------------------------------------
+  1^3----------------------------------------------
+  2^3----------------------------------------------
+
+Tabulations. With unusual kinds of material and for special purposes
+there may be value in evolving other forms of outlines. A technically
+trained person accustomed to reading tabulated reports with hosts of
+figures to interpret might find a statistical statement at times
+better suited to his needs. Such tabulations are not any easier to
+prepare than the regular brief. In fact to most people they are
+infinitely more difficult to get into form and almost beyond speedy
+comprehension afterwards. The following is a good illustration of a
+simple one well adapted to the speaker's purpose--a report of the
+objections to the first published covenant of the League of Nations.
+He knew the material of his introduction and conclusion so well that
+he did not represent them in his carefully arranged sheet. The form
+was submitted as regular work in a public speaking class and was
+spoken from during more than forty minutes.
+
+CRITICISMS OF PROPOSED COVENANT OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS
+
+1.--Draft indefinite and loosely written. Lg Lo Sp Tt Br Hu
+2.--Should have clause-limiting powers
+        to those specifically granted.       Lo
+3.--Proportion of votes required for
+        action of Council not generally
+        stated--should be unanimous.      Lg    Sp Tt    Hu
+4.--Should have clause reserving the
+        Monroe Doctrine.                  Lg Lo Sp Tt Br Hu
+5.--Should state that no nation can be
+        required to become a mandatory
+        without its consent.              Lg Lo       Br Hu
+6.--Should have provision for
+        withdrawals.                      Lg Lo Sp Tt    Hu
+7.--Jurisdiction of League over internal
+        affairs (immigration, tariffs,
+        coastwise trade) should be
+        expressly excluded.               Lg          Br Hu
+8.--Terms of admission of other nations
+        too strict.                                   Br
+9.--Basis of representation not fair.                 Br
+10.--Provision should be made for
+        expansion of nations by peaceable
+        means.                                        Br
+11.--Each nation should have right to
+        decide whether it will follow
+        advice of Council as to use of
+        force.                                        Br
+12.--Each nation should have right to
+        determine whether it will boycott
+        delinquent nations.                           Br
+     Note:--items 11 and 12 are apparently
+        directed against Art.
+        XVI containing the Ipso Facto
+        clause and Art. X.
+13.--Should not guarantee the integrity
+        and independence of all members
+        of the league.                    Lg             Hu
+
+Above criticisms taken from published statements of
+
+  Messrs. Lodge
+          Lowell
+          Spencer
+          Taft
+          Bryan
+          Hughes
+(denoted respectively Lg, Lo, Sp, Tt, Br and Hu).
+
+Authorities in the Brief. Authorities for the statements made in the
+brief may be put into parentheses, if they are to be included. Such
+further devices will suggest themselves to students. In addition to
+such markings as here listed, some men who use many outlines emphasize
+upon them details which they may have to find quickly by underlining
+the symbol or first word with colored pencil. Such a device is
+especially valuable to a technical expert whose system could be
+uniform through the outlines of all his reports, etc. Or a lecturer
+with so much time to fill may mark upon the outline 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, to
+indicate to himself that his material is being covered at a proper
+rate to correspond with the time. He might put in _15 min._ or _30
+min._ or _45 min._ if he was to speak for an hour. The first division
+is the better, for he might be required to condense a twenty-minute
+speech to ten.
+
+Selections for Briefing. Before the student makes many briefs of his
+own he should work in the other direction by outlining material
+already in existence so that he can be assured he knows main topics
+from minor ones, important issues from subordinate reasons, headings
+from examples. If all the members of the class outline the same
+material the resulting discussion will provide additional exercise in
+speaking in explanation or support of an interpretation. After the
+teacher and class together have made one, the students should work
+independently.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Besides the extracts quoted here others should be supplied. Editorials
+from a single issue of a newspaper can easily be secured by the entire
+class for this work. A chapter from a book may be assigned.
+
+1.  INCIDENTS OF GOVERNMENT TRADING
+
+    An expert before the President's street railway commission of
+    inquiry testified that he disapproved of public ownership and
+    operation theoretically, but approved it practically, because
+    it was the quickest and surest way of making people sick of
+    it. Otherwise he thought that education of the public out of
+    its favor for high costs and low profits by public utilities
+    would require a generation, and the present emergency calls
+    for prompt relief.
+
+    New York City has just resolved to build with its own funds a
+    Coney Island bathhouse, and has on file an offer to build it
+    with private money at a cost of $300,000, with a guarantee of
+    15-cent baths. Accepting no responsibility for the merits of
+    the private bidder's proposal, it does not appear likely that
+    the city can supply cheaper baths or give more satisfaction
+    to bathers than a management whose profits were related to
+    its efforts to please patrons. On the other hand, it is sure
+    that the city's financial embarrassment is due to supplying
+    many privileges at the cost of the taxpayers, which might
+    have been supplied both more cheaply and better by private
+    enterprise with profit than by the city without profit, and
+    with the use of ill-spared public funds.
+
+    New York does not stand alone in these misadventures, which
+    are warnings against trading by either local or national
+    government. Take, for example, the manner in which the army
+    is disposing of its surplus blankets, as reported from
+    Boston. A Chicago firm which wished to bid was permitted to
+    inspect three samples of varying grades, but a guarantee that
+    the goods sold would correspond to the samples was refused.
+    The bales could neither be opened nor allowed to be opened,
+    nor would information be given whether the blankets in the
+    bales were cotton, wool, or mixed, whether single or double,
+    whether bed blankets or regulation army blankets. The
+    likelihood that the Government will get the worth of its
+    blankets is small. There may be unknown reasons for such
+    uncommercial procedure, but what shall be said of the fact
+    that at the same time that these blankets are being sold the
+    Interior Department is asking for bids to supply 10,000
+    blankets for the Indians? The reason for buying more when
+    there is an embarrassing over-supply is that the
+    specifications call for the words "Interior Department" to be
+    woven into the blankets. To an outsider it would seem that
+    the words might be indelibly stamped on the old blankets of
+    similar description, and that the departure from custom would
+    be better than the loss on the old blankets and the increased
+    expenditure for the new blankets.
+
+    The reason for mentioning such incidents is that there are so
+    many more of which the public never hears. Their combined
+    educative effect would be great, but it is wasted without
+    publicity. Since the public is not unanimous against public
+    ownership and operation, there must be a considerable number
+    of persons who are proof against anything but a catastrophe
+    greater than the prostration of the railway and utility
+    industries. That is an expansive way of education, but
+    perhaps Dr. Cooley, Dean of the University of Michigan, is
+    right in his view that the method is necessary to prevent a
+    greater calamity by persistence in the error.
+
+    _New York Times_, July 21, 1919
+
+2.  Fourscore and seven years ago our Fathers brought forth on
+    this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and
+    dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
+
+    Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that
+    nation or any nation so conceived or so dedicated, can long
+    endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We
+    have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final
+    resting place for those who here gave their lives that that
+    nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that
+    we should do this.
+
+    But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate--we cannot
+    consecrate--we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men,
+    living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far
+    above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little
+    note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never
+    forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather,
+    to be here dedicated to the unfinished work which they who
+    fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for
+    us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before
+    us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion
+    to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of
+    devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall
+    not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall
+    have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the
+    people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from
+    the earth.
+
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Gettysburg Address_, 1865
+
+3.  Every thoughtful and unprejudiced mind must see that such an
+    evil as slavery will yield only to the most radical
+    treatment. If you consider the work we have to do, you will
+    not think us needlessly aggressive, or that we dig down
+    unnecessarily deep in laying the foundations of our
+    enterprise. A money power of two thousand millions of
+    dollars, as the prices of slaves now range, held by a small
+    body of able and desperate men; that body raised into a
+    political aristocracy by special constitutional provisions;
+    cotton, the product of slave labor, forming the basis of our
+    whole foreign commerce, and the commercial class thus
+    subsidized; the press bought up, the pulpit reduced to
+    vassalage, the heart of the common people chilled by a bitter
+    prejudice against the black race; our leading men bribed, by
+    ambition, either to silence or open hostility;--in such a
+    land, on what shall an Abolitionist rely? On a few cold
+    prayers, mere lip-service, and never from the heart? On a
+    church resolution, hidden often in its records, and meant
+    only as a decent cover for servility in daily practice? On
+    political parties, with their superficial influence at best,
+    and seeking ordinarily only to use existing prejudices to the
+    best advantage? Slavery has deeper root here than any
+    aristocratic institution has in Europe; and politics is but
+    the common pulse-beat, of which revolution is the
+    fever-spasm. Yet we have seen European aristocracy survive
+    storms which seemed to reach down to the primal strata of
+    European life. Shall we, then, trust to mere politics, where
+    even revolution has failed? How shall the stream rise above
+    its fountain? Where shall our church organizations or parties
+    get strength to attack their great parent and moulder, the
+    slave power? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed
+    it, Why hast thou made me thus? The old jest of one who
+    tried to lift himself in his own basket, is but a tame
+    picture of the man who imagines that, by working solely
+    through existing sects and parties, he can destroy slavery.
+    Mechanics say nothing, but an earthquake strong enough to
+    move all Egypt can bring down the pyramids.
+
+    Experience has confirmed these views. The Abolitionists who
+    have acted on them have a "short method" with all
+    unbelievers. They have but to point to their own success, in
+    contrast with every other man's failure. To waken the nation
+    to its real state, and chain it to the consideration of this
+    one duty, is half the work. So much have we done. Slavery has
+    been made the question of this generation. To startle the
+    South to madness, so that every step she takes, in her
+    blindness, is one step more toward ruin, is much. This we
+    have done. Witness Texas and the Fugitive Slave Law.
+
+    WENDELL PHILLIPS: _The Abolition Movement_, 1853
+
+4.  Until just a few years ago flying was popularly regarded as a
+    dangerous hobby and comparatively few had faith in its
+    practical purposes. But the phenomenal evolutions of the
+    aircraft industry during the war brought progress which would
+    otherwise have required a span of years. With the cessation
+    of hostilities considerable attention has been diverted to
+    the commercial uses of aircraft, which may conveniently be
+    classified as mail-and passenger-service.
+
+    Men who first ventured the prediction that postal and express
+    matter would one day be carried through the air were branded
+    as dreamers. Parts of that dream became a reality during
+    1918, and a more extensive aerial-mail program will be
+    adopted this year. The dispatch with which important
+    communications and parcels are delivered between large cities
+    has firmly established its need.
+
+    Large passenger-carrying aircraft are now receiving
+    pronounced attention. Lately developed by the Navy is a
+    flying-boat having a wing area of 2,400 square feet, equipped
+    with three Liberty motors and weighing 22,000 pounds with a
+    full load. It is the largest seaplane in the world, and on a
+    recent test-trip from Virginia to New York carried fifty-one
+    passengers. At the present moment the public is awaiting the
+    thrilling details of the first flight between Europe and
+    America, which has just occurred as a result of the keen
+    international rivalry involved between the various entrants.
+
+    The British are now constructing a super-triplane fitted with
+    six 500 horse-power engines. Originally intended to carry
+    10,000 pounds of bombs and a crew of eight over a distance of
+    1,200 miles, the converted machine is claimed to be able to
+    carry approximately one hundred passengers. It has a wing
+    span of 141 feet and a fuselage length of 85 feet.
+
+    What about the power plants of the future aircraft? Will the
+    internal-combustion engine continue to reign supreme, or will
+    increasing power demands of the huge planes to come lead to
+    the development of suitable steam-engines? Will the use of
+    petroleum continue to be one of the triumphs of aviation, or
+    will the time come when substitutes may be successfully
+    utilized?
+
+    For aerial motive-power, the principal requirements are:
+    great power for weight with a fairly high factor of safety,
+    compactness, reliability of operation under flying
+    conditions, and safety from fire. Bulk and weight of
+    steam-driven equipment apparently impose severe restrictions
+    upon its practical development for present aircraft purposes,
+    but who is willing to classify its future use as an
+    absurdity?
+
+    Steam operation in small model airplanes is no innovation.
+    Langley, in 1891-1895, built four model airplanes, one driven
+    by carbonic-acid gas and three by steam-engines. One of the
+    steam-driven models weighed thirty pounds, and on one
+    occasion flew a distance of about three thousand feet. In
+    1913 an Englishman constructed a power plant weighing about
+    two pounds which consisted of a flash boiler and
+    single-acting engine. This unit employed benzolin, impure
+    benzine, as fuel, and propelled a model plane weighing five
+    pounds.
+
+    _Power Plant Engineering_, Chicago, June 1, 1919
+
+Making a Brief. The next step after making outlines or briefs of
+material already organized is to make your own from material you
+gather. Speeches you have already prepared or considered as fit for
+presentation will supply you with ideas if you cannot work up new
+material in a short time. At first you will be more concerned with the
+form than the meaning of the entries, but even from the first you
+should consider the facts or opinions for which each topic or
+statement stands. Weigh its importance in the general scheme of
+details. Consider carefully its suitability for the audience who may
+be supposed to hear the finished speech. Discard the inappropriate.
+Replace the weak. Improve the indefinite. Be sure your examples and
+illustrations are apt.
+
+Be wary about statistics. In listening to an address many people begin
+to distrust as soon as figures are mentioned. Statistics will
+illustrate and prove assertions, but they must be used judiciously. Do
+not use too many statistics. Never be too detailed. In a speech,
+$4,000,000 sounds more impressive than $4,232,196.96. Use round
+numbers. Never let them stand alone. Show their relationship. Burke
+quotes exact amounts to show the growth of the commerce of
+Pennsylvania, but he adds that it had increased fifty fold. A hearer
+will forget the numbers; he will remember the fact.
+
+Similar reasons will warn you concerning the use of too many dates.
+They can be easily avoided by showing lapses of time--by saying,
+"fifty years later," or "when he was forty-six years old," or "this
+condition was endured only a score of months."
+
+The chapters on introductions, conclusions, and planning material will
+have suggested certain orders for your briefs. Glance back at them for
+hints before you attempt to make the general scheme. Let two factors
+determine your resultant development--the nature of the material
+itself and the effect you want to produce.
+
+In argumentative speeches a usual, as well as excellent, order is
+this:
+
+1. Origin of the question. The immediate cause for discussion.
+
+2. History of the question.
+
+3. Definition of terms.
+
+4. Main arguments.
+
+5. Conclusion.
+
+Why is the proposition worth discussing at this present time? Why do
+you choose it? Why is it timely? What is its importance? Why is a
+settlement needed? Any of these would fall under the first heading.
+
+Has the matter engaged attention prior to the present? Has it changed?
+Was any settlement ever attempted? What was its result?
+
+Are any of the words and phrases used likely to be misunderstood? Are
+any used in special senses? Do all people accept the same meaning?
+Good illustrations of this last are the ideas attached to _socialism_,
+_anarchist_, _soviet_, _union_.
+
+To illustrate: the question of woman suffrage was brought into public
+interest once more by the advance woman has made in all walks of life
+and by the needs and lessons of the great war. To make clear how its
+importance had increased a speaker might trace its history from its
+first inception. As applied to women, what does "suffrage" mean
+exactly--the right to vote in all elections, or only in certain ones?
+Does it carry with it the right to hold office? Would the voting
+qualifications be the same for women as for men? Then would follow the
+arguments.
+
+How could this scheme be used for a discussion of the Monroe Doctrine?
+For higher education? For education for girls? For child working laws?
+For a league of nations? For admitting Asiatic laborers to the United
+States? For advocating the study of the sciences? For urging men to
+become farmers? For predicting aerial passenger service? For a
+scholarship qualification in athletics? For abolishing railroad grade
+crossings? For equal wages for men and women?
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Make the completed brief for one or more of the preceding.
+
+Briefs should be made for propositions selected from the following
+list.
+
+1. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct
+vote of the people.
+
+2. The States should limit the right of suffrage to persons who can
+read and write.
+
+3. The President of the United States should be elected for a term of
+seven years, and be ineligible to reelection.
+
+4. A great nation should be made the mandatory over an inferior
+people.
+
+5. Students should be allowed school credit for outside reading in
+connection with assigned work, or for editing of school papers, or for
+participation in dramatic performances.
+
+6. This state should adopt the "short ballot."
+
+7. The present rules of football are unsatisfactory.
+
+8. Coaching from the bench should be forbidden in baseball.
+
+9. Compulsory military drill should be introduced into all educational
+institutions.
+
+10. Participation in athletics lowers the scholarship of students.
+
+11. Pupils should receive credit in school for music lessons outside.
+
+12. The United States should abandon the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+13. In jury trials, a three-fourths vote should be enough for the
+rendering of a verdict.
+
+14. Strikes are unprofitable.
+
+15. Commercial courses should be offered in all high schools.
+
+16. Employers of children under sixteen should be required to provide
+at least eight hours of instruction a week for them.
+
+17. Current events should be studied in all history or civics courses.
+
+18. The practice of Christmas giving should be discontinued.
+
+19. School buildings should be used as social centers.
+
+20. Bring to class an editorial and an outline of it. Put the outline
+upon the board, or read it to the class. Then read the editorial.
+
+Speaking from the Brief. Now that the brief is finished so that it
+represents exactly the material and development of the final speech,
+how shall it be used? To use it as the basis of a written article to
+be memorized is one method. Many speakers have employed such a method,
+many today do. The drawbacks of such memorizing have already been
+hinted at in an early chapter. If you want to grow in mental grasp,
+alertness, and power as a result of your speech training avoid this
+method. No matter how halting your first attempts may be, do not get
+into the seemingly easy, yet retarding habit of committing to memory.
+Memorizing has a decided value, but for speech-making the memory
+should be trained for larger matters than verbal reproduction. It
+should be used for the retention of facts while the other brain
+faculties are engaged in manipulating them for the best effect and
+finding words to express them forcefully. Memory is a helpful faculty.
+It should be cultivated in connection with the powers of understanding
+and expression, but it is not economical to commit a speech verbatim
+for delivery. The remarks will lack flexibility, spontaneity, and
+often direct appeal. There is a detached, mechanical air about a
+memorized speech which helps to ruin it.
+
+With the outline before you, go over it carefully and slowly, mentally
+putting into words and sentences the entries you have inserted. You
+may even speak it half aloud to yourself, if that fixes the treatment
+more firmly in your mind. Then place the brief where you can reach it
+with your eye, and speak upon your feet. Some teachers recommend doing
+this before a mirror, but this is not always any help, unless you are
+conscious of awkward poses or gestures or movements, or facial
+contortions. Say the speech over thus, not only once but several
+times, improving the phraseology each time, changing where convenient
+or necessary, the emphasis, the amount of time, for each portion.
+
+Self-criticism. Try to criticize yourself. This is not easy at first,
+but if you are consistent and persistent in your efforts you will be
+able to judge yourself in many respects. If you can induce some friend
+whose opinion is worth receiving either to listen to your delivery or
+to talk the whole thing over with you, you will gain much. In
+conference with the teacher before your delivery of the speech such
+help will be given. As you work over your brief in this manner you
+will be delighted to discover suddenly that you need refer to it less
+and less frequently. Finally, the outline will be in your mind, and
+when you speak you can give your entire attention to the delivery and
+the audience.
+
+Do not be discouraged if you cannot retain all the outline the first
+times you try this method. Many a speaker has announced in his
+introduction, "I shall present four reasons," and often has sat down
+after discussing only three. Until you can dispense entirely with the
+brief keep it near you. Speak from it if you need it. Portions which
+you want to quote exactly (such as quotations from authorities) may be
+memorized or read. In reading be sure you read remarkably well. Few
+people can read interestingly before a large audience. Keep your
+papers where you can get at them easily. Be careful not to lose your
+place so that you will have to shuffle them to get the cue for
+continuing. Pauses are not dangerous when they are made deliberately
+for effect, but they are ruinous when they betray to the audience
+forgetfulness or embarrassment on the part of the speaker. Anticipate
+your need. Get your help before you actually need it, so that you can
+continue gracefully.
+
+Results. This method, followed for a few months, will develop speaking
+ability. It produces results suited to modern conditions of all kinds
+of life. It develops practically all the mental faculties and personal
+attributes. It puts the speaker directly in touch with his audience.
+It permits him to adapt his material to an occasion and audience. It
+gives him the opportunity to sway his hearers and used legitimately
+for worthy ends, this is the most worthy purpose of any speech.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+EXPLAINING
+
+
+The part which explanation plays in all phases of life is too apparent
+to need any emphasis here. It is to a great extent the basis of all
+our daily intercourse, from explaining to a teacher why a lesson has
+not been prepared, to painstakingly explaining to a merchant why a
+bill has not been paid. An instructor patiently explains a problem to
+a class, and a merchant explains the merits of an article or the
+operation of a device to his customers. The politician explains why he
+should be elected. The financier explains the returns from stock and
+bond purchases. The President explains to the Senate the reason for
+treaty clauses. The minister explains the teachings of his faith to
+his congregation. You can make this list as long as the varied
+activities of all life.
+
+Exposition. This kind of discourse, the purpose of which is
+explanation, is also called exposition. Has it any relation to the
+underlying idea of the term _exposition_ as applied to a great
+exhibition or fair? Its purpose is plainly information, the
+transmission of knowledge. While description and narration exist
+primarily to entertain, exposition exists to convey information.
+Description and narration may be classed as literature of
+entertainment; exposition as literature of knowledge. It answers such
+questions as how? why? for what purpose? in what manner? by what
+method? It can sometimes be used to convince a person with opposing
+views, for frequently you hear a man to whom the explanation of a
+belief has been made, exclaim, "Oh, if that's what you mean, I agree
+with you entirely." All instruction, all directions of work, all
+scientific literature, are in foundation expository. In its simplest,
+most disconnected form, exposition gives its value to that most
+essential volume, the dictionary.
+
+Make a list of other kinds of books which are mainly or entirely
+expository in character.
+
+Difficulties in Exposition. Such are the purpose and use of
+exposition. The difficulty of producing good exposition is evident
+from those two factors. As it, exists everywhere, as it purposes to
+inform, its first requisite is clearness. Without that quality it is
+as nothing. When you direct a stranger how to reach a certain building
+in your town, of what value are your remarks unless they are clear?
+When a scientist writes a treatise on the topic of the immortality of
+man, of what value are his opinions unless his statements are clear?
+All the other qualities which prose may and should possess sink into
+subordinate value in exposition when compared with clearness. Because
+of all three phases of exposition--its universal use, its informative
+purpose, its essential clarity--exposition is an all-important topic
+for the consideration and practice of the public speaker. In its
+demand for clearness lies also its difficulty. Is it easy to tell the
+exact truth, not as a moral exercise, but merely as a matter of
+exactness? Why do the careless talkers speak so often of "a sort of
+pink" or "a kind of revolving shaft" or tack on at the end of phrases
+the meaningless "something" or "everything" except that even in their
+unthinking minds there is the hazy impression--they really never have
+a well-defined idea--that they have not said exactly what they want to
+say?
+
+Clear Understanding. Here then is the first requisite for the public
+speaker. He must have no hazy impressions, no unthinking mind, no
+ill-defined ideas, no inexactness. He must have a clear understanding
+of all he tries to tell to others. Without this the words of a speaker
+are as sounding brass and tinkling cymbals. Or he may deliver a great
+roar of words signifying nothing. This is the fault with most
+recitations of pupils in school--they do not get a clear understanding
+of the material assigned to them for mastery. As a test of the degree
+of understanding, the recitation method serves admirably. The lecture
+method of instruction--clear though the presentation may be--offers no
+manner of finding out, until the final examination, how much the pupil
+actually understands. So far, in public speaking, the only way of
+learning that the student understands the principles and can apply
+them is to have him speak frequently to indicate his ability. Can you
+not name among your associates and friends those whose explanations
+are lucid, concise, direct, unconfusing, and others whose attempts at
+exposition are jumbled, verbose, unenlightening?
+
+Have you not criticized certain teachers by remarking "they may know
+their own subjects all right, but they couldn't impart their knowledge
+to the class"?
+
+Command of Language. What was lacking in their case? Certainly, to be
+charitable, we cannot say they lacked a clear understanding of their
+own topic. It must have been something else. That second element,
+which is at times almost entirely absent when the first is present, is
+the command of language. Many a man knows a great deal but is
+incapable of transmitting his knowledge. He lacks the gift of
+expression. He has not cultivated it--for it can be cultivated. The
+man whose desire or vocation forces him to make the effort to speak
+will train himself in methods of communication, until he arrives at
+comfort and fluency.
+
+The district manager of a large electric company related that as he
+would sit at a meeting of the directors or committee of a large
+corporation and realized that the moment was approaching when he would
+be called upon to speak he would feel his senses grow confused, a
+sinking feeling amounting almost to faintness would sweep over him.
+Strong in his determination to do the best he could for his company he
+would steady his nerves by saying to himself, "You know more about
+this matter than any of these men. That's why you are here. Tell them
+what you know so plainly that they will understand as well as you do."
+There was, you see, the reassurance of complete understanding of the
+subject coupled with the endeavor to express it clearly. These two
+elements, then, are of supreme significance to the public speaker.
+Even to the person who desires to write well, they are all-important.
+To the speaker they are omnipresent. The effect of these two upon the
+intellectual development is marked. The desire for clear
+understanding will keep the mind stored with material to assimilate
+and communicate. It will induce the mind continually to manipulate
+this material to secure clarity in presentation. This will result in
+developing a mental adroitness of inestimable value to the speaker,
+enabling him to seize the best method instantaneously and apply it to
+his purposes. At the same time, keeping always in view the use of this
+material as the basis of communicating information or convincing by
+making explanations, he will be solicitous about his language. Words
+will take on new values. He will be continually searching for new ones
+to express the exact differences of ideas he wants to convey. He will
+try different expressions, various phrases, changed word orders, to
+test their efficacy and appropriateness in transferring his meaning to
+his hearers. Suggestions offered in the chapter of this book on words
+and sentences will never cease to operate in his thinking and
+speaking. There will be a direct result in his ability as a speaker
+and a reflex result upon his ability as a thinker. What is more
+encouraging, he will realize and appreciate these results himself, and
+his satisfaction in doing better work will be doubled by the delight
+in knowing exactly how he secured the ends for which he strove.
+
+Methods of Explaining. In order to make a matter clear, to convey
+information, a speaker has at his disposal many helpful ways of
+arranging his material. Not all topics can be treated in all or even
+any certain one of the following manners, but if the student is
+familiar with certain processes he will the more easily and surely
+choose just that one suited to the topic he intends to explain and
+the circumstances of his exposition.
+
+Division. One of these methods is by division. A speaker may separate
+a topic or term into the parts which comprise it. For instance, a
+scientist may have to list all the kinds of electricity; a Red Cross
+instructor may divide all bandages into their several kinds; an
+athletic coach may have to explain all the branches of sports in order
+to induce more candidates to appear for certain events; a banker may
+have to divide financial operations to make clear an advertising
+pamphlet soliciting new lines of business, such as drawing up of
+wills.
+
+The ability to do this is a valuable mental accomplishment as well as
+an aid to speaking. In dividing, care must be taken to make the
+separations according to one principle for any one class. It would not
+result in clearness to divide all men according to height, and at the
+same time according to color. This would result in confusion. Divide
+according to height first, then divide the classes so formed according
+to color if needed--as might be done in military formation. Each
+group, then, must be distinctly marked off from all other groups. In
+scientific and technical matters such division may be carried to the
+extreme limit of completeness. Complete division is called
+classification.
+
+Partition. In non-scientific compositions such completeness is seldom
+necessary. It might even defeat the purpose by being too involved, by
+including too many entries, and by becoming difficult to remember.
+Speakers seldom have need of classification, but they often do have
+to make divisions for purposes of explanation. This kind of grouping
+is called partition. It goes only so far as is necessary for the
+purpose at the time. It may stop anywhere short of being complete and
+scientifically exact. All members of the large class not divided and
+listed are frequently lumped together under a last heading such as
+_all others, miscellaneous, the rest, those not falling under our
+present examination_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Classify games. Which principle will you use for your first main
+division--indoor and outdoor games, or winter and summer games, or
+some other?
+
+2. Classify the races of men. What principle would you use?
+
+3. How would you arrange the books in a private library?
+
+4. Classify the forms of theatrical entertainments. Is your list
+complete?
+
+5. Classify branches of mathematics. The entries may total over a
+hundred.
+
+6. Classify the pupils in your school.
+
+7. Classify the people in your school. Is there any difference?
+
+8. Classify the following:
+
+The political parties of the country.
+Methods of transportation.
+Religions.
+Magazines.
+The buildings in a city.
+Aircraft.
+Desserts.
+Canned goods.
+
+Skill in division is valuable not only as a method of exposition but
+it is linked closely with an effective method of proving to be
+explained in the next chapter--the method of residues. Can you recall
+any extracts given in this book in which some form of division is
+used? Is this form of material likely to be more important in
+preparation or in the finished speech? Explain your opinion--in other
+words, present a specimen of exposition.
+
+Definition. One of the simplest ways of explaining is to define a
+term. Dictionary definitions are familiar to everyone. In a great
+many instances the dictionary definition is by means of synonyms.
+While this is a convenient, easy method it is seldom exact. Why?
+Recall what you learned concerning the meanings of synonyms. Do they
+ever exactly reproduce one another's meanings? There is always a
+slight degree of inaccuracy in definition by synonym, sometimes a
+large margin of inexactness. Is the following a good definition?
+
+    A visitor to a school began his address: "This morning,
+    children, I propose to offer you an epitome of the life of
+    St. Paul. It may be perhaps that there are among you some too
+    young to grasp the meaning of the word _epitome_. _Epitome_,
+    children, is in its signification synonymous with synopsis!"
+
+    London Tid-Bits
+
+Logical Definition. An exact definition is supplied by the logical
+definition. In this there are three parts--the term to be defined,
+the class (or genus) to which it belongs, and the distinguishing
+characteristics (differentia) which mark it off from all the other
+members of that same class. You can represent this graphically by
+inclosing the word _term_ in a small circle. Around this draw a larger
+circle in which you write the word _class_. Now what divides the term
+from the class in which it belongs? Indicate the line around the
+_term_ as _distinguishing characteristics_, and you will clearly see
+how accurate a logical definition is. The class should be just larger
+than the term itself. The main difficulty is in finding exact and
+satisfying distinguishing characteristics. There are some terms which
+are so large that no classes can be found for them. Others cannot be
+marked by acceptable distinguishing characteristics, so it is not
+possible to make logical definitions for all terms. Consider such
+words as _infinity, electricity, gravity, man_.
+
+The words of the definition should be simple, more readily understood
+than the term to be defined.
+
+Term          Class                     Distinguishing characteristics
+
+A biplane     is an airplane             with two sets of supporting
+                                         surfaces.
+
+A waitress    is a woman                 who serves meals.
+
+Narration     is that form of discourse  which relates events.
+
+A word        is a combination of        suggesting an idea.
+              letters
+A dictionary  is a book                  of definitions.
+
+A corporal    is an army officer         just higher than a private.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Make logical definitions for the following:
+
+A dynamo                A circle        A hammer
+A curiosity             Lightning       A trip-hammer
+Moving picture camera   Democracy       A lady
+Curiosity               An anarchist    A Lady
+A door                  A sky-scraper   Man
+
+2. Analyze and comment on the following definitions:
+
+Man is a two-legged animal without feathers.
+Life is an epileptic fit between two nothings.
+Genius is an infinite capacity for taking pains.
+The picture writings of the ancient Egyptians are called hieroglyphics.
+A fly is an obnoxious insect that disturbs you in the morning when you
+    want to sleep.
+Real bravery is defeated cowardice.
+A brigantine is a small, two-masted vessel, square rigged on both
+    masts, but with a fore-and-aft mainsail and the mainmast considerably
+    longer than the foremast.
+A mushroom is a cryptogamic plant of the class _Fungi_; particularly
+    the agaricoid fungi and especially the edible forms.
+Language is the means of concealing thought.
+A rectangle of equal sides is a square.
+Hyperbole is a natural exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis.
+
+Amplified Definition. While such definitions are the first positions
+from which all interpretations must proceed, in actual speech-making
+explanations of terms are considerably longer. Yet the form of the
+true logical definition is always imbedded--in germ at least--in the
+amplified statement.
+
+    Again, democracy will be, in a large sense, individualistic.
+    That ideal of society which seeks a disciplined, obedient
+    people, submissive to government and unquestioning in its
+    acceptance of orders, is not a democratic ideal. You cannot
+    have an atmosphere of "implicit obedience to authority" and
+    at the same time and in the same place an atmosphere of
+    democratic freedom. There is only one kind of discipline
+    that is adequate to democracy and that is self-discipline.
+    An observant foreigner has lately remarked, somewhat
+    paradoxically, that the Americans seemed to him the best
+    disciplined people in the world. In no other country does a
+    line form itself at a ticket office or at the entrance to a
+    place of amusement with so little disorder, so little delay,
+    and so little help from a policeman. In no other country
+    would an appeal of the government for self-control in the use
+    of food or fuel, for a restriction of hours of business, for
+    "gas-less Sundays," have met with so ready, so generous and
+    so sufficient a response. Our American lads, alert,
+    adaptable, swiftly-trained, self-directed, have been quite
+    the equal of the continental soldiers, with their longer
+    technical training and more rigorous military discipline. In
+    these respects the English, and especially the British
+    colonial soldiers have been much like our own. Democracy,
+    whether for peace or for war, in America or in England,
+    favors individuality. Independence of thought and action on
+    the part of the mass of the people are alike the result of
+    democracy and the condition of its continuance and more
+    complete development, and it is visibly growing in England as
+    the trammels of old political and social class control are
+    being thrown off.
+
+    EDWARD P. CHEYNEY: _Historical Tests of Democracy_
+
+    What is a constitution? Certainly not a league, compact, or
+    confederacy, but a fundamental law. That fundamental
+    regulation which determines the manner in which the public
+    authority is to be executed, is what forms the constitution
+    of a state. Those primary rules which concern the body
+    itself, and the very being of the political society, the form
+    of government, and the manner in which power is to be
+    exercised--all, in a word, which form together the
+    constitution of a state--these are the fundamental laws.
+    This, Sir, is the language of the public writers. But do we
+    need to be informed, in this country, what a constitution
+    is? Is it not an idea perfectly familiar, definite, and well
+    settled? We are at no loss to understand what is meant by the
+    constitution of one of the States; and the Constitution of
+    the United States speaks of itself as being an instrument of
+    the same nature.
+
+    DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact
+    between Sovereign States_, 1833
+
+Particulars of a General Statement. A general statement made at the
+beginning of a paragraph or section, serving as the topic sentence,
+may then be explained by breaking the general idea up into details and
+particulars. This may partake of the nature of both definition and
+partition, as the terms may be explained and their component parts
+listed. Note that in the following selection the first sentences state
+the topic of the passage which the succeeding sentences explain by
+discussing the phrase _variety of evils_.
+
+    So likewise a passionate attachment of one nation for another
+    produces a variety of evils. Sympathy for the favorite
+    nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common
+    interest, in cases where no real common interest exists, and
+    infusing into one the enmities of the other, betrays the
+    former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the
+    latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It
+    leads also to concessions to the favorite nation of
+    privileges denied to others, which is apt doubly to injure
+    the nation making the concessions; by unnecessarily parting
+    with what ought to have been retained, and by exciting
+    jealousy, ill-will, and a disposition to retaliate, in the
+    parties from whom equal privileges are withheld, and it gives
+    to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote
+    themselves to the favorite nation), facility to betray, or
+    sacrifice the interests of their own country, without odium,
+    sometimes even with popularity; gilding with the appearances
+    of a virtuous sense of obligation, a commendable deference
+    for public opinion, or a laudable zeal for public good, the
+    base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption or
+    infatuation.
+
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON: _Farewell Address_, 1796
+
+Examples. A statement may be explained by giving examples. The speaker
+must be sure that his example fits the case exactly; that it is
+typical--that is, it must serve as a true instance of all cases under
+the statement, not be merely an exception; that it is perfectly clear;
+that it impresses the audience as unanswerable. The example may be
+either actual or suppositious, but it must illustrate clearly and
+accurately. The use of examples is a great aid in explanation. John C.
+Calhoun expressed the value very distinctly in one of his speeches.
+
+     I know how difficult it is to communicate distinct ideas on
+     such a subject, through the medium of general propositions,
+     without particular illustration; and in order that I may be
+     distinctly understood, though at the hazard of being
+     tedious, I will illustrate the important principle which I
+     have ventured to advance, by examples.
+
+By the use of an example he does make himself distinctly understood.
+
+     Let us, then, suppose a small community of five persons,
+     separated from the rest of the world; and, to make the
+     example strong, let us suppose them all to be engaged in the
+     same pursuit, and to be of equal wealth. Let us further
+     suppose that they determine to govern the community by the
+     will of a majority; and, to make the case as strong as
+     possible, let us suppose that the majority, in order to
+     meet the expenses of the government, lay an equal tax, say
+     of one hundred dollars on each individual of this little
+     community. Their treasury would contain five hundred
+     dollars. Three are a majority; and they, by supposition,
+     have contributed three hundred as their portion, and the
+     other two (the minority), two hundred. The three have the
+     right to make the appropriations as they may think proper.
+     The question is, How would the principle of the absolute and
+     unchecked majority operate, under these circumstances, in
+     this little community?
+
+     JOHN C. CALHOUN: _Speech on The Force Bill_, 1833
+
+The example should be taken from the same phase of life as the
+proposition it explains. As Calhoun was discussing governmental
+regulation he supposed an example from majority rule. In the next the
+topic is copyright, so the illustration is not taken from patents. In
+introducing your own examples avoid the trite, amateurish expression
+"take, for instance."
+
+     Now, this is the sort of boon which my honorable and learned
+     friend holds out to authors. Considered as a boon to them,
+     it is a mere nullity; but, considered as an impost on the
+     public, it is no nullity, but a very serious and pernicious
+     reality. I will take an example. Dr. Johnson died fifty-six
+     years ago. If the law were what my honorable and learned
+     friend wishes to make it, somebody would now have the
+     monopoly of Dr. Johnson's works. Who that somebody would be
+     it is impossible to say; but we may venture to guess. I
+     guess, then, that it would have been some bookseller, who
+     was the assign of another bookseller, who was the grandson
+     of a third bookseller, who had bought the copyright from
+     Black Frank, the doctor's servant and residuary legatee, in
+     1785 or 1786. Now, would the knowledge that this copyright
+     would exist in 1841 have been a source of gratification to
+     Johnson? Would it have stimulated his exertions? Would it
+     have once drawn him out of his bed before noon? Would it
+     have once cheered him under a fit of the spleen? Would it
+     have induced him to give us one more allegory, one more life
+     of a poet, one more imitation of Juvenal? I firmly believe
+     not. I firmly believe that a hundred years ago, when he was
+     writing our debates for the _Gentleman's Magazine_, he would
+     very much rather have had twopence to buy a plate of shin of
+     beef at a cook's shop underground.
+
+     THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841
+
+Comparison. Unfamiliar matter may be made plain by showing how it
+resembles something already clearly understood by the audience. This
+is comparison. It shows how two things are alike. The old geographies
+used to state that the earth is an oblate spheroid, then explain that
+term by comparison with an orange, pointing out the essential
+flattening at the poles. In any use of comparison the resemblance must
+be real, not assumed. Many a speaker has been severely criticized for
+his facts because he asserted in comparison similarities that did not
+exist.
+
+Contrast. When the _differences_ between two things are carefully
+enumerated the process is termed contrast. This is often used in
+combination with comparison, for no two things are exactly alike. They
+may resemble each other in nearly all respects, so comparison is
+possible and helpful up to a certain limit. To give an exact idea of
+the remainder the differences must be pointed out; that requires
+contrast.
+
+In contrast the opposing balance of details does not have to depend
+necessarily on a standard familiar to the audience. It may be an
+arrangement of opposite aspects of the same thing to bring out more
+vividly the understanding. In his _History of the English People_,
+Green explains the character of Queen Elizabeth by showing the
+contrasted elements she inherited from her mother, Anne Boleyn, and
+her father, Henry VIII. Such a method results not only in added
+clearness, but also in emphasis. The plan may call for half a
+paragraph on one side, the second half on the other; or it may cover
+two paragraphs or sections; or it may alternate with every detail--an
+affirmative balanced by a negative, followed at once by another pair
+of affirmative and negative, or statement and contrast, and so on
+until the end. The speaker must consider such possibilities of
+contrast, plan for his own, and indicate it in his brief.
+
+Nearly any speech will provide illustrations of the methods of
+comparison and contrast. Burke's _Conciliation with America_ has
+several passages of each.
+
+Cause to Effect. Explanations based on progressions from cause to
+effect and the reverse are admirably suited to operations, movements,
+changes, conditions, elections. An exposition of a manufacturing
+process might move from cause to effect. A legislator trying to secure
+the passage of a measure might explain its operation by beginning with
+the law (the cause) and tracing its results (the effect). So, too, a
+reformer might plead for a changed condition by following the same
+method. A speaker dealing with history or biography might use this
+same plan.
+
+Effect to Cause. In actual events, the cause always precedes the
+effect, but in discussion it is sometimes better not to follow natural
+or usual orders. Many explanations gain in clearness and effect by
+working backwards. A voter might begin by showing the condition of a
+set of workmen (an effect), then trace conditions backward until he
+would end with a plea for the repeal of a law (the cause). A student
+might explain a low mark on his report by starting with the grading
+(the effect) and tracing backwards all his struggles to an early
+absence by which he missed a necessary explanation by the teacher. A
+doctor might begin a report by stating the illness of several persons
+with typhus; then trace preceding conditions step by step until he
+reached the cause--oysters eaten by them in a hotel were kept cool by
+a dealer's letting water run over them. This water in its course had
+picked up the disease germs--the cause. Many crimes are solved by
+moving from effect to cause. A lawyer in his speeches, therefore,
+frequently follows this method.
+
+Both these methods are so commonly employed that the student can cite
+instances from many speeches he has heard or books he has read.
+
+Time Order. Somewhat similar to the two preceding arrangements of
+exposition are the next two based on time. The first of these is the
+natural time order, or chronological order. In this the details follow
+one another as events happened. It is to be noted, however, that not
+any group of succeeding details will make a good exposition of this
+sort. The parts must be closely related. They must be not merely
+_sequential_ but _consequential_. Dictionary definitions will explain
+the difference in meaning of those two words. This method is somewhat
+like the order from cause to effect, but it is adapted to other kinds
+of topics and other purposes of explanation. It is excellently suited
+to historical material, or any related kind. It is the device usually
+employed in explaining mechanical or manufacturing processes. In mere
+frequency of occurrence it is doubtlessly the most common.
+
+Time Order Reversed. The student who starts to cast his expositions
+into this scheme should judge its fitness for his particular purpose
+at the time. It will often become apparent upon thought that instead
+of the natural chronological order the exact opposite will suit
+better. This--time order reversed--explains itself as the arrangement
+from the latest occurrence back through preceding events and details
+until the earliest time is reached. It is quite like the arrangement
+from effect back to cause. It might be used to explain the legal
+procedure of a state or nation, to explain treaty relations, to
+explain the giving up of old laws. The movements of a man accused of
+crime might be explained in this way. An alibi for a person might be
+built up thus. The various versions of some popular story told over
+and over again through a long period of years might be explained after
+such a manner.
+
+Although the time order reversed is not so common as the chronological
+order it does occur many times.
+
+Place. Certain material of exposition demands the order of place. This
+means that the details of the explanation are arranged according to
+the position of objects. If you have written many descriptions you
+are familiar with the problems brought up by such an order. A few
+illustrations will make it clear. A man on the street asks you how to
+reach a certain point in the city. On what plan do you arrange your
+directions? According to their place? You start to explain to a friend
+the general lay-out of New York, or Chicago, or San Francisco. How do
+you arrange the details of your exposition? You attempt to convey to
+another person the plan of some large building. What arrangement is
+inevitable? How do books on sports explain the baseball field, the
+football gridiron, the tennis court, the golf links? When
+specifications for a building are furnished to the contractor, what
+principle of arrangement is followed? If an inventor gives
+instructions to a pattern-maker for the construction of a model, what
+plan does he follow? Would a man discussing drawings for a new house
+be likely to formulate his explanations on this scheme?
+
+You see, then, how well suited such an arrangement is to a variety of
+uses. In such expository passages the transition and connecting words
+are mainly expressions of place and relative position such as _to the
+right, above, below, to the rear, extending upwards at an angle of
+sixty degrees, dividing equally into three sections._ Such indications
+must never be slighted in spoken explanations. They keep the material
+clear and exact in the hearer's comprehension. The speaker, remember,
+can never assume that his audience is bound to understand him. His
+task is to be so clear that no single individual can fail to
+understand him.
+
+Importance. It has already been stated--in the chapter on
+planning--that topics may be arranged in the order of their
+importance. This same scheme may be used in delivery of expository
+matter. A hearer will follow the explanation if he be led gradually up
+the ascent; he will remember most clearly the latter part of the
+passage. If this include the prime factor of the information he will
+retain it longest and most clearly. You should listen to speeches of
+explanations critically to judge whether the plans are good. Should
+you make a list of the number of times any of the plans here set down
+appears you will be struck by the fact that while other orders are
+quite frequent, this last principle of leading up to the most
+important outranks all the others. It may be simply a form of one of
+the others previously enumerated in which time order, or contrast, or
+cause to effect is followed simply because that does bring the most
+important last in the discussion. Such an arrangement answers best to
+the response made to ideas by people in audiences. It is a principle
+of all attempts to instruct them, to appeal to them, to stimulate
+them, to move them, that the successive steps must increase in
+significance and impressiveness until the most moving details be laid
+before them. Analyze for yourself or for the class a few long
+explanations you have listened to, and report whether this principle
+was followed. Does it bear any relation to concluding a speech with a
+peroration?
+
+Combinations of Methods. While any one of the foregoing methods may be
+used for a single passage it is not usual in actual practice to find
+one scheme used throughout all the explanatory matter of the speech.
+In the first place, the attention of the audience would very likely
+become wearied by the monotony of such a device. Certain parts of the
+material under explanation seem to require one treatment, other
+portions require different handling. Therefore good speakers usually
+combine two or more of these plans.
+
+Partition could hardly be used throughout an entire speech without
+ruining its interest. It occurs usually early to map out the general
+field or scope. Definition also is likely to be necessary at the
+beginning of an explanation to start the audience with clear ideas. It
+may be resorted to at various times later whenever a new term is
+introduced with a meaning the audience may not entirely understand.
+Both partition and definition are short, so they are combined with
+other forms. Examples, likewise, may be introduced anywhere.
+
+The two most frequently closely combined are comparison and contrast.
+Each seems to require the other. Having shown how two things or ideas
+are alike, the speaker naturally passes on to secure more definiteness
+by showing that with all their likenesses they are not exactly the
+same, and that the differences are as essential to a clear
+comprehension of them as the similarities. So usual are they that many
+people accept the two words as meaning almost the same thing, though
+in essence they are opposites.
+
+The other orders cannot be used in such close combinations but they
+may be found in varying degrees in many extended speeches of
+explanation as the nature of the material lends itself to one
+treatment or another. A twelve-hundred word discussion of _The Future
+of Food_ uses examples, contrasted examples, effect to cause, cause to
+effect (the phrase beginning a paragraph is "there is already evidence
+that this has resulted in a general lowering "), while the succeeding
+parts grow in significance until the last is the most important. A
+great English statesman in a speech lasting some three hours on a
+policy of government employed the following different methods at
+various places where he introduced expository material--partition (he
+claimed it was classification, but he listed for consideration only
+three of the essential five choices), contrast, comparison, time,
+example, place, cause to effect. Some of these methods of arranging
+explanatory matter were used several times.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Explain a topic by giving three examples. The class should comment
+upon their value.
+
+2. Explain to the class some mechanical operation or device. The class
+after listening should decide which method the speaker used.
+
+3. Explain some principle of government or society following the time
+order.
+
+4. With a similar topic follow time reversed.
+
+5. With a similar topic use comparison only.
+
+6. Follow an arrangement based on contrast only.
+
+7. In explaining a topic combine comparison and contrast.
+
+8. Explain some proverb, text, or quotation. The class should discuss
+the arrangement.
+
+9. Choose some law or government regulation. Condemn or approve it in
+an explanation based on cause to effect.
+
+10. With the same or a similar topic use effect to cause.
+
+11. Explain to the class the plan of some large building or group of
+buildings. Is your explanation easily understood?
+
+12. Explain why a certain study fits one for a particular vocation.
+Use the order of importance.
+
+13. Give an idea of two different magazines, using comparison and
+contrast.
+
+14. Explain some game. Time order?
+
+15. How is a jury trial conducted?
+
+16. Explain the principles of some political party.
+
+17. Speak for four minutes upon exercise in a gymnasium.
+
+18. Tell how a school paper, or daily newspaper, or magazine is
+conducted.
+
+19. What is slang?
+
+20. Explain one of your hobbies.
+
+21. Classify and explain the qualities of a good speaker. Order of
+importance?
+
+22. Explain some natural phenomenon.
+
+23. Explain the best method for studying.
+
+24. Contrast business methods.
+
+25. From some business (as stock selling) or industry (as automobile
+manufacturing) or new vocation (as airplaning) or art (as acting) or
+accomplishment (as cooking) choose a group of special terms and
+explain them in a connected series of remarks.
+
+26. Why is superstition so prevalent? The class should discuss the
+explanations presented.
+
+27. "The point that always perplexes me is this: I always feel that if
+all the wealth was shared out, it would be all the same again in a few
+years' time. No one has ever explained to me how you can get over
+that." Explain clearly one of the two views suggested here.
+
+28. Explain the failure of some political movement, or the defeat of
+some nation.
+
+29. Select a passage from some book, report, or article, couched in
+intricate technical or specialized phraseology. Explain it clearly to
+the class.
+
+30. Ben Jonson, a friend of Shakespeare's, wrote of him, "He was not
+of an age, but for all time." What did he mean?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PROVING AND PERSUADING
+
+
+What Argumentation Is. It is an old saying that there are two sides to
+every question. Any speaker who supports some opinion before an
+audience, who advances some theory, who urges people to do a certain
+thing, to vote a certain way, to give money for charitable purposes,
+recognizes the opposite side. In trying to make people believe as he
+believes, to induce them to act as he advises, he must argue with
+them. Argumentation, as used in this book, differs widely from the
+informal exchange of opinions and views indulged in across the dinner
+table or on the trolley car. It does not correspond with the usual
+meaning of argue and argument which both so frequently suggest
+wrangling and bickering ending in ill-tempered personal attacks.
+Argumentation is the well-considered, deliberate means employed to
+convince others of the truth or expediency of the views advocated by
+the speaker. Its purpose is to carry conviction to the consciousness
+of others. This is its purpose. Its method is proof. Proof is the body
+of facts, opinions, reasons, illustrations, conclusions, etc.,
+properly arranged and effectively presented which makes others accept
+as true or right the proposition advanced by the speaker. Of course,
+argumentation may exist in writing but as this volume is concerned
+with oral delivery, the word speaker is used in the definition. So
+much for the purpose and nature of argumentation.
+
+Use of Argumentation. Where is it used? Everywhere, in every form of
+human activity. Argumentation is used by a youngster trying to induce
+a companion to go swimming and by a committee of world statesmen
+discussing the allotment of territory. In business a man uses it from
+the time he successfully convinces a firm it should employ him as an
+office boy until he secures the acceptance of his plans for a
+combination of interests which will control the world market. Lawyers,
+politicians, statesmen, clergymen, live by argumentation. In the life
+of today, which emphasizes so markedly the two ideas of individuality
+and efficiency, argumentation is of paramount importance.
+
+Any person can argue, in the ordinary sense of stating opinions and
+views, in so far as any one can converse. But to produce good,
+convincing argumentation is not so easy as that. The expression of
+personal preferences, opinions, ideas, is not argumentation, although
+some people who advance so far as to become speakers before audiences
+seem never to realize that truth, and display themselves as pretending
+to offer argumentation when they are in reality doing no more than
+reciting personal beliefs and suggestions.
+
+Cite instances of speakers who have indulged in such personal opinions
+when they might or should have offered arguments.
+
+While argumentation is not so easily assembled as running conversation
+is, it may be made quite as fascinating as the latter, and just as
+surely as a person can have his conversational ability developed so
+can a person have his argumentative power strengthened.
+
+Conviction. What should be the first requisite of a speaker of
+argumentation? Should it be conviction in the truth or right of the
+position he takes and the proposition he supports? At first thought
+one would answer emphatically "yes." A great deal of discredit has
+been brought upon the study of argumentation by the practice of
+speakers to pretend to have opinions which in reality they do not
+sincerely believe. The practical instance is the willingness of paid
+lawyers to defend men of whose guilt they must be sure. Such criticism
+does not apply to cases in which there are reasonable chances for
+opposing interpretations, nor to those cases in which our law decrees
+that every person accused of crime shall be provided with counsel, but
+to those practices to which Lincoln referred when he recommended the
+lawyer not to court litigation. Nor should this criticism deter a
+student of public speaking from trying his skill in defense of the
+other side, when he feels that such practice will help him in weighing
+his own arguments. In every instance of this highly commendable double
+method of preparation which the author has seen in classrooms, the
+speaker, after his speech has been commented upon, has always declared
+his real position and explained why he advocated the opposite. Even
+school and college debating has been criticized in the same way for
+becoming not an attempt to discover or establish the truth or right of
+a proposition, but a mere game with formal rules, a set of scoring
+regulations, and a victory or defeat with consequent good or bad
+effects upon the whole practice of undergraduate debating. If such
+contests are understood in their true significance, as practice in
+training, and the assumption of conviction by a student is not
+continued after graduation so that he will in real life defend and
+support opinions he really does not believe, the danger is not so
+great. The man who has no fixed principles, who can argue equally
+glibly on any side of a matter, whose talents are at any man's command
+of service, is untrustworthy. Convictions are worthy elements in life.
+A man must change his stand when his convictions are argued away, but
+the man whose opinions shift with every new scrap of information or
+influence is neither a safe leader nor a dependable subordinate.
+
+For the sake of the training, then, a student _may_ present arguments
+from attitudes other than his own sincere conviction, but the practice
+should be nothing more than a recognized exercise.
+
+Because of its telling influence upon the opinion of others let us,
+without further reservation, set down that the first essential of a
+good argument is the ability to convince others. Aside from the
+language and the manner of delivery--two elements which must never be
+disregarded in any speech--this ability to convince others depends
+upon the proof presented to them in support of a proposition. The
+various kinds and methods of proof, with matters closely related to
+them, make up the material of this chapter.
+
+The Proposition. In order to induce argument, there must be a
+proposition. A proposition in argument is a statement--a declarative
+sentence--concerning the truth or expediency of which there may be
+two opinions. Notice that not every declarative statement is a
+proposition for argument. "The sun rises" is not a statement about
+which there can be any varying opinions. It is not a proposition for
+argument. But "Missionaries should not be sent to China," and "John
+Doe killed Simon Lee," are statements admitting of different opinions
+and beliefs. They are propositions for argument. No sane person would
+argue about such a statement as "Missionaries are sent to China," nor
+would any one waste time on such a statement as "Some day a man named
+John Doe will kill a man named Simon Lee."
+
+Although in common language we speak of arguing a question the student
+must remember that such a thing is impossible. You cannot argue about
+a question. Nor can you argue about a subject or a topic. The only
+expression about which there can be any argument is a proposition. The
+question must be answered. The resulting statement is then proved or
+disproved. The topic must be given some definite expression in a
+declarative sentence before any real argument is possible. Even when
+the matter of argument is incorrectly phrased as a topic or question
+you will find almost immediately in the remarks the proposition as a
+sentence. "Should women vote?" may be on the posters announcing an
+address, but the speaker will soon declare, "Women should vote in all
+elections in the United States upon the same conditions that men do."
+That is the proposition being argued; the question has been answered.
+
+Kinds of Propositions. Certain kinds of propositions should never be
+chosen for argumentation. Many are incapable of proof, so any speech
+upon them would result in the mere repetition of personal opinions.
+Such are: The pen is mightier than the sword; Business men should not
+read poetry; Every person should play golf; Ancient authors were
+greater than modern authors. Others are of no interest to contemporary
+audiences and for that reason should not be presented. In the Middle
+Ages scholars discussed such matters as how many angels could stand on
+the point of a needle, but today no one cares about such things.
+
+Propositions of Fact. Propositions fall into the two classes already
+illustrated by the statements about missionaries in China and the
+killing of Simon Lee. The second--John Doe killed Simon Lee--is a
+proposition of fact. All argument about it would tend to prove either
+the affirmative or the negative. One argument would strive to prove
+the statement a fact. The other argument would try to prove its
+opposite the actual fact. Facts are accomplished results or finished
+events. Therefore propositions of fact refer to the past. They are the
+material of argument in all cases at law, before investigation
+committees, and in similar proceedings. Lincoln argued a proposition
+of fact when he took Douglas's statement, "Our fathers, when they
+framed the government under which we live, understood this question
+just as well, and even better, than we do now," and then proved by
+telling exactly how they voted upon every measure dealing with slavery
+exactly what the thirty-nine signers of the Constitution did believe
+about national control of the practice. Courts of law demand that
+pleadings "shall set forth with certainty and with truth the matters
+of fact or of law, the truth or falsity of which must be decided to
+decide the case."
+
+Propositions of Policy. Notice that the other proposition--Missionaries
+should not be sent to China--is not concerned with a fact at all. It
+deals with something which should or should not be done. It deals with
+future conduct. It depends upon the value of the results to be secured.
+It looks to the future. It deals with some principle of action. It is a
+question of expediency or policy. It induces argument to show that one
+method is the best or not the best. Propositions of expediency or policy
+are those which confront all of us at every step in life. Which college
+shall a boy attend? What kind of work shall a woman enter? How large
+shall taxes be next year? Which candidate shall we elect? How shall we
+better the city government? How shall I invest my money? What kind of
+automobile shall I buy? What kind of will shall I make?
+
+The answers to all such questions make propositions of expediency or
+policy upon which arguments are being composed and delivered every
+day.
+
+In choosing propositions for argument avoid, 1, those which are
+obviously truth; 2, those in which some ambiguous word or term covers
+the truth; 3, those in which the truth or error is practically
+impossible of proof; 4, those involving more than one main issue; 5,
+those which do not interest the audience.
+
+Wording the Proposition. The proposition should be accurately worded.
+In law if the word _burglary_ is used in the indictment, the defense,
+in order to quash the charge, need show merely that a door was
+unlocked. The phrasing should be as simple and concise as possible.
+The proposition should not cover too wide a field. Although these
+directions seem self-evident they should be kept in mind continually.
+
+When the proposition is satisfactory to the maker of the argument he
+is ready to begin to build his proof. In actual speech-making few
+arguments can be made as convincing as a geometrical demonstration but
+a speaker can try to make his reasoning so sound, his development so
+cogent, his delivery so convincing, that at the end of his speech, he
+can exclaim triumphantly, "Quod erat demonstrandum."
+
+Burden of Proof. Every argument presupposes the opposite side. Even
+when only one speaker appears his remarks always indicate the
+possibility of opposite views in the minds of some of the hearers. The
+affirmative and negative are always present. It is frequently asserted
+that the burden of proof is on the negative. This is no more correct
+than the opposite statement would be. The place of the burden of proof
+depends entirely upon the wording of the proposition and the statement
+it makes. In general the burden of proof is upon the side which
+proposes any change of existing conditions, the side which supports
+innovations, which would introduce new methods. With the passage of
+time the burden of proof may shift from one side to the other. There
+was a time when the burden of proof was upon the advocates of woman
+suffrage; today it is undoubtedly upon the opponents. At one period
+the opponents of the study of Latin and Greek had the burden of proof,
+now the supporters of such study have it. Other topics upon which the
+burden of proof has shifted are popular election of Senators,
+prohibition, League of Nations, self-determination of small nations,
+the study of vocations, civics, and current topics in schools, an
+all-year school term, higher salaries for teachers, the benefits of
+labor unions, Americanization of the foreign born.
+
+Evidence. One of the best ways of proving a statement is by giving
+evidence of its truth. Evidence is made up of facts which support any
+proposition. In court a witness when giving testimony (evidence) is
+not allowed to give opinions or beliefs--he is continually warned to
+offer only what he knows of the fact. It is upon the facts marshaled
+before it that the jury is charged to render its verdict.
+
+Direct Evidence. Evidence may be of two kinds--direct and indirect.
+This second, especially in legal matters, is termed circumstantial
+evidence. Direct evidence consists of facts that apply directly to the
+proposition under consideration. If a man sees a street car passenger
+take a wallet from another man's pocket and has him arrested at once
+and the wallet is found in his pocket, that constitutes direct
+evidence. Outside criminal cases the same kind of assured testimony
+can be cited as direct evidence.
+
+Circumstantial Evidence. In most cases in court such direct evidence
+is the exception rather than the rule, for a man attempting crime
+would shun circumstances in which his crime would be witnessed.
+Indirect evidence--circumstantial evidence--is much more usual. It
+lacks the certainty of direct evidence, yet from the known facts
+presented it is often possible to secure almost the same certainty as
+from direct evidence. In serious crimes, such as murder, juries are
+extremely cautious about convicting upon circumstantial evidence.
+There are many chances of error in making chains of evidence. In
+indirect evidence a group of facts is presented from which a
+conclusion is attempted. Suppose a boy had trouble with a farmer and
+had been heard to threaten to get even. One day the man struck him
+with a whip as he passed on the road. That night the farmer's barn was
+set on fire. Neighbors declared they saw some one running from the
+scene. Next day the boy told his companions he was glad of the loss.
+Circumstantial evidence points to the boy as the culprit. Yet what
+might the facts be?
+
+In presenting arguments get as much direct evidence as possible to
+prove your statements. When direct evidence cannot be secured, link
+your indirect evidence so closely that it presents not a single weak
+link. Let the conclusion you draw from it be the only possible one.
+Make certain no one else can interpret it in any other way.
+
+When you present evidence be sure it completely covers your
+contention. Be sure it is clear. Be sure it fits in with all the other
+facts and details presented. Do not let it conflict with usual human
+experience. Consider the sources of your evidence. If you do not, you
+can be certain your audience will. Are your sources reliable? Is the
+information authoritative? Is it first-hand material, or merely
+hearsay? Is it unprejudiced? Many of the other facts for evidence have
+already been suggested in the chapter on getting material.
+
+Two General Methods of Reasoning. Frequently the evidence to be used
+in argumentation must be interpreted before it can be of any value,
+especially when dealing with propositions of expediency or policy.
+There are two general methods of reasoning. One is the inductive
+method, the other the deductive.
+
+Inductive Reasoning. When we discover that a certain operation
+repeated many times always produces the same result we feel justified
+in concluding that we can announce it as a universal law. After
+thousands of falling bodies have been measured and always give the
+same figures, scientists feel that they may state the law that all
+falling bodies acquire an acceleration of 32.2 feet per second. This
+illustrates the inductive method of reasoning. In this system we
+reason from the specific instance to the general law, from the
+particular experiment to the universal theory, from the concrete
+instance to the wide principle.
+
+All modern science is based upon this method--the experimental one.
+All general theories of any kind today must--to be accepted--be
+supported by long and careful consideration of all possible and
+probable circumstances. The theory of evolution as applied to the
+living things upon the earth is the result of countless observations
+and experiments.
+
+Hasty Generalization. The speaker cannot himself examine all the
+specific instances, he cannot consider all the illustrations which
+might support his position, but he must be careful of a too hasty
+generalization. Having talked with a dozen returned soldiers he may
+not declare that all American army men are glad to be out of France,
+for had he investigated a little further he might have found an equal
+number who regret the return to this land. He must base his general
+statement on so many instances that his conclusion will convince not
+only him, but people disposed to oppose his view. He must be better
+prepared to show the truth of his declaration than merely to dismiss
+an example which does not fit into his scheme by glibly asserting that
+"exceptions prove the rule." He must show that what seems to
+contradict him is in nature an exception and therefore has nothing at
+all to do with his rule. Beginning speakers are quite prone to this
+fault of too hasty generalization.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Write down five general theories or statements which have been
+established by inductive reasoning.
+
+2. Is there any certainty that they will stand unchanged forever?
+
+3. Under what circumstances are such changes made?
+
+4. Can you cite any accepted laws or theories of past periods which
+have been overturned?
+
+
+Deductive Reasoning. After general laws have been established, either
+by human experience or accepted inductive reasoning, they may be cited
+as applying to any particular case under consideration. This passing
+from the general law to the particular instance is deductive
+reasoning. Deductive reasoning has a regular form called the
+syllogism.
+
+Major premise. All men are mortal.
+Minor premise. Socrates is a man.
+Conclusion.    Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
+
+If the three parts of a syllogism are correct it has absolute
+convincing power. Most attempts to disprove its statement attack the
+first two statements. Although it carries such an air of certainty it
+is likely to many errors in use. An error like this is common:
+
+All horses are animals.
+All cows are animals.
+Therefore, all cows are horses.
+
+Explain the fallacy in this syllogism.
+
+Quite as frequently the incorrect syllogism is of this kind.
+
+The edge of a stream is a bank.
+A bank is a financial institution.
+Therefore, the edge of a stream is a financial institution.
+
+You will comment upon this that its evident silliness would prevent
+any speaker from using such a form in serious argument. But recall
+that in the discussion of any idea a term may get its meaning slightly
+changed. In that slight change of meaning lurks the error illustrated
+here, ready to lead to false reasoning and weakening of the argument.
+Certain words of common use are likely to such shifting
+meanings--_republic, equality, representative, monarchy, socialistic_.
+Any doubtful passage in which such an error is suspected should be
+reduced to its syllogistic form to be tested for accuracy.
+
+A representative of the people must vote always as they would vote.
+A Congressman is a representative of the people.
+Therefore, Congressmen must vote always as the people who elect them
+    would vote.
+
+Is not the expression, _representative of the people_, here used in
+two different senses?
+
+When an argument is delivered, one of the premises--being a statement
+which the speaker assumes everyone will admit as true--is sometimes
+omitted. This shortened form is called an enthymeme.
+
+     Smith will be a successful civil engineer for he is a
+     superior mathematician.
+
+Supply the missing premise. Which is it?
+
+In the bald, simple forms here set down, the syllogism and enthymeme
+are hardly suited to delivery in speeches. They must be amplified,
+explained, emphasized, in order to serve a real purpose. The following
+represent better the way a speaker uses deductive reasoning.
+
+     The appointing power is vested in the President and Senate;
+     this is the general rule of the Constitution. The removing
+     power is part of the appointing power; it cannot be
+     separated from the rest.
+
+     DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Appointing and Removing
+     Power_, 1835
+
+Then Daniel Webster stated in rather extended form the conclusion that
+the Senate should share in the removing proceedings.
+
+     Sir, those who espouse the doctrines of nullification
+     reject, as it seems to me, the first great principle of all
+     republican liberty; that is, that the majority _must_
+     govern. In matters of common concern, the judgment of a
+     majority _must_ stand as the judgment of the whole.
+
+     DANIEL WEBSTER: _Reply to Calhoun_, 1853
+
+Then, he argues, as these revenue laws were passed by a majority, they
+must be obeyed in South Carolina.
+
+Methods of Proof. In extended arguments, just as in detailed
+exposition, many different methods of proof may be employed.
+
+Explanation. Often a mere clear explanation will induce a listener to
+accept your view of the truth of a proposition. You have heard men
+say, "Oh, if that is what you mean, I agree with you entirely. I
+simply didn't understand you." When you are about to engage in
+argument consider this method of exposition to see if it will suffice.
+In all argument there is a great deal of formal or incidental
+explanation.
+
+Authority. When authority is cited to prove a statement it must be
+subjected to the same tests in argument as in explanation. Is the
+authority reliable? Is he unprejudiced? Does his testimony fit in with
+the circumstances under consideration? Will his statements convince a
+person likely to be on the opposing side? Why has so much so-called
+authoritative information concerning conditions in Europe been so
+discounted? Is it not because the reporters are likely to be
+prejudiced and because while what they say may be true of certain
+places and conditions it does not apply to all the points under
+discussion? The speaker who wants the support of authority will test
+it as carefully as though its influence is to be used against him--as
+indeed, it frequently is.
+
+Examples. Where examples are used in argumentation they must serve as
+more than mere illustrations. In exposition an illustration frequently
+explains, but that same example would have no value in argument
+because while it illustrates it does not prove. A suppositious example
+may serve in explanation; only a fact will serve as proof. The more
+inevitable its application, the more clinching its effect, the better
+its argumentative value. Notice how the two examples given below prove
+that the heirs of a literary man might be the very worst persons to
+own the copyrights of his writings since as owners they might suppress
+books which the world of readers should be able to secure easily.
+While these examples illustrate, do they not also prove?
+
+     I remember Richardson's grandson well; he was a clergyman in
+     the city of London; he was a most upright and excellent man;
+     but he had conceived a strong prejudice against works of
+     fiction. He thought all novel-reading not only frivolous but
+     sinful. He said--this I state on the authority of one of his
+     clerical brethren who is now a bishop--he said that he had
+     never thought it right to read one of his grandfather's
+     books.
+
+     I will give another instance. One of the most instructive,
+     interesting, and delightful books in our language is
+     Boswell's _Life of Johnson_. Now it is well known that
+     Boswell's eldest son considered this book, considered the
+     whole relation of Boswell to Johnson, as a blot in the
+     escutcheon of the family.
+
+     THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841
+
+Analogy. In argument by analogy the speaker attempts to prove that
+because certain things are known to be true in something that can be
+observed they are likely to be true in something else which in so far
+as it can be observed is quite like the first. We continually argue by
+analogy in daily life. Lincoln was really using analogy when he
+replied to the urging to change his army leaders during the Civil War,
+that he didn't think it wise to "swap horses while crossing a
+stream." Scientists use this method to draw conclusions when it is
+impossible to secure from actual observation or experiment a certain
+last step in the reasoning. The planet Mars and the earth are similar
+in practically all observable matters; they are about the same
+distance from the sun, they have the same surface conditions. The
+earth has living creatures upon it. Hence--so goes the reasoning of
+analogy--Mars is probably inhabited. Reasoning by analogy is used to
+prove that universal suffrage is good for the United States because it
+has been good for one particular state. A student may argue by analogy
+that the elective system should be introduced into all high schools,
+because it has been followed in colleges. It may be asserted that a
+leading bank president will make a good university president, because
+he has managed one complex institution. The essence of all good
+reasoning by analogy is that the two things considered must be so
+nearly alike in all that is known that the presumption of belief is
+that they must also be alike in the one point the arguer is trying to
+establish. This is the test he must apply to his own analogy
+arguments.
+
+     Our community frowns with indignation upon the profaneness
+     of the duel, having its rise in this irrational point of
+     honor. Are you aware that you indulge the same sentiment on
+     a gigantic scale, when you recognize this very point of
+     honor as a proper apology for war? We have already seen that
+     justice is in no respect promoted by war. Is true honor
+     promoted where justice is not?
+
+     CHARLES SUMNER: _The True Grandeur of Nations_,
+     1845
+
+Residues. The method of residues is frequently employed when the
+speaker is supporting a policy to be carried out, a measure to be
+adopted, a change to be instituted, or a law to be passed. Granting
+the assumption that something must be done he considers all the
+various methods which may be employed, disposes of them one by one as
+illegal, or unsuited, or clumsy, or inexpedient, leaving only one, the
+one he wants adopted, as the one which must be followed.
+
+This is a good practical method of proof, provided the speaker really
+considers _all_ the possible ways of proceeding and does show the
+undesirability of all except the one remaining.
+
+A speaker pleading for the installation of a commission form of city
+control might list all the possible ways of city government, a
+business manager, a mayor, a commission. By disposing completely of
+the first two, he would have proven the need for the last. A good
+speaker will aways go farther than merely to reach this kind of
+conclusion. He will, in addition to disproving the unworthy choices,
+strongly support his residue, the measure he wants adopted. In
+supporting amounts of taxes, assessments, etc., this method may be
+used. One amount can be proven so large as to cause unrest, another so
+small as to be insufficient, a third to produce a total just large
+enough to meet all anticipated expenses with no surplus for
+emergencies; therefore the correct amount must be just larger than
+this but not reaching an amount likely to produce the result caused by
+the first considered. Used in trials of criminal cases it eliminates
+motives until a single inevitable remainder cannot be argued away.
+This may be the clue to follow, or it may be the last one of all
+suspected persons. Burke considered several possible ways of dealing
+with the American colonies; one he dismissed as no more than a "sally
+of anger," a second could not be operated because of the distance, a
+scheme of Lord North's he proved would complicate rather than settle
+matters, to change the spirit of America was impossible, to prosecute
+it as criminal was inexpedient, therefore but one way remained, to
+conciliate the spirit of discontent by letting the colonies vote their
+own taxes. It is interesting that what Burke described as the sally of
+anger was the way the matter was actually settled--Great Britain had
+to give up the American colonies.
+
+This method is also called elimination.
+
+Cause to Effect. Just as the explainer may pass from cause to effect
+so may the arguer. Other names for this method are antecedent
+probability and _a priori_ argument. In argument from a known cause an
+effect is proven as having occurred or as likely to occur. In solving
+crime this is the method which uses the value of the motives for crime
+as known to exist in the feelings or sentiments of a certain accused
+person. A person trying to secure the passage of a certain law will
+prove that it as the cause will produce certain effects which make it
+desirable. Changed conditions in the United States will be brought
+forward as the cause to prove that the Federal government must do
+things never contemplated by the framers of the Constitution. Great
+military organization as the cause of the recent war is used now in
+argument to carry on the plea for the securing of peace by
+disarmament.
+
+The main difficulty in reasoning from cause to effect is to make the
+relationship so clear and so close that one thing will be accepted by
+everybody as the undisputed cause of the alleged effect.
+
+Effect to Cause. In reasoning from effect to cause the reverse method
+is employed. This is also termed argument from sign or the _a
+posteriori_ method. In it, from some known effect the reasoning proves
+that it is the result of a certain specified cause. Statistics
+indicating business prosperity might be used as the effect from which
+the arguer proves that they are caused by a high protective tariff. A
+speaker shows the good effects upon people to prove that certain
+laws--claimed as the causes--should be extended in application.
+Arguments from effect to cause may be extremely far reaching; as every
+effect leads to some cause, which is itself the effect of some other
+cause, and so on almost to infinity. The good speaker will use just
+those basic causes which prove his proposition--no more.
+
+In actual practice the two forms of reasoning from cause to effect and
+from effect to cause are frequently combined to make the arguments all
+the more convincing. Grouped together they are termed causal
+relations.
+
+Persuasion. When a speaker has conclusively proven what he has stated
+in his proposition, is his speech ended? In some cases, yes; in many
+cases, no. Mere proof appeals to the intellect only; it settles
+matters perhaps, but leaves the hearer cold and humanly inactive. He
+may feel like saying, "Well, even if what you say is true, what are
+you going to do about it?" Mathematical and scientific proofs exist
+for mere information, but most arguments delivered before audiences
+have a purpose. They try to make people do something. A group of
+people should be aroused to some determination of purposeful thought
+if not to a registered act at the time. In days of great stress the
+appeal to action brought the immediate response in military
+enlistments; in enrollment for war work; in pledges of service; in
+signing membership blanks and subscription blanks; in spontaneous
+giving.
+
+Persuasion Produces a Response. The end of most argumentative speaking
+is to produce a response. It may be the casting of a vote, the joining
+of a society, the repudiation of an unworthy candidate, the
+demonstrating of the solidarity of labor, the affiliating with a
+religious sect, the changing of a mode of procedure, the purchasing of
+a new church organ, the wearing of simpler fashions, or any of the
+thousand and one things a patient listener is urged to do in the
+course of his usual life.
+
+When the speaker passes on from mere convincing to appealing for some
+response he has passed from argumentation to persuasion. Nearly every
+argumentative speech dealing with a proposition of policy shows first
+what ought to be done, then tries to induce people to do it, by
+appealing as strongly as possible to their practical, esthetic, or moral
+interests. All such interests depend upon what we call sentiments or
+feelings to which worthy--note the word _worthy_--appeals may
+legitimately be addressed. Attempts to arouse unworthy motives by
+stirring up ignorance and prejudice are always to be most harshly
+condemned. Such practices have brought certain kinds of so-called
+persuasion into well-deserved contempt. The high sounding spell-binder
+with his disgusting spread-eagleism cannot be muzzled by law, but he may
+be rendered harmless by vacant chairs and empty halls. Real eloquence is
+not a thing of noise and exaggeration. Beginning speakers should avoid
+the tawdry imitation as they would a plague.
+
+Elements of Persuasion. What elements may aid the persuasive power of
+a speech? First of all, the occasion may be just the right one. The
+surroundings may have prepared the audience for the effect the speaker
+should make if he knows how to seize upon the opportunity for his own
+purpose. The speaker must know how to adapt himself to the
+circumstances present. In other cases, he must be able to do the much
+more difficult thing--adapt the circumstances to his purpose.
+
+Secondly, the subject matter itself may prepare for the persuasive
+treatment in parts. Everyone realizes this. When emotional impulses
+are present in the material the introduction of persuasion is
+inevitable and fitting, if not overdone.
+
+Thirdly, the essence of persuasion depends upon the speaker. All the
+good characteristics of good speaking will contribute to the effect of
+his attempts at persuasion. A good speaker is sincere to the point of
+winning respect even when he does not carry conviction. He is in
+earnest. He is simple and unaffected. He has tact. He is fair to every
+antagonistic attitude. He has perfect self-control. He does not lose
+his temper. He can show a proper sense of humor. He has genuine
+sympathy. And finally--perhaps it includes all the preceding--he has
+personal magnetism.
+
+With such qualities a speaker can make an effective appeal by means of
+persuasion. If upon self-criticism and self-examination, or from
+outside kindly comment, he concludes he is lacking in any one of these
+qualities he should try to develop it.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Prepare and deliver speeches upon some of the following or upon
+propositions suggested by them. If the speech is short, try to employ
+only one method of proof, but make it convincing. Where suitable, add
+persuasive elements.
+
+1. Make a proposition from one of the following topics. Deliver an
+argumentative speech upon it. The next election. Entrance to college.
+Child labor. The study of the classics. The study of science.
+
+2. Recommend changes which will benefit your school, your club or
+society, your church, your town, your state.
+
+3. The Japanese should be admitted to the United States upon the same
+conditions as other foreigners.
+
+4. Men and women should receive the same pay for the same work done.
+
+5. All church property should be taxed.
+
+6. All laws prohibiting secular employment on Sunday should be
+repealed.
+
+7. The purely protective tariff should be withdrawn from goods the
+manufacture of which has been firmly established in this country.
+
+8. Large incomes should be subject to a graduated income tax.
+
+9. Employers should not be forced to recognize labor unions.
+
+10. Immigration into the United States of persons who cannot read or
+write some language should be prohibited, except dependents upon such
+qualified entrants.
+
+11. An amendment should be added to the Constitution providing for
+uniform marriage and divorce laws throughout the entire country.
+
+12. A city is the best place for a college.
+
+13. Military training should be obligatory in all public schools.
+
+14. Colleges and universities should reduce the attention paid to
+athletics.
+
+15. The negro in the South should be disfranchised.
+
+16. The number of Representatives in Congress should be reduced.
+
+17. Moving pictures should be used in schools.
+
+18. Street car systems should be owned and operated by municipalities.
+
+19. Education should be compulsory until the completion of high
+school.
+
+20. Athletes whose grade is below 75% should be debarred from all
+participation until the marks are raised.
+
+21. The Federal government should own and operate the telegraph and
+telephone systems.
+
+22. The state should provide pensions for indigent mothers of children
+below the working age.
+
+23. The study of algebra (or some other subject) in the high school
+should be elective.
+
+24 The initiative should be adopted in all states.
+
+25. The referendum should be adopted in all states.
+
+26. All governmental officials should be subject to recall.
+
+27. The public should support in all ways the movement of labor to
+secure the closed shop system.
+
+28. Railroad crossings should be abolished.
+
+29. The Federal government should pass laws controlling all prices of
+foodstuffs.
+
+30. A trial before a group of competent judges should be substituted
+for trial by jury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+REFUTING
+
+
+Answering the Other Side. It has been said already that even in a
+single argumentative speech some account must be taken of the
+possibility among the audience of the belief in other views. A speaker
+must always assume that people will believe otherwise than he does.
+In such cases as debate or questioning after a speech is made, this
+opposing side will very clearly be brought out, so that any person
+training for any kind of public speaking will give much attention to
+the contentions of others in order to strengthen his own convictions
+as displayed in his speeches.
+
+A sincere thinker may believe that trial before a group of competent
+judges is a better procedure than trial by jury. Were he to speak upon
+such a proposition he would realize that he would meet at once the
+solid opposition of the general opinion that jury trials, sanctioned
+by long practice, are in some mysterious way symbolic of the liberty
+and equality of mankind. Before he could expect to arouse sympathetic
+understanding he would have to answer all the possible objections and
+reasons against his new scheme. This he would do by refutation, by
+disproving the soundness of the arguments against his scheme. He could
+cite the evident and recorded injustices committed by juries. He could
+bring before them the impossibility of securing an intelligent
+verdict from a group of farmers, anxious to get to their farms for
+harvest, sitting in a case through July, while the days passed in
+lengthy examinations of witnesses--one man was on the stand eight
+days--and the lawyers bandied words and names like socialist, pagan,
+bolsheviki, anarchy, ideal republic, Aristotle, Plato, Herbert
+Spencer, Karl Marx, Tolstoi, Jane Addams, Lenin. Then when he felt
+assured he had removed all the reasons for supporting the present jury
+system he could proceed to advance his own substitute.
+
+Need and Value of Refutation. In all argumentation, therefore,
+refutation is valuable and necessary. By it opposing arguments are
+reasoned away, their real value is determined, or they are answered
+and demolished if they are false or faulty. To acquire any readiness
+as a speaker or debater a person must pay a great deal of attention to
+refutation. It has also an additional value. It has been stated that
+every argumentative speaker must study the other side of every
+question upon which he is to speak. One great debater declared that if
+he had time to study only one side of a proposition or law case he
+would devote that time to the other side. Study your own position from
+the point of view of the other side. Consider carefully what arguments
+that side will naturally advance. In fact, try to refute your own
+arguments exactly as some opponent would, or get some friend to try to
+refute your statements. Many a speaker has gained power in reasoning
+by having his views attacked by members of his family who would
+individually and collectively try to drive him into a corner. In
+actual amount, perhaps you will never deliver as much refutation of
+an opponent as you will conjure up in your mind against your own
+speeches. Perhaps, also, this great amount advanced by you in testing
+your own position will prevent your opponents from ever finding in
+your delivered arguments much against which they can pit their own
+powers of refutation.
+
+In judging your own production you will have to imagine yourself on
+the other side, so the methods will be the same for all purposes of
+self-help or weakening of an opponent's views.
+
+Contradiction Is Not Refutation. In the first place contradiction is
+not refutation. No unsupported fact or statement has any value in
+argumentation. Such expressions as "I don't believe, I don't think so,
+I don't agree" introduce not arguments, but personal opinions. You
+must, to make your refutation valuable, _prove_ your position. Never
+allow your attempts at refutation to descend to mere denial or
+quibbling. Be prepared to support, to prove everything you say.
+
+Three Phases of Refutation. In general, refutation consists of three
+phases:
+
+1. The analysis of the opposite side.
+2. The classification of the arguments according to importance.
+3. The answering of only the strongest points.
+
+Analysis of Opposing Side for Accuracy. In the first analysis, you
+will probably examine the opposing statements to test their accuracy.
+Mere slips, so evident that they deceive no one, you may disregard
+entirely, but gross error of fact or conclusion you should note and
+correct in unmistakably plain terms. The kind of statement which
+gives insufficient data should be classed in analysis with this same
+kind of erroneous statement. A shoe dealer in arguing for increased
+prices might quote correctly the rising cost of materials, but if he
+stopped there, you in refutation should be able to show that profits
+had already risen to 57%, and so turn his own figures against him.
+Another class of refutation similar to this is the questioning of
+authorities. Something concerning this has already been said. In a
+recent trial a lawyer cast doubt upon the value of a passage read from
+a book by declaring its author could never have written such a thing.
+In refutation the opposing lawyer said, "You will find that passage on
+page 253 of his _Essays and Letters."_ Public speakers, realizing that
+errors of statement are likely to be the first to be picked out for
+correction, and recognizing the damaging effect of such conviction in
+error of fact and testimony, are extremely careful not to render
+themselves liable to attack upon such points. Yet they may. We are
+told by Webster's biographers that in later periods of his life he was
+detected in errors of law in cases being argued before the court, and
+refuted in statement. To catch such slips requires two things of the
+successful speaker. He must be in possession of the facts himself. He
+must be mentally alert to see the falsity and know how to answer it.
+
+Begging the Question. The expression "begging the question" is often
+heard as a fallacy in argument. In its simplest form it is similar to
+inaccurate statement, for it includes assertions introduced without
+proof, and the statement of things as taken for granted without
+attempting to prove them, yet using them to prove other statements.
+Sometimes, also, a careless thinker, through an extended group of
+paragraphs will end by taking as proven exactly the proposition he
+started out to prove, when close analysis will show that nowhere
+during the discussion does he actually prove it. As this is frequent
+in amateur debates, students should be on their guard against it.
+
+Ignoring the Question. The same kind of flimsy mental process results
+in ignoring the question. Instead of sticking closely to the
+proposition to be proved the speaker argues beside the point, proving
+not the entire proposition but merely a portion of it. Or in some
+manner he may shift his ground and emerge, having proven the wrong
+point or something he did not start out to consider. An amateur
+theatrical producer whose playhouse had been closed by the police for
+violating the terms of his license started out to defend his action,
+but ended by proving that all men are equal. In fact he wound up by
+quoting the poem by Burns, "A Man's a Man for A' That." Such a
+shifting of propositions is a frequent error of speakers. It occurs so
+often that one might be disposed to term it a mere trick to deceive,
+or a clever though unscrupulous device to secure support for a weak
+claim. One of the first ways for the speaker to avoid it is to be able
+to recognize it when it occurs. One of the most quoted instances of
+its effective unmasking is the following by Macaulay.
+
+     The advocates of Charles, like the advocates of other
+     malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced,
+     generally decline all controversy about the facts, and
+     content themselves with calling testimony to character. He
+     had so many private virtues! And had James the Second no
+     private virtues! Was Oliver Cromwell, his bitterest enemies
+     themselves being judges, destitute of private virtues? And
+     what, after all, are the virtues ascribed to Charles? A
+     religious zeal, not more sincere than that of his son, and
+     fully as weak and narrow-minded, and a few of the ordinary
+     household decencies which half the tombstones in England
+     claim for those who lie beneath them. A good father! A good
+     husband! Ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of
+     persecution, tyranny, and falsehood!
+
+     We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and we
+     are told that he kept his marriage vow! We accuse him of
+     having given up his people to merciless inflictions of the
+     most hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates; and the
+     defence is, that he took his little son on his knee and
+     kissed him! We censure him for having violated the articles
+     of the Petition of Right, after having, for good and
+     valuable consideration, promised to observe them; and we are
+     informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six
+     o'clock in the morning! It is to such considerations as
+     these, together with his Vandyke dress, his handsome face,
+     and his peaked beard, that he owes, we verily believe, most
+     of his popularity with the present generation.
+
+Appealing to Prejudice or Passions. The question is also ignored when
+the speaker appeals to the prejudices or passions of his audience
+(_argumentum ad populum_). Persons of some intellect resent this as
+almost an insult if they are in the audience, yet it is often resorted
+to by speakers who would rather produce the effect they desire by the
+use of any methods, right or wrong. Its use in court by unscrupulous
+lawyers to win decisions is checked by attempts on the part of judges
+to counteract it in their charges to the jury, but its influence may
+still persist. Mark Antony in Shakespere's play, _Julius Caesar_, used
+it in his oration over the dead body of Caesar to further his own
+ends.
+
+Taking Advantage of Ignorance. Just as a speaker may take advantage of
+the prejudices and passions of an audience, so he may take advantage
+of their ignorance. Against the blankness of their brains he may hurl
+unfamiliar names to dazzle them, cite facts of all kinds to impress
+them, show a wide knowledge of all sorts of things, "play up to them"
+in every way, until they become so impressed that they are ready to
+accept as truth anything he chooses to tell them. Any daily paper will
+provide examples of the sad results of the power of this kind of
+fallacious reasoning. The get-rich-quick schemes, the worthless stock
+deals, the patent medicine quacks, the extravagantly worded claims of
+new religions and faddist movements, all testify to the power this
+form of seemingly convincing argument has over the great mass of the
+ignorant.
+
+The Fallacy of Tradition. In discussing the burden of proof it was
+said that such burden rests upon the advocate of change, or novel
+introductions, etc. This tendency of the people at large to be rather
+conservative in practice links with the fallacy of tradition, the
+belief that whatever is, is right. In many cases such a faith is worse
+than wrong, it is pernicious. Many of the questions concerning
+relations of modern society--as capital and labor--are based upon this
+fallacy. Henry Clay was guilty of it when he announced, "Two hundred
+years of legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as
+property." The successful way to dispose of such a fallacy is
+illustrated by William Ellery Channing's treatment of this statement.
+
+     But this property, we are told, is not to be questioned on
+     account of its long duration. "Two hundred years of
+     legislation have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as
+     property." Nothing but respect for the speaker could repress
+     criticism on this unhappy phraseology. We will trust it
+     escaped him without thought. But to confine ourselves to the
+     argument from duration; how obvious the reply! Is injustice
+     changed into justice by the practice of the ages? Is my
+     victim made a righteous prey because I have bowed him to the
+     earth till he cannot rise? For more than two hundred years
+     heretics were burned, and not by mobs, not by lynch law, but
+     by the decrees of the councils, at the instigation of
+     theologians, and with the sanction of the laws and religions
+     of nations; and was this a reason for keeping up the fires,
+     that they had burned two hundred years? In the Eastern world
+     successive despots, not for two hundred years, but for twice
+     two thousand have claimed the right of life and death over
+     millions, and, with no law but their own will, have
+     beheaded, bowstrung, starved, tortured unhappy men without
+     number who have incurred their wrath; and does the lapse of
+     so many centuries sanctify murder and ferocious power?
+
+Attacking a Speaker's Character or Principles. Sometimes a speaker who
+finds himself unable to attack the truth of a proposition, or the
+arguments cited to support it, changes his tactics from the
+subject-matter to the opponent himself and delivers an attack upon his
+character, principles, or former beliefs and statements. This is
+called the _argumentum ad hominem_. In no sense is it really argument;
+it is irrelevant attack, and should be answered in a clear accurate
+demonstration of its unsuitability to the topic under consideration.
+It is unworthy, of course, but it is a tempting device for the speaker
+who can combine with it an appeal to the prejudices or passions of his
+audience.
+
+The author has seen the entire population of Rome agitated because in
+a Senatorial debate one speaker attacked the family reputation of one
+of his opponents--a matter which, even if true, certainly had nothing
+to do with the bill under discussion. Political campaigns used to be
+disgraced by a prevalence of such appeals for votes. We may pride
+ourselves upon an advance in such matters, but there is still too much
+of it to let us congratulate ourselves upon our political good
+manners. You cannot ascribe bad faith to a man who argues now from a
+different attitude from the one he formerly supported. Changes of
+conviction are frequent in all matters. A man must be judged by the
+reasons he gives for his position at any one time. Many a person, who
+ten years ago would have argued against it, now believes a League of
+Nations possible and necessary. Many a person who a few years back
+could see no advantage in labor organizations is anxious now to join
+an affiliated union.
+
+If you find the suggestion of such an attack in any of your own
+speeches, cast it out. If it is ever used against you, refute it by
+the strength of arguments you deliver in support of your position.
+Remove all assertions which do not relate to the debated topic. Make
+your audience sympathize with your repudiation of the remarks of your
+opponent, even though he has succeeded in delivering them.
+
+Fallacies of Causal Relationship. The various fallacies that may be
+committed under the relation of cause and effect are many. Just
+because something happened prior to something else (the effect), the
+first may be mistakenly quoted as the cause. Or the reverse may be the
+error--the second may be assumed to be the effect of the first. The
+way to avoid this fallacy was suggested in the discussion of
+explanation by means of cause and effect where the statement was made
+that two events must not be merely _sequential_, they must be
+_consequential_. In argument the slightest gap in the apparent
+relationship is likely to result in poor reasoning, and the consequent
+fallacy may be embodied in the speech. When people argue to prove that
+superstitions have come true, do they present clear reasoning to show
+conclusively that the alleged cause--such as sitting thirteen at
+table--actually produced the effect of a death? Do they _establish_ a
+close causal relationship, or do they merely _assert_ that after a
+group of thirteen had sat at table some one did die? Mathematically,
+would the law of chance or probability not indicate that such a thing
+would happen a little less surely if the number had been twelve, a
+little more surely if fourteen?
+
+Common sense, clear headedness, logical reasoning, and a wide
+knowledge of all kinds of things will enable a speaker to recognize
+these fallacies, anticipate them, and successfully refute them.
+
+Methods of Refuting. Having found the fallacies in an argument you
+should proceed to refute them. Just how you can best accomplish your
+purpose of weakening your opponent's position, of disposing of his
+arguments, of answering his contentions, must depend always upon the
+particular circumstances of the occasion, of the material presented,
+of the attitude of the judges or audience, of your opponent himself,
+and of the purpose you are striving to accomplish. Practice,
+knowledge, skill, will in such cases all serve your end. You should be
+able to choose, and effectively use the best. It is impossible to
+anticipate and provide for all the possibilities, but a few of the
+most common probabilities and the methods of dealing with them can be
+here set down.
+
+Courteous Correction. In case of apparent error or over-sight you will
+do well to be courteous rather than over-bearing and dictatorial in
+your correction. Never risk losing an advantage by driving your
+audience into sympathy for your opponent by any manner of your own. A
+newspaper discussing the objections made to the covenant of the League
+of Nations points out an over-sight in this way: "How did Senator Knox
+happen to overlook the fact that his plan for compulsory arbitration
+is embodied in Article XII of the proposed covenant?"
+
+Refuting Incorrect Analogy. The caution was given that reasoning from
+analogy must show the complete correspondence in all points possible
+of the known from which the reasoning proceeds to the conclusion about
+the unknown, which then is to be accepted as true. Unless that
+complete correspondence is established firmly the speaker is likely to
+have his carefully worked out analogy demolished before his eyes.
+Notice how such refutation is clearly demonstrated in the following.
+
+     So it does; but the sophistry here is plain enough, although
+     it is not always detected. Great genius and force of
+     character undoubtedly make their own career. But because
+     Walter Scott was dull at school, is a parent to see with joy
+     that his son is a dunce? Because Lord Chatham was of a
+     towering conceit, must we infer that pompous vanity portends
+     a comprehensive statesmanship that will fill the world with
+     the splendor of its triumphs? Because Sir Robert Walpole
+     gambled and swore and boozed at Houghton, are we to suppose
+     that gross sensuality and coarse contempt of human nature
+     are the essential secrets of a power that defended liberty
+     against tory intrigue and priestly politics? Was it because
+     Benjamin Franklin was not college-bred that he drew the
+     lightning from heaven and tore the scepter from the tyrant?
+     Was it because Abraham Lincoln had little schooling that his
+     great heart beat true to God and man, lifting him to free a
+     race and die for his country? Because men naturally great
+     have done great service in the world without advantages,
+     does it follow that lack of advantage is the secret of
+     success?
+
+     GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS: _The Public Duty of Educated
+     Men_, 1877
+
+Reducing Proof to Absurdity. A very good way of showing the
+unreliability of an opposing argument is to pretend to accept it as
+valid, then carrying it on to a logical conclusion, to show that its
+end proves entirely too much, or that it reduces the entire chain of
+reasoning to absurdity. This is, in fact, called _reductio ad
+absurdum_. At times the conclusion is so plainly going to be absurd
+that the refuter need not carry its successive steps into actual
+delivery. In speaking to large groups of people nothing is better than
+this for use as an effective weapon. It gives the hearers the feeling
+that they have assisted in the damaging demonstration. It almost
+seems as though the speaker who uses it were merely using--as he
+really is--material kindly presented to him by his opponent. So the
+two actually contribute in refuting the first speaker's position.
+
+     Congress only can declare war; therefore, when one State is
+     at war with a foreign nation, all must be at war. The
+     President and the Senate only can make peace; when peace is
+     made for one State, therefore, it must be made for all.
+
+     Can anything be conceived more preposterous, than that any
+     State should have power to nullify the proceedings of the
+     general government respecting peace and war? When war is
+     declared by a law of Congress, can a single State nullify
+     that law, and remain at peace? And yet she may nullify that
+     law as well as any other. If the President and Senate make
+     peace, may one State, nevertheless, continue the war? And
+     yet, if she can nullify a law, she may quite as well nullify
+     a treaty.
+
+     DANIEL WEBSTER: _The Constitution Not a Compact
+     between Sovereign States_, 1833
+
+Lincoln could always use this method of _reductio ad absurdum_ most
+effectively because he seldom failed to accentuate the absurdity by
+some instance which made clear to the least learned the force of his
+argument. Many of his best remembered quaint and picturesque phrases
+were embodied in his serious demolition of some high-handed
+presumption of a political leader.
+
+     Under all these circumstances, do you really feel yourselves
+     justified to break up this government unless such a court
+     decision as yours is shall be at once submitted to as a
+     conclusive and final rule of political action? But you will
+     not abide the election of a Republican President! In that
+     supposed event, you say, you will destroy the Union; and
+     then, you say, the great crime of having destroyed it will
+     be upon us! That is cool. A highwayman holds a pistol to my
+     ear, and mutters through his teeth, "Stand and deliver, or I
+     shall kill you, and then you will be a murderer!"
+
+     ABRAHAM LINCOLN: _Cooper Union Speech_, 1860
+
+Amplifying and Diminishing. Finally a good method of refuting the
+claim of importance made for an opposing proposition is by amplifying
+and diminishing. In plain terms this depends upon contrast in which
+you reduce the value of the opposing idea and emphasize the value of
+your own. An excellent use for this is as a rapid summary at the end
+of your speech, where it will leave in the hearer's mind an impression
+of the comparative value of the two views he has heard discussed, with
+an inevitable sense of the unquestioned worth of one above the other.
+Burke sums up his extended refutations of Lord North's plan for
+dealing with America in these telling contrasts.
+
+     Compare the two. This I offer to give you is plain and
+     simple; the other full of perplexed and intricate mazes.
+     This is mild; that harsh. This found by experience effectual
+     for its purposes; the other is a new project. This is
+     universal; the other calculated for certain colonies only.
+     This is immediate in its conciliatory operation; the other
+     remote, contingent, full of hazard. Mine is what becomes the
+     dignity of a ruling people--gratuitous, unconditional--and
+     not held out as a matter of bargain and sale.
+
+     EDMUND BURKE: _Conciliation with America_, 1775
+
+Position of Refutation in the Speech. The position of refutation in
+the finished speech will depend always upon the nature of the
+proposition, the exact method of the refutation, and the audience. If
+you are making the only speech upon the proposition and you feel that
+the audience may have a slight prejudice against what you are about to
+urge, you may gain adherents at once by refuting at the beginning the
+possible arguments in their minds. By this procedure you will clear
+the field for your own operations. To change the figure of speech, you
+erase from the slate what is already written there, so that you may
+place upon it your own speech and its convictions.
+
+If you are debating and the speaker just before you has evidently made
+the judges accept his arguments, again you might remove that
+conviction by refutation before you proceed to build up your own side.
+If your regular arguments meet his squarely, proceed as you had
+planned, but be sure when any reasoning you offer nullifies any he has
+delivered, that you call the attention of the audience to the fact
+that you have wiped out his score. In this way your constructive
+argument and refutation will proceed together. You will save valuable
+time.
+
+Constructive Argument Is More Valuable than Refutation. Often the
+rebuttal speeches of debate, coming at the close of the regular debate
+speeches, seem reserved for all the refutation. This is certainly the
+place for much refutation, certainly not all. The last speakers of the
+rebuttal speeches should never rest content with leaving only
+refutation in the hearers' minds. If they do, the debate may leave the
+condition entirely where it was at the beginning, for theoretically
+every argument advanced by either side has been demolished by the
+other. After the rebuttal the last points left with the judges should
+be constructive arguments.
+
+In a single speech the refutation may be delivered in sections as the
+demands of coherence and the opportunities for emphasis may suggest.
+Here again, always make the last section a constructive one with
+arguments in support of your proposition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DEBATING
+
+
+The Ideal of Debating. A long time ago so admirable a man as William
+Penn stated the high ideal of all real debating whether practised in
+the limited range of school interests or in the extended field of
+life's activities.
+
+     In all debates let truth be thy aim, not victory, or an
+     unjust interest; and endeavor to gain, rather than to expose
+     thy antagonist.
+
+The quotation states exactly the true aim of all debating--the
+conclusion of the right, the truth rather than the securing of a
+decision over an opponent. The same rules which animate the true lover
+of sports, the clear distinction which is instilled into all
+participants of amateur athletics of the meanings and significance of
+the two terms _sportsman_ and _sport_, can be carried over to apply to
+school activities in debating. Honest differences of opinion among
+people upon countless questions will always furnish enough material
+for regular debating so that no one need ever do violence to his
+convictions.
+
+Value of Debate. One of the greatest educational values of practice in
+debate is that the ability it develops can be applied instantly in the
+life beyond the schoolroom, that it operates in every person's daily
+life. There are differences in the manner in which debating is
+carried on in the two places, but practice in the earlier will result
+in skill and self-confidence in the second.
+
+Debate in Actual Life. The most marked difference between debates in
+the two phases of life is the difference of form. In academic circles
+debate is a well-regulated game between matched sides. In actual life
+only in certain professions are the rules well defined. In most cases
+the debating is disguised under different forms, though the essential
+purposes and methods are the same.
+
+Debate between lawyers in courts--technically termed pleading--is the
+most formal of all professional debating. Its regulations are found in
+the stabilized court procedure which every lawyer must master and
+obey.
+
+Much looser than the formal debate of the court room is the
+speech-making of the legislative organization from the lowest township
+board meeting up to the Senate of the United States. Of course the
+members of such bodies are regulated by certain restrictions, but the
+speeches are not likely to be curbed in time as are academic
+performances, nor are the speakers likely to follow a prearranged
+order, nor are they always equally balanced in number, nor do they
+agree so carefully upon "team work." Sometimes in a legislative body
+the first speaker may be on the negative side, which is quite contrary
+to all the rules of regularly conducted debates. All the speakers may
+also be on one side of a measure, the opposing side not deigning to
+reply, resting secure in the knowledge of how many votes they can
+control when the real test of power comes.
+
+Most informal of all are the general discussions in which business
+matters are decided. In these the speeches are never so set as in the
+two preceding kinds. The men are less formal in their relations and
+addresses to one another. The steps are less marked in their changes.
+Yet underneath the seeming lack of regulation there is the framework
+of debate, for there is always present the sense of two sides upon
+every proposition, whether it be the purchase of new office equipment
+for a distant agent, an increase of salary for employees, or the
+increase of capitalization. Certain speakers support some proposition.
+Others oppose it until they are convinced and won over to the
+affirmative side, or until they are out-voted.
+
+Two men seated in an office may themselves be debaters, audience, and
+judges of their own argumentative opinions. They may in themselves
+fill all the requirements of a real debate. They deliver the speeches
+on the affirmative and negative sides. Each listens to the arguments
+of his opponent. And finally, the pair together give a decision upon
+the merits of the arguments presented.
+
+On all such occasions the speakers need and use just those qualities
+which classroom training has developed in them--knowledge of material,
+plan of presentation, skill in expression, conviction and persuasion
+of manner, graceful acceptance of defeat.
+
+Debating Demands a Decision. Debating goes one step farther than
+merely argumentative speaking. Debating demands a decision upon the
+case, it requires a judgment, a registered action. Again in this
+respect it is like a game.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a list of propositions which have been debated or might be
+debated in a courtroom.
+
+2. Make another list of propositions which have been debated or might
+be debated in legislative bodies.
+
+3. Make a list of propositions which might be debated in business.
+
+4. As far as is possible, indicate the decisions upon them.
+
+5. Choose some proposition on which there is considerable difference
+of opinion in the class. Make a list of those who favor and those who
+oppose. Speak upon the proposition, alternating affirmative and
+negative.
+
+6. Discuss the speeches delivered in the fifth exercise.
+
+Persons Involved in a Debate. Who are the persons involved in a
+regular debate? They are the presiding officer, the speakers
+themselves, the audience, the judges.
+
+The Presiding Officer. Every debate has a presiding officer. The
+Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of the
+Senate. The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House of
+Representatives. If you will refer to Chapter IV on _Beginning the
+Speech_ you will see several other titles of presiding officers. In
+school debates the head of the institution may act in that capacity,
+or some person of note may be invited to preside. In regular classroom
+work the instructor may serve as presiding officer, or some member of
+the class may be chosen or appointed. The latter method is the
+best--after the instructor has shown by example just what the duties
+of such a position are.
+
+The presiding officer should announce the topic of debate in a short
+introductory speech. He should read the names of the speakers on the
+affirmative and those on the negative side. He should stipulate the
+terms of the debate--length of each speech, time for rebuttal, order
+of rebuttal, method of keeping speakers within time limits, conditions
+of judgment (material, presentation, etc.), announce the judges, and
+finally introduce the first speaker; then the subsequent speakers. At
+the close he might refer to the fact of the debate's being ended, he
+might rehearse the conditions of judgment, and request the judges to
+retire to consider their decision. Practice varies as to who shall
+deliver the decision of the judges to the audience. Sometimes the
+chairman elected by the judges announces the decision. Sometimes the
+judges hand the decision to the presiding officer who announces it.
+
+The Debaters. Beyond saying that the speakers must do their best,
+there is nothing to be added here about their duty in the debate
+except to issue one warning to them in connection with the next
+personal element to be considered--the audience.
+
+The Audience. Debaters must remember that in practically no
+circumstances outside legislative bodies are the audience and the
+judges ever the same. Debaters argue to convince the judges--not the
+entire audience, who are really as disconnected from the decision of
+the debate as are the straggling spectators and listeners in a
+courtroom detached from the jury who render the verdict of guilty or
+not guilty. The debater must therefore speak for the judges, not for
+his audience. Many a debating team has in the course of its speeches
+won all the applause only to be bitterly disappointed in the end by
+hearing the decision awarded to the other side. Recall the warnings
+given in the previous chapters against the tempting fallacies of
+appealing to crowd feelings and prejudices.
+
+In classroom debates it is a good distribution of responsibility to
+make all the members not participating in the speaking act as judges
+and cast votes in rendering a decision. This makes the judges and the
+audience one. Moreover it changes the mere listener into a
+discriminating judge. If the instructor cares to carry this matter of
+responsibility one step farther, he can ask the members of the class
+to explain and justify their votes.
+
+The audience, when it is also the judge, has the responsibility of
+careful attention, analysis, and comparison. It is too much to expect
+usual general audiences to refuse to be moved by unworthy pleas and
+misrepresentations, to accord approval only to the best speakers and
+the soundest arguments. But surely in a class of public speakers any
+such tricks and schemes should be received with stolid frigidity.
+Nothing is so damaging to appeals to prejudice, spread-eagleism, and
+fustian bombast as an impassive reception.
+
+The Judges. In any debate the judges are of supreme importance. They
+decide the merits of the speakers themselves. The judges are of
+infinitely more importance than the audience. In interscholastic
+debates men of some prominence are invited to act as judges. In the
+instructions to them it should be made clear that they are not to
+decide which side of a proposition they themselves approve. They are
+to decide which group of speakers does the best work. They should try
+to be merely the impersonal registers of comparative merit. They
+should sink their own feelings as every teacher must when he hears a
+good speech from one of his own students supporting something to which
+the instructor is opposed. Good judges of debates realize this and
+frequently award decisions to speakers who support opposite positions
+to their personal opinions. They must not be like the judges in an
+interscholastic debate who announced their decision thus, "The judges
+have decided that China must not be dismembered." That was an
+interesting fact perhaps, but it had nothing to do with their duty as
+judges of that debate.
+
+In business, the buyer, the head of the department, the board of
+directors, constitute the judges who render the decision. In
+legislative assemblies the audience and judges are practically
+identical, for after the debate upon a measure is concluded, those who
+have listened to it render individual verdicts by casting their votes.
+In such cases we frequently see decisions rendered not upon the merits
+of the debate, but according to class prejudice, personal opinion, or
+party lines. This is why so many great argumentative speeches were
+accounted failures at the time of their delivery. Delivered to secure
+majority votes they failed to carry conviction to the point of
+changing immediate action, and so in the small temporary sense they
+were failures. In legal trials the jury is the real judge, although by
+our peculiar misapplication of the term a different person entirely is
+called judge. In court the judge is in reality more often merely the
+presiding officer. He oversees the observance of all the rules of
+court practice, keeps lawyers within the regulations, instructs the
+jury, receives the decision from them, and then applies the law.
+Every lawyer speaks--not to convince the judge--but to convince the
+jury to render a decision in his favor.
+
+Scholastic Debating. Choosing the Proposition. In school debating the
+proposition may be assigned by the instructor or it may be chosen by
+him from a number submitted by the class. The class itself may choose
+by vote a proposition for debate. In interscholastic debating the
+practice now usually followed is for one school to submit the
+proposition and for the second school to decide which side it prefers
+to support. In any method the aim should be to give neither side any
+advantage over the other. The speakers upon the team may be selected
+before the question of debate is known. It seems better, when
+possible, to make the subject known first and then secure as speakers
+upon both sides, students who have actual beliefs upon the topic. Such
+personal conviction always results in keener rivalry.
+
+Time Limits. Since no debate of this kind must last too long, time
+restrictions must be agreed upon. In every class, conditions will
+determine these terms. Three or four speakers upon each side make a
+good team. If each is allowed six minutes the debate should come well
+within an hour and still allow some time for voting upon the
+presentations. It should be distinctly understood that a time limit
+upon a speaker must be observed by him or be enforced by the presiding
+officer.
+
+The speakers upon one side will arrange among themselves the order in
+which they will speak but there should be a clear understanding
+beforehand as to whether rebuttal speeches are to be allowed.
+
+Rebuttal Speeches. Rebuttal speeches are additional speeches allowed
+to some or all the speakers of a debating team after the regular
+argumentative speeches have been delivered. In an extended formal
+debate all the speakers may thus appear a second time. In less lengthy
+discussions only some of them may be permitted to appear a second
+time. As the last speaker has the advantage of making the final
+impression upon the judges it is usual to offset this by reversing the
+order of rebuttal. In the first speeches the negative always delivers
+the last speech. Sometimes the first affirmative speaker is allowed to
+follow with the single speech in rebuttal. If the team consist of
+three speakers and all are allowed to appear in rebuttal the entire
+order is as follows.
+
+_First Part               Rebuttal_
+
+First affirmative           First negative
+First negative              First affirmative
+Second affirmative          Second negative
+Second negative             Second affirmative
+Third affirmative           Third negative
+Third negative              Third affirmative
+
+If not all the speakers are to speak in rebuttal the team itself
+decides which of its members shall speak for all.
+
+Preparation. The proposition should be decided on and the teams
+selected long enough in advance to allow for adequate preparation.
+Every means should be employed to secure sufficient material in
+effective arrangement. Once constituted, the team should consider
+itself a unit. Work should be planned in conference and distributed
+among the speakers. At frequent meetings they should present to the
+side all they are able to find. They should lay out a comprehensive
+plan of support of their own side. They should anticipate the
+arguments likely to be advanced by the other, and should provide for
+disposing of them if they are important enough to require refuting. It
+is a good rule for every member of a debating team to know all the
+material on his side, even though part of it is definitely assigned to
+another speaker.
+
+This preliminary planning should be upon a definite method. A good
+outline to use, although some parts may be discarded in the debate
+itself, is the following simple one.
+
+  I. State the proposition clearly.
+       1. Define the terms.
+       2. Explain it as a whole.
+ II. Give a history of the case.
+       1. Show its present bearing or aspect.
+III. State the issues.
+ IV. Prove.
+  V. Refute.
+ VI. Conclude.
+
+Finding the Issues. In debating, since time is so valuable, a speaker
+must not wander afield. He must use all his ability, all his material
+to prove his contention. It will help him to reject material not
+relevant if he knows exactly what is at issue between the two sides.
+It was avoiding the issue to answer the charge that Charles I was a
+tyrant by replying that he was a good husband. Unless debaters realize
+exactly what must be proven to make their position secure, there will
+be really no debate, for the two sides will never meet in a clash of
+opinion. They will pass each other without meeting, and instead of a
+debate they will present a series of argumentative speeches. This
+failure to state issues clearly and to support or refute them
+convincingly is one of the most common faults of all debating. In
+ordinary conversation a frequently heard criticism of a discussion or
+speech or article is "But that was not the point at issue at all."
+These issues must appear in the preliminary plans, in the finished
+brief, and in the debate itself.
+
+     The only point in issue between us is, how long after an
+     author's death the State shall recognize a copyright in his
+     representatives and assigns; and it can, I think, hardly be
+     disputed by any rational man that this is a point which the
+     legislature is free to determine in the way which may appear
+     to be most conducive to the general good.
+
+     THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY: _Copyright_, 1841
+
+     Mr. President, the very first question that challenges our
+     attention in the matter of a league of nations is the
+     question of whether a war in Europe is a matter of concern
+     to the United States. The ultraopponents of any league of
+     nations assert that European quarrels and European battles
+     are no concern of ours. If that be true, we may well pause
+     before obligating ourselves to make them our concern. Is it
+     true?
+
+     SENATOR P.J. MCCUMBER: _The League of Nations_,
+     1919
+
+The best method of finding the issues is to put down in two columns
+the main contentions of both sides. By eliminating those entries which
+are least important and those which have least bearing upon the
+present case the issues may be reduced to those which the debate
+should cover. Any possible attempt to cloud the issues on the part of
+the opposing side can thus be forestalled. All the speakers on one
+side should participate in this analysis of the proposition to find
+and state the issues.
+
+The New York _Tribune_, by parallel columns, brought out these chief
+points of difference between the Paris plan and Senator Knox's for the
+League of Nations.
+
+THE KNOX PLAN                      THE PARIS PLAN
+
+League formed of all, not          Under Article VII it is provided
+a portion, of the nations of       that no state shall be
+the world.                         admitted unless it is able to
+                                   give guaranties of its intention
+                                   to observe its international
+                                   obligations and conform
+                                   to the principles
+                                   prescribed by the League
+                                   in regard to it's naval and
+                                   military forces and armaments.
+
+War to be declared an              Article XVI provides that
+international crime, and any       should any of the high
+nation engaging in war, except     contracting parties break
+in self-defense when               covenants under Article XII
+actually attacked, to be punished  (relating to arbitration) it
+by the world as an                 shall be deemed to have committed
+international criminal.            an act of war against
+                                   the League, which undertakes
+                                   to exercise economic
+                                   pressure; and it is to be the
+                                   duty of the executive council
+                                   to recommend what military
+                                   or naval force the members
+                                   of the League shall contribute
+                                   to be used to protect
+                                   the covenants of the League.
+
+The Monroe Doctrine to             None of these matters is
+be safeguarded; also our           mentioned specifically, but
+immigration policy and our         President Wilson has said
+right to expel aliens.             that the League will "extend
+                                   the Monroe Doctrine to the
+                                   whole world" and that domestic
+                                   and internal questions
+                                   are not a concern of the
+                                   League.
+
+Our right to maintain military     Article VIII says: "The
+and naval establishments           executive council shall also
+and coaling stations,              determine for the consideration
+and our right to fortify the       and action of the several
+Panama Canal and our               governments what military
+frontiers to be safeguarded.       equipment and armament is
+                                   fair and reasonable and in
+                                   proportion to the scale of
+                                   forces laid down in the program
+                                   of disarmament, and
+                                   these limits when adopted
+                                   shall not be exceeded without
+                                   the permission of the executive
+                                   council."
+
+An international court to          Article XIV provides for
+be empowered by the League         the establishment of a "permanent
+to call upon the signatory         court of international
+Powers to enforce its decrees      justice," but its powers are
+against unwilling states by        limited to hearing and determining
+force, economic pressure, or       "any matter
+otherwise. The constitution        which the parties recognize
+of the League to provide,          as suitable for submission to
+however, that decrees against      it for arbitration" under
+an American Power shall be         Article XIII.
+enforced by the nations of
+this hemisphere, and decrees
+against a country of the
+eastern hemisphere by the
+Powers of that hemisphere.
+
+Team Work. With the plan agreed upon by the speakers, the brief made
+out, and the material distributed, each speaker can go to work in
+earnest to prepare his single speech. The best method has been
+outlined in this book. His notes should be accurate, clear, easily
+manipulated. His quotations should be exact, authoritative. By no
+means should he memorize his speech. Such stilted delivery would
+result in a series of formal declamations. With his mind stocked with
+exactly what his particular speech is to cover, yet familiar enough
+with the material of his colleagues to use it should he need it, the
+debater is ready for the contest.
+
+Manipulating Material. The speakers on a side should keep all their
+material according to some system. If cards are used, arguments to be
+used in the main debate might be arranged in one place, material for
+rebuttal in another, quotations and statistics in still another. Then
+if the other side introduces a point not anticipated it should be easy
+to find the refuting or explaining material at once to counteract its
+influence in the next speech, if it should be disposed of at once. If
+slips of paper are used, different colors might indicate different
+kinds of material. Books, papers, reports, to be used should always be
+within available distance. While a speaker for the other side is
+advancing arguments the speaker who will follow him should be able to
+change, if necessary, his entire plan of defense or attack to meet the
+manoeuver. He should select from the various divisions upon the
+table the material he needs, and launch at once into a speech which
+meets squarely all the contentions advanced by his predecessor. This
+instantaneous commandeering of material is likely to be most usual in
+rebuttal, but a good debater must be able to resort to it at a
+second's notice.
+
+The First Affirmative Speaker. The first affirmative speaker must
+deliver some kind of introduction to the contentions which his side
+intends to advance. It is his duty to be concise and clear in this. He
+must not use too much time. If the proposition needs defining and
+applying he must not fail to do it. He must not give the negative the
+opportunity to explain and apply to its own purposes the meaning of
+the proposition. He should state in language which the hearers will
+remember exactly what the issues are. He can help his own side by
+outlining exactly what the affirmative intends to prove. He may
+indicate just what portions will be treated by his colleagues. He
+should never stop with merely introducing and outlining. Every speaker
+must advance proof, the first as well as the others. If the
+preliminary statements by the first affirmative speaker are clearly
+and convincingly delivered, and if he places a few strong, supporting
+reasons before the judges, he will have started his side very well
+upon its course of debating. The last sentences of his speech should
+drive home the points he has proved.
+
+The First Negative Speaker. The first negative speaker either agrees
+with the definitions and application of the proposition as announced
+by the first affirmative speaker or he disagrees with them. If the
+latter, the mere statement of his disagreement is not sufficient.
+Contradiction is not proof. He must refute the definition and
+application of the proposition by strong reasoning and ample proof. If
+his side does not admit the issues as already presented he must
+explain or prove them away and establish in their place the issues his
+side sees in the discussion. When the two sides disagree concerning
+the issues there is a second proposition erected for discussion at
+once and the argument upon this second matter may crowd out the
+attempted argument upon the main proposition. To obviate such shifting
+many schools have the sides exchange briefs or statements of issues
+before the debate so that some agreement will be reached upon
+essentials.
+
+In addition to the matters just enumerated the first negative speaker
+should outline the plan his side will follow, promising exactly what
+things will be established by his colleagues. If he feels that the
+first affirmative speaker has advanced proofs strong enough to require
+instant refutation he should be able to meet those points at once and
+dispose of them. If they do not require immediate answering, or if
+they may safely be left for later refutation in the regular rebuttal,
+he may content himself with simply announcing that they will be
+answered. He should not allow the audience to believe that his side
+cannot meet them.
+
+He must not give the impression that he is evading them. If he has to
+admit their truth, let him frankly say so, showing, if possible, how
+they do not apply or do not prove all that is claimed for them, or
+that though they seem strong in support of the affirmative the
+negative side has still stronger arguments which by comparison refute
+at least their effect.
+
+The first negative speaker should not stop with mere refutation. If
+the first affirmative has advanced proofs, and the first negative
+disposes of them, the debate is exactly where it was at the beginning.
+The negative speaker must add convincing arguments of his own. It is a
+good thing to start with one of the strongest negative arguments in
+the material.
+
+The Second Affirmative and Second Negative Speakers. The second
+affirmative and the second negative speakers have very much the same
+kind of speech to make. Taking the immediate cues from the preceding
+speaker each may at first pay some attention to the remarks of his
+opponent. Here again there must be quickly decided the question
+already brought up by the first negative speech--shall arguments be
+refuted at once or reserved for such treatment in rebuttal? When this
+decision is made the next duty of each of these second speakers is to
+advance his side according to the plan laid down by his first
+colleague. He must make good the advance notice given of his team.
+
+Each position of a debater has its peculiar tasks. The middle speaker
+must not allow the interest aroused by the first to lag. If anything,
+his material and manner must indicate a rise over the opening speech.
+
+
+He must start at the place where the first speaker stopped and carry
+on the contention to the place at which it has been agreed he will
+deliver it to the concluding speaker for his side. If this connection
+among all the speeches of one side is quite plain to the audience an
+impression of unity and coherence will be made upon them. This will
+contribute to the effect of cogent reasoning. They will realize that
+instead of listening to a group of detached utterances they have been
+following a chain of reasoning every link of which is closely
+connected with all that precedes and follows.
+
+The Concluding Affirmative Speaker. The concluding affirmative speaker
+must not devote his entire speech to a conclusion by giving an
+extensive summary or recapitulation. He must present arguments.
+Realizing that this is the last chance for original argument from his
+side he may be assigned the very strongest argument of all to deliver,
+for the effect of what he says must last beyond the concluding speech
+of the negative. It would likewise be a mistake for him to do nothing
+more than argue in his concluding speech. Several persons have
+intervened since his first colleague outlined their side and announced
+what they would prove. It is his duty to show that the affirmative has
+actually done what it set out to do. By amplifying and diminishing he
+may also show how the negative had not carried out its avowed
+intention of disproving the affirmative's position and proving
+conclusively its own. The concluding speech for the affirmative is an
+excellent test of a debater's ability to adapt himself to conditions
+which may have been entirely unforeseen when the debate began, of his
+keenness in analyzing the strength of the affirmative and exposing
+the weakness of the negative, of his power in impressing the arguments
+of his colleagues as well as his own upon the audience, and of his
+skill in bringing to a well-rounded, impressive conclusion his side's
+part in the debate.
+
+The Concluding Negative Speaker. The concluding negative speaker must
+judge whether his immediate predecessor, the concluding affirmative
+speaker, has been able to gain the verdict of the judges. If he fears
+that he has, he must strive to argue that conviction away. He too must
+advance proof finally to strengthen the negative side. He must make
+his speech answer to his first colleague's announced scheme, or if
+some change in the line of development has been necessitated, he must
+make clear why the first was replaced by the one the debaters have
+followed. If the arguments of the negative have proved what it was
+declared they would, the last speaker should emphasize that fact
+beyond any question in any one's mind. Finally he should save time for
+a fitting conclusion. This brings the debate proper to a close.
+
+Restrictions in Rebuttal. In rebuttal--if it be provided--the main
+restrictions are two. The speeches are shorter than the earlier ones.
+No new lines of argument may be introduced. Only lines of proof
+already brought forward may be considered. Since the speeches are
+shorter and the material is restricted there is always the disposition
+to use rebuttal speeches for refutation only. This is a mistake.
+Refute, but remember always that constructive argument is more likely
+to win decisions than destructive. Dispose of as many points of the
+opponents as possible, but reiterate the supporting reasons of your
+own. Many speakers waste their rebuttals by trying to cover too many
+points. They therefore have insufficient time to prove anything, so
+they fall back upon bare contradiction and assertion. Such
+presentations are mere jumbles of statements. Choose a few important
+phases of the opposing side's contention. Refute them. Choose the
+telling aspects of your own case. Emphasize them.
+
+Manner in Debating. Be as earnest and convincing in your speeches as
+you can. Never yield to the temptation to indulge in personalities.
+Recall that other speakers should never be mentioned by name. They are
+identified by their order and their side, as "The first speaker on the
+affirmative" or "The speaker who preceded me," or "My colleague," or
+"My opponent." Avoid using these with tones and phrases of sarcasm and
+bitterness. Be fair and courteous in every way. Never indulge in such
+belittling expressions as "No one understands what he is trying to
+prove. He reels off a string of figures which mean nothing." Never
+indulge in cheap wit or attempts at satiric humor.
+
+Prepare so adequately, analyze so keenly, argue so logically, speak so
+convincingly, that even when your side loses, your opponents will have
+to admit that you forced them to do better than they had any idea they
+could.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SPEAKING UPON SPECIAL OCCASIONS
+
+
+Speech-making in the Professions. If a student enter a profession in
+which speech-making is the regular means of gaining his livelihood--as
+in law, religion, or lecturing--he will find it necessary to secure
+training in the technical methods applying to the particular kind of
+speech-making in which he will indulge. This book does not attempt to
+prepare any one for mastery of such special forms. The student will,
+however, be helping himself if he examines critically every delivery
+of a legal argument, sermon, or lecture he hears, for many of the
+rules illustrated by them and the impressions made by their speakers,
+can be transferred as models to be imitated or specimens to be avoided
+in his own more restricted and less important world.
+
+Speaking upon Special Occasions. Every American may be called upon to
+speak upon some special occasion. If he does well at his first
+appearance he may be invited or required by circumstances to speak
+upon many occasions. The person who can interest audiences by
+effective delivery of suitable material fittingly adapted to the
+particular occasion is always in demand. Within the narrower confines
+of educational institutions the opportunities for the student to
+appear before his schoolmates are as numerous as in real life. Some
+preliminary knowledge coupled with much practice will produce deep
+satisfaction upon successful achievement and result in rapid steps of
+self-development.
+
+Without pretending to provide for all possible circumstances in which
+students and others may be called upon to speak, this chapter will
+list some of the special occasions for which speeches should be
+prepared.
+
+Speeches of Presiding Officers. On practically all occasions there is
+a presiding officer whose chief duty is to introduce to the audience
+the various speakers. The one great fault of speeches of introduction
+is that they are too long. The introducer sincerely means not to
+consume too much time, but in the endeavor to do justice to the
+occasion or the speaker he becomes involved in his remarks until they
+wander far from his definite purpose. He wearies the audience before
+the important speaker begins. An introducer should not become so
+unconscious of his real task as to fall into this error. In other
+cases the fault is not so innocent. Many a person called upon to
+introduce a speaker takes advantage of the chance to express his own
+opinions. He drops into the discourtesy of using for his own ends a
+condition of passive attention which was not created for him. One
+large audience which had assembled to hear a lecturer was kept from
+listening to him while for twenty minutes the introducer aired his own
+pet theories. Of course members of the audience discussed among
+themselves the inappropriateness of such remarks, but it is doubtful
+whether any criticism reached the offender.
+
+A newspaper recently had the courage to voice the feelings of
+audiences.
+
+     It seems that a good deal of the time of the audience at the
+     Coliseum the other night was taken by those who introduced
+     the speakers of the evening. We are told in one account of
+     the meeting that the audience was at times impatient of
+     these preliminaries and even howled once or twice for those
+     it had come to hear.... We are informed that all those
+     introducing the speakers said something about not having
+     risen to speak at length, and that one of them protested his
+     inability to speak with any facility. Both these professions
+     are characteristic of those introducing speakers of the
+     evening. Yet, strangely enough, the same always happens.
+     That is, the preliminaries wear the audience out before the
+     people it came to hear can get at it.
+
+In introducing a speaker never be too long-winded. Tactfully,
+gracefully, courteously, put before the audience such facts as the
+occasion, the reason for the topic of the speech, the fitness and
+appropriateness of the choice of the speaker, then present the man or
+woman. Be extremely careful of facts and names. A nominating speaker
+at a great political convention ruined the effect of a speech by
+confusedly giving several first names to a distinguished man. It is
+embarrassing to a speaker to have to correct at the very beginning of
+his remarks a misstatement made by the presiding officer. But a man
+from one university cannot allow the audience to identify him with
+another. The author of a book wants its title correctly given. A
+public official desires to be associated in people's minds with the
+department he actually controls.
+
+The main purpose of a speech of introduction is to do for the
+succeeding speaker what the chapter on beginning the speech
+suggested--to render the audience attentive and well-disposed, to
+introduce the topic, and in addition to present the speaker.
+
+Choosing a Theme. The speaker at a special occasion must choose the
+theme with due regard to the subject and the occasion. Frequently his
+theme will be suggested to him, so that it will already bear a close
+relation to the occasion when he begins its preparation. The next
+matter he must consider with extreme care is the treatment. Shall it be
+serious, informative, argumentative, humorous, scoffing, ironic? To
+decide this he must weigh carefully the significance of the occasion.
+Selecting the inappropriate manner of treatment means risking the
+success of the speech. Recall how many men and speeches you have heard
+criticized as being "out of harmony with the meeting," or "not in
+spirit with the proceedings," and you will realize how necessary to
+the successful presentation is this delicate adjustment of the speech
+to the mood of the circumstances.
+
+The After-dinner Speech. When men and women have met to partake of
+good food under charming surroundings and have enjoyed legitimate
+gastronomic delights it is regrettable that a disagreeable element
+should be added by a series of dull, long-winded, un-appropriate
+after-dinner speeches. The preceding adjectives suggest the chief
+faults of those persons who are repeatedly asked to speak upon such
+occasions. They so often miss the mark. Because after-dinner speaking
+is so informal it is proportionally difficult. When called upon, a
+person feels that he must acknowledge the compliment by saying
+something. This, however, is not really enough. He must choose his
+theme and style of treatment from the occasion. If the toastmaster
+assign the topic he is safe so far as that is concerned, but he must
+still be careful of his treatment.
+
+A speaker at a dinner of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in which
+membership is awarded for rank in cultural as contrasted with
+practical, technical studies, seized upon the chance to deliver a
+rather long, quite detailed legal explanation of the parole system for
+convicted offenders against laws. At a dinner given by the
+Pennsylvania Society in a state far from their original homes the
+members were praised to the skies for preserving the love of their
+native state and marking their identity in a district so distant and
+different. This was quite appropriate for an introduction but the
+speaker then turned abruptly to one of his political speeches and
+berated the foreigner in America for not becoming at once an entirely
+made-over citizen. The speech contradicted its own sentiments. A wrong
+emphasis was placed upon its material. A disquieting impression was
+made upon the Pennsylvanians. At the conclusion they felt that they
+were guilty for having kept the love of their native soil; according
+to the tone of the speaker they should have accepted their new
+residence and wiped out all traces of any early ties.
+
+An after-dinner speaker should remember that dinners are usually marks
+of sociability, goodfellowship, congratulation, celebration,
+commemoration. Speeches should answer to such motives. The apt
+illustration, the clever twist, the really good story or anecdote, the
+surprise ending, all have their places here, if they are used with
+grace, good humor, and tact. This does not preclude elements of
+information and seriousness, but such matters should be introduced
+skilfully, discussed sparingly, enforced pointedly.
+
+The Commemorative Speech. Besides dinners, other gatherings may
+require commemorative addresses. These speeches are longer, more
+formal. The success of a debating team, the successful season of an
+athletic organization, the termination of a civic project, the
+election of a candidate, the celebration of an historic event, the
+tribute to a great man, suggest the kinds of occasions in which
+commemorative addresses should be made.
+
+Chosen with more care than the after-dinner speaker, the person on
+such an occasion has larger themes with which to deal, a longer time
+for their development, and an audience more surely attuned to
+sympathetic reception. He has more time for preparation also. In minor
+circumstances, such as the first three or four enumerated in the
+preceding paragraph, the note is usually congratulation for victory.
+Except in tone and length these speeches are not very different from
+after-dinner remarks. But when the occasion is more dignified, the
+circumstances more significant, addresses take on a different aspect.
+They become more soberly judicial, more temperately laudatory, more
+feelingly impressive. At such times public speaking approaches most
+closely to the old-fashioned idea of oratory, now so rapidly passing
+away, in its attempt to impress upon the audience the greatness of the
+occasion in which it is participating. The laying of a corner-stone,
+the completion of a monument or building, a national holiday, the
+birthday of a great man, the date of an epoch-marking event, bring
+forth eulogistic tributes like Webster's speech at Bunker Hill,
+Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Secretary Lane's Flag Day speech.
+
+False Eloquence. The beginner will not have many opportunities of
+delivering such remarkable addresses, but in his small sphere he will
+have chances to do similar things. He must beware of several faults of
+which the unwary are usually guilty. Recognizing the wonderful
+eloquence of the masterpieces of such kinds of address he may want to
+reproduce its effects by imitating its apparent methods. Nothing could
+be worse. The style of the great eulogy, born of the occasion and the
+speaker, becomes only exaggerated bombast and nonsense from the lips
+of a student. Exaggeration, high sounding terms, flowery language,
+involved constructions, do not produce eloquence in the speaker. They
+produce discomfort, often smiles of ridicule, in the audience. Many a
+student intending to cover himself with glory by eulogizing the
+martyred McKinley or the dead Roosevelt has succeeded only in covering
+himself with derision. Simplicity, straightforwardness, fair
+statement, should be the aims of beginning speakers upon such
+occasions.
+
+Speeches of Presentation and Acceptance. Standing between the two
+classes of speeches just discussed are speeches of presentation and
+acceptance. In practically all circumstances where such remarks are
+suitable there are present mingled feelings of celebration and
+commemoration. There is joy over something accomplished, and
+remembrance of merit or success. So the person making a speech of
+presentation must mingle the two feelings as he and the audience
+experience them. Taking his cue from the tone of the occasion he must
+fit his remarks to that mood. He may be as bright and sparkling and as
+amusing as a refined court jester. He may be as impressive and serious
+as a judge. The treatment must be determined by the circumstances.
+
+The speaker who replies must take his cue from the presenter. While
+the first has the advantage of carrying out his plan as prepared, the
+second can only dimly anticipate the theme he will express. At any
+rate he cannot so surely provide his beginning. That must come
+spontaneously from the turn given the material by his predecessor,
+although the recipient may pass by a transition to the remarks he
+prepared in advance.
+
+The observations which obtain in the presentation and acceptance of a
+material object--as a book, a silver tea set, a medal, an art
+gallery--apply just as well to the bestowal and acceptance of an
+honor, such as a degree from a university, an office, an appointment
+as head of a committee or as foreign representative, or membership in
+a society. Speeches upon such occasions are likely to be more formal
+than those delivered upon the transfer of a gift. The bestower may
+cite the reasons for the honor, the fitness of the recipient, the
+mutual honors and obligations, and conclude with hopes of further
+attainments or services. The recipient may reply from a personal
+angle, explaining not only his appreciation, but his sense of
+obligation to a trust or duty, his methods of fulfilling his
+responsibilities, his modestly phrased hope or belief in his ultimate
+success.
+
+The Inaugural Speech. In this last-named respect the speech of the
+recipient of an honor is closely related to the speech of a person
+inaugurated to office. This applies to all official positions to which
+persons are elected or appointed. The examples which will spring into
+students' minds are the inaugural speeches of Presidents of the United
+States. A study of these will furnish hints for the newly installed
+incumbent of more humble positions. In material they are likely to be
+retrospective and anticipatory. They trace past causes up to present
+effects, then pass on to discuss future plans and methods. Every
+officer in his official capacity has something to do. Newspaper
+articles will give you ideas of what officials should be doing. The
+office holder at the beginning of his term should make clear to his
+constituency, his organization, his class, his society, his school,
+just what he intends to try to do. He must be careful not to
+antagonize possible supporters by antagonistic remarks or opinions. He
+should try to show reason and expediency in all he urges. He should
+temper satisfaction and triumph with seriousness and resolve. Facts
+and arguments will be of more consequence than opinions and promises.
+The speech should be carefully planned in advance, clearly expressed,
+plainly delivered. Its statements should be weighed, as everyone of
+them may be used later as reasons for support or attack. To avoid such
+consequences the careful politician often indulges in glittering
+generalities which mean nothing. A student in such conditions should
+face issues squarely, and without stirring up unnecessary antagonism,
+announce his principles clearly and firmly. If he has changed his
+opinion upon any subject he may just as well state his position so
+that no misunderstanding may arise later.
+
+In the exercise of his regular activities a person will have many
+opportunities to deliver this kind of speech.
+
+The Nominating Speech. Recommendation of himself by a candidate for
+office does not fall within the plan of this book. Students, however,
+may indulge in canvassing votes for their favorite candidates, and
+this in some instances, leads to public speaking in class and mass
+meetings, assemblies, and the like. Of similar import is the
+nominating speech in which a member of a society, committee, meeting,
+offers the name of his candidate for the votes of as many as will
+indorse him. In nominating, it is a usual trick of arrangement to give
+first all the qualifications of the person whose election is to be
+urged, advancing all reasons possible for the choice, and uttering his
+name only in the very last words of the nominating speech. This plan
+works up to a cumulative effect which should deeply impress the
+hearers at the mention of the candidate's name.
+
+In nominating speeches and in arguments supporting a candidate the
+deliverer should remember two things. Constructive proof is better
+than destructive attack; assertion of opinion and personal preference
+is not proof. If it seems necessary at times to show the fitness of
+one candidate by contrast with another, never descend to
+personalities, never inject a tone of personal attack, of cheap wit,
+of ill-natured abuse. If such practices are resorted to by others,
+answer or disregard them with the courteous attention they deserve, no
+more. Do not allow yourself to be drawn into any discussion remote
+from the main issue--the qualifications of your own candidate. If you
+speak frequently upon such a theme--as you may during an extended
+campaign--notice which of your arguments make the strongest
+impressions upon the hearers. Discard the weaker ones to place more
+and more emphasis upon the convincing reasons. Never fail to study
+other speakers engaged in similar attempts. American life every day
+provides you with illustrations to study.
+
+The Speech in Support of a Measure. When, instead of a candidate, you
+are supporting some measure to be adopted, some reform to be
+instituted, some change to be inaugurated, your task is easier in one
+respect. There will be less temptation to indulge in personal matters.
+You will find it easier to adhere to your theme. In such attempts to
+mold public opinion--whether it be the collective opinion of a small
+school class, or a million voters--you will find opportunities for the
+inclusion of everything you know of the particular subject and of all
+human nature. Convinced yourself of the worthiness of your cause, bend
+every mental and intellectual effort to making others understand as
+you do, see as you do. If your reasoning is clear and converting, if
+your manner is direct and sincere, you should be able to induce others
+to believe as you do.
+
+The Persuasive Speech. In public speaking upon occasions when votes
+are to be cast, where reforms are to be instituted, where changes are
+to be inaugurated, you have not finished when you have turned the
+mental attitude, and done no more. You must arouse the will to act.
+Votes must be cast for the measure you approve. The reform you urge
+must be financed at once. The change must be registered. To accomplish
+such a purpose you must do more than merely prove; you must persuade.
+
+In the use of his power over people to induce them to noble,
+high-minded action lies the supreme importance of the public speaker.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Choose some recent event which you and your friends might celebrate
+by a dinner. As toastmaster, deliver the first after-dinner remarks
+drawing attention to the occasion and introducing some one to speak.
+
+2. Deliver the after-dinner speech just introduced.
+
+3. Introduce some other member of the class, who is not closely
+connected with the event being celebrated, and who therefore is a
+guest.
+
+4. Deliver this speech, being careful to make your remarks correspond
+to the preceding.
+
+5. A debating team has won a victory. Deliver the speech such a
+victory deserves.
+
+6. An athletic team has won a victory. As a non-participant, present
+the trophy.
+
+7. An athletic team has finished a season without winning the
+championship. Speak upon such a result.
+
+8. The city or state has finished some great project. Speak upon its
+significance.
+
+9. Address an audience of girls or women upon their right to vote.
+
+10. Speak in approval of some recently elected official in your
+community.
+
+11. Choose some single event in the history of your immediate
+locality. Speak upon it.
+
+12. Deliver a commemorative address suitable for the next holiday.
+
+13. Bring into prominence some man or woman connected with the past of
+your community.
+
+14. An unheralded hero.
+
+15. "They also serve who only stand and wait."
+
+16. "Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war."
+
+17. Deliver the speech to accompany the presentation of a set of
+books.
+
+18. Present to your community some needed memorial park, building, or
+other monument.
+
+19. Accept the gift for the community.
+
+20. Challenge another class to debate.
+
+21. Urge upon some organization support of some civic measure.
+
+22. As a representative of the students present some request to the
+authorities.
+
+23. A meeting has been called to hear you because of your association
+with some organization or movement. Deliver the speech.
+
+24. Some measure or movement is not being supported as it should be. A
+meeting of people likely to be interested has been called. Address the
+meeting.
+
+25. Appeal to your immediate associates to support some charitable
+work.
+
+26. Some organization has recently started a new project. Speak to it
+upon its task.
+
+27. An organization has successfully accomplished a new project.
+Congratulate it.
+
+28. Some early associate of yours has won recognition or success or
+fame away from home. He is about to return. Speak to your companions
+showing why they should honor him.
+
+29. Choose some person or event worthy of commemoration. Arrange a
+series of detailed topics and distribute them among members of the
+class. Set a day for their presentation.
+
+30. Choose a chairman. On the appointed day have him introduce the
+topic and the speakers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+DRAMATICS
+
+
+Difference between Public Speaking and Acting. In practically all the
+aspects of public speaking you deliver your own thoughts in your own
+words. In dramatic presentation you deliver the words already written
+by some one else; and in addition, while you are delivering these
+remarks you speak as though you were no longer yourself, but a totally
+different person. This is the chief distinction between speaking in
+public and acting. While you must memorize the lines you deliver when
+you try to act like a character other than yourself, speeches in
+dramatic production are not like usual memorized selections. Usually a
+memorized selection does not express the feelings or opinions of a
+certain character, but is likely to be descriptive or narrative. Both
+prose and verse passages contain more than the uttered words of a
+single person.
+
+As preparation for exercise in dramatics, whether simple or elaborate,
+training in memorizing and practice in speaking are extremely
+valuable. Memorizing may make the material grow so familiar that it
+loses its interest for the speaker. Pupils frequently recite committed
+material so listlessly that they merely bore hearers. Such a
+disposition to monotony should be neutralized by the ability to speak
+well in public.
+
+Naturalness and Sincerity. When you speak lines from a play inject as
+much naturalness and sincerity into your delivery as you can command.
+Speak the words as though they really express your own ideas and
+feelings. If you feel that you must exaggerate slightly because of the
+impression the remark is intended to make, rely more upon emphasis
+than upon any other device to secure an effect. Never slip into an
+affected manner of delivering any speech. No matter what kind of
+acting you have seen upon amateur or professional stage, you must
+remember that moderation is the first essential of the best acting.
+Recall what Shakespeare had Hamlet say to the players.
+
+Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus: but use all
+gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind
+of your passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give
+it smoothness. Oh, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious,
+periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split
+the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of
+nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise.
+
+Character Delineation. In taking part in a play you must do more than
+simply recite words spoken by some one other than yourself. You must
+really act like that person. This adds to the simple delivery of
+speeches all those other traits by which persons in real life are
+different from one another. Such complete identification of your
+personality with that of the person you are trying to represent in a
+play is termed character delineation, or characterization.
+
+You may believe that you cannot represent an Indian chief or a British
+queen, or an Egyptian slave, or a secret service agent, but if you
+will recall your childish pastime of day-dreaming you will see at once
+that you have quite frequently identified yourself with some one else,
+and in that other character you have made yourself experience the
+strangest and most thrilling adventures. When you study a role in a
+scene or play, use your imagination in that same manner. In a short
+time it will be easy for you to think as that other character would.
+Then you have become identified with him. The first step in your
+delineation has been taken.
+
+Visualize in your mind's eye--your imagination--the circumstances in
+which that character is placed in the play. See yourself looking,
+moving, acting as he would. Then talk as that character would in those
+circumstances. Make him react as he would naturally in the situations
+in which the dramatist has placed him.
+
+Let us try to make this more definite. Suppose a boy is chosen to act
+the part of an old man. An old man does not speak as rapidly as a boy
+does. He will have to change the speed of his speech. But suppose the
+old man is moved to wrath, would his words come slowly? Would he speak
+distinctly or would he almost choke?
+
+The girl who is delineating a foreign woman must picture her accent
+and hesitation in speaking English. She would give to her face the
+rather vacant questioning look such a woman would have as the English
+speech flits about her, too quickly for her to comprehend all of it.
+
+The girl who tries to present a British queen in a Shakespeare play
+must not act as a pupil does in the school corridor. Yet if that queen
+is stricken in her feelings as a mother, might not all the royal
+dignity melt away, and her Majesty act like any sorrowing woman?
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+You are sitting at a table or desk. The telephone rings. You pick up
+the receiver. A person at the other end invites you to dinner. Deliver
+your part of the conversation.
+
+1. Speak in your own character.
+
+2. Speak as a busy, quick-tempered old man in his disordered office.
+
+3. Speak as a tired wife who hasn't had a relief for weeks from the
+drudgery of house-work.
+
+4. Speak as a young debutante who has been entertained every day for
+weeks.
+
+5. Speak as the office boy.
+
+6. Speak as an over-polite foreigner.
+
+7. Delineate some other kind of person.
+
+Improvisations are here given first because such exercises depend upon
+the pupil's original interpretation of a character. The pupil is
+required to do so much clear thinking about the character he
+represents that he really creates it.
+
+Dialogues. As it is easier to get two people to speak naturally than
+where more are involved we shall begin conversation with dialogues.
+Each character will find the lines springing spontaneously from the
+situation. In dramatic composition any speech delivered by a character
+is called a line, no matter how short or long it is.
+
+As you deliver the dialogues suggested by the exercises try to make
+your speeches sound natural. Talk as real people talk. Make the
+remarks conversational, or colloquial, as this style is also termed.
+What things will make conversation realistic? In actual talk, people
+anticipate. Speakers do not wait for others to finish. They interrupt.
+They indicate opinions and impressions by facial expression and slight
+bodily movements. Tone changes as feelings change.
+
+Try to make your remarks convey to the audience the circumstances
+surrounding the dialogue. Let the conversation make some point clear.
+Before you begin, determine in your own mind the characterization you
+intend to present.
+
+Situation. A girl buys some fruit from the keeper of a stand at a
+street corner.
+
+What kind of girl? Age? Manner of speaking? Courteous? Flippant?
+Well-bred? Slangy? Working girl? Visitor to town?
+
+What kind of man? Age? American? Foreigner? From what country?
+Dialect? Disposition? Suspicious? Sympathetic?
+
+Weather? Season of year? Do they talk about that? About themselves?
+Does the heat make her long for her home in the country? Does the cold
+make him think of his native Italy or Greece? Will her remarks change
+his short, gruff answers to interested questions about her home? Will
+his enthusiasm for his native land change her flippancy to interest in
+far-off romantic countries? How would the last detail impress the
+change, if you decide to have one? Might he call her back and force
+her to take a gift? Might she deliver an impressive phrase, then dash
+away as though startled by her exhibition of sympathetic feeling?
+
+These are mere suggestions. Two pupils might present the scene as
+indicated by these questions. Two others might show it as broadly
+comic, and end by having the girl--at a safe distance--triumphantly
+show that she had stolen a second fruit. That might give him the cue
+to end in a tirade of almost inarticulate abuse, or he might stand in
+silence, expressing by his face the emotions surging over him. And his
+feeling need not be entirely anger, either. It might border on
+admiration for her amazing audacity, or pathetic helplessness, or
+comic despair, or determination to "get even" next time.
+
+Before you attempt to present any of the following suggestive
+exercises you should consider every possibility carefully and decide
+definitely and consistently all the questions that may arise
+concerning every detail.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Let a boy come into the room and try to induce a girl (the mistress
+of a house) to have a telephone installed. Make the dialogue realistic
+and interesting.
+
+2. Let a girl demonstrate a vacuum cleaner (or some other appliance)
+to another girl (mistress of a house).
+
+3. Let a boy apply for a position to a man in an office.
+
+4. Let a boy dictate a letter to a gum-chewing, fidgety, harum-scarum
+stenographer.
+
+5. Let this stenographer tell the telephone girl about this.
+
+6. Show how a younger sister might talk at a baseball or football game
+to her slightly older brother who was coerced into bringing her with
+him.
+
+7. Show a fastidious woman at a dress goods counter, and the tired,
+but courteous clerk. Do not caricature, but try to give an air of
+reality to this.
+
+8. Show how two young friends who have not seen each other for weeks
+might talk when they meet again.
+
+9. Deliver the thoughts of a pupil at eleven o'clock at night trying
+to choose the topic for an English composition due the next morning.
+Have him talk to his mother, or father, or older brother, or sister.
+
+10. A foreign woman speaking and understanding little English, with a
+ticket to Springfield, has by mistake boarded a through train which
+does not stop there. The conductor, a man, and woman try to explain to
+her what she must do.
+
+11. Let three different pairs of pupils represent the girl and the
+fruit seller cited in the paragraphs preceding these exercises.
+
+12. A young man takes a girl riding in a new automobile. Reproduce
+parts of the ride.
+
+13. Two graduates of your school meet after many years in a distant
+place. Reproduce their reminiscenses.
+
+14. A woman in a car or coach has lost or misplaced her transfer or
+ticket. Give the conversation between her and the conductor.
+
+15. Let various pairs of pupils reproduce the conversations of patrons
+of moving pictures.
+
+16. Suggest other characters in appropriate situations. Present them
+before the class.
+
+Characters Conceived by Others. In all the preceding exercises you
+have been quite unrestricted in your interpretation. You have been
+able to make up entirely the character you presented. Except for a few
+stated details of sex, age, occupation, nature, no suggestions were
+given of the person indicated. Delineation is fairly easy to
+construct when you are given such a free choice of all possibilities.
+The next kind of exercise will involve a restriction to make the
+acting a little more like the acting of a role in a regular play. Even
+here, however, a great deal is left to the pupil's thought and
+decision.
+
+How much chance there may be for such individual thought and decision
+in a finished play written by a careful dramatist may be illustrated
+by _Fame and the Poet_ by Lord Dunsany. One of the characters is a
+Lieutenant-Major who calls upon a poet in London. Nothing is said
+about his costume. In one city an actor asked the British consul. He
+said officers of the army do not wear their uniforms except when in
+active service, but on the British stage one great actor had by his
+example created the convention of wearing the uniform. In another city
+at exactly the same time the author himself was asked the same
+question. He said that by no means should the actor wear a uniform.
+
+In the next exercises you are to represent characters with whom you
+have become acquainted in books. You will therefore know something
+about their dispositions, their appearance, and their actions. Your
+task will be to give life-like portraits which others will recognize
+as true to their opinions of these same people. For all who have read
+the books the general outlines will be identical. The added details
+must not contradict any of the traits depicted by the authors.
+Otherwise they may be as original as you can imagine.
+
+In the _Odyssey_, the great old Greek poem by Homer, the wandering
+hero, Odysseus (also called Ulysses), is cast up by the sea upon a
+strange shore. Here he meets Nausicaa (pronounced Nau-si'-ca-a) who
+offers to show him the way to the palace of her father, the Bang. But
+as she is betrothed she fears that if she is seen in the company of an
+unknown man some scandalous gossip may be carried to her sweetheart.
+So she directs that when they near the town Odysseus shall tarry
+behind, allowing her to enter alone. In this naive incident this much
+is told in detail by the poet. We are not told whether any gossip does
+reach the lover's ears. He does not appear in the story. We are not
+told even his name. Nor are we told how either she or he behaved when
+they first met, after she had conducted the stranger to the palace.
+
+If you enact this scene of their meeting you will first have to find a
+name for him. You are free to create all the details of their behavior
+and conversation. Was he angry? Was he cool towards her? Had he heard
+a false account?
+
+Before attempting any of the following exercises decide all the
+matters of interpretation as already indicated in this chapter.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Molly Farren tries to get news of Godfrey Cass from a Stable-boy.
+_Silas Marner_.
+
+2. The two Miss Gunns talk about Priscilla Lammeter. _Silas Marner_.
+
+3. The Wedding Guest meets one of his companions. _The Ancient
+Mariner_.
+
+4. Nausicaa tells her betrothed about Odysseus. _Odyssey_.
+
+5. Reynaldo in Paris tries to get information about Laertes.
+_Hamlet_.
+
+6. Fred tells his wife about Scrooge and Crachit. _A Christmas Carol_.
+
+7. Jupiter tells a friend of the finding of the treasure. _The Gold
+Bug_.
+
+8. Two women who know David Copperfield talk about his second
+marriage. _David Copperfield_.
+
+Memorized Conversations. You can approach still more closely to the
+material of a play if you offer in speech before your class certain
+suitable portions from books you are reading or have read. These
+selections may be made from the regular class texts or from
+supplementary reading assignments. In studying these passages with the
+intention of offering them before the class you will have to think
+about two things. First of all, the author has in all probability,
+somewhere in the book, given a fairly detailed, exact description of
+the looks and actions of these characters. If such a description does
+not occur in an extended passage, there is likely to be a series of
+statements scattered about, from which a reader builds up an idea of
+what the character is like. The pupil who intends to represent a
+person from a book or poem must study the author's picture to be able
+to reproduce a convincing portrait.
+
+The audience will pass over mere physical differences. A young girl
+described in a story as having blue eyes may be acted by a girl with
+brown, and be accepted. But if the author states that under every kind
+remark she made there lurked a slight hint of envy, that difficult
+suggestion to put into a tone must be striven for, or the audience
+will not receive an adequate impression of the girl's disposition.
+
+So, too, in male characters. A boy who plays old Scrooge in _A
+Christmas Carol_ may not be able to look like him physically, but in
+the early scenes he must let no touch of sympathy or kindness creep
+into his voice or manner.
+
+It is just this inability or carelessness in plays attempting to
+reproduce literary works upon the stage that annoys so many
+intelligent, well-read people who attend theatrical productions of
+material which they already know. When _Vanity Fair_ was dramatised
+and acted as _Becky Sharp_, the general comment was that the
+characters did not seem like Thackeray's creations. This was even more
+apparent when _Pendennis_ was staged.
+
+If you analyze and study characters in a book from this point of view
+you will find them becoming quite alive to your imagination. You will
+get to know them personally. As you vizualize them in your imagination
+they will move about as real people do. Thus your reading will take on
+a new aspect of reality which will fix forever in your mind all you
+glance over upon the printed page.
+
+Climax. The second thing to regard in choosing passages from books to
+present before the class is that the lines shall have some point.
+Conversation in a story is introduced for three different purposes. It
+illustrates character. It exposes some event of the plot. It merely
+entertains. Such conversation as this last is not good material for
+dramatic delivery. It is hardly more than space filling. The other two
+kinds are generally excellent in providing the necessary point to
+which dramatic structure always rises. You have heard it called a
+climax. So then you should select from books passages which provide
+climaxes.
+
+One dictionary defines climax: "the highest point of intensity,
+development, etc.; the culmination; acme; as, he was then at the
+climax of his fortunes." In a play it is that turning-point towards
+which all events have been leading, and from which all following
+events spring. Many people believe that all climaxes are points of
+great excitement and noise. This is not so. Countless turning-points
+in stirring and terrible times have been in moments of silence and
+calm. Around them may have been intense suspense, grave fear,
+tremendous issues, but the turning-point itself may have been passed
+in deliberation and quiet.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Choose from class reading--present or recent--some passage in
+conversation. Discuss the traits exhibited by the speakers. Formulate
+in a single statement the point made by the remarks. Does the interest
+rise enough to make the passage dramatic?
+
+2. Several members of the class should read certain passages from
+books, poems, etc. The class should consider and discuss the
+characterization, interest, point, climax.
+
+3. Read Chapters VI and VII of _Silas Marner_ by George Eliot. Are the
+characters well marked? Is the conversation interesting in itself?
+Does the interest rise? Where does the rise begin? Is there any
+suspense? Does the scene conclude properly? If this were acted upon a
+stage would any additional lines be necessary or desirable?
+
+4. Read the last part of Chapter XI of _Silas Marner_. What is the
+point?
+
+5. Memorize this dialogue and deliver it before the class. Did the
+point impress the class?
+
+6. Consider, discuss, and test passages from any book which the
+members of the class know.
+
+7. Present before the class passages from any of the following:
+
+Dickens        _A Christmas Carol_
+               _A Tale of Two Cities_
+               _David Copperfield_
+George Eliot   _Silas Marner_
+               _The Mill on the Floss_
+Scott          _Ivanhoe_
+               _Kenilworth_
+               _The Lady of the Lake_
+Mark Twain     _Huckleberry Finn_
+               _The Prince and the Pauper_
+O. Henry       _Short Stories_
+Thackeray      _Vanity Fair_
+               _Henry Esmond_
+               _Pendennis_
+Kipling        _Captains Courageous_
+               _Stalkey and Co_.
+Hugo           _Les Miserables_
+Tennyson       _Idylls of the King_
+               _The Princess_
+Arnold         _Sohrab and Rustum_
+Stevenson      _Treasure Island_
+Gaskell        _Cranford_
+Carroll        _Alice in Wonderland_
+Kingsley       _Westward Ho!_
+Barrie         _Sentimental Tommy_
+
+Characters in Plays. In acting regular plays you may find it necessary
+to follow either of the preceding methods of characterization. The
+conception of a character may have to be supplied almost entirely by
+some one outside the play. Or the dramatist may be very careful to
+set down clearly and accurately the traits, disposition, actions of
+the people in his plays. In this second case the performer must try to
+carry out every direction, every hint of the dramatist. In the first
+case, he must search the lines of the play to glean every slightest
+suggestion which will help him to carry out the dramatist's intention.
+Famous actors of characters in Shakespeare's plays can give a reason
+for everything they show--at least, they should be able to do so--and
+this foundation should be a compilation of all the details supplied by
+the play itself, and stage tradition of its productions.
+
+In early plays there are practically no descriptions of the
+characters. Questions about certain Shakespeare characters will never
+be solved to the satisfaction of all performers. For instance, how old
+is Hamlet in the tragedy? How close to madness did the dramatist
+expect actors to portray his actions? During Hamlet's fencing match
+with Laertes in the last scene the Queen says, "He's fat, and scant of
+breath." Was she describing his size, or meaning that he was out of
+fencing trim?
+
+Shakespeare puts into the mouth of Julius Caesar a detailed
+description of the appearance and manner of acting of one of the chief
+characters of the tragedy.
+
+    Let me have men about me that are fat;
+    Sleek-headed men and such as sleep o' nights:
+    Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look;
+    He thinks too much: such men are dangerous.
+       *       *       *       *       *
+    Would he were fatter! But I fear him not:
+    Yet if my name were liable to fear,
+    I do not know the man I should avoid
+    So soon as that spare Cassius. He reads much;
+    He is a great observer, and he looks
+    Quite through the deeds of men; he loves no plays,
+    As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music;
+    Seldom he smiles, and smiles in such a sort
+    As if he mock'd himself and scorn'd his spirit
+    That could be mov'd to smile at any thing.
+
+In _As You Like It_ when the two girls are planning to flee to the
+forest of Arden, Rosalind tells how she will disguise herself and act
+as a man. This indicates to the actress both costume and behavior for
+the remainder of the comedy.
+
+                         Were it not better,
+    Because that I am more than common tall,
+    That I did suit me all points like a man?
+    A gallant curtle-axe upon my thigh,
+    A boar-spear in my hand; and--in my heart
+    Lie there what hidden woman's fear there will--
+    We'll have a swashing and a martial outside,
+    As many other mannish cowards have
+    That do outface it with their semblances.
+
+In many cases Shakespeare clearly shows the performer exactly how to
+carry out his ideas of the nature of a man during part of the action.
+One of the plainest instances of this kind of instruction is in
+_Macbeth_. The ambitious thane's wife is urging him on to murder his
+king. Her advice gives the directions for the following scenes.
+
+                              O never
+    Shall sun that morrow see!
+    Your face, my thane, is as a book where men
+    May read strange matters. To beguile the time,
+    Look like the time; bear welcome in your eye,
+    Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower,
+    But be the serpent under't. He that's coming
+    Must be provided for: and you shall put
+    This night's great business into my dispatch;
+    Which shall to all our nights and days to come
+    Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom.
+
+Modern dramatists are likely to be much more careful in giving advice
+about characterization. They insert a large number of stage directions
+covering this matter. Speed of delivery, tone and inflection, as well
+as underlying feeling and emotion are minutely indicated.
+
+     DUCHESS OF BERWICK
+
+     Mr. Hopper, I am very angry with you. You have taken Agatha
+     out on the terrace, and she is so delicate.
+
+     HOPPER
+
+     [_At left of center_] Awfully sorry, Duchess. We went out
+     for a moment and then got chatting together.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     [_At center_] Ah, about dear Australia, I suppose?
+
+     HOPPER
+
+     Yes.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     Agatha, darling! [_Beckons her over._]
+
+     AGATHA
+
+     Yes, mamma!
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     [_Aside_] _Did Mr. Hopper definitely--_
+
+     AGATHA
+
+     Yes, mamma.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     And what answer did you give him, dear child?
+
+     AGATHA
+
+     Yes, mamma.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     [_Affectionately_] My dear one! You always say the right
+     thing. Mr. Hopper! James! Agatha has told me everything. How
+     cleverly you have both kept your secret.
+
+     HOPPER
+
+     You don't mind my taking Agatha off to Australia, then,
+     Duchess?
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     [_Indignantly_] To Australia? Oh, don't mention that
+     dreadful vulgar place.
+
+     HOPPER
+
+     But she said she'd like to come with me.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     [_Severely_] Did you say that, Agatha?
+
+     AGATHA
+
+     Yes, mamma.
+
+     DUCHESS
+
+     Agatha, you say the most silly things possible.
+
+Descriptions of Characters. In addition to definite directions at
+special times during the course of the dialogue, modern writers of
+plays describe each character quite fully at his first entrance into
+the action. This gives the delineator of each role a working basis for
+his guidance. Such directions carefully followed out assure the tone
+for the whole cast. They keep a subordinate part always in the proper
+relation to all others. They make certain the impression of the whole
+story as a consistent artistic development. They prevent
+misunderstandings about the author's aim. They provide that every
+character shall appear to be swayed by natural motives. They remove
+from the performance all suggestions of unregulated caprice.
+
+Dramatists vary in the exactness and minuteness of such descriptive
+character sketches, but even the shortest and most general is
+necessary to the proper appreciation of every play, even if it is
+being merely read. When a student is assimilating a role for
+rehearsing or acting, these additions of the author are as important
+as the lines themselves.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Analyze the following. Discuss the suitability of various members of
+the class for each part. Which details do you think least essential?
+
+1. He is a tall, thin, gaunt, withered, domineering man of sixty. When
+excited or angry he drops into dialect, but otherwise his speech,
+though flat, is fairly accurate. He sits in an arm-chair by the empty
+hearth working calculations in a small shiny black notebook, which he
+carries about with him everywhere, in a side pocket.
+
+2. When the curtain rises a man is seen climbing over the balcony. His
+hair is close cut; his shirt dirty and blood-stained. He is followed by
+another man dressed like a sailor with a blue cape, the hood drawn
+over his head. Moonlight.
+
+3. Enter Dinah Kippen quickly, a dingy and defiant young woman
+carrying a tablecloth. She is a nervous creature, driven half-mad by
+the burden of her cares. Conceiving life, necessarily, as a path to be
+traversed at high speed, whenever she sees an obstacle in her way,
+whether in the physical or in the moral sphere, she rushes at it
+furiously to remove it or destroy it.
+
+4. Mrs. Rhead, a woman of nearly sixty, is sitting on the sofa,
+crocheting some lace, which is evidently destined to trim petticoats.
+Her hair is dressed in the style of 1840, though her dress is of the
+1860 period.
+
+5. The song draws nearer and Patricia Carleon enters. She is dark and
+slight, and has a dreamy expression. Though she is artistically
+dressed, her hair is a little wild. She has a broken branch of some
+flowering tree in her hand.
+
+6. Enter a Neat-herd, followed by King Alfred, who is miserably clad
+and shivering from cold; he carries a bow and a few broken arrows. A
+log fire is burning smokily in a corner of the hut.
+
+7. Enter from the right Ito, the cynic philosopher, book in hand.
+
+8. The rising of the curtain discovers the two Miss Wetherills--two
+sweet old ladies who have grown so much alike it would be difficult
+for a stranger to tell the one from the other. The hair of both is
+white, they are dressed much alike, both in some soft lavender colored
+material, mixed with soft lace.
+
+9. Newte is a cheerful person, attractively dressed in clothes
+suggestive of a successful follower of horse races. He carries a white
+pot hat and tasselled cane. His gloves are large and bright. He is
+smoking an enormous cigar.
+
+10. She is young, slender, graceful; her yellow hair is in disorder,
+her face the color of ruddy gold, her teeth white as the bones of the
+cuttle-fish, her eyes humid and sea-green, her neck long and thin,
+with a necklace of shells about it; in her whole person something
+inexpressibly fresh and glancing, which makes one think of a creature
+impregnated with sea-salt dipped in the moving waters, coming out of
+the hiding-places of the rocks. Her petticoat of striped white and
+blue, torn and discolored, falls only just below the knees, leaving
+her legs bare; her bluish apron drips and smells of the brine like a
+filter; and her bare feet in contrast with the brown color that the
+sun has given her flesh, are singularly pallid, like the roots of
+aquatic plants. And her voice is limpid and childish; and some of the
+words that she speaks seem to light up her ingenuous face with a
+mysterious happiness.
+
+Studying Plays. In nearly every grade of school and college, plays are
+either read or studied. The usual method of study is to read the lines
+of the play in rotation about the class, stopping at times for
+explanations, definitions, impressions, general discussions. Such
+minute analysis may extend to the preparation of outlines and
+diagrams. The methods used to get pupils to know plays are almost as
+varied as teachers. After such analytical study has been pursued it is
+always a stimulating exercise to get another impression of the
+play--not as mere poetry or literature, but as acted drama.
+
+This may be accomplished in a short time by very simple means. Pupils
+should memorize certain portions and then recite them before the
+class. Neither costumes nor scenery will be required. All the members
+of the class have in their minds the appearances of the surroundings
+and the persons. What they need is to _hear_ the speeches the
+dramatist put into the hearts and mouths of his characters.
+
+The best presentation would be the delivery of the entire play running
+through some four or five class periods. If so much time cannot be
+allotted to this, only certain scenes need be delivered. The teacher
+might assign the most significant ones to groups of pupils, allowing
+each group to arrange for rehearsals before appearing before the
+class. In some classes the pupils may be trusted to arrange the entire
+distribution of scenes and roles. When their preliminary planning has
+been finished, they should hand to the teacher a schedule of scenes
+and participants.
+
+Whenever a play is read or studied, pupils will be attracted more by
+some passages than by others. A teacher may dispense with all
+assignments. The pupils could be directed merely to arrange their own
+groups, choose the scenes they want to offer, and to prepare as they
+decide. In such a voluntary association some members of the class
+might be uninvited to speak with any group. These then might find
+their material in prologue, epilogue, chorus, soliloquy, or inserted
+songs. Nearly every play contains long passages requiring for their
+effect no second speaker. Shakespeare's plays contain much such
+material. All the songs from a play would constitute a delightful
+offering. Nothing in all the acted portion of _Henry V_ is any better
+than the stirring speeches of the Chorus. _Hamlet_ has three great
+soliloquies for boys. _Macbeth_ contains the sleepwalking scene for
+girls. Milton's _Comus_ is made up of beautiful poetic passages. Every
+drama studied or read for school contains enough for every member of a
+class.
+
+Some pupils may object that unless an exact preliminary assignment is
+made, two or more groups may choose the same scene. Such a probable
+happening, far from being a disadvantage to be avoided, is a decided
+advantage worthy of being purposely attempted. Could anything be more
+stimulating than to see and hear two different casts interpret a
+dramatic situation? Each would try to do better than the other. Each
+would be different in places. From a comparison the audience and
+performers would have all the more light thrown upon what they
+considered quite familiar.
+
+It would be a mistake to have five quartettes repeat the same scene
+over and over again. Yet if twenty pupils had unconsciously so chosen,
+three presentations might be offered for discriminating observation.
+Then some other portion could be inserted and later the first scene
+could be gone through twice.
+
+Assigning Roles. Teacher and pupils should endeavor to secure variety
+of interest in roles. At first, assignments are likely to be
+determined by apparent fitness. The quiet boy is not required to play
+the part of the braggart. The retiring girl is not expected to
+impersonate the shrew. In one or two appearances it may be a good
+thing to keep in mind natural aptitude.
+
+Then there should be a departure from this system. Educational
+development comes not only from doing what you are best able to do,
+but from developing the less-marked phases of your disposition and
+character. The opposite practice should be followed, at least once.
+Let the prominent class member assume a role of subdued personality.
+Let the timid take the lead. Induce the silent to deliver the majority
+of the speeches. You will be amazed frequently to behold the best
+delineations springing from such assignments.
+
+Such rehearsing of a play already studied should terminate the minute
+analysis in order to show the material for what it is--actable drama.
+It will vivify the play again, and make the characters live in your
+memory as mere reading never will. You will see the moving people, the
+grouped situations, the developed story, the impressive climax, and
+the satisfying conclusion.
+
+In dealing with scenes from a long play--whether linked or
+disconnected--pupils will always have a feeling of incompleteness. In
+a full-length play no situation is complete in itself. It is part of a
+longer series of events. It may finish one part of the action, but it
+usually merely carries forward the plot, passing on the complication
+to subsequent situations.
+
+Short Plays. To deal with finished products should be the next
+endeavor. There are thousands of short plays suitable for class
+presentation in an informal manner. Most of them do not require
+intensive study, as does a great Greek or English drama, so their
+preparation may go on entirely outside the classroom. It should be
+frankly admitted that the exercises of delivering lines "in character"
+as here described is not acting or producing the play. That will come
+later. These preliminary exercises--many or few, painstaking or
+sketchy--are processes of training pupils to speak clearly,
+interestingly, forcefully, in the imagined character of some other
+person. The pupil must not wrongly believe that he is acting.
+
+Though the delivery of a complete short play may seem like a
+performance, both participants and audience must not think of it so.
+It is class exercise, subject to criticism, comment, improvement,
+exactly as all other class recitations are.
+
+Since the entire class has not had the chance to become familiar with
+all the short plays to be presented, some one should give an
+introductory account of the time and place of action. There might be
+added any necessary comments upon the characters. The cast of
+characters should be written upon the board.
+
+This exercise should be exactly like the preceding, except that it
+adds the elements of developing the plot of the play, creating
+suspense, impressing the climax, and satisfactorily rounding off the
+play. In order to accomplish these important effects the participants
+will soon discover that they must agree upon certain details to be
+made most significant. This will lead to discussions about how to make
+these points stand out. In the concerted attempt to give proper
+emphasis to some line late in the play it will be found necessary to
+suppress a possible emphasis of some line early in the action. To
+reinforce a trait of some person, another character may have to be
+made more self-assertive.
+
+To secure this unified effect which every play should make the persons
+involved will have to consider carefully every detail in lines and
+stage directions, fully agree upon what impression they must strive
+for, then heartily cooeperate in attaining it. They must forget
+themselves to remember always that "the play's the thing."
+
+The following list will suggest short plays suitable for informal
+classroom training in dramatics. Most of these are also general enough
+in their appeal to serve for regular production upon a stage before a
+miscellaneous audience.
+
+Aldrich, T.B.           _Pauline Pavlovna_
+Baring, M.               _Diminutive Dramas_
+Butler, E.P.            _The Revolt_
+Cannan, G.               _Everybody's Husband_
+Dunsany, Lord            _Tents of the Arabs_
+                         The Lost Silk Hat
+                         Fame and the Poet_
+Fenn and Pryce.          _'Op-o-Me-Thumb_
+Gale, Z.                 _Neighbors_
+Gerstenberg, A.          _Overtones_
+Gibson, W. W.            Plays in Collected Works
+Gregory, Lady.           _Spreading the News
+                         The Workhouse Ward
+                         Coats,_ etc.
+Houghton, S.             _The Dear Departed_
+Jones, H. A.             _Her Tongue_
+Kreymborg, A.            _Mannikin and Minnikin_
+Moeller, P.              _Pokey_
+Quintero, J. and S.A.   _A Sunny Morning_
+Rice, C.                 _The Immortal Lure_
+Stevens, T.W.            _Ryland_
+Sudermann, H.            _The Far-Away Princess_
+Tchekoff, A.             _A Marriage Proposal_
+Torrence, R.             _The Rider of Dreams_
+Walker, S.               _Never-the-Less_
+Yeats, W.B.              _Cathleen Ni Houlihan_
+
+Producing Plays. Any class or organization which has followed the
+various forms of dramatics outlined thus far in this chapter will find
+it an easy matter to succeed in the production of a play before an
+audience.
+
+The Play. The first thing to decide upon is the play itself. This
+choice should be made as far in advance of performance as is possible.
+Most of the work of producing a play is in adequate preparation. Up to
+this time audiences have been members of the class, or small groups
+with kindly dispositions and forbearing sympathies. A general audience
+is more critical. It will be led to like or dislike according to the
+degree its interest is aroused and held. It will be friendly, but more
+exacting. The suitability of the play for the audience must be
+regarded. A comedy by Shakespeare which delights and impresses both
+performers and audience is much more stimulating and educating than a
+Greek tragedy which bores them.
+
+The Stage. The second determining factor is the stage. What is its
+size? What is its equipment? Some plays require large stages; others
+fit smaller ones better. A large stage may be made small, but it is
+impossible to stretch a small one.
+
+Equipment for a school stage need not be elaborate. Artistic ingenuity
+will do more than reckless expenditure. The simplest devices can be
+made to produce the best effects. The lighting system should admit of
+easy modification. For example, it should be possible to place lights
+in various positions for different effects. It should be possible to
+get much illumination or little.
+
+Scenery. No scenery should be built when the stage is first erected.
+If a regular scene painter furnishes the conventional exterior,
+interior, and woodland scenery, the stage equipment is almost ruined
+for all time. It is ridiculous that a lecturer, a musician, a school
+principal, and a student speaker, should appear before audiences in
+the same scenery representing a park or an elaborate drawing-room. The
+first furnishings for a stage should be a set of beautiful draped
+curtains. These can be used, not only for such undramatic purposes as
+those just listed, but for a great many plays as well.
+
+No scenery should be provided until the first play is to be presented.
+Certain plays can be adequately acted before screens arranged
+differently and colored differently for changes. When scenery must be
+built it should be strongly built as professional scenery is. It
+should also be planned for future possible manipulation. Every
+director of school dramatics knows the delight of utilizing the same
+material over and over again. Here is one instance. An interior set,
+neutral in tones and with no marked characteristics of style and
+period, was built to serve in Acts I and V of _A Midsummer Night's
+Dream_. Hangings, furniture, costumes gave it the proper appearance.
+Later it was used in _Ulysses_. It has also housed Moliere's _Doctor
+in Spite of Himself_ (_Le Medecin Malgre Lui_) and _The Wealthy
+Upstart_ (_Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme_), Carrion and Aza's _Zaragueeta_,
+Sudermann's _The Far-Away Princess_, Houghton's _The Dear Departed_.
+The wooden frames on the rear side were painted black, the canvas
+panels tan, to serve in _Twelfth Night_ for the drinking scene, Act
+II, scene 3. With Greek shields upon the walls it later pictured the
+first scene of _The Comedy of Errors_. With colorful border designs
+attached and oriental furniture it set a Chinese play.
+
+A definite series of dimensions should be decided upon, and all
+scenery should be built in relation to units of these sizes. As a
+result of this, combinations otherwise impossible can be made.
+Beginners should avoid putting anything permanent upon a stage. The
+best stage is merely space upon which beautiful pictures may be
+produced. Beware of adopting much lauded "new features" such as
+cycloramas, horizonts, until you are assured you need them and can
+actually use them. In most cases it is wise to consult some one with
+experience.
+
+In considering plays for presentation you will have to think of
+whether your performers and your stage will permit of convincing
+production. Remembering that suggestion is often better than realism,
+and knowing that beautiful curtains and colored screens are more
+delightful to gaze upon than cheap-looking canvas and paint, and
+knowing that action and costume produce telling effects, decide what
+the stage would have to do for the following scenes.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Read scene 2 of _Comus_ by Milton. Should the entire masque be
+acted out-of-doors? If presented on an indoors stage what should the
+setting be? Inside the palace of Comus? How then do the Brothers get
+in? How do Sabrina and her Nymphs arise? From a pool, a fountain?
+Might the stage show an exterior? Would the palace be on one side? The
+edge of the woods on the other? Would the banks of the river be at the
+rear? Would such an arrangement make entrances, exits, acting,
+effective? Explain all your opinions.
+
+Read one of the following. Devise a stage setting for it. Describe it
+fully. If you can, make a sketch in black and white or in color,
+showing it as it would appear to the audience. Or make a working plan,
+showing every detail. Or construct a small model of the set, making
+the parts so that they will stand. Or place them in a box to reproduce
+the stage. Use one-half inch to the foot.
+
+2. _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, scene 1. Interior? Exterior? Color?
+Lighting?
+
+3. _Hamlet_, Act I, scene 5. Castle battlements? A graveyard? Open
+space in country some distance from castle?
+
+4. _Comus_, scene 3.
+
+5. _The Tempest_, Act I, scene 1.
+
+6. _Twelfth Night_, Act II, scene 3.
+
+7. _Romeo and Juliet_, Act I, scene I.
+
+8. _Julius Caesar_, Act III, scene 2.
+
+9. In a long, high-vaulted room, looking out upon a Roman garden where
+the cypresses rise in narrowing shafts from thickets of oleander and
+myrtle, is seated a company of men and women, feasting.
+
+WILLIAM SHARP: _The Lute-Player_
+
+10. A room, half drawing-room, half study, in Lewis Davenant's house
+in Rockminister. Furniture eighteenth century, pictures, china in
+glass cases. An April afternoon in 1860.
+
+GEORGE MOORE: _Elizabeth Cooper_
+
+11. An Island off the West of Ireland. Cottage kitchen, with nets,
+oil-skins, spinning wheel, some new boards standing by the wall, etc.
+
+J.M. SYNGE: _Riders to the Sea_
+
+12. Loud music. After which the Scene is discovered, being a
+Laboratory or Alchemist's work-house. Vulcan looking at the registers,
+while a Cyclope, tending the fire, to the cornets began to sing.
+
+BEN JONSON: _Mercury Vindicated_
+
+13. Rather an awesome picture it is with the cold blue river and the
+great black cliffs and the blacker cypresses that grow along its
+banks. There are signs of a trodden slope and a ferry, and there's a
+rough old wooden shelter where passengers can wait; a bell hung on the
+top with which they call the ferryman.
+
+CALTHROP AND BARKER: _The Harlequinade_
+
+Long before any play is produced there should be made a sketch or plan
+showing the stage settings. If it is in color it will suggest the
+appearance of the actual stage. One important point is to be noted.
+Your sketch or model is merely a miniature of the real thing. If you
+have a splotch of glaring color only an inch long it will appear in
+the full-size setting about two feet long. A seemingly flat surface
+three by five inches in the design will come out six by ten feet
+behind the footlights.
+
+Casting the Play. When the play is selected, the roles must be cast.
+To select the performers, one of many different methods may be
+followed. The instructor of the class or the director of the
+production may assign parts to individuals. When this person knows the
+requirements of the roles and the abilities of the members, this
+method always saves time and effort. By placing all the responsibility
+upon one person it emphasizes care in choosing to secure best results.
+At times a committee may do the casting. Such a method prevents
+personal prejudice and immature judgments from operating. It splits
+responsibility and requires more time than the first method. It is an
+excellent method for seconding the opinions of a director who does not
+know very well the applicants for parts. The third method is by
+"try-outs." In this the applicants show their ability. This may be
+done by speaking or reciting before an audience, a committee, or the
+director. It may consist of acting some role. It may be the delivery
+of lines from the play to be acted. It may be in a "cast reading" in
+which persons stand about the stage or room and read the lines of
+characters in the play. If there are three or four applicants for one
+part, each is given a chance to act some scene. In this manner all the
+roles are filled.
+
+There are two drawbacks to this scheme which is the fairest which can
+be devised. It consumes a great deal of time. Some member of the class
+or organization best fitted to play a role may not feel disposed to
+try for it. Manifestly he should be the one selected. But it appears
+unfair to disregard the three boys who have made the effort while he
+has done nothing. Yet every role should be acted in the very best
+manner. For the play's sake, the best actor should be assigned the
+part. A pupil may try for a part for which he is not at all suited,
+while he could fill another role better than any one who strives to
+get it.
+
+In a class which has been trained in public speaking or dramatics as
+this book suggests, it should be no difficult task to cast any play,
+whether full-length or one act. Performers must always be chosen
+because of the possible development of their latent abilities rather
+than for assured attainments.
+
+These qualities must be sought for in performers of roles--obedience,
+dependableness, mobility, patience, endurance.
+
+Rehearsing. A worthy play which is well cast is an assured success
+before its first rehearsal.
+
+The entire group should first study the whole play under the
+director's comment. It is best to have each actor read his own part.
+The behavior of a minor character in the second act may depend upon a
+speech in the first. The person playing that role must seize upon that
+hint for his own interpretation.
+
+It might be a good thing to have every person "letter perfect," that
+is, know all his speeches, at the first rehearsal. Practically, this
+never occurs. Reading from the book or the manuscript, a performer
+"walks through" his part, getting at the same time an idea of where he
+is to stand, how to move, how to speak, what to do, where to enter,
+when to cross the stage. All such directions he should jot down upon
+his part. Then memorizing the lines will fix these stage directions in
+his mind. He will be assimilating at the same time lines and
+"business." "Business" on the stage is everything done by a character
+except speaking lines.
+
+At all rehearsals the director is in absolute charge. His word is
+final law. This does not mean that members of the cast may not discuss
+things with him, and suggest details and additions. They must be
+careful to choose a proper time to do such things. They should never
+argue, but follow directions. Time outside rehearsals may be devoted
+to clearing up points. Of course an actor should never lose his
+temper. Neither should the director. Both of these bits of advice are
+frequently almost beyond observation of living human beings. Yet they
+are the rules.
+
+Rehearsals should be frequent rather than long. Acts should be
+rehearsed separately. Frequently only separate portions should be
+repeated. Combinations should be made so as not to keep during long
+waits characters with only a few words. Early portions will have to be
+repeated more frequently than later ones to allow the actors to get
+into their characterizations. Tense, romantic, sentimental, comic
+scenes may have to be rehearsed privately until they are quite good
+enough to interest other members of the cast.
+
+The time for preparation will depend upon general ability of the cast,
+previous training, the kind of play, the amount of leisure for study
+and rehearsing. In most schools a full-length play may be crowded into
+four weeks. Six or seven weeks are a better allowance.
+
+During first rehearsals changes and corrections should be made when
+needed. Interruptions should be frequent. Later there should be no
+interruptions. Comments should be made at the end of a scene and
+embodied in an immediate repetition to fix the change in the actors'
+minds. Other modifications should be announced before rehearsal, and
+embodied in the acting that day.
+
+The acting should be ready for an audience a week before the date set
+for the performance. During the last rehearsals, early acts should be
+recalled and repeated in connection with later ones, so that time and
+endurance may be counted and estimated. During these days rehearsals
+must go forward without any attention from the director. He must be
+giving all his attention to setting, lighting, costumes, properties,
+furniture, and the thousand and one other details which make play
+producing the discouraging yet fascinating occupation it is. Such
+repetition without constant direction will develop a sense of
+independence and cooeperation in the actors and assistants which will
+show in the enthusiasm and ease of the performance. Stage hands and
+all other assistants must be trained to the same degree of reliability
+as the hero and heroine. Nothing can be left to chance. Nothing can be
+unprovided until the last minute. The dress rehearsal must be exactly
+like a performance, except that the audience is not present, or if
+present, is a different one. In schools, an audience at the dress
+rehearsal is usually a help to the amateur performers.
+
+Results. A performance based on such principles and training as here
+suggested should be successful from every point of view.
+
+The benefits to the participants are many. They include strengthening
+of the power to memorize, widening of the imagination through
+interpretation of character, familiarity with a work of art, training
+in poise, utilization of speaking ability, awakening of
+self-confidence, and participation in a worthy cooeperative effort.
+
+In a broader sense such interest in good, acted plays is an
+intellectual stimulus. As better plays are more and more effectively
+presented the quality of play production in schools will be improved,
+and both pupils and communities will know more and more of the world's
+great dramatic literature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+_Additional Exercises in Exposition_
+
+
+1. The value of public speaking.
+
+2. How Lincoln became a great speaker.
+
+3. Studies in a good school course.
+
+4. Purposes of studying geometry.
+
+5. Explain the reasons for studying some subject.
+
+6. An ideal school.
+
+7. Foreign language study.
+
+8. Forming habits.
+
+9. Sailing against the wind.
+
+10. How to play some game. Give merely the rules or imagine the game
+being played.
+
+11. Difference between football in America and in England.
+
+12. Exercise or athletics?
+
+13. Results of military training.
+
+14. The gambling instinct.
+
+15. Parliamentary practice.
+
+16. How to increase one's vocabulary.
+
+17. Is the story of _The Vicar of Wakefield_ too good to be true?
+
+18. The defects of some book.
+
+19. Reading fiction.
+
+20. Magazines in America.
+
+21. Explain fully what a novel is, or a farce, or an allegory, or a
+satire.
+
+22. Why slang is sometimes justifiable.
+
+23. A modern newspaper.
+
+24. Select two foreign magazines. Compare and contrast them.
+
+25. Essential features of a good short story.
+
+26. Why evening papers offer so many editions.
+
+27. How to find a book in a public library.
+
+28. The difference between public speaking and oratory.
+
+29. Public speaking for the lawyer, the clergyman, the business man.
+
+30. Qualities of a book worth reading.
+
+31. Some queer uses of English.
+
+32. History in the plays of Shakespeare.
+
+33. How to read a play.
+
+34. Mistakes in books or plays.
+
+35. Defects of translations.
+
+36. "One touch of nature makes the whole world kin."
+
+37. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure."
+
+38. "You never miss the water till the well runs dry."
+
+39. "Penny wise, pound foolish."
+
+40. Select any proverb. Explain it.
+
+41. Choose a short quotation from some poem. Explain it.
+
+42. Explain some technical operation.
+
+43. Explain some mechanical process.
+
+44. A range factory.
+
+45. Making electric bulbs.
+
+46. How moving pictures are made and reproduced.
+
+47. Explain some simple machine.
+
+48. A new application of electricity.
+
+49. Weather forecasting.
+
+50. Scientific or practical value of polar expeditions.
+
+51. Changes of the tide.
+
+52. An eclipse.
+
+53. The principle of some such appliance as the thermometer, the
+barometer, the microscope, the air-brake, the block signal.
+
+54. Developing a negative.
+
+55. How the player piano is operated.
+
+56. How the cash register prevents dishonesty.
+
+57. How a new fruit is produced--as seedless orange.
+
+58. Mimeographing.
+
+59. The value of Latin for scientific terms.
+
+60. The value of certain birds, worms, insects.
+
+61. The life history of some queer animal, or insect, or plant.
+
+62. How accuracy is secured.
+
+63. The human eye and the camera.
+
+64. The fireless cooker.
+
+65. Choose some half dozen terms from any trade or business and
+explain them. To sell short, margin, bull, bear, lamb. Proscenium,
+apron, flies, baby spot, strike. Fold in eggs, bring to a boil,
+simmer, percolate, to French. File, post, carry forward, remit,
+credit, receivership. Baste, hem, rip, overcast, box pleat, batik,
+Valenciennes.
+
+66. Building a musical program.
+
+67. Commercial art.
+
+68. Catch phrases in advertising.
+
+69. Principles of successful advertising.
+
+70. The Linotype machine.
+
+71. How I made my first appearance as a public speaker.
+
+72. Real conversation.
+
+73. Mere talk.
+
+74. The business woman.
+
+75. A slump in a certain business or industry.
+
+76. The Red Cross in war.
+
+77. The Red Cross in peace.
+
+78. Compare the principles of two political parties.
+
+79. A fire alarm.
+
+80. Why automobiles are licensed.
+
+81. The powers and duties of some city or county official.
+
+82. The advantages that this locality offers for certain industries or
+kinds of agriculture.
+
+83. Society fads.
+
+84. The ideal office holder.
+
+85. New systems of government.
+
+86. Various forms of socialism.
+
+87. Collecting a debt by law.
+
+88. Explain some legal procedure as suggested by some term, as
+mandamus, injunction, demurrer, habeas corpus, nolle prosequi.
+
+89. Explain the composition and work of the Grand Jury.
+
+90. The efficiency expert.
+
+91. A new profession.
+
+92. The advantages of a trolley car with both entrance and exit at the
+front end.
+
+93. Labor-saving devices.
+
+94. A supercargo.
+
+95. Scientific shop management.
+
+96. Hiring and discharging employees.
+
+97. Applying for a business position.
+
+98. Causes of some recent labor strike.
+
+99. A labor union operates as a trust.
+
+100. Efficiency in the kitchen.
+
+101. Speeding up the work.
+
+102. Planning a factory.
+
+103. Making cheap automobiles.
+
+104. Uses of paper.
+
+105. New methods of furnishing houses.
+
+106. Making the home beautiful.
+
+107. New building materials.
+
+108. Designing and building a boat.
+
+109. The lay-out of a shipyard.
+
+110. Rules for planting.
+
+111. City government.
+
+112. Better methods of city government.
+
+113. How a trial is conducted.
+
+114. The juvenile court.
+
+115. Post office savings banks.
+
+116. Geographic advantages of this locality.
+
+117. Results of irrigation.
+
+118. How the farmer controls world prices.
+
+119. Relation between some distant event and the price of some article
+in the corner store.
+
+120. New businesses in America with their reasons for existence.
+
+121. The latest improvement in this locality.
+
+122. Why certain cities are destined to increase in population.
+
+123. Model homes.
+
+124. Housing the inhabitants of large cities.
+
+125. The operation of a subway.
+
+126. Automobile trucks instead of freight trains.
+
+127. How Lincoln became President.
+
+128. Why Webster did not become President.
+
+129. The dead-letter office.
+
+130. The Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of
+Great Britain.
+
+131. How the United States secured Porto Rico.
+
+132. A free trade policy.
+
+133. Commercial reciprocity.
+
+134. The protective tariff.
+
+135. Explain the application of some tax, as income, single,
+inheritance.
+
+136. How the constitutionality of a law is determined.
+
+137. How laws are made by Congress.
+
+138. The Congressional Record.
+
+139. The Monroe Doctrine.
+
+140. The attitude of foreign nations toward the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+141. Differences between the Chinese and the Japanese.
+
+142. The failure of the Hague Tribunal.
+
+143. The part of the United States in a league of nations.
+
+144. Reasons for the conditions in Mexico.
+
+145. Our country's duty toward Mexico.
+
+146. The so-called Yellow Peril.
+
+147. Trans-oceanic air travel.
+
+148. Evolution of the airship.
+
+149. The geodetic survey.
+
+150. The census bureau.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+_Additional Exercises in Argumentation_
+
+
+1. Find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which conviction is
+the prime factor.
+
+2. Find in a magazine or newspaper some article in which persuasion is
+most used.
+
+3. Give examples from recent observation of discussions which were not
+argument as the term is used in this book.
+
+4. Explain how arguments upon a topic of current interest would differ
+in material and treatment for three kinds of audiences.
+
+5. The education of the American negro should be industrial not
+cultural.
+
+6. To the Cabinet of the United States there should be added a
+Secretary of Education with powers to control all public education.
+
+7. Separate high schools for boys and girls should be maintained.
+
+8. It is better to attend a small college than a large one.
+
+9. Women should be eligible to serve as members of the school board.
+
+10. Pupils should be marked by a numerical average rather than by a
+group letter.
+
+11. At least two years of Latin should be required for entrance to
+college.
+
+12. The honor system should be introduced in all examinations in high
+schools and colleges.
+
+13. The study of algebra should be compulsory in high school.
+
+14. Courses in current topics, based upon material in newspapers,
+should be offered in all high schools.
+
+15. Every high school should require the study of local civics or
+local industries.
+
+16. Regular gymnastic work is more beneficial than participation in
+organized athletics.
+
+17. Girls should study domestic science.
+
+18. The kindergarten should be removed from our educational system.
+
+19. Coeducation in schools and colleges is better than segregation.
+
+20. Secret societies should be prohibited in high schools.
+
+21. A magazine or newspaper which copies material from one in which it
+first appears should be required by law to compensate the author.
+
+22. Moving picture exhibitions should be more strictly regulated.
+
+23. An exposition produces decided advantages for the city in which it
+is held.
+
+24. A county fair is a decided benefit to a rural community.
+
+25. All young men in this country should receive military training for
+a period of one year.
+
+26. This city should provide employment for the unemployed.
+
+27. Motor delivery trucks should be substituted for horse-drawn
+wagons.
+
+28. Labor unions are justified in insisting upon the re-employment of
+members discharged for a cause which they deem unjust.
+
+29. Farmers should study scientific agriculture.
+
+30. Capital and labor should be required by law to settle their
+disputes by appeals to a legally constituted court of arbitration
+whose decisions should be enforced.
+
+31. In time of peace no member of a labor union should be a member of
+a regularly organized military force.
+
+32. Overtime work should be paid for at the same rate as regular work.
+
+33. All work should be paid for according to the amount done rather
+than by time.
+
+34. Employers are justified in insisting upon the "open shop."
+
+35. Trade unions are justified in limiting the number of persons
+allowed to enter a trade.
+
+36. This state should establish a minimum working wage for women.
+
+37. The street railway company should pave and keep in repair all
+streets in which its cars are operated.
+
+38. More definite laws concerning the sale of milk should be passed.
+
+39. This city should institute government by a commission.
+
+40. This city should institute and maintain an adequate system of
+public playgrounds.
+
+41. This city should provide more free recreations for its citizens.
+
+42. City government should be conducted by a highly paid municipal
+expert hired for the purpose of controlling city affairs exactly as he
+would a large business organization.
+
+43. A public building for community interests is a better memorial for
+a city to erect than the usual monument or statue.
+
+44. Voting machines should be used in all cities.
+
+45. All public utilities should be owned and operated by the city.
+
+46. Judges should not be elected by popular vote.
+
+47. A representative should vote according to the opinions of his
+constituency.
+
+48. This state should provide old-age pensions.
+
+49. Laws should be passed making it impossible to dispose of more than
+one million dollars by will.
+
+50. The pure food law should be strictly enforced.
+
+51. Every state should have a state university in which tuition for
+its inhabitants should be absolutely free.
+
+52. The Governor of a state should not have the pardoning power.
+
+53. No children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in
+factories.
+
+54. Laws concerning the sale of substitutes for butter should be made
+more stringent.
+
+55. Sunday closing laws should be repealed.
+
+56. The railroads of the United States should be allowed to pool their
+interests.
+
+57. The present method of amending the Constitution of the United
+States should be changed.
+
+58. This government should insist upon a strict adherence to the
+Monroe Doctrine.
+
+59. The American Indian has been unjustly treated.
+
+60. Railroads should be under private ownership but subject to
+government control.
+
+61. An educational test should be required of all persons desiring to
+enter this country.
+
+62. The United States should own and control the coal mines of the
+country.
+
+63. Members of the House of Representatives should be chosen to
+represent industries, workers, and professions, rather than
+geographical divisions.
+
+64. Woman suffrage carries with it the right to hold office except
+where expressly forbidden in existing laws and constitutions.
+
+65. Instead of an extension of suffrage to all women there should be a
+restriction from the previous inclusion of all men.
+
+66. All raw materials should be admitted to this country free of duty.
+
+67. All departments of the government should be under the Civil
+Service Act.
+
+68. The Civil War pension policy was a wise one.
+
+69. The United States should build and maintain a large navy.
+
+70. A high protective tariff keeps wages high.
+
+71. Letter postage should be reduced to one cent.
+
+72. Laws governing marriage and divorce should be made uniform by
+Congress.
+
+73. The present restriction upon Chinese immigration should be
+modified to admit certain classes.
+
+74. The standing army of the United States should be increased.
+
+75. This government should establish a system of shipping subsidies.
+
+76. Repeated failure to vote should result in the loss of the right of
+suffrage.
+
+77. The United States should not enter into any league of nations.
+
+78. The defeated central powers of Europe should be admitted to full
+membership in the League of Nations.
+
+79. Japan should be prevented from owning or controlling any territory
+upon the continent which belonged to China.
+
+80. Great Britain should establish Egypt as an independent country.
+
+81. Ireland should be organized as a Dominion similar to Canada and
+Australia.
+
+82. The United States should establish a protectorate over Mexico.
+
+83. This country should demand from Germany an indemnity equal to our
+expenses in the war.
+
+84. The former Kaiser of Germany and his state officials responsible
+for the World War of 1914 should be tried by an international court.
+
+85. All European nations should agree to disarmament.
+
+86. Foreign missions should be discontinued.
+
+87. The Jews of the world should colonize Palestine.
+
+88. Commercial reciprocity should be established between the United
+States and South America.
+
+89. This country has no need to fear any aggression from any Asiatic
+race.
+
+90. The government system of Great Britain is more truly
+representative than that of the United States.
+
+91. A railroad should pay ten thousand dollars to the family of any
+employee who meets death by accident while on duty.
+
+92. There is no such thing possible as "Christian warfare."
+
+93. Vivisection should be prohibited.
+
+94. The dead should be cremated.
+
+95. Cigarettes should not be sold to boys under eighteen.
+
+96. Children under fourteen should not be allowed to appear upon the
+stage.
+
+97. Socialism is the best possible solution of all labor problems.
+
+98. The Soviet system of government has details applicable to certain
+conditions in America.
+
+99. No person should be forced to undergo vaccination.
+
+100. Labor interests can be served best by the formation of a separate
+political party.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ABBOTT, Lyman, 118
+
+Abolition Movement, The, 185
+
+acceptance, speech of, 284
+
+acquired ability, 6
+
+acting, 291
+
+after-dinner speech, 281
+
+Allen, John, 116
+
+amplified definition, 203
+
+amplifying and diminishing, 255
+
+analogy, 233
+
+analogy, incorrect, 252
+
+analysis, 244
+
+Anglo-Saxon, 51
+
+anticipatory conclusion, 102, 105
+
+Antony, Mark, 81
+
+antonyms, 48
+
+_a posteriori_ argument, 237
+
+appealing to prejudice or passions, 247
+
+appropriate diction, 54
+
+_a priori_ argument, 236
+
+argumentation, 218
+
+_argumentum ad hominem_, 249
+
+_argumentum ad populum_, 247
+
+Aristotle, 97
+
+arrangement, 151, 164
+
+assigning roles, 312
+
+attacking speaker's character, 249
+
+attributes of speaker, 29
+
+audience in debate, 262
+
+authorities, 180, 232
+
+
+BACON, 5
+
+Beecher, Henry Ward, 82, 83, 162
+
+begging the question, 245
+
+Birrell, Augustine, 114
+
+brief, 28, 170
+
+brief, making a, 187
+
+brief, speaking from the, 191
+
+briefing, selections for, 180
+
+Bright, John, 29
+
+burden of proof, 225
+
+Burke, Edmund, 23, 65, 66, 80, 116,
+162, 167, 172, 255
+
+business, 322
+
+
+CALHOUN, John C., 66, 108, 206
+
+capital punishment, brief, 173
+
+cards, 134-5
+
+casting a play, 320
+
+causal relation, 237
+
+cause to effect, 209, 236
+
+Channing, William Ellery, 249
+
+character delineation, 292
+
+characters, description of, 307
+
+characters in plays, 303
+
+Chatham, Lord, 111
+
+Cheyney, Edward P., 204
+
+Choate, Rufus, 63
+
+choosing a theme, 281
+
+Cicero, 77
+
+circumstantial evidence, 226
+
+classification, 199
+
+Clay, Henry, 249
+
+climax, 301
+
+coherence, 154
+
+commemorative speech, 283
+
+comparison, 208
+
+complex sentence, 59
+
+composition of the English language, 50
+
+compound sentence, 60
+
+conclusion, length, 99
+
+consonants, 17
+
+constructive argument, 256
+
+contradiction, 244
+
+contrast, 208
+
+conversations, memorized, 300
+
+conviction, 220
+
+Crabbe, _English Synonyms_, 48
+
+cross references, 137
+
+Curtis, George William, 52, 54, 67, 120, 253
+
+
+DANIEL, John W., 119
+
+debaters, 262
+
+debating, 258
+
+decision in debate, 260
+
+deductive reasoning, 229
+
+definition, 201
+
+delineation of character, 292
+
+delivery, 26
+
+delivery of introductions, 89
+
+Demosthenes, 8
+
+description of characters, 307
+
+Dewey, M., 139
+
+dialogue, 294
+
+_differentia_, 201
+
+diminishing, amplifying and, 255
+
+direct evidence, 226
+
+discarding material, 146
+
+division, 199
+
+dramatics, 291
+
+drawbacks, 8
+
+dress rehearsal, 323
+
+Dunsany, Lord, 298
+
+
+EFFECT to cause, 210, 237
+
+elimination, 236
+
+eloquence, false, 284
+
+Elson, H.W., 131
+
+emphasis, 22, 155
+
+enthymeme, 231
+
+enunciation, 23
+
+Evarts, William M., 118
+
+Everett, Edward, 67
+
+evidence, 226
+
+examples, 206, 232
+
+exclamatory sentence, 60
+
+explaining, 194
+
+explanation, 232
+
+exposition, 194
+
+experience, 122
+
+
+FALLACIES, 251
+
+false eloquence, 284
+
+Fernald, _English Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions_, 48
+
+finding the issues, 267
+
+Ford, Simeon, 114
+
+Fox, Charles James, 9
+
+Fox, John, 23
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 77
+
+
+GENERAL terms, 52
+
+genus, 201
+
+gestures, 26
+
+getting material, 122
+
+Gettysburg Address, 183
+
+Gratiano, 6
+
+
+HALE, Edward Everett, 118
+
+Hamlet's advice to players, 31
+
+hasty generalization, 228
+
+Hayne, 162
+
+Henry, Patrick, 64, 84, 85, 112
+
+Homer, 298
+
+Howell, Clark, 119
+
+Huxley, Thomas H., 150
+
+
+IDEAS and words, 38
+
+ignoring the question, 246
+
+importance, 212
+
+importance of speech, 1
+
+improvisation, 294
+
+inaugural speech, 285
+
+Incidents of Government Trading, 181
+
+incorrect analogy, 252
+
+increasing the vocabulary, 39
+
+index, 130
+
+inductive reasoning, 228
+
+interrogative sentence, 61
+
+interview, 125
+
+introduction, length, 72
+
+introduction, purpose, 73
+
+introduction and audience, 76
+
+invention and speech, 3
+
+issues, 267
+
+
+JEFFERSON, Joseph, 120
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, 117
+
+judges, 268
+
+_Julius Caesar_, 81
+
+
+KINDS of propositions, 822
+
+Knox, Philander, 269
+
+
+LANGUAGE, 12, 197
+
+League of Nations, 269
+
+legal brief, 170
+
+length of speech, 143
+
+library, 136
+
+library classification, 138
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, 9, 30, 57, 65, 100, 103, 117, 148, 172, 183, 255
+
+list of short plays, 314
+
+long sentences, 61
+
+Lodge, Henry Cabot, 76, 135
+
+logical definition, 201
+
+Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, 136
+
+
+MACAULAY, Thomas Babington, 52, 68, 160, 208, 233, 246, 268
+
+making a brief, 187
+
+manner in debate, 277
+
+margins, 175
+
+material of speeches, 121
+
+McCumber, P.J., 268
+
+memorized conversations, 300
+
+memorizing, 28, 191
+
+methods of explaining, 198
+
+military leadership, 5
+
+
+NATURALNESS, 292
+
+nominating speech, 287
+
+notes, 133
+
+
+OBSERVATION, 122
+
+organs of speech, 14
+
+organ pipe, 14
+
+Otis, James, 88
+
+outline, 28,164
+
+
+PANAMA Canal, 110
+
+particulars of general statement, 205
+
+partition, 199
+
+Penn, William, 258
+
+periodicals, 139
+
+peroration, 109
+
+persuading, 218
+
+persuasion, 237
+
+persuasive speech, 288
+
+Phillips, Wendell, 185
+
+phrasing, 22
+
+pitch, 21
+
+place, 211
+
+plan, 156
+
+plays, characters in, 303
+
+plays, producing, 315
+
+plays, short, 313
+
+plays, studying, 310
+
+poise, 25
+
+pose, 25
+
+_Power Plant Engineering_, 187
+
+prefixes, 41
+
+preparation for debate, 266
+
+preparing introductions, 89
+
+preparing the conclusion, 95
+
+presentation and acceptance, speeches of, 284
+
+presiding officer, 261
+
+presiding officers, 279
+
+producing plays, 315
+
+pronunciation, 24
+
+proof, 232
+
+proposition, 221, 265
+
+propositions of fact, 223
+
+propositions of policy, 223
+
+proving, 218
+
+
+READING, 128
+
+reading the speech, 27
+
+rebuttal, restrictions, 276
+
+rebuttal speeches, 266
+
+recapitulation, 106
+
+reducing to absurdity, 258
+
+_reductio ad absurdum_, 253
+
+refuting, 242, 251
+
+rehearsing, 321
+
+residues, 234
+
+results of training, 10
+
+retrospective conclusion, 101, 105
+
+Roget's _Thesaurus_, 43
+
+roles, assigning, 312
+
+Romance, 51
+
+Roosevelt, Theodore, 69, 100, 101, 104, 109, 114
+
+
+SANITATION, 70
+
+scenery, 816
+
+scholastic debating, 265
+
+selecting material, 130
+
+selections for briefing, 180
+
+self-criticism, 192
+
+sentences, 58
+
+Shakespeare, 304
+
+short plays, 313
+
+short sentences, 61
+
+Sidney, Sir Phillip, 90
+
+simple sentence, 58
+
+sincerity, 292
+
+singing, 18
+
+speakers in debate, 272
+
+speaking from the brief, 191
+
+speaking from the floor, 70
+
+special occasions, speaking upon, 278
+
+specific terms, 52
+
+specimen brief, capital punishment, 173
+
+speech in modern life, 2
+
+speed, 20
+
+stage, 316
+
+statistics, 187
+
+studying plays, 310
+
+suffixes, 43
+
+summary, 107
+
+Sumner, Charles, 148, 160, 234
+
+support of a measure, 288
+
+syllogism, 229
+
+symbols, 176
+
+synonyms, 46
+
+
+TABLE of contents, 130
+
+tabulations, 178
+
+talk, 5
+
+taking notes, 133
+
+team work, 271
+
+theme, choosing a, 281
+
+Thesaurus, 43
+
+thinking, 161
+
+thought, 12
+
+time limit in debates, 265
+
+time order, 210
+
+time order reversed, 211
+
+tone, 15, 19
+
+tradition, 248
+
+transitions, 157
+
+trite expressions, 55
+
+Twain, Mark, 145
+
+
+UNDERSTANDING, 129, 196
+
+unity, 152
+
+
+VAN DYKE, Henry, 115
+
+vocabularies, 37
+
+voice, 14
+
+vowels, 16
+
+
+WASHINGTON, Booker T., 161
+
+Washington, George, 103, 159, 206
+
+Webster, Daniel, 10, 83, 84, 102, 106, 107, 111, 149, 205, 231, 254
+
+Wilson, Woodrow, 69, 75, 105, 114, 117
+
+wording the proposition, 224
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Public Speaking, by Clarence Stratton
+
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