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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17594-8.txt b/17594-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9a3cb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/17594-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8251 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lectures on Language, by William S. Balch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lectures on Language + As Particularly Connected with English Grammar. + +Author: William S. Balch + +Release Date: January 24, 2006 [EBook #17594] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Amy Cunningham, Bill Tozier +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + +In this book, as well as using _ to indicate the italic font, the = +symbol has been used to show text printed in smaller capital letters in +the original printed version. Please see the HTML version for a more +accurate reproduction. + +Bracketed words, such as [the?], were present in the original text. They +were not added by the transcriber. + +Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed at the +end of the text. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it +appears in the original book. In particular, many mismatched quotation +marks have not been changed. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE, + +AS PARTICULARLY CONNECTED WITH + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR. + + +DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND ADVANCED LEARNERS. + + +BY WM. S. BALCH. + + +Silence is better than unmeaning words.--_Pythagoras._ + + +PROVIDENCE: +B. CRANSTON & CO. +1838. + + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, + +BY B. CRANSTON & CO. + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode-Island. + + + + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 24, 1838. + +TO WM. S. BALCH, + +SIR--The undersigned, in behalf of the Young People's Institute, hasten +to present to you the following _Resolutions_, together with their +personal thanks, for the Lectures you have delivered before them, on the +Philosophy of Language. The uncommon degree of interest, pleasure and +profit, with which you have been listened to, is conclusive evidence, +that whoever possesses taste and talents to comprehend and appreciate +the philosophy of language, which you have so successfully cultivated, +cannot fail to attain a powerful influence over the minds of his +audience. The Committee respectfully request you to favor them with a +copy of your Lectures for the Press. + + Very respectfully, + Your most obedient servants, + C. T. JAMES, + E. F. MILLER, + H. L. WEBSTER. + + * * * * * + +_Resolved_, That we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed +by the Lectures of our President, on the subject of Language; that we +consider the principles he has advocated, immutably true, exceedingly +important, and capable of an easy adoption in the study of that +important branch of human knowledge. + +_Resolved_, That we have long regretted the want of a system to explain +the grammar of our vernacular tongue, on plain, rational, and consistent +principles, in accordance with philosophy and truth, and in a way to be +understood and practised by children and adults. + +_Resolved_, That in our opinion, the manifold attempts which have been +made, though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions, to +simplify and make easy existing systems, have failed entirely of their +object, and tended only to perplex, rather than enlighten learners. + +_Resolved_, That in our belief, the publication of these Lectures would +meet the wants of the community, and throw a flood of light upon this +hitherto dark, and intricate, and yet exceedingly interesting department +of a common education, and thus prove of immense service to the present +and future generations. + +_Resolved_, That Messrs. Charles T. James, Edward F. Miller, and Henry +L. Webster, be a Committee to wait on Rev. William S. Balch, and request +the publication of his very interesting Course of Lectures before this +Institute. + + * * * * * + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 25, 1838. + +MESSRS. C. T. JAMES, E. F. MILLER, AND H. L. WEBSTER: + +GENTLEMEN--Your letter, together with the Resolutions accompanying it, +was duly and gratefully received. It gives me no ordinary degree of +pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been, and still is, felt +by the members of our Institute, as well as the public generally, on +this important subject; for it is one which concerns the happiness and +welfare of our whole community; but especially the rising generation. + +The only recommendation of these Lectures is the subject of which they +treat. They were written in the space of a few weeks, and in the midst +of an accumulation of engagements which almost forbade the attempt. But +presuming you will make all due allowances for whatever errors you may +discover in the style of composition, and regard the _matter_ more than +the _manner_, I consent to their publication, hoping they will be of +some service in the great cause of human improvement. + + I am, gentlemen, + Very respectfully yours, + WM. S. BALCH. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no subject so deeply interesting and important to rational +beings as the knowledge of language, or one which presents a more direct +and powerful claim upon all classes in the community; for there is no +other so closely interwoven with all the affairs of human life, social, +moral, political and religious. It forms a basis on which depends a vast +portion of the happiness of mankind, and deserves the first attention of +every philanthropist. + +Great difficulty has been experienced in the common method of explaining +language, and grammar has long been considered a dry, uninteresting, and +tedious study, by nearly all the teachers and scholars in the land. But +it is to be presumed that the fault in this case, if there is any, is to +be sought for in the manner of teaching, rather than in the science +itself; for it would be unreasonable to suppose that a subject which +occupies the earliest attention of the parent, which is acquired at +great expense of money, time, and thought, and is employed from the +cradle to the grave, in all our waking hours, can possibly be dull or +unimportant, if rightly explained. + +Children have been required to learn verbal forms and changes, to look +at the mere signs of ideas, instead of the things represented by them. +The consequence has been that the whole subject has become uninteresting +to all who do not possess a retentive verbal memory. The philosophy of +language, the sublime principles on which it depends for its existence +and use, have not been sufficiently regarded to render it delightful and +profitable. + +The humble attempt here made is designed to open the way for an +exposition of language on truly philosophical principles, which, when +correctly explained, are abundantly simple and extensively useful. With +what success this point has been labored the reader will determine. + +The author claims not the honor of entire originality. The principles +here advanced have been advocated, believed, and successfully practised. +William S. Cardell, Esq., a bright star in the firmament of American +literature, reduced these principles to a system, which was taught with +triumphant success by Daniel H. Barnes, formerly of the New-York High +School, one of the most distinguished teachers who ever officiated in +that high and responsible capacity in our country. Both of these +gentlemen, so eminently calculated to elevate the standard of education, +were summoned from the career of the most active usefulness, from the +scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the aid of their +transcendant intellects, to unseen realities in the world of spirits; +where mind communes with mind, and soul mingles with soul, disenthraled +from error, and embosomed in the light and love of the Great Parent +Intellect. + +The author does not pretend to give a system of exposition in this work +suited to the capacities of small children. It is designed for advanced +scholars, and is introductory to a system of grammar which he has in +preparation, which it is humbly hoped will be of some service in +rendering easy and correct the study of our vernacular language. But +this book, it is thought, may be successfully employed in the +instruction of the higher classes in our schools, and will be found an +efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime principles of which +it treats. + +These Lectures, as now presented to the public, it is believed, will be +found to contain some important information by which all may profit. The +reader will bear in mind that they were written for, and delivered +before a popular audience, and published with very little time for +modification. This will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes which +may occur, and for whatever may have the appearance of severity, irony, +or pleasantry, in the composition. + +On the subject of Contractions much more might be said. But verbal +criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common audience; and hence the +consideration of that matter was made more brief than was at first +intended. It will however be resumed and carried out at length in +another work. The hints given will enable the student to form a +tolerable correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases, +which have long been passed over with little knowledge of their meaning +or importance. + +The author is aware that the principles he has advocated are new and +opposed to established systems and the common method of inculcation. But +the difficulties acknowledged on all hands to exist, is a sufficient +justification of this humble attempt. He will not be condemned for his +good intentions. All he asks is a patient and candid examination, a +frank and honest approval of what is true, and as honest a rejection of +what is false. But he hopes the reader will avoid a rash and precipitate +conclusion, either for or against, lest he is compelled to do as the +author himself once did, approve what he had previously condemned. + +With these remarks he enters the arena, and bares himself to receive the +sentence of the public voice. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + +Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors +in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old +systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its +advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.--Syntax.-- +Prosody. + + +LECTURE II. + +THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + +General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are +Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities of +things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- +Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts +admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An +example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things +signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + +Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most important +branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea of a thing.--How +expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An anecdote.--Ideas expressed +by actions.--Principles of spoken and written Language.--Apply +universally.--Two examples.--English language.--Foreign words.--Words in +science.--New words.--How formed. + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + +Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual +beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.--Negation. +--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic names.--Proper nouns +may become common. + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + +Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How +formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender.--No +neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.--Agents.-- +Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive word.--Pronouns.-- +One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically applied. + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How +understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the +noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from +adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to +be understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from +verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- +In.--Out.--Of. + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper nouns. +--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.--Articles.--_A_ +comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of _a_ and _the_.-- +Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun adjectives."--_Mon_, +_ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary adjectives.--Prepositions admit +of comparison. + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.--Actor +and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--Neutrality +degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind of +verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the +truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter verbs +examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. W.--Anecdote. + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + +Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can be +known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known by +their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things signified.-- +Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--All +things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained.--First +Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.--These +principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of Gallileo. + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + +A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken for +granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from the +truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an +intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language +eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To step.-- +Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To smile.--Eat +and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false teaching.--A change +is demanded.--These principles apply universally.--Their importance. + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + +The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. +--Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, +=was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.--Cannot +be in the present tense.--The past participle is an adjective. + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + +=Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions.-- +Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future +explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.--Imperfect.-- +Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.--=Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will. +--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of +agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular +verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation of +verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood varied.--A whole +sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is +always future. + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + +A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a +meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be +observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray.--Awake. +--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, +together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence.--Perhaps.--Not. +--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Conjunctions.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho. +--Yet. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE. + + + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + + Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors + in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old + systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its + advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.-- + Syntax.--Prosody. + + +LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, + +It is proposed to commence, this evening, a course of Lectures on the +Grammar of the English Language. I am aware of the difficulties +attending this subject, occasioned not so much by any fault in itself, +as by the thousand and one methods adopted to teach it, the multiplicity +of books pretending to "simplify" it, and the vast contrariety of +opinion entertained by those who profess to be its masters. By many it +has been considered a needless affair, an unnecessary appendage to a +common education; by others, altogether beyond the reach of common +capacities; and by all, cold, lifeless, and uninteresting, full of +doubts and perplexities, where the wisest have differed, and the firmest +often changed opinions. + +All this difficulty originates, I apprehend, in the wrong view that is +taken of the subject. The most beautiful landscape may appear at great +disadvantage, if viewed from an unfavorable position. I would be slow to +believe that the means on which depends the whole business of the +community, the study of the sciences, all improvement upon the past, the +history of all nations in all ages of the world, social intercourse, +oral or written, and, in a great measure, the knowledge of God, and the +hopes of immortality, can be either unworthy of study, or, if rightly +explained, uninteresting in the acquisition. In fact, on the principles +I am about to advocate, I have seen the deepest interest manifested, +from the small child to the grey-headed sire, from the mere novice to +the statesman and philosopher, and all alike seemed to be edified and +improved by the attention bestowed upon the subject. + +I confess, however, that with the mention of _grammar_, an association +of ideas are called up by no means agreeable. The mind involuntarily +reverts to the days of childhood, when we were compelled, at the risk of +our bodily safety, to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules, which +we could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language. +Formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended on any higher +authority than the books put into our hands. And learners were not only +dissuaded, but strictly forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in +the etymological and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they were +referred. If a query ever arose in their minds, and they modestly +proposed a plain question as to the _why_ and _wherefore_ things were +thus, instead of giving an answer according to common sense, in a way to +be understood, the authorities were pondered over, till some rule or +remark could be found which would apply, and this settled the matter +with "proof as strong as holy writ." In this way an end may be put to +the inquiry; but the thinking mind will hardly be satisfied with the +mere opinion of another, who has no evidence to afford, save the +undisputed dignity of his station, or the authority of books. This +course is easily accounted for. Rather than expose his own ignorance, +the teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others, thinking, no doubt, +that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed, than fresh +from his own responsibility. Or else on the more common score, that +"misery loves company." + +Teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in an unenviable +position by the honest inquiries of some thinking urchin, who has +demanded why "_one noun governs_ another in the possessive case," as +"master's slave;" why there are more tenses than _three_; what is meant +by a _neuter_ verb, which "signifies neither action nor passion;" or an +"intransitive verb," which expresses the highest possible action, but +terminates on no object; a cause without an effect; why _that_ is +sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and not unfrequently a +conjunction, &c. &c. They may have succeeded, by dint of official +authority, in silencing such inquiries, but they have failed to give a +satisfactory answer to the questions proposed. + +Long received opinions may, in some cases, become law, pleading no other +reason than antiquity. But this is an age of investigation, which +demands the most lucid and unequivocal proof of the point assumed. The +dogmatism of the schoolmen will no longer satisfy. The dark ages of +mental servility are passing away. The day light of science has long +since dawned upon the world, and the noon day of truth, reason, and +virtue, will ere long be established on a firm and immutable basis. The +human mind, left free to investigate, will gradually advance onward in +the course of knowledge and goodness marked out by the Creator, till it +attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest glory, its +truest bliss. + +You will perceive, at once, that our inquiries thro out these lectures +will not be bounded by what has been said or written on the subject. We +take a wider range. We adopt no sentiment because it is ancient or +popular. We refer to no authority but what proves itself to be correct. +And we ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they agree with +the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of matter and thought, and +apply in common practice among men. + +Have we not a right to expect, in return, that you will be equally +honest to yourselves and the subject before us? So far as the errors of +existing systems shall be exposed, will you not reject them, and adopt +whatever appears conclusively true and practically useful? Will you, can +you, be satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others, systems +of grammar, for no other reason than because they are old, and claim the +support of the learned and honorable? + +Such a course, generally adopted, would give the ever-lasting quietus to +all improvement. It would be a practical adoption of the philosophy of +the Dutchman, who was content to carry his grist in one end of the sack +and a stone to balance it in the other, assigning for a reason, that his +honored father had always done so before him. Who would be content to +adopt the astrology of the ancients, in preferance to astronomy as now +taught, because the latter is more modern? Who would spend three years +in transcribing a copy of the Bible, when a better could be obtained +for one dollar, because manuscripts were thus procured in former times? +What lady would prefer to take her cards, wheel, and loom, and spend a +month or two in manufacturing for herself a dress, when a better could +be earned in half the time, merely because her respected grandmother did +so before her? Who would go back a thousand years to find a model for +society, rejecting all improvements in the arts and sciences, because +they are innovations, encroachments upon the opinions and practices of +learned and honorable men? + +I can not believe there is a person in this respected audience whose +mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce the adoption of such a +course. I see before me minds which sparkle in every look, and thoughts +which are ever active, to acquire what is true, and adopt what is +useful. And I flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of +the science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable. + +I feel the greater confidence from the consideration that your minds are +yet untrammeled; not but what many, probably most of you, have already +studied the popular systems of grammar, and understood them; if such a +thing is possible; but because you have shown a disposition to learn, by +becoming members of this Institute, the object of which is the +improvement of its members. + +Let us therefore make an humble attempt, with all due candor and +discretion, to enter upon the inquiry before us with an unflinching +determination to push our investigations beyond all reasonable doubt, +and never rest satisfied till we have conquered all conquerable +obstacles, and come into the possession of the light and liberty of +truth. + +The attempt here made will not be considered unimportant, by those who +have known the difficulties attending the study of language. If any +course can be marked out to shorten the time tediously spent in the +acquisition of what is rarely attained--a thoro knowledge of language--a +great benefit will result to the community; children will save months +and years to engage in other useful attainments, and the high +aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge will not be curbed in +its first efforts to improve by a set of technical and arbitrary rules. +They will acquire a habit of thinking, of deep reflection; and never +adopt, for fact, what appears unreasonable or inconsistent, merely +because great or good men have said it is so. They will feel an +independence of their own, and adopt a course of investigation which +cannot fail of the most important consequences. It is not the saving of +time, however, for which we propose a change in the system of teaching +language. In this respect, it is the study of one's life. New facts are +constantly developing themselves, new combinations of ideas and words +are discovered, and new beauties presented at every advancing step. It +is to acquire a knowledge of correct principles, to induce a habit of +correct thinking, a freedom of investigation, and at that age when the +character and language of life are forming. It is, in short, to exhibit +before you truth of the greatest practical importance, not only to you, +but to generations yet unborn, in the most essential affairs of human +life, that I have broached the hated subject of grammar, and undertaken +to reflect light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject. + +With a brief sketch of the outlines of language, as based on the fixed +laws of nature, and the agreement of those who employ it, I shall +conclude the present lecture. + +We shall consider all language as governed by the invariable laws of +nature, and as depending on the conventional regulations of men. + +Words are the signs of ideas. Ideas are the impressions of things. +Hence, in all our attempts to investigate the important principles of +language, we shall employ the sign as the means of coming at the thing +signified. + +Language has usually been considered under four divisions, viz.: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + +Orthography is _right spelling_; the combination of certain letters into +words in such a manner as to agree with the spoken words used to denote +an idea. We shall not labor this point, altho we conceive a great +improvement might be effected in this department of learning. My only +wish is to select from all the forms of spelling, the most simple and +consistent. Constant changes are taking place in the method of making +words, and we would not refuse to cast in our mite to make the standard +more correct and easy. We would prune off by degrees all unnecessary +appendages, as unsounded or italic letters, and write out words so as to +be capable of a distinct pronunciation. But this change must be +_gradually_ effected. From the spelling adopted two centuries ago, a +wonderful improvement has taken place. And we have not yet gone beyond +the possibility of improvement. Let us not be too sensitive on this +point, nor too tenacious of old forms. Most of our dictionaries differ +in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography, and our +true course is to adopt every improvement which is offered. Thro out +this work we shall spell some words different from what is customary, +but intend not, thereby, to incur the ignominy of bad spellers. Let +small improvements be adopted, and our language may soon be redeemed +from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners in their first +attempts to convey ideas by written words.[1] + +In that department of language denominated Etymology, we shall contend +that all words are reducible to two general classes, nouns and verbs; +or, _things_ and _actions_. We shall, however, admit of subdivisions, +and treat of pronouns, adjectives, and contractions. We shall contend +for only two cases of nouns, one kind of pronouns, one kind of verbs, +that all are active; three modes, and as many tenses; that articles, +adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, have no +distinctive character, no existence, in fact, to warrant a "local +habitation or a name." + +In the composition of sentences, a few general rules of Syntax may be +given; but the principal object to be obtained, is the possession of +correct ideas derived from a knowledge of things, and the most approved +words to express them; the combination of words in a sentence will +readily enough follow. + +Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, rules of accent and +pronunciation, and the arrangement of syllables and words so as to +produce harmony. It applies specially to versification. As our object is +not to make poets, who, it is said, "are born, and not made," but to +teach the true principles of language, we shall give no attention to +this finishing stroke of composition. + +In our next we shall lay before you the principles upon which all +language depends, and the process by which its use is to be acquired. + + + + +LECTURE II. + +FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + + General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are + Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities + of things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- + Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts + admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An + example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things + signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +All language depends on two general principles. + +_First._ The fixed and unvarying laws of nature which regulate matter +and mind. + +_Second._ The agreement of those who use it. + +In accordance with these principles all language must be explained. It +is not only needless but impossible for us to deviate from them. They +remain the same in all ages and in all countries. It should be the +object of the grammarian, and of all who employ language in the +expression of ideas, to become intimately acquainted with their use. + +It is the business of grammar to explain, not only verbal language, but +also the sublime principles upon which all written or spoken language +depends. It forms an important part of physical and mental science, +which, correctly explained, is abundantly simple and extensively useful +in its application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of +human enjoyment. + +It will not be contended that we are assuming a position beyond the +capacities of learners, that the course here adopted is too philosophic. +Such is not the fact. Children are philosophers by nature. All their +ideas are derived from things as presented to their observations. No +mother learns her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being, +but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar, and which are +most constantly before it; such as father, mother, brother, sister. + +She constantly points to the object named, that a distinct impression +may be made upon its mind, and the thing signified, the idea of the +thing, and the name which represents it, are all inseparably associated +together. If the father is absent, the child may _think_ of him from the +idea or impression which his person and affection has produced in the +mind. If the mother pronounces his _name_ with which it has become +familiar, the child will start, look about for the object, or thing +signified by the _name_, father, and not being able to discover him, +will settle down contented with the _idea_ of him deeply impressed on +the mind, and as distinctly understood as if the father was present in +person. So with every thing else. + +Again, after the child has become familiar with the name of the being +called father; the name, idea and object itself being intimately +associated the mother will next begin to teach it another lesson; +following most undeviatingly the course which nature and true philosophy +mark out. The father comes and goes, is present or absent. She says on +his return, father _come_, and the little one looks round to see the +thing signified by the word father, the idea of which is distinctly +impressed on the mind, and which it now sees present before it. But this +loved object has not always been here. It had looked round and called +for the father. But the mother had told it _he was gone_. Father gone, +father come, is her language, and here the child begins to learn ideas +of actions. Of this it had, at first, no notion whatever, and never +thought of the father except when his person was present before it, for +no impressions had been distinctly made upon the mind which could be +called up by a sound of which it could have no conceptions whatever. Now +that it has advanced so far, the idea of the father is retained, even +tho he is himself absent, and the child begins to associate the notion +of coming and going with his presence or absence. Following out this +course the mind becomes acquainted with things and actions, or the +changes which things undergo. + +Next, the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction and +qualities of things. When the little sister comes to it in innocent +playfulness the mother says, "_good_ sister," and with the descriptive +word _good_ it soon begins to associate the quality expressed by the +affectionate regard, of its sister. But when that sister strikes the +child, or pesters it in any way, the mother says "_naughty_ sister," +"bad sister." It soon comprehends the descriptive words, _good_ and +_bad_, and along with them carries the association of ideas which such +conduct produces. In the same way it learns to distinguish the +difference between _great_ and _small_, _cold_ and _hot_, hard and soft. + +In this manner the child becomes acquainted with the use of language. It +first becomes acquainted with things, the idea of which is left upon the +mind, or, more properly, the _impression of which_, left on the mind, +_constitutes the idea_; and a vocabulary of words are learned, which +represent these ideas, from which it may select those best calculated +to express its meaning whenever a conversation is had with another. + +You will readily perceive the correctness of our first proposition, that +all language depends on the fixed and unerring laws of nature. Things +exist. A knowledge of them produces ideas in the mind, and sounds or +signs are adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to another. + +It would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any person, however +great, or learned, or wise, could employ language correctly without a +knowledge of the things expressed by that language. No matter how chaste +his words, how lofty his phrases, how sweet the intonations, or mellow +the accents. It would avail him nothing if _ideas_ were not represented +thereby. It would all be an unknown tongue to the hearer or reader. It +would not be like the loud rolling thunder, for that tells the wondrous +power of God. It would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening, the +radiance of the sun, the twinkling of the stars; for they speak the +intelligible language of sublimity itself, and tell of the kindness and +protection of our Father who is in heaven. It would not be like the +sweet notes of the choral songsters of the grove, for they warble hymns +of gratitude to God; not like the boding of the distant owl, for that +tells the profound solemnity of night; not like the hungry lion roaring +for his prey, for that tells of death and plunder; not like the distant +notes of the clarion, for that tells of blood and carnage, of tears and +anguish, of widowhood and orphanage. It can be compared to nothing but a +Babel of confusion in which their own folly is worse confounded. And +yet, I am sorry to say it, the languages of all ages and nations have +been too frequently perverted, and compiled into a heterogeneous mass +of abstruse, metaphysical volumes, whose only recommendation is the +elegant bindings in which they are enclosed. + +And grammars themselves, whose pretended object is to teach the rules of +speaking and writing correctly, form but a miserable exception to this +sweeping remark. I defy any grammarian, author, or teacher of the +numberless systems, which come, like the frogs of Egypt, all of one +genus, to cover the land, to give a reasonable explanation of even the +terms they employ to define their meaning, if indeed, meaning they have. +What is meant by an "_in_-definite article," a _dis_-junctive +_con_-junction, an _ad_-verb which qualifies an _adjective_, and +"sometimes another _ad_-verb?" Such "parts of speech" have no existence +in fact, and their adoption in rules of grammar, have been found +exceedingly mischievous and perplexing. "Adverbs and conjunctions," and +"_adverbial_ phrases," and "conjunctive expressions," may serve as +common sewers for a large and most useful class of words, which the +teachers of grammar and lexicographers have been unable to explain; but +learners will gain little information by being told that such is an +_adverbial phrase_, and such, a _conjunctive expression_. This is an +easy method, I confess, a sort of wholesale traffic, in parsing +(_passing_) language, and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the +teachers and makers of grammars. But it will reflect little light on the +principles of language, or prove very efficient helps to "speak or write +with propriety." Those who _think_, will demand the _meaning_ of these +words, and the reason of their use. When that is ascertained, little +difficulty will be found in giving them a place in the company of +respectable words. But I am digressing. More shall be said upon this +point in a future lecture, and in its proper place. + +I was endeavoring to establish the position that all language depends +upon permanent principles; that words are the signs of ideas, and ideas +are the impressions of things communicated to the mind thro the medium +of some one of the five senses. I think I have succeeded so far as +simple material things are concerned, to the satisfaction of all who +have heard me. It may, perhaps, be more difficult for me to explain the +words employed to express complex ideas, and things of immateriality, +such as mind, and its attributes. But the rules previously adopted will, +I apprehend, apply with equal ease and correctness in this case; and we +shall have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon which +the whole superstructure of language is based. + +In pursuing this investigation I shall endeavor to avoid all abstruse +and metaphysical reasoning, present no wild conjectures, or vain +hypotheses; but confine myself to plain, common place matter of fact. We +have reason to rejoice that a wonderful improvement in the science and +cultivation of the mind has taken place in these last days; that we are +no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms, the wild speculations which +occupied the giant minds of a Descartes, a Malebranch, a Locke, a Reid, +a Stewart, and hosts of others, whose shining talents would have +qualified them for the brightest ornaments of literature, real +benefactors of mankind, had not their education lead them into dark and +metaphysical reasonings, a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries, in +which they became entangled, till, at length, they were entirely lost in +the labyrinth of their own conjectures. + +The occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt to +investigate the faculties of the mind without any means of getting at +it. They did not content themselves with an adoption of the principles +which lay at the foundation of all true philosophy, viz., that the +facts to be accounted for, _do exist_; that truth is eternal, and we are +to become acquainted with it by the means employed for its development. +They quitted the world of materiality they inhabited, refused to examine +the development of mind as the effect of an existing cause; and at one +bold push, entered the world of thought, and made the unhallowed attempt +to reason, a priori, concerning things which can only be known by their +manifestations. But they soon found themselves in a strange land, +confused with sights and sounds unknown, in the _explanation_ of which +they, of course, choose terms as unintelligible to their readers, as the +_ideal realities_ were to them. This course, adopted by Aristotle, has +been too closely followed by those who have come after him.[2] But a new +era has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind, and a corresponding +change in the method of inculcating the principles of language must +follow.[3] + +In all our investigations we must take things as we find them, and +account for them as far as we can. It would be a thankless task to +attempt a change of principles in any thing. That would be an +encroachment of the Creator's rights. It belongs to mortals to use the +things they have as not abusing them; and to Deity to regulate the laws +by which those things are governed. And that man is the wisest, the +truest philosopher, and brightest Christian, who acquaints himself with +those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter and mind, in the +promotion of physical and moral enjoyment, and endeavors to conform to +them in all his thoughts and actions. + +From this apparent digression you will at once discover our object. We +must not endeavor to change the principles of language, but to +understand and explain them; to ascertain, as far as possible, the +actions of the mind in obtaining ideas, and the use of language in +expressing them. We may not be able to make our sentiments understood; +but if they are not, the fault will originate in no obscurity in the +facts themselves, but in our inability either to understand them or the +words employed in their expression. Having been in the habit of using +words with either no meaning or a wrong one, it may be difficult to +comprehend the subject of which they treat. A man may have a quantity of +sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, but it is not until he learns their +properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder. Let us then +adopt a careful and independent course of reasoning, resolved to meddle +with nothing we do not understand, and to use no words until we know +their meaning. + +A complex idea is a combination of several simple ones, as a tree is +made up of roots, a trunk, branches, twigs, and leaves. And these again +may be divided into the wood, the bark, the sap, &c. Or we may employ +the botanical terms, and enumerate its external and internal parts and +qualities; the whole anatomy and physiology, as well as variety and +history of trees of that species, and show its characteristic +distinctions; for the mind receives a different impression on looking at +a maple, a birch, a poplar, a tamarisk, a sycamore, or hemlock. In this +way complex ideas are formed, distinct in their parts, but blended in a +common whole; and, in conformity with the law regulating language, +words, sounds or signs, are employed to express the complex whole, or +each distinctive part. The same may be said of all things of like +character. But this idea I will illustrate more at large before the +close of this lecture. + +First impressions are produced by a view of material things, as we have +already seen; and the notion of action is obtained from a knowledge of +the changes these things undergo. The idea of quality and definition is +produced by contrast and comparison. Children soon learn the difference +between a sweet apple and a sour one, a white rose and a red one, a hard +seat and a soft one, harmonious sounds and those that are discordant, a +pleasant smell and one that is disagreeable. As the mind advances, the +application is varied, and they speak of a sweet rose, changing from +_taste_ and _sight_ to smell, of a sweet song, of a hard apple, &c. +According to the qualities thus learned, you may talk to them +intelligibly of the _sweetness_ of an apple, the _color_ of a rose, the +_hardness_ of iron, the _harmony_ of sounds, the _smell_ or scent of +things which possess that quality. As these agree or disagree with their +comfort, they will call them _good_ or _bad_, and speak of the qualities +of goodness and badness, as if possessed by the thing itself. + +In this apparently indiscriminate use of words, the ideas remain +distinct; and each sign or object calls them up separately and +associates them together, till, at length, in the single object is +associated all the ideas entertained of its size, qualities, relations, +and affinities. + +In this manner, after long, persevering toil, principles of thought are +fixed, and a foundation laid for the whole course of future thinking and +speaking. The ideas become less simple and distinct. Just as fast as the +mind advances in the knowledge of things, language keeps pace with the +ideas, and even goes beyond them, so that in process of time a single +term will not unfrequently represent a complexity of ideas, one of which +will signify a whole combination of things. + +On the other hand, there are many instances where the single declaration +of a fact may convey to the untutored mind, a single thought or nearly +so, when the better cultivated will take into the account the whole +process by which it is effected. To illustrate: _a man killed a deer_. +Here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet fully able to +comprehend. He will see the obvious fact that the man levels his musket, +the gun goes off with a loud report, and the deer falls and dies. How +this is all produced he does not understand, but knowing the fact he +asserts the single truth--the man killed the deer. As the child +advances, he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more than +he at first perceived. He now understands how it was accomplished. The +man had a gun. Then he must go back to the gunsmith and see how it was +made, thence back to the iron taken from its bed, and wrought into bars; +all the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun, the +tools and machinery employed; the wood for the stock, its quality and +production; the size, form and color of the lock, the principle upon +which it moves; the flint, the effect produced by a collision with the +steel, or a percussion cap, and its composition; till he finds a single +gun in the hands of a man. The man is present with this gun. The motives +which brought him here; the movements of his limbs, regulated by the +determinations of the mind, and a thousand other such thoughts, might be +taken into the account. Then the deer, his size, form, color, manner of +living, next may claim a passing thought. But I need not enlarge. Here +they both stand. The man has just seen the deer. As quick as thought his +eye passes over the ground, sees the prey is within proper distance, +takes aim, pulls the trigger, that loosens a spring, which forces the +flint against the steel; this produces a spark, which ignites the +charcoal, and the sulphur and nitre combined, explode and force the wad, +which forces the ball from the gun, and is borne thro the air till it +reaches the deer, enters his body by displacing the skin and flesh, +deranges the animal functions, and death ensues. The whole and much more +is expressed in the single phrase, "a man killed a deer." + +It would be needless for me to stop here, and examine all the operations +of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge. That is not the object +of the present work. Such a duty belongs to another treatise, which may +some day be undertaken, on logic and the science of the mind. The hint +here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands, and how +language keeps pace with every advancing step, and, also, how +combinations are made from simple things, as a house is made of timber, +boards, shingles, nails, and paints; or of bricks, stone, and mortar; as +the case may be, and when completed, a single term may express the +idea, and you speak of a wood, or a brick house. Following this +suggestion, by tracing the operations of the mind in the young child, or +your own, very minutely, in the acquisition of any knowledge before +wholly unknown to you, as a new language, or a new science; botany, +mineralogy, chemistry, or phrenology; you will readily discover how the +mind receives new impressions of things, and a new vocabulary is adopted +to express the ideas formed of plants, minerals, chemical properties, +and the development of the capacities of the mind as depending on +material organs; how these things are changed and combined; and how +their existence and qualities, changes and combinations, are expressed +by words, to be retained, or conveyed to other minds. + +But suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted with these things, +will he understand you? Talk to him of stamens, pistils, calyxes; of +monandria, diandria, triandria; of gypsum, talc, calcareous spar, +quartz, topaz, mica, garnet, pyrites, hornblende, augite, actynolite; of +hexahedral, prismatic, rhomboidal, dodecahedral; of acids and alkalies; +of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon; of the configuration of the +brain, and its relative powers; do all this, and what will he know of +your meaning? So of all science. Words are to be understood from the +things they are employed to represent. You may as well talk to a man in +the hebrew, chinese, or choctaw languages, as in our own, if he does not +know what is signified by the words selected as the medium of thought. + +Your language may be most pure, perfect, full of meaning, but you cannot +make yourself understood till your hearers can look thro your signs to +the things signified. You may as well present before them a picture of +_nothing_. + +The great fault in the popular system of education is easily accounted +for, particularly in reference to language. Children are taught to study +signs without looking at the thing signified. In this way they are mere +copyists, and the mind can never expand so as to make them independent, +original thinkers. In fact, they can, in this way, never learn to reason +well or employ language correctly; no more than a painter can be +successful in his art, by merely looking at the pictures of others +without having ever seen the originals. A good artist is a close +observer of nature. So children should be left free to examine and +reflect, and the signs will then serve their proper use--the means of +acquiring the knowledge of things. In vain you may give a scholar a +knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, learn him to translate with +rapidity or speak our own language fluently. If he has not thereby +learned the knowledge of things signified by such language, he is, in +principle, advanced no farther than the parrot which says "pretty poll, +pretty poll." + +I am happy, however, in the consideration that a valuable change is +taking place in this respect. Geography is no longer taught on the old +systems, but maps are given to represent more vividly land and water, +rivers, islands, and mountains. The study of arithmetic, chemistry, and +nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within a few +years. Grammar alone remains in quiet possession of its unquestioned +authority. Its nine "parts of speech," its three genders, its three +cases, its half dozen kinds of pronouns, and as many moods and tenses, +have rarely been disquieted. A host of book makers have fondled around +them, but few have dared molest them, finding them so snugly ensconced +under the sanctity of age, and the venerated opinions of learned and +good men. Of the numberless attempts to simplify grammar, what has been +the success? Wherein do modern "simplifiers" differ from Murray? and he +was only a _compiler_! They have all discovered his errors. But who has +corrected them? They have all deviated somewhat from his manner. But +what is that but saying, that with all his grammatical knowledge, he +could not explain his own meaning? + +All the trouble originates in this; the rules of grammar have not been +sought for where they are only to be found, in the laws that govern +matter and thought. Arbitrary rules have been adopted which will never +apply in practice, except in special cases, and the attempt to bind +language down to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought, or +stop the waters of Niagara with a straw. Language will go on, and keep +pace with the mind, and grammar should explain it so as to be correctly +understood. + +I wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all thro my +remarks, that you may challenge every position I assume till proved to +be correct--till you distinctly understand it and definite impressions +are made upon your minds. In this way you will discover a beauty and +perfection in language before unknown; its rules will be found few and +simple, holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime principles +upon which they depend; and you will have reason to admire the works and +adore the character of the great Parent Intellect, whose presence and +protection pervade all his works and regulate the laws of matter and +mind. You will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with sentiments of +gratitude for the gift of mind, its affections, powers, and means of +operation and communication, and resolved more than ever to employ these +faculties in human improvement and the advancement of general happiness. + + + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + + Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most + important branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea + of a thing.--How expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An + anecdote.--Ideas expressed by actions.--Principles of spoken and + written Language.--Apply universally.--Two examples.--English + language.--Foreign words.--Words in science.--New words.--How + formed. + + +We now come to take a nearer view of language as generally understood by +grammar. But we shall have no occasion to depart from the principles +already advanced, for there is existing in practice nothing which may +not be accounted for in theory; as there can be no effect without an +efficient cause to produce it. + +We may, however, long remain ignorant of the true explanation of the +principles involved; but the fault is ours, and not in the things +themselves. The earth moved with as much grandeur and precision around +its axis and in its orbit before the days of Gallileo Gallilei, when +philosophers believed it flat and stationary, as it has done since. So +the great principles on which depends the existence and use of all +language are permanent, and may be correctly employed by those who have +never examined them; but this does not prove that to be ignorant is +better than to be wise. We may have taken food all our days without +knowing much of the process by which it is converted into nourishment +and incorporated into our bodies, without ever having heard of +delutition chymification, chylification, or even digestion, as a whole; +but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge of these things is +unimportant, or that ignorance of them is not the cause of much disease +and suffering among mankind. And it is, or should be, the business of +the physiologist to explain these things, and show the great practical +benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them. So the grammarian +should act as a sort of physiologist of language. He should analyze all +its parts and show how it is framed together to constitute a perfect +whole. + +Instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of technical +expressions, and arbitrary rules, I most urgently exhort you to +continue, with unremitting assiduity, your inquiries into the reason and +propriety of the positions which may be taken. It is the business of +philosophy, not to meddle with things to direct how they should be, but +to account for them and their properties and relations as they are. So +it is the business of grammar to explain language as it exists in use, +and exhibit the reason why it is used thus, and what principles must be +observed to employ it correctly in speaking and writing. This method is +adopted to carry out the principles already established, and show their +adaptation to the wants of the community, and how they may be correctly +and successfully employed. Grammar considered in this light forms a +department in the science of the mind by no means unimportant. And it +can not fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in the +business, social, literary, moral, or religious concerns of life. Those +who have thoughts to communicate, or desire an acquaintance with the +minds of others, can not be indifferent to the means on which such +intercourse depends. I am convinced, therefore, that you will give me +your most profound attention as I pursue the subject of the present +lecture somewhat in detail. And I hope you will not consider me tedious +or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks. + +I will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes of spoken and +written language, altho that topic of itself, in the different sounds +and signs employed in different ages and by different nations to express +the same idea, would form a most interesting theme for several lectures. +But that work must be reserved for a future occasion. You are all +acquainted with the signs, written and spoken, which are employed in our +language as vehicles (some of them like omnibusses) of thought to carry +ideas from one mind to another. Some of you doubtless are acquainted +with the application of this fact in other languages. In other words, +you know how to sound the name of a thing, how to describe its +properties as far as you understand them, and its attitudes or changes. +This you can do by vocal sounds, or written, or printed signs. + +On the other hand, you can receive a similar impression by hearing the +description of another, or by seeing it written or printed. But here you +will bear in mind the fact that the word, spoken or written, is but the +sign of the idea derived from the thing signified. For example: Here is +an apple. I do not now speak of its composition, the skin, the pulp, +&c.; nor of its qualities, whether sour, or sweet, or bitter, good or +bad, great or small, long or short, round or flat, red, or white, or +yellow. I speak of a single thing--an apple. Here it is, present before +you. Look at it. It is now removed. You do not see it. Your minds are +occupied with something else, in looking at that organ, or this +representation of Solomon's temple, or, perhaps, lingering in melancholy +review of your old systems of grammar thro which you plodded at a +tedious rate, goaded on by the stimulus of the ferule, or the fear of +being called ignorant. From that unhappy reverie I recal your minds, by +saying _apple_. An apple? where? There is none in sight. No; but you +have distinct recollections of a single object I just now held before +you. You see it, mentally, and were you painters you might paint its +likeness. What has brought this object so vividly before you? The single +sound _apple_. This sound has called up the idea produced in your mind +on looking at this object which I now again present before you. Here is +the thing represented--the apple. Again I lay it aside, and commence a +conversation with you on the varieties of apples, the form, color, +flavor, manner of production, their difference from other fruit, where +found, when, and by whom. Here! look again. What do you see? +A-P-P-L-E--_Apple_. What is that? The representation of the idea +produced in the mind by a certain object you saw a little while ago. +Here then you have the spoken and written signs of this single object I +now again present to your vision. This idea may also be called up by the +sense of feeling, smelling, or tasting, under certain restrictions. Here +you would be no more liable to be mistaken than by seeing. We can indeed +imagine things which would feel, and smell, and taste, and look some +like an apple, but it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to +make their suppositions, and then account for them--to imagine things, +and then treat of them as realities. We are content with the knowledge +of things as they do exist, and think there is little danger of +mistaking a potato for an apple, or a squash for a pear. Tho in the dark +we may lay hold of the Frenchman's _pomme de terre_--apple of the earth, +the first bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too +metaphysical. + +The same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture of the apple +presented to your sight. On this ground the picture writing of the +ancients may be accounted for; and after that, the hieroglyphics of +Egypt and other countries, which was but a step from picture writing +towards the use of the alphabet. But these signs or vehicles for the +conveyance or transmission of their thoughts, compared with the present +perfect state of language, were as aukward and uncomly as the carriages +employed for the conveyance of their bodies were compared with those now +in use. They were like ox carts drawn by mules, compared with the most +splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys. + +A similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted with +alphabetical writing. It was so with the merchant who could not write. +He sold his neighbor a grindstone, on trust. Lest he should forget +it--lest the _idea_ of it should be obliterated from the mind--he, in +the absence of his clerk, took his book and a pen and drew out a _round +picture_ to represent it. Some months after, he dunned his neighbor for +his pay for a cheese. "I have bought no cheese of you," was the reply. +Yes, you have, for I have it charged. "You must be mistaken, for I never +bought a cheese. We always make our own." How then should I have one +charged to you? "I cannot tell. I have never had any thing here on +credit except a grindstone." Ah! that's it, that's it, only I forgot to +make a hole through it!" + +Ideas may also be exchanged by actions. This is the first and strongest +language of nature. It may be employed, when words have failed, in the +most effectual manner. The angry man, choked with rage, unable to speak, +tells the violent passions, burning in his bosom, in a language which +can not be mistaken. The actions of a friend are a surer test of +friendship than all the honied words he may utter. Actions speak louder +than words. The first impressions of maternal affection are produced in +the infant mind by the soothing attentions of the mother. In the same +way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb. Certain motions +express certain ideas. These being duly arranged and conformed to our +alphabetic signs, and well understood, the pupil may become acquainted +with book knowledge as well as we. They go by sight and not by sound. A +different method is adopted with the blind. Letters with them are so +arranged that they can _feel_ them. The signs thus felt correspond with +the sounds they hear. Here they must stop. They cannot see to describe. +Those who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf, can have but a +faint knowledge of language, or the ideas of others. + +On similar principles we may explain the pantomime plays sometimes +performed, where the most entertaining scenes of love and murder are +represented, but not a word spoken. + +Three things are always to be born in mind in the use and study of all +language: 1st, the thing signified; 2d, the idea of the thing; and 3d, +the word or sign chosen to represent it. + +_Things_ exist. + +Thinking beings conceive _ideas of things_. + +Those who employ language adopt _sounds or signs to convey those ideas_ +to others. + +On these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure of all +language, spoken or written. Objects are presented to the mind, +impressions are there made, which, retained, constitute the idea, and, +by agreement, certain words are employed as the future signs or +representations of those ideas. If we saw an object in early life and +knew its _name_, the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea +which had long lain dormant in the memory, (if I may so speak,) and we +can converse about it as correctly as when we first saw it. + +These principles, I have said, hold good in all languages. Proof of this +may not improperly be offered here, provided it be not too prolix. I +will endeavor to be brief. + +In an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated a delegation +from every language under heaven. All are so arranged as to face a +common center. A white horse is led into that spot and all look at the +living animal which stands before them. The same impression must be made +on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned. But as the whole is +made up of parts, so their minds will soon diverge from a single idea, +and one will think of his size, compared with other horses; another of +his form; another of his color. Some will think of his noble appearance, +others of his ability to travel, or (in jockey phrase) his _speed_. The +farrier will look for his blemishes, to see if he is _sound_, and the +jockey at his teeth, to _guess_ at his _age_. The anatomist will, in +thought, dissect him into parts and see every bone, sinew, cartilage, +blood vessel, his stomach, lungs, liver, heart, entrails; every part +will be laid open; and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single +object--a white horse--others will, at a single glance, read volumes of +instruction. Oh! the importance of knowledge! how little is it +regarded! What funds of instruction might be gathered from the lessons +every where presented to the mind! + +One impression would be made on all minds in reference to the single +tangible object before them; no matter how learned or ignorant. There +stands an animal obvious to all. Let him be removed out of sight, and a +very exact picture of him suspended in his place. All again agree. Here +then is the proof of our first general principle, viz. all language +depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature. + +Let the picture be removed and a man step forth and pronounce the word, +_ippos_. The Greek starts up and says, "Yes, it is so." The rest do not +comprehend him. He then writes out distinctly, [Greek: IPPOS]. They are +in the dark as to the meaning. They know not whether a horse, a man, or +a goose is named. All the Greeks, however, understand the meaning the +same as when the horse or picture was before them, for they had _agreed_ +that _ippos_ should represent the _idea_ of that animal. + +Forth steps another, and pronounces the word _cheval_. Every Frenchman +is aroused: Oui, monsieur? Yes, sir. Comprenez vous? Do you understand? +he says to the rest. But they are dumb. He then writes C-H-E-V-A-L. All +are as ignorant as before, save the Frenchmen who had agreed that +_cheval_ should be the name for horse. + +Next go yourself, thinking all will understand you, and say, _horse_; +but, lo! none unacquainted with your language are the wiser for the +sound you utter, or the sign you suspended before them; save, perhaps, a +little old Saxon, who, at first looks deceived by the similarity of +sound, but, seeing the sign, is as demure as ever, for he omits the _e_, +and pronounces it shorter than we do, more like a yorkshire man. But +why are you not understood? Because others have not entered into an +_agreement_ with you that _h-o-r-s-e_, spoken or written, shall +represent that animal. + +Take another example. Place the living animal called man before them. +Less trouble will be found in this case than in the former, for there is +a nearer agreement than before in regard to the signs which shall be +employed to express the idea. This word occurs with very little +variation in the modern languages, derived undoubtedly from the +Teutonic, with a little change in the spelling, as Saxon _mann_ or +_mon_, Gothic _manna_, German, Danish, Dutch, Swedish and Icelandic +like ours. In the south of Europe, however, this word varies as well as +others. + +Our language is derived more directly from the old Saxon than from any +other, but has a great similarity to the French and Latin, and a kind of +cousin-german to all the languages of Europe, ancient and modern. Ours, +indeed, is a compound from most other languages, retaining some of their +beauties and many of their defects. We can boast little distinctive +character of our own. As England was possessed by different nations at +different periods, so different dialects were introduced, and we can +trace our language to as many sources, German, Danish, Saxon, French, +and Roman, which were the different nations amalgamated into the British +empire. We retain little of the real old english--few words which may +not be traced to a foreign extraction. Different people settling in a +country would of course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them; +and from the whole compound a general agreement would, in process of +time, take place, and a uniform language be established. Such is the +origin and condition of our language, as well as every other modern +tongue of which we have any knowledge. + +There is one practice of which our savans are guilty, at which I do most +seriously demur--the extravagant introduction of exotic words into our +vocabulary, apparently for no other object than to swell the size of a +dictionary, and boast of having found out and defined thousands of words +more than any body else. A mania seems to have seized our +lexicographers, so that they have forsaken the good old style of +"plainness of speech," and are flourishing and brandishing about in a +cloud of verbiage as though the whole end of instruction was to teach +loquacity. And some of our popular writers and speakers have caught the +infection, and flourish in borrowed garments, prizing themselves most +highly when they use words and phrases which no body can understand. + +I will not contend that in the advancement of the arts and sciences it +may not be proper to introduce foreign terms as the mean of conveying a +knowledge of those improvements to others. It is better than to coin new +words, inasmuch as they are generally adopted by all modern nations. In +this way all languages are approximating together; and when the light of +truth, science, and religion, has fully shone on all the nations, we may +hope one language will be spoken, and the promise be fulfilled, that God +has "turned unto the people a pure language, that they may call upon the +name of the Lord, to serve him with one consent." + +New ideas are formed like new inventions. Established principles are +employed in a new combination, so as to produce a new manifestation. +Words are chosen as nearly allied to former ideas as possible, to +express or represent this new combination. Thus, Fulton applied steam +power to navigation. A new idea was produced. A boat was seen passing +along the waters without the aid of wind or tide. Instead of coining a +new word to express the whole, a word which nobody would understand, two +old ones were combined, and "_steamboat_" became the sign to represent +the idea of the thing beheld. So with rail-road, cotton-mill, and +gun-powder. In the same way we may account for most words employed in +science, although in that case we are more dependant on foreign +languages, in as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived +from them. But we may account for them on the same principle as above. +_Phrenology_ is a compound of two greek words, and means the science or +knowledge of the mind. So of geology, mineralogy, &c. But when +improvements are made by those who speak the english, words in our own +language are employed and used not only by ourselves, but also by those +nations who profit by our investigations. + +I trust I have now said enough on the general principles of language as +applied to things. In the next lecture I will come down to a sort of +bird's eye view of grammar. But my soul abhors arbitrary rules so +devoutly, I can make no promises how long I will continue in close +communion with set forms of speech. I love to wander too well to remain +confined to one spot, narrowed up in the limits fixed by others. Freedom +is the empire of the mind; it abjures all fetters, all slavery. It +kneels at the altar of virtue and worships at the shrine of truth. No +obstacles should be thrown in the way of its progress. No limits should +be set to it but those of the Almighty. + + + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + + Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual + beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.-- + Negation.--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic + names.--Proper nouns may become common. + + +Your attention is, this evening, invited to the first divisions of +words, called _Nouns_. This is a most important class, and as such +deserves our particular notice. + + _Nouns are the names of things._ + +The word _noun_ is derived from the Latin _nomen_, French _nom_. It +means _name_. Hence the definition above given. + +In grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of words which name +things, or stand as signs or representatives of things. + +We use the word _thing_ in its broadest sense, including every possible +entity; every being, or thing, animate or inanimate, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, physical, moral, or intellectual. It is +the noun of the Saxon _thincan_ or _thingian_, to think; and is used to +express every conceivable object of thought, in whatever form or manner +presented to the human mind. + +Every word employed to designate things, or name them, is to be ranked +in the class called _nouns_, or names. You have only to determine +whether a word is used thus, to learn whether it belongs to this or +some other class of words. Here let me repeat: + + 1. Things exist. + 2. We conceive ideas of things. + 3. We use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others. + 4. We denominate the class of words thus used, _nouns_. + +Perhaps I ought to stop here, or pass to another topic. But as these +lectures are intended to be so plain that all can understand my meaning, +I must indulge in a few more remarks before advancing farther. + +In addition to individual, tangible objects, we conceive ideas of the +_qualities_ of things, and give _names_ to such qualities, which become +_nouns_. Thus, the _hardness_ of iron, the _heat_ of fire, the _color_ +of a rose, the _bitterness_ of gall, the _error_ of grammars. The +following may serve to make my views more plain. Take two tumblers, the +one half filled with water, the other with milk; mix them together. You +can now talk of the milk in the water, or the water in the milk. Your +ideas are distinct, tho the objects are so intimately blended, that they +can not be separated. So with the qualities of things. + +We also speak of mind, intellect, soul; but to them we can give no form, +and of them paint no likeness. Yet we have ideas of them, and employ +words to express them, which become _nouns_. + +This accounts for the reason why the great Parent Intellect has strictly +forbidden, in the decalogue, that a likeness of him should be +constructed. His being and attributes are discoverable only thro the +medium of his works and word. No man can see him and live. It would be +the height of folly--it would be more--it would be blasphemy--to +attempt to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills +immensity--whose center is every where, and whose circumference is no +where. The name of this Spirit or Being was held in the most profound +reverence by the Jews, as we shall have occasion to mention when we come +to treat of the verb =to be=. + +We talk of angels, and have seen the unhallowed attempt to describe +their likeness in the form of pictures, which display the fancy of the +artist very finely, but give a miserable idea of those pure spirits who +minister at the altar of God, and chant his praises in notes of the most +unspeakable delight. + +We have also seen _death_ and the pale horse, the firy dragon, the +mystery of Babylon, and such like things, represented on canvass; but +they betoken more of human talent to depict the marvellous, than a +strict regard for truth. Beelzebub, imps, and all Pandemonium, may be +vividly imagined and finely arranged in fiction, and we can name them. +Wizzards, witches, and fairies, may play their sportive tricks in the +human brain, and receive names as tho they were real. + +We also think and speak of the qualities and affections of the mind as +well as matter, as wisdom, knowledge, virtue, vice, love, hatred, anger. +Our conceptions in this case may be less distinct, but we have ideas, +and use words to express them. There is, we confess, a greater liability +to mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its qualities, +than of matter. The reason is evident, people know less of it. Its +operations are less distinct and more varying. + +The child first sees material objects. It is taught to name them. It +next learns the qualities of things; as the sweetness of sugar, the +darkness of night, the beauty of flowers. From this it ascends by +gradation to the higher attainments of knowledge as revealed in the +empire of mind, as well as matter. Great care should be taken that this +advancement be easy, natural, and thoro. It should be constantly +impressed with the importance of obtaining clear and definite ideas of +things, and never employ words till it has ideas to express; never name +a thing of which it has no knowledge. This is ignorance. + +It would be well, perhaps, to extend this remark to those older than +children, in years, but less in real practical knowledge. The remark is +of such general application, that no specification need be made, except +to the case before us; to those affected proficients in grammar, whose +only knowledge is the memory of words, which to them have no meanings, +if, indeed, the writers themselves had any to express by them; a fact we +regard as questionable, at best. There is hardly a teacher of grammar, +whose self-esteem is not enormous, who will not confess himself ignorant +on many of the important principles of language; that he has never +understood, and could never explain them. He finds no difficulty in +repeating what the books say, but if called upon to express an opinion +of his own, he has none to give. He has learned and used words without +knowing their meaning. + +Children should be taught language as they are taught music. They should +learn the simple tones on which the whole science depends. Distinct +impressions of sounds should be made on their minds, and the characters +which represent them should be inseparably associated with them. They +will then learn tunes from the compositions of those sounds, as +represented by notes. By dint of application, they will soon become +familiar with these principles, if possessed of a talent for song, and +may soon pass the acme with ease, accuracy, and rapidity. But there are +those who may sing very prettily, and tolerably correct, who have never +studied the first rudiments of music. But such can never become adepts +in the science. + +So there are those who use language correctly, who never saw the inside +of a grammar book, and who never examined the principles on which it +depends. But this, by no means, proves that it is better to sing by +rote, than "with the understanding." These rudiments, however, should +form the business of the nursery, rather than the grammar school. Every +mother should labor to give distinct and forcible impressions of such +things as she learns her children to _name_. She should carefully +prevent them from employing words which have no meaning, and still more +strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong meaning to +those they do use. In this way, the foundation for future knowledge and +eminence, would be laid broad and deep. But I wander. + +We attach names to imaginary things; as ghosts, genii, imps. + +To this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients, who were +frequently represented by emblems significant of the characters attached +to them. We employ words to name these imaginary things, so that we read +and converse about them understandingly, tho our ideas may be +exceedingly various. + +Nouns are also used to express negation, of which no idea can be formed. +In this case, the mind rests on what exists, and employs a word to +express what does not. We speak of _a hole_ in the paper. But we can +form no idea of _a hole_, separated from the surrounding substances. +Remove the parts of the paper till nothing is left, and then you may +look in vain for the hole. It is not there. It never was. In the same +way we use the words nothing, nobody, nonentity, vacuum, absence, space, +blank, annihilation, and oblivion. These are relative terms, to be +understood in reference to things which are known to exist. We must know +of _some_thing before we can talk of _no_thing, of an entity before we +can think of nonentity. + +In a similar way we employ words to name actions, which are produced by +the changes of objects. We speak of a race, of a flight, of a sitting or +session, of a journey, of a ride, of a walk, of a residence, etc. In all +these cases, the mind is fixed on the persons who performed these +things. Take for example, a race. Of that, we can conceive no idea +separate from the agent or object which _ran_ the _race_. Without some +other word to inform us we could not decide whether a _horse_ race, a +_foot_ race, a boat race, the race of a mill, or some other race, was +the object of remark. The same may be said of flight, for we read of the +flight of birds, the flight of Mahommed, the flight of armies, and the +flight of intellect. + +We also give names to actions as tho they were taking place in the +present tense. "The _reading_ of the report was deferred;" steamboat +_racing_ is dangerous to public safety; _stealing_ is a crime; false +_teaching_ deserves the reprobation of all. + +The hints I have given will assist you in acquiring a knowledge of nouns +as used to express ideas in vocal or written language. This subject +might be pursued further with profit, if time would permit. As the time +allotted to this lecture is nearly exhausted, I forbear. I shall +hereafter have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be used to name +an idea, and as such stand as the agent or object of a verb. + +Some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects, and +distinguish them from the class to which they usually belong. In this +way they assume a distinctive character, and are usually denominated +=proper nouns=. They apply to persons, places and things; as, John +Smith, Boston, Hylax. _Boy_ is applied in common to all young males of +the human species, and as such is a _common noun_ or name. _John Smith_ +designates a particular boy from the rest. + +Proper names may be also applied to animals and things. The stable +keeper and stageman has a name for every horse he owns, to distinguish +it from other horses; the dairyman for his cows, the boy for his dog, +and the girl for her doll. Any word, in fact, may become a proper name +by being specifically used; as the ship Fair Trader, the brig Success, +sloop Delight in Peace, the race horse Eclipse, Black Hawk, Round Nose, +and Red Jacket. + +Proper names were formerly used in reference to certain traits of +character or circumstances connected with the place or thing. _Abram_ +was changed to _Abraham_, the former signifying _an elevated father_, +the latter, _the father of a multitude_. _Isaac_ signified _laughter_, +and was given because his mother laughed at the message of the angel. +_Jacob_ signified _a supplanter_, because he was to obtain the +birthright of his elder brother. + +A ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to express scripture +sentiments in the names of their children, as may be seen by consulting +the records of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies. + +This practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day, for we hear of +the names of Hope, Mercy, Patience, Comfort, Experience, Temperance, +Faith, Deliverance, Return, and such like, applied usually to females, +(being more in character probably,) and sometimes to males. We have also +the names of White, Black, Green, Red, Gray, Brown, Olive, Whitefield, +Blackwood, Redfield, Woodhouse, Stonehouse, Waterhouse, Woodbridge, +Swiftwater, Lowater, Drinkwater, Spring, Brooks, Rivers, Pond, Lake, +Fairweather, Merryweather, Weatherhead, Rice, Wheat, Straw, Greatrakes, +Bird, Fowle, Crow, Hawks, Eagle, Partridge, Wren, Goslings, Fox, Camel, +Zebra, Bear, Wolf, Hogg, Rain, Snow, Haile, Frost, Fogg, Mudd, Clay, +Sands, Hills, Valley, Field, Stone, Flint, Silver, Gould, and Diamond. + +Proper nouns may also become common when used as words of general +import; as, _dunces_, corrupted from Duns Scotus, a distinguished +theologian, born at Dunstane, Northumberland, an opposer of the +doctrines of Thomas Aquinus. He is a real _solomon_, jack tars, judases, +antichrist, and so on. + +Nouns may also be considered in respect to person, number, gender, and +positive, or case. There are _three_ persons, _two_ numbers, _two_ +genders, and _two_ cases. But the further consideration of these things +will be deferred, which, together with Pronouns, will form the subject +of our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + + Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How + formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender. + --No neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.-- + Agents.--Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive + word.--Pronouns.--One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically + applied. + + +We resume the consideration of nouns this evening, in relation to +person, number, gender, and position or case. + +In the use of language there is a speaker, person spoken to, and things +spoken of. Those who speak are the _first_ persons, those who hear the +_second_, and those who are the subject of conversation the _third_. + +The first and second persons are generally used in reference to human +beings capable of speech and understanding. But we sometimes condesend +to hold converse with animals and inanimate matter. The bird trainer +talks to his parrots, the coachman to his horses, the sailor to the +winds, and the poet to his landscapes, towers, and wild imaginings, to +which he gives a "local habitation and a name." + +By metaphor, language is put into the mouths of animals, particularly in +fables. By a still further license, places and things, flowers, trees, +forests, brooks, lakes, mountains, towers, castles, stars, &c. are made +to speak the most eloquent language, in the first person, in addresses +the most pathetic. The propriety of such a use of words I will not stop +to question, but simply remark that such figures should never be +employed in the instruction of children. As the mind expands, no longer +content to grovel amidst mundane things, we mount the pegasus of +imagination and soar thro the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and +fiction, and study a language before unknown. But it would be an +unrighteous demand upon others, to require them to understand us; and +quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance because they do not. + +Most nouns are in the third person. More things are talked about than +talk themselves, or are talked to by others. Hence there is little +necessity for teaching children to specify except in the first or second +person, which is very easily done. + +In English there are two _numbers_, singular and plural. The singular is +confined to one, the plural is extended to any indefinite number. The +Greeks, adopted a dual number which they used to express two objects +united in pairs, or couples; as, a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a +brace of pistols, a pair of shoes. We express the same idea with more +words, using the singular to represent the union of the two. We also +extend this use of words and employ what are called _nouns of +multitude_; as, a people, an army, a host, a nation. These and similar +words are used in the singular referring to many combined in a united +whole, or in the plural comprehending a diversity; as, "the armies met," +"the nations are at peace." _People_ admits no change on account of +number. We say "_many_ people are collected together and form _a_ +numerous people." + +The plural is not always to be understood as expressing an increase of +number, but of qualities or sorts of things, as the merchant has a +variety of _sugars_, _wines_, _teas_, _drugs_, _medicines_, _paints_ and +_dye-woods_. We also speak of _hopes_, _fears_, _loves_, _anxieties_. + +Some nouns admit of no plural, in fact, or in use; as, chaos, universe, +fitness, immortality, immensity, eternity. Others admit of no singular; +as, scissors, tongs, vitals, molasses. These words probably once had +singulars, but having no use for them they became obsolete. We have long +been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together, so that +in speaking of one whole, we say shears, and of apart, half of a shears. +But of some words originally, and in fact plural, we have formed a +singular; as, "one twin died, and, tho the other one survived its +dangerous illness, the mother wept bitterly for her twins." _Twin_ is +composed of _two_ and _one_. It is found in old books, spelled _twane_, +two-one, or twin. Thus, the _twi_-light is formed by the mingling of two +lights, or the division of the rays of light by the approaching or +receding darkness. They _twain_ shall be one flesh. Sheep and deer are +singular or plural. + +Most plurals are formed by adding _s_ to the singular, or, when euphony +requires it, _es_; as, tree, trees; sun, suns; dish, dishes; box, boxes. +Some retain the old plural form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; chick, +chicken; kit, kitten. But habit has burst the barrier of old rules, and +we now talk of chicks and chickens, kits and kittens. _Oxen_ alone +stands as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon plurals. + +Some nouns form irregular plurals. Those ending in _f_ change that +letter to _v_ and then add _es_; as, half, halves; leaf, leaves; wolf, +wolves. Those ending in _y_ change that to _i_ and add the _es_; as, +cherry, cherries; berry, berries; except when the _y_ is preceded by a +vowel, in which case it only adds the _s_; as, day, days; money, moneys +(not _ies_); attorney, attorneys. All this is to make the sound more +easy and harmonious. _F_ and _v_ were formerly used indiscriminately, in +singulars as well as plurals, and, in fact, in the composition of all +words where they occurred. The same may be said of _i_ and _y_. + + "The Fader (Father) Almychty of the heven abuf (above) + In the mene tyme, unto Juno his _luf_ (love) + Thus spak; and sayd." + _Douglas, booke 12, pag. 441._ + + "They lyued in ioye and in felycite + For eche of hem had other lefe and dere." + _Chaucer, Monks Tale, fol. 81, p. 1._ + + "When straite twane beefes he tooke + And an the aultar layde." + +The reason why _y_ is changed into _i_ in the formation of plurals, and +in certain other cases, is, I apprehend, accounted for from the fact +that words which now end in _y_ formerly ended in _ie_, as may be seen +in all old books. The regular plural was then formed by adding _s_. + +"And upon those members of the _bodie_, which _wee_ thinke most +unhonest, put _wee_ more honestie on." "It rejoyceth not in +iniquitie--diversitie of gifts--all thinges edifie not." See old bible, +1 Cor., chap. 13 and 14. + +Other words form their plurals still more differently, for which no +other rule than habit can be given; as, man, men; foot, feet; tooth, +teeth; die, dice; mouse, mice; penny, pence, and sometimes pennies, when +applied to distinct pieces of money, and not to value. + +Many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the nations from +whom we have borrowed them; as, cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; +radius, radii; memorandum, memoranda; datum, data, &c. We should be +pleased to have such words carried home, or, if they are ours by virtue +of possession, let them be adopted into our family, and put on the +garments of naturalized citizens, and no longer appear as lonely +strangers among us. There is great aukwardness in adding the english to +the hebrew plural of cherub, as the translators of the common version of +the bible have done. They use _cherub_ in the singular and cherub_ims_ +in the plural. The _s_ should be omitted and the Hebrew plural retained, +or the preferable course adopted, and the final _s_ be added, making +cherubs, seraphs, &c. The same might be said of all foreign nouns. It +would add much to the regularity, dignity, and beauty, of our vernacular +tongue. + +Proper nouns admit of the plural number; as, there are sixty-four John +Smiths in New-York, twenty Arnolds in Providence, and fifteen Davises in +Boston. As we are not accustomed to form the plurals of proper names +there is not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we have +found in those with which we are more familiar; especially those we have +rarely heard pronounced. Habit surmounts the greatest obstacles and +makes things the most harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable. + +Gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes. There are +two--masculine and feminine. The former is applied to males, the latter +to females. Those words which belong to neither gender, have been called +_neuter_, that is, _no gender_. But it is hardly necessary to perplex +the minds of learners with _negatives_. Let them distinguish between +masculine and feminine genders, and little need be said to them about a +_neuter_. + +There are some nouns of both genders, as student, writer, pupil, +person, citizen, resident. _Poet_, _author_, editor, and some other +words, have of late been applied to females, instead of poet_ess_, +author_ess_, edit_ress_. Fashion will soon preclude the necessity of +this former distinction. + +Some languages determine their genders by the form of the endings of +their nouns, and what is thus made masculine in Rome, may be feminine in +France. It is owing, no doubt, to this practice, in other nations, that +we have attached the idea of gender to inanimate things; as, "the sun, +_he_ shines majestically;" while of the moon, it is said, "_she_ sheds a +milder radiance." But we can not coincide with the reason assigned by +Mr. Murray, for this distinction. His notion is not valid. It does not +correspond with facts. While in the south of Europe the sun is called +masculine and the moon feminine, the northern nations invariably reverse +the distinction, particularly the dialects of the Scandinavian. It was +so in our own language in the time of Shakspeare. He calls the sun a +"_fair wench_." + +By figures of rhetoric, genders may be attached to inanimate matter. +Where things are personified, we usually speak of them as masculine and +feminine; but this practice depends on fancy, and not on any fixed +rules. There is, in truth, but two genders, and those confined to +animals. When we break these rules, and follow the undirected wanderings +of fancy, we can form no rules to regulate our words. We may have as +many fanciful ones as we please, but they will not apply in common +practice. For example: poets and artists have usually attached female +loveliness to angels, and placed them in the feminine gender. But they +are invariably used in the masculine thro out the scriptures. + +There is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship General Williams, +_she_ is beautiful; or, of the steamboat Benjamin Franklin, _she_ is out +of date. It were far better to use no gender in such cases. But if +people will continue the practice of making distinctions where there are +none, they must do it from habit and whim, and not from any reason or +propriety. + +There are three ways in which we usually distinguish the forms of words +in reference to gender. 1st. By words which are different; as boy, girl; +uncle, aunt; father, mother. 2d. By a different termination of the same +word; as instructor, instructress; lion, lioness; poet, poetess. _Ess_ +is a contraction from the hebrew _essa_, a female. 3d. By prefixing +another word; as, a male child, a female child; a man servant, a maid +servant; a he-goat, a she-goat. + +The last consideration that attaches to nouns, is the _position_ they +occupy in written or spoken language, in relation to other words, as +being _agents_, or _objects_ of action. This is termed _position_. + +There are two positions in which nouns stand in reference to their +meaning and use. First, as _agents_ of action, as _David_ killed +Goliath. Second, as _objects_ on which action terminates; as, _Richard_ +conquered _Henry_. These two distinctions should be observed in the use +of all nouns. But the propriety of this division will be more evident +when we come to treat of verbs, their agents and objects. + +It will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of the "_possessive +case_," a distinction which has been insisted on in our grammars; and +also changed the names of the other two. As we would adopt nothing that +is new without first being convinced that something is needed which the +thing proposed will supply; so we would reject nothing that is old, +till we have found it useless and cumbersome. It will be admitted on all +hands that the fewer and simpler the rules of grammar, the more readily +will they be understood, and the more correctly applied. We should +guard, on the one hand, against having so many as to perplex, and on the +other, retain enough to apply in the correct use of language. It is on +this ground that we have proposed an improvement in the names and number +of cases, or positions. + +The word noun signifies name, and _nominative_ is the adjective derived +from noun, and partakes of the same meaning. Hence the _nominative_ or +_naming_ case may apply as correctly to the object as the agent. "_John_ +strikes _Thomas_, and _Thomas_ strikes _John_." John and Thomas name the +boys who strike, but in the first case John is the actor or agent and +Thomas the object. In the latter it is changed. To use a _nominative +name_ is a redundancy which should be avoided. You will understand my +meaning and see the propriety of the change proposed, as the mind of the +learner should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases. + +But our main objection lies against the "possessive case." We regard it +as a false and unnecessary distinction. What is the possessive case? +Murray defines it as "expressing the relation of property or possession; +as, my father's house." His rule of syntax is, "one substantive governs +another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive +case; as, my father's house." I desire you to understand the definition +and use as here given. Read it over again, and be careful that you know +the meaning of _property_, _possession_, and _government_. Now let a +scholar parse correctly the example given. "_Father's_" is a common +noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, and _governed_ by +house:" Rule, "One noun _governs_ another," &c. Then my father does not +govern his own house, but his house him! What must be the conduct and +condition of the family, if they have usurped the government of their +head? "John Jones, hatter, keeps constantly for sale all kinds of _boy's +hats_. Parse boy's. It is a noun, possessive case, _governed_ by hats." +What is the possessive case? It "signifies the _relation of property or +possession_." Do the hats belong to the boys? Oh no. Are they the +_property_ or in the _possession_ of the boys? Certainly not. Then what +relation is there of property or possession? None at all. They belong to +John Jones, were made by him, are his property, and by him are +advertised for sale. He has used the word _boy's_ to distinguish their +size, quality, and fitness for boy's use. + +"The master's slave." Master's is in the possessive case, and _governed_ +by slave! If grammars are true there can be no need of abolition +societies, unless it is to look after the master and see that he is not +abused. The rider's horse; the captain's ship; the general's army; the +governor's cat; the king's subject. How false it would be to teach +scholars the idea of _property_ and _government_ in such cases. The +_teacher's scholars_ should never learn that by virtue of their +grammars, or the _apostrophe_ and letter _s_, they have a right to +_govern_ their teachers; nor the mother's son, to govern his mother. Our +merchants would dislike exceedingly to have the _ladies_ understand them +to signify by their advertisements that the "ladies' merino shawls, the +ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils, the ladies' gloves and elegant +Thibet, silk and challa dresses, were the _property_ of the ladies; for +in that case they might claim or _possess_ themselves of their +_property_, and no longer trouble the merchant with the care of it. + +"Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." "_His_ physician said that +_his_ disease would require _his_ utmost skill to defeat _its_ progress +in _his_ limbs." Phrases like these are constantly occurring, which can +not be explained intelligibly by the existing grammars. In fact, the +words said to be nouns in the possessive case, have changed their +character, by use, from nouns to adjectives, or definitive words, and +should thus be classed. Russia iron, Holland gin, China ware, American +people, the Washington tavern, Lafayette house, Astor house, Hudson +river, (formerly Hudson's,) Baffin's bay, Van Dieman's land, John +street, Harper's ferry, Hill's bridge, a paper book, a bound book, a red +book, John's book--one which John is known to use, it may be a borrowed +one, but generally known as some way connected with him,--Rev. Mr. +Smith's church, St. John's church, Grace church, Murray's grammar; not +the property nor in the possession of Lindley Murray, neither does it +_govern him_; for he has gone to speak a purer language than he taught +on earth. It is mine. I bought it, have possessed it these ten years; +but, thank fortune, am little _governed_ by it. But more on this point +when we come to the proper place. What I have said, will serve as a +hint, which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the +"possessive case." + +It may be said that more cases are employed in other languages. That is +a poor reason why we should break the barriers of natural language. +Beside, I know not how we should decide by that rule, for none of them +have a _case_ that will compare with the English possessive. The +genitive of the French, Latin, or Greek, will apply in only a few +respects. The former has _three_, the latter five, and the Latin six +cases, neither of which correspond with the possessive, as explained by +Murray and his satellites. We should be slow to adopt into our language +an idiom which does not belong to it, and compel learners to make +distinctions where none exist. It is an easy matter to tell children +that the apostrophe and letter _s_ marks the possessive case; but when +they ask the difference in the meaning between the use of the noun and +those which all admit are adjectives, it will be no indifferent task to +satisfy them. What is the difference in the construction of language or +the sense conveyed, between Hudson'_s_ river, and _Hudson_ river? +Davis's straits, or Bass straits? St. John's church, or Episcopal +church? the sun's beams, or sun shine? In all cases these words are used +to define the succeeding noun. They regard "property or possession," +only when attending circumstances, altogether foreign from any quality +in the form or meaning of the word itself, are so combined as to give it +that import. And in such cases, we retain these words as adjectives, +long after the property has passed from the hands of the persons who +gave it a name. _Field's_ point, _Fuller's_ rocks, _Fisher's_ island, +_Fulton's_ invention, will long be retained after those whose names were +given to distinguish these things, have slept with their fathers and +been forgotten. Blannerhassett's Island, long since ceased to be his +property or tranquil possession, by confiscation; but it will retain its +specific name, till the inundations of the Ohio's waters shall have +washed it away and left not a wreck behind. + +The distinctions I have made in the positions of nouns, will be clearly +understood when we come to the verbs. A few remarks upon pronouns will +close the present lecture. + + +PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns are such as the word indicates. _Pro_ is the latin word _for_; +pro-nomen, _for nouns_. They are words, originally nouns, used +specifically _for_ other nouns, to avoid the too frequent repetition of +the same words; as, Washington was the father of his country; _he_ was a +valiant officer. _We_ ought to respect _him_. The word _we_, stands for +the speaker and all present, and saves the trouble of naming them; _he_ +and _him_, stand for Washington, to avoid the monotony which would be +produced by a recurrence of his name. + +Pronouns are all of one kind, and few in number. I will give you a list +of them in their respective positions. + + _Agents._ _Objects._ + { 1st person, I, me, + { 2d " thou, thee, +_Singular_ { 3d " mas. { he, him, + { " fem. { she, her, + { it, it. + + { 1st person, we, us, + _Plural_ { 2d " ye, or you, you, + { 3d " they, them, + who, whom. + +The two last may be used in either person, number, or gender. + +The frequent use of these words render them very important, in the +elegant and rapid use of language. They are so short, and their sound so +soft and easy, that the frequency of their recurrence does not mar the +beauty of a sentence, but saves us from the redundancy of other words. +They are substituted only when there is little danger of mistaking the +nouns for which they stand. They are, however, sometimes used in a very +broad sense; as, "_they say_ it is so;" meaning no particular persons, +but the general sentiment. _It_ frequently takes the lead of a sentence, +and the thing represented by it comes after; as, "It is currently +reported, that things were thus and so." Here _it_ represents the single +idea which is afterward stated at length. "_It_ is so." "_It_ may be +that the nations will be destroyed by wars, earthquakes, and famines." +But more of this when we come to speak of the composition of sentences. + +The words now classed as pronouns were originally _names_ of things, but +in this character they have long been obsolete. They are now used only +in their secondary character as the representatives of other words. The +word _he_, for instance, signified originally _to breathe_. It was +applied to the living beings who inhaled air. It occurs with little +change in the various languages of Europe, ancient and modern, till at +length it is applied to the male agent which lives and acts. The word +_her_ means _light_, but is specifically applied to females which are +the objects of action. + +Was it in accordance with the design of these lectures, it would give me +pleasure to go into a minute examination of the origin, changes and +meaning of these words till they came to be applied as specific words of +exceeding limited character. Most of them might be traced thro all the +languages of Europe; the Arabic, Persic, Arminian, Chaldean, Hebrew, +and, for ought I know, all the languages of Asia. But as they are now +admitted a peculiar position in the expression of thought from which +they never vary; and as we are contending about philosophic principles +rather than verbal criticisms, I shall forbear a further consideration +of these words. + +In the proper place I shall consider those words formerly called +"Adjective Pronouns," "Pronoun Adjectives," or "Pronominal Adjectives," +to suit the varying whims of those grammar makers, who desired to show +off a speck of improvement in their "simplifying" works without ever +having a new idea to express. It is a query in some minds whether the +seventy-two "simplifiers" and "improvers" of Murray's grammar ever had +any distinct notions in their heads which they did not obtain from the +very man, who, it would seem by their conduct, was unable to explain his +own meaning. + + + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How + understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the + noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from + adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to be + understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from + verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- + In.--Out.--Of. + + +The most important sub-division of words is the class called Adjectives, +which we propose to notice this evening. _Adjective_ signifies _added_ +or _joined to_. We employ the term in grammar to designate that class of +words which are _added to nouns to define or describe them_. In doing +this, we strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced, and +do not deviate from the laws of nature, as developed in the regulation +of speech. + +In speaking of things, we had occasion to observe that the mind not only +conceived ideas of things, but of their properties; as, the hardness of +flint; the heat of fire; and that we spoke of one thing in reference to +another. We come now to consider this subject more at large. + +In the use of language the mind first rests on the thing which is +present before it, or the word which represents the idea of that thing. +Next it observes the changes and attitudes of these things. Thirdly, it +conceives ideas of their qualities and relations to other things. The +first use of these words is to name things. This we call _nouns_. The +second is to express their actions. This we call _verbs_. The last is to +define or describe things. This we call _adjectives_. There is a great +similarity between the words used to name things and to express their +actions; as, builders build buildings; singers sing songs; writers write +writings; painters paint paintings. In the popular use of language we +vary these words to avoid the monotony and give pleasantness and +variety. We say builders _erect_ houses, barns, and other buildings; +singers perform pieces of music; musicians play tunes; the choir sing +psalm tunes; artists paint pictures. + +From these two classes a third is derived which partakes somewhat of the +nature of both, and yet from its secondary use, it has obtained a +distinctive character, and as such is allowed a separate position among +the classes of words. + +It might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration of +adjectives till we have noticed the character and use of verbs, from +which an important portion of them is derived. But as they are used in +connexion with nouns, and as the character they borrow from the verb +will be readily understood, I have preferred to retain the old +arrangement, and consider them in this place. + +_Adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe them._ They +are derived either, 1st, from nouns; as, _window_ glass, _glass_ window, +a stone house, building stone, maple sugar, sugar cane; or, 2d, from +verbs; as, a _written_ paper, a _printed_ book, a _painted_ house, a +_writing_ desk. In the first case we employ one noun, or the name of one +thing, to define another, thus giving it a secondary use. A _glass_ +window is one made of glass, and not of any thing else. It is neither a +_board_ window, nor a _paper_ window. _Maple_ sugar is not _cane_ +sugar, nor _beet_ sugar, nor _molasses_ sugar; but it may be _brown_ +sugar, if it has been browned, or _white_ if it has been whit_ed_ or +whit_ened_. In this case, you at once perceive the correctness of our +second proposition, in the derivation of adjectives from verbs, by which +we describe a thing in reference to its condition, in some way affected +by the operation of a prior action. A _printed_ book is one on which the +action of printing has been performed. A _written_ book differs from the +former, in as much as its appearance was produced by writing and not by +printing. + +In the definition or description of things, whatever is best understood +is employed as a definitive or descriptive term, and is attached to the +object to make known its properties and relations. Speaking of nations, +if we desire to distinguish some from others, we choose the words +supposed to be best known, and talk of European, African, American, or +Indian nations; northern, southern, eastern, or western nations. These +last words are used in reference to their relative position, and may be +variously understood; for we speak of the northern, eastern, western, +and southern nations of Europe, of Africa, and the world. + +Again, we read of civiliz_ed_, half-civilized, and barbarous nations; +learned, unlearned, ignorant, and enlightened; rich, powerful, +enterprising, respected, ancient or modern, christian, mahomedan or +pagan. In these, and a thousand similar cases, we decide the meaning, +not alone from the word employed as an adjective, but from the subject +of remark; for, were we to attach the same meaning to the same word, +wherever used, we could not receive correct or definite impressions from +the language of others--our inferences would be the most monstrous. A +_great_ mountain and a _great_ pin, a _great_ continent and a _great_ +farm, a _great_ ocean and a _great_ pond, a _great_ grammar and a +_great_ scholar, refer to things of very different dimensions and +character; or, as Mr. Murray would say, "_qualities_." A mountain is +great by comparison with other mountains; and a pin, compared with other +pins, may be very large--exceeding great--and yet fall very far short of +the size of a very small mountain. A _small_ man may be a _great_ +scholar, and a rich neighbor a poor friend. A sweet flower is often very +bitter to the taste. A _good_ horse would make a _bad_ dinner, but +_false_ grammar can never make _true_ philologists. + +All words are to be understood according to their use. Their meaning can +be determined in no other way. Many words change their forms to express +their relations, but fewer in our language than in most others, ancient +or modern. Other words remain the same, or nearly so, in every position; +noun, adjective, or verb, agent or object, past or present. To determine +whether a word is an adjective, first ascertain whether it names a +thing, defines or describes it, or expresses its action, and you will +never be at a loss to know to what class it belongs. + +The business of adjectives is twofold, and they may be distinguished by +the appellations of _defining_ or _describing_ adjectives. This +distinction is in many cases unimportant; in others it is quite +essential. The same word in one case may _define_, in others _describe_ +the object, and occasionally do both, for we often specify things by +their descriptions. The learner has only to ascertain the meaning and +use of the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the +subject of remark. If it is employed to distinguish one thing from the +general mass, or one class from other classes, it has the former +character; but after such thing is pointed out, if it is used to give a +description of its character or properties, its character is different, +and should be so understood and explained. + +_Defining adjectives_ are used to _point out_, specify or distinguish +certain things from others of their kind, or one sort from other sorts, +and answer to the questions _which_, _what_, _how many_, or _how much_. + +_Describing adjectives_ express the character and qualities of things, +and give a more full and distinct knowledge than was before possessed. + +In a case before mentioned, we spoke of the "Indian nations." The word +_Indian_ was chosen to specify or define what nations were alluded to. +But all may not decide alike in this case. Some may think we meant the +aborigines of America; others, that the southern nations of Asia were +referred to. This difficulty originates in a misapprehension of the +definitive word chosen. India was early known as the name of the south +part of Asia, and the people there, were called Indians. When Columbus +discovered the new world, supposing he had reached the country of India, +which had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of Africa, he +named it India, and the people Indians. But when the mistake was +discovered, and the truth fully known, instead of effecting a change in +the name already very generally understood, and in common use, another +word was chosen to distinguish between countries so opposite and _West_ +India became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands; and +as India was little better known in Europe at that time, instead of +retaining their old name unaltered, another word was prefixed, and they +called it _East_ India. When, therefore, we desire to be definite, we +retain these words, and say, East Indians and West Indians. Without this +distinction, we should understand the native people of our own country; +but in Europe, Asia, and Africa, they would think we alluded to those in +Asia. So with all other adjectives which are not understood. _Indian_, +as an adjective, may also be employed to _describe_ the character and +condition of the aborigines. We talk of an indian temper, indian looks, +indian blankets, furs, &c. + +In writing and conversation we should employ words to explain, to define +and describe, which are better understood than those things of which we +speak. The pedantry of some modern writers in this respect is +ridiculous. Not satisfied to use plain terms which every body can +understand, they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega, and not +unfrequently overleap the "king's english," and ransack other languages +to find an unheard of word, or a list of adjectives never before +arranged together, in so nice a manner, so that their ideas are lost to +the common reader, if not to themselves. This fault may be alleged +against too many of our public speakers, as well as the affected gentry +of the land. They are like Shakspeare's Gratiano, "who speaks an +infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice; his reasons +are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek +all day ere you find them; and, when you have found them, they are not +worth the search." Such sentences remind us of the painting of the young +artist who drew the form of an animal, but apprehensive that some might +mistake it, wrote under it, "_This is a horse._" + +In forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective, the mind +should pause to determine the meaning of such word when used as a +distinct name for some object, in order to determine the import of it in +this new capacity. A _tallow_ candle is one made of a substance called +tallow, and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti +candles. The adjective in this case, names the article of which the +candle is made, and is thus a noun, but, as we are not speaking of +tallow, but of candles, we place it in a new relation, and give it a new +grammatical character. But you will perceive the correctness of a former +assertion, that all words may be reduced to two classes, and that +adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs. + +But you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in use which have +no corresponding verb or noun from which they are derived. There are +many words in our language which in certain uses have become obsolete, +but are retained in others. We now use some words as verbs which +originally were known only as nouns, and others as nouns which are +unknown as verbs. We also put a new construction upon words and make +nouns, verbs and adjectives promiscuously and with little regard to rule +or propriety. Words at one time unknown become familiar by use, and +others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable. These facts are +so obvious that I shall be excused from extending my remarks to any +great length. But I will give an example which will serve as a clew to +the whole. Take the word _happy_, long known only as an adjective. +Instead of following this word _back_ to its primitive use and deriving +it directly from its noun, or as a past participle, such as it is in +truth, we have gone _forward_ and made from it the noun _happiness_, +and, in more modern days, are using the verb _happify_, a word, by the +way, in common use, but which has not yet been honored with a place in +our dictionaries; altho Mr. Webster has given us, as he says, the +_unauthorised_ (un-author-ised) word "_happifying_." Perhaps he had +never heard or read some of our greatest savans, who, if not the +authors, employ the word _happify_ very frequently in the pulpit and +halls of legislation, and at the bar, as well as in common parlance. + +_Happy_ is the past participle of the verb _to hap_, or, as afterwards +used, with a nice shade of change in the meaning, _to happen_. It means +_happied_, or made happy by those favorable circumstances which have +_happened_ to us. Whoever will read our old writers no further back than +Shakspeare, will at once see the use and changes of this word. They will +find it in all its forms, simple and compound, as a verb, noun, and +adjective. "It may _hap_ that he will come." It happened as I was going +that I found my lost child, and was thereby made quite happy. The man +desired to _hap_pify himself and family without much labor, so he +engaged in speculation; and _hap_pily he was not so _hap_less in his +pursuit of _hap_piness as often _hap_pens to such _hap_-hazard fellows, +for he soon became very _hap_py with a moderate fortune. + +But to the question. There are many adjectives in our language which are +borrowed from foreign words. Instead of _adjectiving_ our own nouns we +go to our neighbors and _adjective_ and anglicise [english-ise] their +words, and adopt the pampered urchins into our own family and call them +our favorites. It is no wonder that they often appear aukward and +unfamiliar, and that our children are slow in forming an intimate +acquaintance with them. You are here favored with a short list of these +words which will serve as examples, and enable you to comprehend my +meaning and apply it in future use. Some of them are regularly used as +adjectives, with or without change; others are not. + + ENGLISH NOUNS. FOREIGN ADJECTIVES. + + Alone Sole, solitary + Alms Eleemosynary + Age Primeval + Belief Credulous + Blame Culpable + Breast Pectoral + Being Essential + Bosom Graminal, sinuous + Boy, boyish Puerile + Blood, bloody Sanguinary, sanguine + Burden Onerous + Beginning Initial + Boundary Conterminous + Brother Fraternal + Bowels Visceral + Body Corporeal + Birth Natal, native + Calf Vituline + Carcass Cadaverous + Cat Feline + Cow Vaccine + Country Rural, rustic + Church Ecclesiastical + Death Mortal + Dog Canine + Day Diurnal, meridian, ephemeral + Disease Morbid + East Oriental + Egg Oval + Ear Auricular + Eye Ocular + Flesh Carnal, carnivorous + Father Paternal + Field Agrarian + Flock Gregarious + Foe Hostile + Fear Timorous, timid + Finger Digital + Flattery Adulatory + Fire Igneous + Faith Fiducial + Foot Pedal + Groin Inguinal + Guardian Tutelar + Glass Vitreous + Grape Uveous + Grief Dolorous + Gain Lucrative + Help Auxiliary + Heart Cordial, cardiac + Hire Stipendiary + Hurt Noxious + Hatred Odious + Health Salutary, salubrious + Head Capital, chief + Ice Glacial + Island Insular + King Regal, royal + Kitchen Culinary + Life Vital, vivid, vivarious + Lungs Pulmonary + Lip Labial + Leg Crural, isosceles + Light Lucid, luminous + Love Amorous + Lust Libidinous + Law Legal, loyal + Mother Maternal + Money Pecuniary + Mixture Promiscuous, miscellaneous + Moon Lunar, sublunary + Mouth Oral + Marrow Medulary + Mind Mental + Man Virile, male, human, masculine + Milk Lacteal + Meal Ferinaceous + Nose Nasal + Navel Umbilical + Night Nocturnal, equinoctial + Noise Obstreperous + One First + Parish Parochial + People Popular, populous, public, epidemical, endemical + Point Punctual + Pride Superb, haughty + Plenty Copious + Pitch Bituminous + Priest Sacerdotal + Rival Emulous + Root Radical + Ring Annular + Reason Rational + Revenge Vindictive + Rule Regular + Speech Loquacious, garrulous, eloquent + Smell Olfactory + Sight Visual, optic, perspicuous, conspicuous + Side Lateral, collateral + Skin Cutaneous + Spittle Salivial + Shoulder Humeral + Shepherd Pastoral + Sea Marine, maritime + Share Literal + Sun Solar + Star Astral, sideral, stellar + Sunday Dominical + Spring Vernal + Summer Estival + Seed Seminal + Ship Naval, nautical + Shell Testaceous + Sleep Soporiferous + Strength Robust + Sweat Sudorific + Step Gradual + Sole Venal + Two Second + Treaty Federal + Trifle Nugatory + Tax Fiscal + Time Temporal, chronical + Town Oppidan + Thanks Gratuitous + Theft Furtive + Threat Minatory + Treachery Insidious + Thing Real + Throat Jugular, gutteral + Taste Insipid + Thought Pensive + Thigh Femoral + Tooth Dental + Tear Lachrymal + Vessel Vascular + World Mundane + Wood Sylvan, savage + Way Devious, obvious, impervious, trivial + Worm Vermicular + Whale Cutaceous + Wife Uxorious + Word Verbal, verbose + Weak Hebdomadal + Wall Mural + Will Voluntary, spontaneous + Winter Brumal + Wound Vulnerary + West Occidental + War Martial + Women Feminine, female, effeminate + Year Annual, anniversary, perennial, triennial + +Such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language from other +nations. The list will enable you to discover that when we have no +adjective of our own to correspond with the noun, we borrow from our +neighbors an adjective derived from one of their nouns, to which we give +an english termination. For example: + + _English Noun._ _Latin Noun._ _Adjective._ + + Boy Puer Puerile + Grief Dolor Dolorous + Thought Pensa Pensive + Wife Uxor Uxorious + Word Verbum Verbal, verbose + Year Annum Annual + Body Corpus Corporeal + Head Caput Capital + Church Ekklesia (_Greek_) Ecclesiastical + King Roi (_French_) Royal + Law Loi " Loyal + +It is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of many nouns +with which we are familiar, from the fact above stated, that they are +derived from other languages, and not our own. The most thoro scholars +have found this task no easy affair. Most grammarians have let it pass +unobserved; but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation +upon this point, to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological +derivation and meaning of these words. I would here enter farther into +this subject, but I am reminded that I am surpassing the limits set me +for this course of lectures. + +The attention I have bestowed on this part of the present subject, will +not be construed into a mere verbal criticism. It has been adopted to +show you how, in the definition or description of things, the mind +clings to one thing to gain some information concerning another. When we +find a thing unlike any thing else we have ever known, in form, in size, +in color, in every thing; we should find it a difficult task, if not an +impossibility, to describe it to another in a way to give any correct +idea of it. Having never seen its like before, we can say little of its +character. We may give it a _name_, but that would not be understood. We +could say it was as large as--no, it had no size; that it was like--but +no, it had no likeness; that it resembled--no, it had no resemblance. +How could we describe it? What could we say of it? Nothing at all. + +What idea could the Pacha of Egypt form of ice, having never seen any +till the french chemists succeeded in freezing water in his presence? +They told him of ice; that it was _cold_; that it would freeze; that +whole streams were often frozen over, so that men and teams could walk +over them. He believed no such thing--it was a "christian lie." This +idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists, which failed of +success. But when, on the second attempt, they succeeded, he was all in +raptures. A new field was open before him. New ideas were produced in +his mind. New qualities were learned; and he could now form some idea of +the _ice_ bergs of the north; of _frozen_ regions, which he had never +seen; of _icy_ hearts, and storms of _frozen_ rain. + +We often hear it said, such a man is very _stoical_; another is an +_epicurean_; and another is a _bacchanal_, or _bacchanalian_. But what +idea should we form of such persons, if we had never read of the Stoics +and their philosophy; of Epicurus and his notions of happiness and +duty; or of Bacchus, the god of wine and revelry, whose annual feasts, +or Dionysia, were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness +thro out Greece and Rome, till put down by the Senate of the latter. + +You can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge on which we here +insist. The meaning you attach to words is exceedingly diverse; and +hence you are not always able to think alike, or understand each other, +nor derive the same sentiment from the same language. The contradictory +opinions which exist in the world may be accounted for, in a great +measure, in this way. Our knowledge of many things of which we speak, is +limited, either from lack of means, or disposition to employ them. +People always differ and contend most about things of which they know +the least. Did we all attach the same meaning to the same words, our +opinions would all be the same, as true as the forty-fifth problem of +Euclid. How important, then, that children should always be taught the +same meaning of words, and learn to use them correctly. Etymology, +viewed in this light, is a most important branch of science. + +Whenever a word is sufficiently understood, no adjective should be +connected with it. There is a ridiculous practice among many people, of +appending to every noun one or more adjectives, which have no other +effect than to expose their own folly. Some writers are so in the habit +of annexing adjectives to all nouns, that they dare not use one without. +You will not unfrequently see adjectives different in form, added to a +noun of very similar meaning; as, sad melancholy, an ominous sign, this +mundane earth, pensive thoughts. + +When words can be obtained, which not only name the object, but also +describe its properties, it should be preferred to a noun with an +adjective; as _pirate_, for _sea robber_; _savan_, for a _learned_ or +_wise man_.[4] + +In relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs, we will be +brief. They include what have been termed participles, not a distinct +"part of speech," but by some included in the verbs. We use them as +adjectives to describe things as standing in some relation to other +things on the account of the action expressed by the verb from which +they are derived. "The man is respected." _Respected_, in this case, +describes the man in such a relation to those who have become acquainted +with his good qualities, that he now receives their respect. He is +respect_able_, (_able_ to command, or worthy of respect,) and of course, +respected for his respectability. To avoid repetition, we select +different words to assist in the expression of a complex idea. But I +indulge in phrases like the above, to show the nice shades of meaning in +the common use of words, endeavoring to analyze, as far as possible, our +words and thoughts, and show their mutual connexion and dependencies. + +What has been termed the "present participle" is also an adjective, +describing things in their present condition in reference to actions. +"The man is writing." Here, _writing_ describes the man in his present +employment. But the consideration of this matter more properly belongs +to the construction of sentences. + + * * * * * + +There is another class or variety of words properly belonging to this +division of grammar, which may as well be noticed in this place as any +other. I allude to those words generally called "Prepositions." We have +not time now to consider them at large, but will give you a brief view +of our opinion of them, and reserve the remainder of our remarks till we +come to another part of these lectures. + +Most of the words called prepositions, in books of grammar, are +participles, derived from verbs, many of which are still in use, but +some are obsolete. They are used in the true character of adjectives, +_describing one thing by its relation to another_. But their meaning has +not been generally understood. Our dictionaries have afforded no means +by which we can trace their etymology. They have been regarded as a kind +of cement to stick other words together, having no meaning or importance +in themselves.[5] Until their meaning is known, we can not reasonably +expect to draw them from their hiding places, and give them a +respectable standing in the transmission of thought. + +Many words, from the frequency of their use, fail to attract our +attention as much as those less employed; not because they are less +important, but because they are so familiarly known that the operations +of thought are not observed in the choice made of them to express ideas. +If we use words of which little is known, we ponder well before we adopt +them, to determine whether the sense usually attached to them accords +exactly with the notions we desire to convey by them. The same can not +be said of small words which make up a large proportion of our language, +and are, in fact, more necessary than the others, in as much as their +meaning is more generally known. Those who employ carriages to convey +their bodies, observe little of their construction, unless there is +something singular or fine in their appearance. The common parts are +unobserved, yet as important as the small words used in the common +construction of language, the vehicle of thought. As the apostle says of +the body politic, "those members of the body, which seem to be more +feeble, are necessary;" so the words least understood by grammarians are +most necessary in the correct formation of language. + +It is an easy matter to get along with the words called prepositions, +after they are all learned by rote; but when their meaning and use are +inquired into, the best grammarians have little to say of them. + +A list of prepositions, alphabetically arranged, is found in nearly +every grammar, which scholars are required to commit to memory, without +knowing any thing of their meaning or use, only that they are +prepositions when an objective word comes after them, _because the books +say so_; but occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and +adjectives. There is, however, no trouble in "parsing" them, unless the +list is forgotten. In that case, you will see the pupil, instead of +inquiring after the meaning and duty of the word, go to the book and +search for it in the lists of prepositions or conjunctions; or to the +dictionary, to see if there is a "_prep._" appended to it. What will +children ever learn of language in this way? Of what avail is all such +grammar teaching? As soon as they leave school it is all forgotten; and +you will hear them say, at the very time they should be reaping the +harvest of former toil, that they once understood grammar, but it is all +gone from them. Poor souls! their memory is very treacherous, else they +have never learned language as they ought. There is a fault somewhere. +To us it is not difficult to determine where it is. + +That certain words are prepositions, there can be no doubt, because the +books say they are; but _why_ they are so, is quite another matter. All +we desire is to have their meaning understood. Little difficulty will +then be found in determining their use. + +I have said they are derived from verbs, many of which are obsolete. +Some are still in use, both as verbs and nouns. Take for example the +word =with=. This word signifies _joined_ or _united_. It is used to +show that two things are some how joined together so that they are spoke +of in connexion. It frequently occurs in common conversation, as a verb +and noun, but not as frequently in the books as formerly. The farmer +says to his _hired_ man, "Go and get a _withe_ and come and _withe_ up +the fence;" that is, get some pliant twigs of tough wood, twist them +together, and _withe_ or bind them round these posts, so that one may +stand firm _with_, or _withed_ to, the other. A book _with_ a cover, is +one that has a cover _joined_, bound, or attached to it. "A father +_with_ a son, a man _with_ an estate, a nation _with_ a constitution." +In all such cases _with_ expresses the relation between the two things +mentioned, produced by a _union_ or connexion with each other.[6] + +=In= is used in the same way. It is still retained as a noun and is +suspended on the signs of many public houses. "The traveller's _inn_," +is a house where travellers _in_ themselves, or go _in_, for +entertainment. It occurs frequently in Shakspeare and in more modern +writers, as a verb, and is still used in common conversation as an +imperative. "Go, _in_ the crops of grain." "_In_ with you." "_In_ with +it." In describes one thing by its relation to another, which is the +business of adjectives. It admits of the regular degrees of comparison; +as, _in_, _inner_, _innermost_ or _inmost_. It also has its compounds. +_In_step, the _inner_ part of the foot, _in_let, _in_vestment, +_in_heritance. In this capacity it is extensively used under its +different shades of meaning which I cannot stop to notice. + +=Of= signifies _divided_, _separated_, or _parted_. "The ship is _off_ +the coast." "I am bound _off_, and you are bound _out_." "A part _of_ a +pencil," is that part which is _separated_ from the rest, implying that +the act of _separating_, or _offing_, has taken place. "A branch _of_ +the tree." There is the tree; this branch is from it. "Our communication +was broken _off_ several years ago." "Sailors record their _off_ings, +and parents love their _off_spring," or those children which sprung +from them.[7] "We also _are his offspring_;" that is, sprung from +God.[8] In all these, and every other case, you will perceive the +meaning of the word, and its office will soon appear essential in the +expression of thought. Had all the world been a compact whole, nothing +ever separated from it, we could never speak of a part _of_ it, for we +could never have such an idea. But we look at things, as separated, +divided, parted; and speak of one thing as separated from the others. +Hence, when we speak of the part of the earth we inhabit, we, in +imagination, separate it from some other _part_, or the general whole. +We can not use this word in reference to a thing which is indivisible, +because we can conceive no idea of a part _of_ an indivisible thing. We +do not say, a portion _of_ our mind taken as a whole, but as capable of +division. A share _of_ our regards, supposes that the remainder is +reserved for something else. + +=Out=, out_er_ or utter, outer_most_ or utmost, admits of the same +remark as _in_. + + * * * * * + +In this manner, we might explain a long list of words, called adverbs, +conjunctions, and prepositions. But I forbear, for the present, the +further consideration of this subject, and leave it for another lecture. + + + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper + nouns.--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.-- + Articles.--_A_ comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of + _a_ and _the_.--Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun + adjectives."--_Mon_, _ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary + adjectives.--Prepositions admit of comparison. + + +We resume the consideration of Adjectives. The importance of this class +of words in the expression of our thoughts, is my excuse for bestowing +upon it so much labor. Had words always been used according to their +primitive meaning, there would be little danger of being misunderstood. +But the fact long known, "_Verba mutanter_"--words change--has been the +prolific source of much of the diversity of opinion, asperity of +feeling, and apparent misconstruction of other's sentiments, which has +disturbed society, and disgraced mankind. I have, in a former lecture, +alluded to this point, and call it up in this place to prepare your +minds to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of words in +the character of adjectives. + +I have already spoken of adjectives in general, as derived from nouns +and verbs, and was somewhat particular upon the class sometimes called +_prepositions_, which describe one thing by its relation to another, +produced by some action which has placed them in such relation. We will +now pass to examine a little more minutely into the character and use +of certain adjectives, and the manner of their derivation. + +We commence with those derived from nouns, both common and proper, which +are somewhat peculiar in their character. I wish you distinctly to bear +in mind the use of adjectives. They are words _added to nouns to define +or describe them_. + +Many words which name things, are used as adjectives, with out change; +as, _ox_ beef, _beef_ cattle, _paper_ books, _straw_ hats, _bonnet_ +paper. Others admit of change, or addition; as, nation_al_ character, a +merci_ful_ (mercy-_ful_) man, a gloom_y_ prospect, a fam_ous_ horse, a +gold_en_ ball. The syllables which are added, are parts of words, which +are at first compounded with them, till, by frequency of use, they are +incorporated into the same word. "A merci_ful_ man" is one who is full +of mercy. A gold_en_ ball is one made of gold. This word is sometimes +used without change; as, a _gold_ ring. + +A numerous portion of these words take the syllable _ly_, contracted +from _like_, which is still retained in many words; as, Judas-_like_, +lady-_like_, gentleman-_like_. These two last words, are of late, +occasionally used as other words, lady_ly_, gentleman_ly_; but the last +more frequently than the former. She behaved very ladi_ly_, or +lady_like_; and his appearance was quite gentleman_ly_. But to say +ladi_ly_ appearance, does not yet sound quite soft enough; but it is +incorrect only because it is uncommon. God_ly_ and god_like_ are both in +use, and equally correct, with a nice shade of difference in meaning. + +All grammarians have found a difficulty in the word _like_, which they +were unable to unravel. They could never account for its use in +expressing a relation between two objectives. They forgot that to be +like, one thing must be _likened_ to another, and that it was the very +meaning of this word to express such like_ness_. John looks _like_ his +brother. The looks, the countenance, or appearance of John, are +_likened_ to his brother's looks or appearance. "This machine is more +like the pattern than any I have seen." Here the adjective _like_ takes +the comparative degree, as it is called, to show a nearer resemblance +than has been before observed between the things compared. "He has a +statesman-_like_ appearance." I _like_ this apple, because it agrees +with my taste; it has qualities _like_ my notion of what is palateable." +In every situation the word is used to express likeness between two +things. It describes one thing by its likeness to another. + +Many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding an apostrophe and +the letter _s_, except when the word ends in _s_, in which case the +final _s_ is usually omitted for the sake of euphony. This, however, was +not generally adopted by old writers. It is not observed in the earliest +translations of the Bible into the english language. It is now in common +practice. Thus, Montgomery's monument in front of St. Paul's church; +Washington's funeral; Shay's rebelion; England's bitterest foes; +Hamlet's father's ghost; Peter's wife's mother; Todd's, Walker's, +Johnson's dictionary; Winchell's Watts' hymns; Pond's Murray's grammar. +No body would suppose that the "relation of property or possession" was +expressed in these cases, as our grammar books tell us, but that the +terms employed are used to _define_ certain objects, about which we are +speaking. They possess the true character and use of adjectives, and as +such let them be regarded. It must be as false as frivolous to say that +Montgomery, who nobly fell at the siege of Quebec, _owns_ the monument +erected over his remains, which were conveyed to New-York many years +after his death; or that St. Paul _owns_ or _possesses_ the church +beneath which they were deposited; that Hamlet owned his father, and his +father his ghost; that Todd owns Walker, and Walker owns Johnson, and +Johnson his dictionary which may have had a hundred owners, and never +been the property of its author, but printed fifty years after his +death. These words, I repeat, are merely _definitive_ terms, and like +others serve to point out or specify particular objects which may thus +be better known. + +Words, however, in common use form adjectives the same as other words; +as, Russia iron, China ships, India silks, Vermont cheese, Orange county +butter, New-York flour, Carolina potatoes. Morocco leather was first +manufactured in a city of Africa called by that name, but it is now made +in almost every town in our country. The same may be said of Leghorn +hats, Russia binding, French shoes, and China ware. Although made in our +own country we still retain the words, morocco, leghorn, russia, french, +and china, to define the fashion, kind, or quality of articles to which +we allude. Much china ware is made in Liverpool, which, to distinguish +it from the real, is called liverpool china. Many french shoes are made +in Lynn, and many Roxbury russets, Newton pippins, and Rhode-Island +greenings, grow in Vermont. + +It may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived from +pronouns, which retain so much of their character as relates to the +persons who employ them. These are _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, +_our_, _your_, _their_, _whose_. This is _my_ book, that is _your_ pen, +this is _his_ knife, and that is _her_ letter. Some of these, like other +words, vary their ending when standing alone; as, two apples are +your_s_, three her_s_, six their_s_, five our_s_, and the rest mine. +_His_ does not alter in popular use. Hence the reason why you hear it so +often, in common conversation, when standing without the noun expressed, +pronounced as if written _hisen_. The word _other_, and some others, +come under the same remark. When the nouns specified are expressed, they +take the regular termination; as, give me these Baldwin apples, and a +few others--a few other apples. + + * * * * * + +There is a class of small words which from the frequency of their use +have, like pronouns, lost their primitive character, and are now +preserved only as adjectives. Let us examine a few of them by +endeavoring to ferret out their true meaning and application in the +expression of ideas. We will begin with the old articles, _a_, _an_, and +_the_, by testing the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned +to them in our grammars. + +The standard grammar asserts that "an article is a word prefixed to +substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their signification +extends; as, "a garden, an eagle, the woman." Skepticism in grammar is +no crime, so we will not hesitate to call in question the correctness of +this "best of all grammars beyond all comparison." Let us consider the +very examples given. They were doubtless the best that could be found. +Does _a_ "point out" the garden, or "show how far its signification +extends?" It does neither of these things. It may name "_any_" garden, +and it certainly does not define whether it is a _great_ or a _small_ +one. It simply determines that _one_ garden is the subject of remark. +All else is to be determined by the word _garden_. + +We are told there are two articles, the one _in_definite, the other +definite--_a_ is the former, and _the_ the latter. I shall leave it with +you to reconcile the apparent contradiction of an _indefinite_ article +which "is used in a _vague sense, to point out the signification_ of +another word." But I challenge teachers to make their pupils comprehend +such a jargon, if they can do it themselves. But it is as good sense as +we find in many of the popular grammars of the day. + +Again, Murray says "_a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel or silent _h_;" and +so say all his _simplifying_ satellites after him. Is such the fact? Is +he right? He is, I most unqualifiedly admit, with this little +correction, the addition of a single word--he is right _wrong_! Instead +of _a_ becoming _an_, the reverse is the fact. The word is derived +directly from the same word which still stands as our first numeral. It +was a short time since written _ane_, as any one may see by consulting +all old books. By and by it dropped the _e_, and afterwards, for the +sake of euphony, in certain cases, the _n_, so that now it stands a +single letter. You all have lived long enough to have noticed the +changes in the word. Formerly we said _an_ union, _an_ holiday, _an_ +universalist, _an_ unitarian, &c., expressions which are now rarely +heard. We now say _a_ union, &c. This single instance proves that +arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation of +language. Its barriers are of sand, soon removed. It will not be said +that this is an unimportant mistake, for, if an error, it is pernicious, +and if a grammarian knows enough to say that _a_ becomes _an_, he ought +to know that he tells a falsehood, and that _an_ becomes _a_ under +certain circumstances. Mr. Murray gives the following example to +illustrate the use of _a_. "Give me _a_ book; that is, _any_ book." How +can the learner understand such a rule? How will it apply? Let us try +it. "A man has _a_ wife;" that is, _any_ man has _any_ wife. I have a +hat; that is, _any_ hat. A farmer has a farm--_any_ farmer has _any_ +farm. A merchant in Boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth--_any_ +merchant in Boston has any beautiful piece of broadcloth. A certain king +of Europe decreed a protestant to be burned--_any_ king of Europe +decreed _any_ protestant to be burned. How ridiculous are the rules we +have learned and taught to others, to enable them to "speak and write +with propriety." No wonder we never understood grammar, if so at +variance with truth and every day's experience. The rules of grammar as +usually taught can never be observed in practice. Hence it is called a +_dry study_. In every thing else we learn something that we can +understand, which will answer some good purpose in the affairs of life. +But this branch of science is among the things which have been tediously +learned to no purpose. No good account can be given of its advantages. + +_The_, we are told, "is called the definite article, because it +ascertains what _particular_ thing or things are meant." A most +unfortunate definition, and quite as erroneous as the former. Let us try +it. _The_ stars shine, _the_ lion roars, _the_ camel is a beast of +burden, _the_ deer is good for food, _the_ wind blows, _the_ clouds +appear, _the_ Indians are abused. What is there in these examples, which +"ascertain what _particular_ thing or things are meant?" They are +expressions as _in_definite as we can imagine. + +On the other hand, should I say _a_ star shines, _a_ lion roars, _an_ +Indian is abused, _a_ wind blows, _a_ cloud appears, you would +understand me to allude very _definitely_ to _one_ "particular" object, +as separate and distinguished from others of its kind. + +But what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and use of these +two little words that makes them so unlike every thing else, as to +demand a separate "part of speech?" You may be surprised when I tell you +that there are other words in our language derived from the same source +and possessed of the same meaning; but such is the fact, as will soon +appear. Let us ask for the etymology of these important words. _A_ +signifies _one_, never more, never less. In this respect it is always +_definite_. It is sometimes applied to a single thing, sometimes to a +whole class of things, to a [one] man, or to a [one] hundred men. It may +be traced thro other languages, ancient and modern, with little +modification in spelling; Greek _eis_, ein; Latin _unus_; Armoric +_unan_; Spanish and Italian _uno_; Portuguese _hum_; French _un_; German +_ein_; Danish _een_, _en_; Dutch _een_; Swedish _en_; Saxon, _an_, +_aen_, _one_--from which ours is directly derived--old English _ane_; +and more modernly _one_, _an_, _a_. In all languages it defines a thing +to be _one_, a united or congregated whole, and the word _one_ may +always be substituted without affecting the sense. From it is derived +our word _once_, which signifies _oned_, _united_, _joined_, as we shall +see when we come to speak of "contractions." In some languages _a_ is +styled an article, in others it is not. The Latin, for instance, has no +article, and the Greek has no _indefinite_. But all languages have words +which are like ours, pure adjectives, employed to specify certain +things. The argument drawn from the fact that some other languages have +_articles_, and therefore ours should, is fallacious. The Latin, which +was surpassed for beauty of style or power in deliverance by few, if any +others, never suffered from the lack of articles. Nor is there any +reason why we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank to +the exclusion of others quite as worthy. + +_The_ is always used as a definitive word, tho it is the least definite +of the defining adjectives. In fact when we desire to "_ascertain +particularly_ what thing is meant," we select some more definite word. +"Give me _the_ books." Which? "Those with red covers, that in calf, and +this in Russia binding." _The_ nations are at peace. What nations? +_Those_ which were at war. You perceive how we employ words which are +more definite, that is, better understood, to "_point out_" the object +of conversation, especially when there is any doubt in the case. What +occasion, then, is there to give these [the?] words a separate "part of +speech," since in character they do not differ from others in the +language? + +We will notice another frivolous distinction made by Mr. Murray, merely +to show how learned men may be mistaken, and the folly of trusting to +special rules in the general application of words. He says, "Thou art +_a_ man," is a very general and _harmless_ expression; but, thou art +_the_ man, (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of +striking terror and remorse into the heart." The distinction in meaning +here, on which he insists, attaches to the articles _a_ and _the_. It is +a sufficient refutation of this definition to make a counter statement. +Suppose we say, "Murray is _the_ best grammarian in the world; or, he is +_a_ fool, _a_ knave, and _a_ liar." Which, think you, would be +considered the most _harmless_ expression? Suppose it had been said to +Aaron Burr, thou art _a_ traitor, or to General William Hull, thou art +_a_ coward, would they regard the phrase as "_harmless!_" On the other +hand, suppose a beautiful, accomplished, and talented young lady, should +observe to one of her suitors, "I have received offers of marriage from +several gentlemen besides yourself, but thou art =the= man of my +choice;" would it, think you, _strike_ terror and remorse into his +heart? I should pity the young student of Murray whose feelings had +become so stoical from the false teaching of his author as to be filled +with "terror and remorse" under such favorable circumstances, while fair +prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly brightening before him. +I speak as to the wise, judge ye what I say. + +The adjective _that_ has obtained a very extensive application in +language. However, it may seem to vary in its different positions, it +still retains its primitive meaning. It is comprised of _the_ and _it_, +thait, theat, thaet (Saxon,) thata (Gothic,) dat (Dutch.) It is the most +decided definitive in our language. It is by use applied to things in +the singular, or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole. By use, +it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence; as, it was +resolved, _that_. What? Then follows _that fact_ which was resolved. +"Provided _that_, in case he does" so and so. "It was agreed _that_," +_that fact_ was agreed to which is about to be made known. I wish you to +understand, all thro these lectures, _that_ I shall honestly endeavor to +expose error and establish truth. Wish you to understand _what_? _that +fact_, afterwards stated, "I shall endeavor," &c. You can not mistake my +meaning: _that_ would be impossible. What would be impossible? Why, to +mistake my meaning. + +You can not fail to observe the true character of this word called by +our grammarians "adjective pronoun," "relative pronoun," and +"conjunction." They did not think to look for its meaning. Had that +(duty) been done, it would have stood forth in its true character, an +important defining word. + +The only difficulty in the explanation of this word, originates in the +fact, that it was formerly applied to the plural as well as singular +number. It is now applied to the singular only when referring directly +to an object; as, _that man_. And it never should be used otherwise. But +we often see phrases like this; "These are the men _that_ rebeled." It +should be, "these are the men _who_ rebeled." This difficulty can not be +overcome in existing grammars on any other ground. In modern writings, +such instances are rare. _This_ and _that_ are applied to the singular; +_these_ and _those_ to the plural. + + * * * * * + +=What= is a compound of two original words, and often retains the +meaning of both, when employed as a compound relative, "having in itself +both the antecedent and the relative," as our authors tell us. But when +it is dissected, it will readily enough be understood to be an +adjective, defining things under particular relations. + +But I shall weary your patience, I fear, if I stay longer in this place +to examine the etymology of small words. I intended to have shown the +meaning and use of many words included in the list of conjunctions, +which are truly adjectives, such as _both_, _as_, _so_, _neither_, +_and_, etc.; but I let them pass for the present, to be resumed under +the head of contractions. + +From the view we have given of this class of words, we are saved the +tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions made in the books, +where no real distinctions exist. In character these words are like +adjectives; their meaning, like the meaning of all other words, is +peculiar to themselves. Let that be known, and there will be little +difficulty in classing them. We need not confuse the learner with +"adjective pronouns, possessive adjective pronouns, distributive +adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective pronouns, _indefinite_ +adjective pronouns," nor any other adjective pronouns, which can never +be understood nor explained. Children will be slow to apprehend the +propriety of a union of _adjectives_ and _pronouns_, when told that the +former is always used _with_ a noun, and never _for_ one; and the latter +always _for_ a noun, but never _with_ one; and yet, that there is such a +strange combination as a "_distributive or indefinite adjective +pronoun_,"--"confusion worse confounded." + +In the french language, the gender of adjectives is varied so as to +agree with the nouns to which they belong. "Possessive pronouns," as +they are called, come under the same rule, which proves them to be in +character, and formation, adjectives; else the person using them must +change gender. The father says, _ma_ (feminine) _fille_, my daughter; +and the mother, _mon_ (masculine) _fils_, my son; the same as they would +say, _bon pere_, good father; _bonne mere_, good mother; or, in Latin, +_bonus pater_, or _bona mater_; or, in Spanish, _bueno padre_, _buena +madre_. In the two last languages, as well as all others, where the +adjectives vary the termination so as to agree with the noun, the same +fact may be observed in reference to their "pronouns." If it is a fact +that these words are _pronouns_, that is, stand for other _nouns_, then +the father is _feminine_, and the mother is _masculine_; and whoever +uses them in reference to the opposite sex must change gender to do so. + + * * * * * + +Describing adjectives admit of variation to express different degrees of +comparison. The regular degrees have been reckoned three; positive, +comparative, and superlative. These are usually marked by changing the +termination. The _positive_ is determined by a comparison with other +things; as, a great house, a small book, compared with others of their +kind. This is truly a comparative degree. The _comparative_ adds _er_; +as, a great_er_ house, a small_er_ book. The _superlative_, _est_; as, +the great_est_ house, the small_est_ book. + +Several adjectives express a comparison less than the positive, others +increase or diminish the regular degrees; as, whit_ish_ white, _very_ +white, _pure_ white; whit_er_, _considerable_ whiter, _much_ whiter; +whit_est_, the _very_ whitest, _much_ the whitest _beyond all +comparison_, so that there can be none _whiter_, nor _so white_. + +We make an aukward use of the words _great_ and _good_, in the +comparison of things; as, a _good deal_, or _great deal_ whiter; a +_good_ many men, or a _great_ many men. As we never hear of a _small_ +deal, or a _bad_ deal whiter, nor of a _bad many_, nor _little many_, it +would be well to avoid such phrases. + +The words which are added to other adjectives, to increase or diminish +the comparison, or assist in their definition, may properly be called +_secondary adjectives_, for such is their character. They do not refer +to the thing to be _defined_ or _described_, but to the adjective which +is affected, in some way, by them. They are easily distinguished from +the rest by noticing this fact. Take for example: "A _very dark red_ raw +silk lady's dress handkerchief." The resolution of this sentence would +stand thus: + + _A_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _red_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _dark_ red ( ) handkerchief. + A _very_ dark red ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red ( ) _silk_ ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red _raw_ silk ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk ( ) _dress_ handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk _lady's_ dress handkerchief. + +We might also observe that _hand_ is an adjective, compounded by use +with _kerchief_. It is derived from the french word _couvrir_, to cover, +and _chef_, the head. It means a head dress, a cloth to cover, a neck +cloth, a napkin. By habit we apply it to a single article, and speak of +_neck_ handkerchief. + +The nice shade of meaning, and the appropriate use of adjectives, is +more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors than in any thing else, +for the simple reason, that there is nothing in nature so closely +observed. For instance, take the word _green_, derived from _grain_, +because it is grain color, or the color of the fair carpet of nature in +spring and summer. But this hue changes from the _deep grass green_, to +the light olive, and words are chosen to express the thousand varying +tints produced by as many different objects. In the adaptation of +language to the expression of ideas, we do not separate these shades of +color from the things in which such colors are supposed to reside. Hence +we talk of _grass_, _pea_, _olive_, _leek_, _verdigris_, _emerald_, +_sea_, and _bottle_ green; also, of _light_, _dark_, _medium_; _very_ +light, or dark grass, pea, olive, or _invisible_ green. + +_Red_, as a word, means _rayed_. It describes the appearance or +substance produced when _rayed_, reddened, or radiated by the morning +beams of the sun, or any other _radiating_ cause. + +_Wh_ is used for _qu_, in white, which means _quite_, _quited_, +_quitted_, _cleared_, _cleansed_ of all _color_, _spot_, or _stain_. + +_Blue_ is another spelling for _blew_. Applied to color, it describes +something in appearance to the sky, when the clouds and mists are +_blown_ away, and the clear _blue ether_ appears. + +You will be pleased with the following extract from an eloquent writer +of the last century,[9] who, tho somewhat extravagant in some of his +speculations, was, nevertheless, a close observer of nature, which he +studied as it is, without the aid of human theories. The beauty of the +style, and the correctness of the sentiment, will be a sufficient +apology for its length. + +"We shall employ a method, not quite so learned, to convey an idea of +the generation of colors, and the decomposition of the solar ray. +Instead of examining them in a prism of glass, we shall consider them in +the heavens, and there we shall behold the five primordial colours +_unfold themselves_ in the order which we have indicated. + +"In a fine summer's night, when the sky is loaded only with some light +vapours, sufficient to stop and to refract the rays of the sun, walk out +into an open plain, where the first fires of Aurora may be perceptible. +You will first observe the horizon _whiten_ at the spot where she is to +make her appearance; and this radiance, from its colour, has procured +for it, in the French language, the name of _aube_, (the dawn,) from the +Latin word _alba_, white. This whiteness insensibly ascends in the +heavens, _assuming_ a tint of yellow some degrees above the horizon; the +yellow as it rises passes into orange; and this shade of orange rises +upward into the lively vermilion, which extends as far as the zenith. +From that point you will perceive in the heavens behind you the violet +succeeding the vermilion, then the azure, after it the deep blue or +indigo colour, and, last of all, the black, quite to the westward. + +"Though this display of colours presents a multitude of intermediate +shades, which rapidly succeed each other, yet at the moment the sun is +going to exhibit his disk, the dazzling white is visible in the horizon, +the pure yellow at an elevation of forty-five degrees; the fire color in +the zenith; the pure blue forty-five degrees under it, toward the west; +and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering on the +horizon. I think I have remarked this progression between the tropics, +where there is scarcely any horizontal refraction to make the light +prematurely encroach on the darkness, as in our climates. + +"Sometimes the trade-winds, from the north-east or south-east, blow +there, card the clouds through each other, then sweep them to the west, +crossing and recrossing them over one another, like the osiers +interwoven in a transparent basket. They throw over the sides of this +chequered work the clouds which are not employed in the contexture, roll +them up into enormous masses, as white as snow, draw them out along +their extremities in the form of a crupper, and pile them upon each +other, moulding them into the shape of mountains, caverns, and rocks; +afterwards, as evening approaches, they grow somewhat calm, as if afraid +of deranging their own workmanship. When the sun sets behind this +magnificent netting, a multitude of luminous rays are transmitted +through the interstices, which produce such an effect, that the two +sides of the lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance of being +girt with gold, and the other two in the shade seem tinged with _ruddy_ +orange. Four or five divergent streams of light, emanated from the +setting sun up to the zenith, _clothe_ with fringes of gold the +undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier, and strike with the +reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral aerial mountains, +which then appear to consist of _silver_ and _vermilion_. At this moment +of the evening are perceptible, amidst their redoubled ridges, a +multitude of valleys extending into infinity, and distinguishing +themselves at their opening by some shade of flesh or of rose colour. + +"These celestial valleys present in their different contours inimitable +tints of white, melting away into white, or shades lengthening +themselves out without mixing over other shades. You see, here and +there, issuing from the cavernous sides of those mountains, tides of +_light_ precipitating themselves, in ingots of gold and silver, over +rocks of coral. Here it is a gloomy rock, pierced through and through, +disclosing, beyond the aperture, the pure azure of the firmament; there +it is an extensive strand, covered with sands of gold, stretching over +the rich ground of heaven; _poppy-coloured_, _scarlet_, and _green_ as +the emerald. + +"The reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself over the +sea, whose azure billows it _glazes_ with saffron and purple. The +mariners, leaning over the gunwale of the ship, admire in silence those +aerial landscapes. Sometimes this sublime spectacle presents itself to +them at the hour of prayer, and seems to invite them to lift up their +hearts with their voices to the heavens. It changes every instant into +forms as variable as the shades, presenting celestial colors and forms +which no pencil can pretend to imitate, and no language can describe. + +"Travellers who have, at various seasons, ascended to the summits of the +highest mountains on the globe, never could perceive, in the clouds +below them, any thing but a gray and lead-colored surface, similar to +that of a lake. The sun, notwithstanding, illuminated them with his +whole light; and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction +to which our systems of physics have subjected them. Hence not a single +shade of color is employed in vain, through the universe; those +celestial decorations being made for the level of the earth, their +magnificent point of view taken from the habitation of man. + +"These admirable concerts of lights and forms, manifest only in the +lower region of the clouds the least illuminated by the sun, are +produced by laws with which I am totally unacquainted. But the whole are +reducible to five colors: yellow, a generation from white; red, a deeper +shade of yellow; blue, a strong tint of red; and black, the extreme tint +of blue. This progression cannot be doubted, on observing in the morning +the expansion of the light in the heavens. You there see those five +colors, with their intermediate shades, generating each other nearly in +this order: white, sulphur yellow, lemon yellow, yolk of egg yellow, +orange, aurora color, poppy red, full red, carmine red, purple, violet, +azure, indigo, and black. Each color seems to be only a strong tint of +that which precedes it, and a faint tint of that which follows; thus the +whole together appear to be only modulations of a progression, of which +white is the first term, and black the last. + +"Indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage, with the Negroes, +Tartars, Americans, and East-Indians, but through the medium of red +cloths. The testimonies of travellers are unanimous respecting the +preference universally given to this color. I have indicated the +universality of this taste, merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the +philosophic axiom, that tastes are arbitrary, or that there are in +Nature no laws for beauty, and that our tastes are the effects of +prejudice. The direct contrary of this is the truth; prejudice corrupts +our natural tastes, otherwise the same over the whole earth. + +"With red Nature heightens the brilliant parts of the most beautiful +flowers. She has given a complete clothing of it to the rose, the queen +of the garden: and bestowed this tint on the blood, the principle of +life in animals: she invests most of the feathered race, in India, with +a plumage of this color, especially in the season of love; and there are +few birds without some shades, at least, of this rich hue. Some preserve +entirely the gray or brown ground of their plumage, but glazed over with +red, as if they had been rolled in carmine; others are besprinkled with +red, as if you had blown a scarlet powder over them. + +"The red (or _rayed_) color, in the midst of the five primordial colors, +is the harmonic expression of them by way of excellence; and the result +of the union of two contraries, light and darkness. There are, besides, +agreeable tints, compounded of the oppositions of extremes. For example, +of the second and fourth color, that is, of yellow and blue, is formed +green, which constitutes a very beautiful harmony, and ought, perhaps, +to possess the second rank in beauty, among colors, as it possesses the +second in their generation. Nay, green appears to many, if not the most +beautiful tint, at least the most lovely, because it is less dazzling +than red, and more congenial to the eye." + +Many words come under the example previously given to illustrate the +secondary character of adjectives, which should be carefully noticed by +the learner, to distinguish whether they define or describe things, or +are added to increase the distinction made by the adjectives themselves, +for both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition; as, +_old_ English coin, New England rebelion; a mounted whip, and a _gold_ +mounted sword--not a gold sword; a _very fine_ Latin scholar. + +Secondary adjectives, also, admit of comparison in various ways; as, +_dearly_ beloved, a _more_ beloved, the _best_ beloved, the _very_ best +beloved brother. + +Words formerly called "prepositions," admit of comparison, as I have +before observed. "Benhadad fled into an _inner_ chamber." The in_ner_ +temple. The in_most_ recesses of the heart. The _out_ fit of a squadron. +The out_er_ coating of a vessel, or house. The ut_most_ reach of +grammar. The _up_ and _down_ hill side of a field. The up_per_ end of +the lot. The upper_most_ seats. A part _of_ the book. Take it _farther +off_. The _off_ cast. India _beyond_ the Ganges. Far beyond the +boundaries of the nation. I shall go _to_ the city. I am _near to_ the +town. _Near_ does not _qualify the verb_, for it has nothing to do with +it. I can exist in one place as well as another. It is _below_ the +surface; _very far_ below it. It is above the earth--"high above all +height." + +Such expressions frequently occur in the expression of ideas, and are +correctly understood; as difficult as it may have been to describe them +with the theories learned in the books--sometimes calling them one +thing, sometimes another--when their character and meaning was +unchanged, or, according to old systems, had "no meaning at all of their +own!" + +But I fear I have gone _far_ beyond your patience, and, perhaps, entered +_deeper_ into this subject than was necessary, to enable you to discover +my meaning. I desired to make the subject _as_ distinct _as_ possible, +that all might see the important improvement suggested. I am +apprehensive even now, that some will be compelled to _think_ many +_profound thoughts_ before they will see the end of the obscurity under +which they have long been shrouded, in reference to the false rules +which they have been taught. But we have one consolation--those who are +not bewildered by the grammars they have tried in vain to understand, +will not be very likely to make a wrong use of adjectives, especially if +they have ideas to express; for there is no more danger of mistaking an +adjective for a noun, or verb, than there is of mistaking a _horse_ +chestnut for a _chestnut_ horse. + + * * * * * + +In our next we shall commence the consideration of Verbs, the most +important department in the science of language, and particularly so in +the system we are defending. I hope you have not been uninterested thus +far in the prosecution of the subject of language, and I am confident +you will not be in what remains to be said upon it. The science, so long +regarded _dry_ and uninteresting, becomes delightful and easy; new and +valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing step, and we feel to +bless God for the ample means afforded us for obtaining knowledge from, +and communicating it to others, on the most important affairs of time +and eternity. + + + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.-- + Actor and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.-- + Neutrality degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind + of verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the + truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter + verbs examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. + W.--Anecdote. + + +We now come to the consideration of that class of words which in the +formation of language are called _Verbs_. You will allow me to bespeak +your favorable attention, and to insist most strenuously on the +propriety of a free and thoro examination into the nature and use of +these words. I shall be under the necessity of performing the thankless +task of exposing the errors of honest, wise, and good men, in order to +remove difficulties which have long existed in works on language, and +clear the way for a more easy and consistent explanation of this +interesting and essential department of literature. I regret the +necessity for such labors; but no person who wishes the improvement of +mankind, or is willing to aid the growth of the human intellect, in its +high aspirations after truth, knowledge, and goodness, should shrink +from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error, nor refuse his +assistance, feeble tho it may be, in the establishment of correct +principles. + +In former lectures we have confined our remarks to things and a +description of their characters and relations, so that every entity of +which we can conceive a thought, or concerning which we can form an +expression, has been defined and described in the use of nouns and +adjectives. Every thing in creation, of which we think, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, and to which we give a name, to represent +the idea of it, comes under the class of words called nouns. The words +which specify or distinguish one thing from another, or describe its +properties, character, or relations, are designated as adjectives. There +is only one other employment left for words, and that is the expression +of the actions, changes, or inherent tendencies of things. This +important department of knowledge is, in grammar, classed under the head +of =Verbs=. + + * * * * * + +_Verb_ is derived from the Latin _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. By +specific application it is applied to those _words_ only which express +action, correctly understood; the same as Bible, derived from the Greek +"_biblos_" means literally _the book_, but, by way of eminence, is +applied to the sacred scriptures only. + +This interesting class of words does not deviate from the correct +principles which we have hitherto observed in these lectures. It depends +on established laws, exerted in the regulation of matter and thought; +and whoever would learn its sublime use must be a close observer of +things, and the mode of their existence. The important character it +sustains in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies of +things and in the transmission of thought, will be found simple, and +obvious to all. + +Things exist; Nouns name them. + +Things differ; Adjectives define or describe them. + +Things act; Verbs express their actions. + + _All Verbs denote action._ + +By action, we mean not only perceivable motion, but an inherent tendency +to change, or resist action. It matters not whether we speak of animals +possessed of the power of locomotion; of vegetables, which _send_ forth +their branches, leaves, blossoms, and fruits; or of minerals, which +_retain_ their forms, positions, and properties. The same principles are +concerned, the same laws exist, and should be observed in all our +attempts to understand their operations, or employ them in the promotion +of human good. Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses; +from the small particle of sand, which _occupies_ its place upon the sea +shore, up thro the various gradation of being, to the tall archangel, +who _bows_ and _worships_ before the throne of the uncreated Cause of +all things and actions which exist thro out his vast dominions. + +As all actions presuppose an _actor_, so every action must result on +some _object_. No effect can exist without an efficient cause to produce +it; and no cause can exist without a corresponding effect resulting from +it. These mutual relations, helps, and dependencies, are manifest in all +creation. Philosophy, religion, the arts, and all science, serve only to +develope these primary laws of nature, which unite and strengthen, +combine and regulate, preserve and guide the whole. From the Eternal I +AM, the uncreated, self-existent, self-sustaining =Cause= of all things, +down to the minutest particle of dust, evidences may be traced of the +existence and influence of these laws, in themselves irresistible, +exceptionless, and immutable. Every thing has a place and a duty +assigned it; and harmony, peace, and perfection are the results of a +careful and judicious observance of the laws given for its regulation. +Any infringement of these laws will produce disorder, confusion, and +distraction. + +Man is made a little lower than the angels, possessed of a mind capable +of reason, improvement, and happiness; an intellectual soul inhabiting a +mortal body, the connecting link between earth and heaven--the material +and spiritual world. As a physical being, he is subject, in common with +other things, to the laws which regulate matter: as an intellectual +being, he is governed by the laws which regulate mind: as possessed of +both a body and mind, a code of moral laws demand his observance in all +the social relations and duties of life. Obedience to these laws is the +certain source of health of body, and peace of mind. An infringement of +them will as certainly be attended with disease and suffering to the +one, and sorrow and anguish to the other. + +Lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in common with man. In +some they are deficient; in others they are superior. Some animals are +possessed of all but reason, and even in that, the highest of them come +very little short of the lowest of the human species. If they have not +reason, they possess an instinct which nearly approaches it. These +qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various orders and varieties +of animated nature, to the lowest grade of animalculæ, a multitude of +which may inhabit a single drop of water; or to the zoophytes and +lythophytes, which form the connecting link between the animal and +vegetable kingdom; as the star-fish, the polypus, and spunges. Then +strike off into another kingdom, and observe the laws vegetable life. +Mark the tall pine which has grown from a small seed which _sent_ forth +its root downwards and its trunk upwards, drawing nourishment from +earth, air, and water, till it now waves its top to the passing breeze, +a hundred feet above this dirty earth: or the oak or olive, which have +_maintained_ their respective positions a dozen centuries despite the +operations of wind and weather, and have shed their foliage and their +seeds to propagate their species and extend their kinds to different +places. While a hundred generations have lived and died, and the country +often changed masters, they resist oppression, scorn misrule, and retain +rights and privileges which are slowly encroached upon by the inroads of +time, which will one day triumph over them, and they fall helpless to +the earth, to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve +their very being and cause them to mingle with the common dust, yielding +their strength to give life and power to other vegetables which shall +occupy their places.[10] Or mark the living principle in the "sensitive +plant," which withers at every touch, and suffers long ere it regains +its former vigor. + +Descend from thence, down thro the various gradations of vegetable life, +till you pass the narrow border and enter the mineral world. Here you +will see displayed the same sublime principle, tho in a modified degree. +Minerals _assume_ different shapes, hues and relations; they increase +and diminish, attach and divide under various circumstances, all the +while _retaining_ their identity and properties, and exerting their +abilities according to the means they possess, till compelled to yield +to a superior power, and learn to submit to the laws which operate in +every department of this mutable world. + +_Every_ thing _acts_ according to the ability God has bestowed upon it; +and man can do no more. He has authority over all things on earth, and +yet he is made to depend upon all. His authority extends no farther than +a privilege, under wholesome restrictions, of making the whole +subservient to his real good. When he goes beyond this, he usurps a +power which belongs not to him, and the destruction of his happiness +pays the forfeit of his imprudence. The injured power rises triumphant +over the aggressor, and the glory of God's government, in the righteous +and immediate execution of his laws, is clearly revealed. So long as man +obeys the laws which regulate health, observes temperance in all things, +uses the things of this world as not abusing them, he is at rest, he is +blessed, he is happy: but no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he +becomes the slave, and the servant assumes the master. But I am +digressing. I would gladly follow this subject further, but I shall go +beyond my limits, and, it may be, your patience. + +I would insist, however, on the facts to which your attention has been +given, for it is impossible, as I have before contended, to use language +correctly without a knowledge of the things and ideas it is employed to +represent. + +Grovelling, indeed, must be the mind which will not trace the sublime +exhibitions of Divine power and skill in all the operations of nature; +and false must be that theory which teaches the young mind to think and +speak of neutrality as attached to things which do exist. As low and +debasing as the speculations of the schoolmen were, they gave to things +which they conceived to be incapable of action, a principle which they +called "_vis inertiæ_," or, _power to lie still_. Shall our systems of +instruction descend below them, throw an insurmountable barrier in the +way of human improvement, and teach the false principles that actions +can exist without an effect, or that there is a class of words which +"express neither action or passion." Such a theory is at war with the +first principles of philosophy, and denies that "like causes produce +like effects." + +The ablest minds have never been able to explain the foundation of a +"neuter verb," or to find a single word, with a solitary exception, +which does not, in certain conditions, express a positive action, and +terminate on a definite object; and that exception we shall see refers +to a verb which expresses the highest degree of conceivable action. +Still they have insisted on _three_ and some on _four_ kinds of verbs, +one expressing action, another passion or suffering, and the third +neutrality. We propose to offer a brief review of these distinctions, +which have so long perplexed, not only learners, but teachers +themselves, and been the fruitful source of much dissention among +grammarians. + +It is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as great candor as +you have heretofore manifested, and as fully resolved to take nothing +for granted, because it has been said by good or great men, and to +reject nothing because it appears new or singular. Let truth be our +object and reason our guide to direct us to it. We can not fail of +arriving at safe and correct conclusions. + +Mr. Murray tells us that "verbs are of three kinds, _active_, _passive_, +and _neuter_. In a note he admits of "active _transitive_ and +intransitive verbs," as a subdivision of his first kind. Most of his +"improvers" have adopted this distinction, and regard it as of essential +importance. + +We shall contend, as before expressed, that _all_ verbs are of _one +kind_, that they _express action_, for the simple yet sublime reason, +that every thing acts, at all times, and under every possible condition; +according to the true definition of _action_ as understood and employed +by all writers on grammar, and natural and moral science. Here we are at +issue. Both, contending for principles so opposite, can not be correct. +One or the other, however pure the motives, must be attached to a system +wrong in theory, and of course pernicious in practice. You are to be the +umpires in the case, and, if you are faithful to your trust, you will +not be bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others. If +divested of all former attachments, if free from all prejudice, there +can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your conclusions. But I +am apprehensive I expect too much, if I place the _new_ system of +grammar on a footing equally favorable in your minds with those you have +been taught to respect, as the only true expositions of language, from +your childhood up, and which are recommended to you on the authority of +the learned and good of many generations. I have to combat early +prejudices, and systems long considered as almost sacred. But I have in +my favor the common sense of the world, and a feeling of opposition to +existing systems, which has been produced, not so much by a detection of +their errors, as by a lack of capacity, as the learner verily thought, +to understand their profound mysteries. I am, therefore, willing to risk +the final decision with you, if _you_ will decide. But I am not willing +to have you made the tools of the opposite party, determined, whether +convinced or not, to hold to your old _neuter_ verb systems, right or +wrong, merely because others are doing so. All I ask is _your_ adoption +of what is proved to be undeniably true, and rejection of whatever is +found to be false. + +Here is where the matter must rest, for it will not be pretended that it +is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient and popular, than +truth because it is novel. Teachers, in this respect, stand in a most +responsible relation to their pupils. They should always insist with an +unyielding pertinacity, on the importance of truth, and the evils of +error. Every trifling incident, in the course of education, which will +serve to show the contrast, should be particularly observed. If an error +can be detected in their books, they should be so taught as to be able +to correct it; and they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it. +They should not be skeptics, however, but close observers, original +thinkers, and correct reasoners. It is degrading to the true dignity and +independence of man, to submit blindly to any proposition. Freedom of +thought is the province of all. Children should be made to breathe the +free air of honest inquiry, and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and +charity. They should not study their books as the end of learning, but +as a means of knowing. Books should be regarded as lamps, which are set +by the way side, not as the objects to be looked at, but the aids by +which we may find the object of our search. Knowledge and usefulness +constitute the leading motives in all study, and no occasion should be +lost, no means neglected, which will lead the young mind to their +possession. + +Your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on the +distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs. Let us carefully +examine the meaning of these _three kinds_ and see if there is any +occasion for such a division; if they have any foundation in truth, or +application in the correct use of language. We will follow the +arrangements adopted by the most popular grammars. + +"A _verb active_ expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, +and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love Penelope." A very +excellent definition, indeed! Had grammarians stopped here, their works +would have been understood, and proved of some service in the study of +language. But when they diverge from this bright spot in the +consideration of verbs--this oasis in the midst of a desert--they soon +become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture, and follow each +their own dim light, to hit on a random track, which to follow in the +pursuit of their object. + +We give our most hearty assent to the above definition of a verb. It +expresses action, which necessarily implies an _actor_, and an _object_ +influenced by the action. In our estimation it matters not whether the +object on which the action terminates is expressed or _understood_. If I +_love_, I must love some object; either my neighbor, my enemy, my +family, _myself_, or something else. In either case the _action_ is the +same, tho the objects may be different; and it is regarded, on all +hands, as an active verb. Hence when the object on which the action +terminates is not expressed, it is necessarily understood. All language +is, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which adds much to its +richness and brevity. + +Active verbs, we are told, are divided into _transitive_ and +_intransitive_. Mr. Murray does not exactly approve of this distinction, +but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter together. Others, aware +of the fallacy of attempting to make children conceive any thing like +neutrality in the verbs, _run_, _fly_, _walk_, _live_, &c., have +preferred to mark the distinction and call them _in_transitive; because, +say they, they do not terminate on any object expressed. + +A _transitive verb_ "expresses an action which passes from the agent to +the object; as, Cæsar conquered Pompey." To this definition we can not +consent. It attempts a distinction where there is none. It is not true +in principle, and can not be adopted in practice. + +"Cæsar conquered Pompey." Did the act of conquering pass _transitively_ +over from _Cæsar_ to Pompey? They might not have seen each other during +the whole battle, nor been within many miles of each other. They, each +of them, stood at the head of their armies, and alike gave orders to +their subordinate officers, and they again to their inferiors, and so +down, each man contending valiantly for _victory_, till, at last, the +fate of the day sealed the downfall of Pompey, and placed the crown of +triumph on the head of Cæsar. The expression is a correct one, but the +action expressed by the verb "conquered," is not transitive, as that +term is understood. A whole train of causes was put in operation which +finally terminated in the defeat of one, and the conquest of the other. + +"Bonaparte _lost_ the battle of Waterloo." What did _he_ do to _lose_ +the battle? He exerted his utmost skill to _gain_ the battle and escape +defeat. He did not do a single act, he entertained not a single thought, +which lead to such a result; but strove against it with all his power. +If the fault was _his_, it was because he failed to act, and not because +he labored to _lose_ the battle. He had too much at stake to adopt such +a course, and no man but a teacher of grammar, would ever accuse him of +_acting_ to _lose_ the battle. + +"A man was sick; he desired to recover (his health). He took, for +medicine, opium by mistake, and _lost_ his life by it." Was he guilty of +suicide? Certainly, if our grammars are true. But he _lost_ his life in +trying to get well. + +"A man in America _possesses_ property in Europe, and his children +_inherit_ it after his death." What do the children do to _inherit_ this +property, of which they know nothing? + +"The geese, by their gabbling, _saved_ Rome from destruction." How did +the geese save the city? They made a noise, which waked the sentinels, +who roused the soldiers to arms; they fought, slew many Gauls, and +delivered the city. + +"A man in New-York _transacts_ business in Canton." How does he do it? +He has an agent there to whom he sends his orders, and he transacts the +business. But how does he get his letters? The clerk writes them, the +postman carries them on board the ship, the captain commands the +sailors, who work the ropes which unfurl the sails, the wind blows, the +vessel is managed by the pilot, and after a weary voyage of several +months, the letters are delivered to the agent, who does the business +that is required of him. + +The miser _denies_ himself every comfort, and spends his whole life in +hoarding up riches; and yet he dies and _leaves_ his gold to be the +possession of others. + +Christians _suffer_ insults almost every day from the Turks. + +Windows _admit_ light and _exclude_ cold. + +Who can discover any thing like _transitive_ action--a passing from the +agent to the object--in these cases? What transitive action do the +windows perform to _admit the light_; or the christians, to _suffer +insults_; or the miser, to _leave his money_? If there is neutrality any +where, we would look for it here. The fact is, these words express +_relative_ action, as we shall explain when we come to the examination +of the true character of the verb. + +_Neutrality_ signifies (transitive verb!) no action, and _neuter_ verbs +_express a state of being_! A class of words which can not act, which +apply to things in a quiescent state, _perform_ the transitive action of +"_expressing_ a state of being!" + +Who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such distinctions? +And who has not found himself perplexed, if not completely bewildered in +the dark and intricate labyrinths into which he has been led by the +false grammar books! Every attempt he has made to extricate himself, by +the dim light of the "simplifiers," has only tended to bewilder him +still more, till he is utterly confounded, or else abandons the study +altogether. + + * * * * * + +An _intransitive_ verb "denotes action which is confined to the actor, +and does not pass over to another object; as, I sit, he lives, they +sleep." + +"A verb _neuter_ expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a +state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit." + +These verbs are nearly allied in character; but we will examine them +separately and fairly. The examples are the same, with exception of the +verb _to be_, which we will notice by itself, and somewhat at large, in +another place. + +Our first object will be to ascertain the _meaning_ and use of the words +which have been given as samples of neutrality. It is unfortunate for +the neuter systems that they can not define a "neuter verb" without +making it express an action which terminates on some object. + + * * * + +"The man _sits_ in his chair." + +_Sits_, we are told, is a neuter verb. What does it mean? The man +_places_ himself in a sitting posture in his _seat_. He _keeps_ himself +in his chair by muscular energy, assisted by gravitation. The chair +_upholds_ him in that condition. Bring a small child and _sit_ it +(active verb,) in a chair beside him. Can it _sit_? No; it falls upon +the floor and is injured. Why did it fall? It was not able to _keep_ +itself from falling. The lady fainted and _fell_ from her _seat_. If +there is no action in sitting, why did she not remain as she was? A +company of ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college, +entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs; and he asked them to +_sit_ down, or be _seated_. They were neutral. He called them impolite. +But they replied, that _sit_ "expresses neither action nor passion," and +hence he could not expect them to occupy his seats. + +"_Sit_ or _set_ it away; _sit_ near me; _sit_ farther along; _sit_ +still;" are expressions used by every teacher in addressing his +scholars. On the system we are examining, what would they understand by +such inactive expressions? Would he not correct them for disobeying his +orders? But what did he order them to do? Nothing at all, if _sit_ +denotes no action. + + "I _sat_ me down and wept." + + "He _sat him_ down by a pillar's base, + And drew his hand athwart his face." + _Byron._ + + "Then, having shown his wounds, he'd _sit him_ down, + And, all the live long day, discourse of war." + _Tragedy of Douglass._ + + "But wherefore _sits he_ there? + Death on my state! _This act_ convinces me + That this retiredness of the duke and her, + Is plain contempt." + _King Lear._ + + "_Sitting_, the _act of resting_ on a seat. + _Session_, the _act of sitting_." + _Johnson's Dictionary._ + + * * * + +"_I sleep._" + +Is sleep a neuter verb? So we are gravely told by our authors. Can +grammarians follow their own rules? If so, they may spend the "live long +night" and "its waking hours," without resorting to "tired nature's +sweet restorer, balmy sleep;" for there is no process under heaven +whereby they can procure sleep, unless they _sleep_ it. For one, I can +never _sleep_ without sleeping _sleep_--sometimes only a short _nap_. It +matters not whether the object is expressed or not. The action remains +the same. The true object is necessarily understood, and it would be +superfluous to name it. Cases, however, often occur where, both in +speaking and writing, it becomes indispensable to mention the object. +"The stout hearted have _slept_ their sleep." "They shall _sleep_ the +_sleep_ of death." "They shall _sleep_ the perpetual _sleep_, and shall +not awake." "_Sleep_ on now and _take_ your rest." The child was +troublesome and the mother sung it to sleep, and it _slept itself_ +quiet. A lady took opium and _slept herself_ to death. "Many persons +sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity." Rip Van Winkle, +according to the legend, _slept_ away a large portion of a common life. + + "Sleep, sleep to-day, tormenting cares." + + "And _sleep_ dull _cares_ away." + +Was your sleep refreshing last night? How did you procure it? Let a +person who still adheres to his _neuter_ verbs, that sleep expresses no +action, and has no object on which it terminates, put his theory in +practice; he may as well sleep with his eyes open, sitting up, as to +_lie himself_ upon his bed. + +A man lodged in an open chamber, and while he was _sleeping_ (doing +nothing) he _caught_ a severe _cold_ (active transitive verb) and had a +long _run_ of the fever. Who does not see, not only the bad, but also +the false philosophy of such attempted distinctions? How can you make a +child discover any difference in the _act of sleeping_, whether there is +an object after it, or not? Is it not the same? And is not the object +necessarily implied, whether expressed or not? Can a person _sleep_, +without procuring _sleep_? + + * * * + +"_I stand._" + +The man _stands_ firm in his integrity. Another stands in a very +precarious condition, and being unable to retain his hold, _falls_ down +the precipice and is killed. Who is killed? The man, surely. Why did he +fall? Because he could not _stand_. But there is no _action_ in +_standing_, say the books. + +"_Stand_ by thyself, come not near me?" "_Stand_ fast in the liberty +wherewith Christ hath made you free, and _be_ not again entangled in the +yoke of bondage." "Let him that thinketh he _standeth_, take heed lest +he _fall_." If it requires no act to _stand_, there can be no danger of +falling. + +"Two pillars stood together; the rest had fallen to the ground. The one +on the right was quite perfect in all its parts. The other _resembled +it_ very much, except it had _lost_ its capital, and _suffered_ some +other injuries." How could the latter column, while performing no action +in _standing_, act _transitively_, according to our grammars, and do +something to _resemble_ the other? or, what did it do to _lose_ its +capital, and _suffer_ other injury? + + * * * + +"To _lie_, or _lay_." + +It has been admitted that the verbs before considered are often used as +active verbs, and that there is, in truth, action expressed by them. +But when the man has fallen from his seat and _lies_ upon the floor, it +is contended that he no longer acts, and that _lie_ expresses no action. +He has ceased from physical, muscular action regulated by his will, and +is now subject to the common laws which govern matter. + +Let us take a strong example. The book _lies_ or _lays_ on the desk. Now +you ask, does that book perform any action in laying on the desk? I +answer, yes; and I will prove it on the principles of the soundest +philosophy, to the satisfaction of every one present. Nor will I deviate +from existing grammars to do it, so far as real action is concerned. + +The book _lies_ on the desk. The desk _supports_ the book. Will you +parse _supports_? It is, according to every system, an active transitive +verb. It has an objective case after it on which the action terminates. +But what does the desk do to _support_ the book? It barely resists the +action which the book _performs_ in lying on it. The action of the desk +and book is reciprocal. But if the book does not act, neither can the +desk act, for that only repels the force of the book in pressing upon it +in its tendency towards the earth, in obedience to the law of +gravitation. And yet our authors have told us that the desk is _active_ +in resisting no action of the book! No wonder people are unable to +understand grammar. It violates the first principles of natural science, +and frames to itself a code of laws, unequal, false, and exceptionable, +which bear no affinity to the rest of the world, and will not apply in +the expression of ideas. + +I was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of New-York. +Mrs. W., the distinguished teacher of one of the most popular Female +Seminaries in our country, attended. At the close of one lecture she +remarked that the greatest fault she had discovered in the new system, +was the want of a class of words to express neutrality. Children, she +said, conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state, and words should +be taught them by which to communicate such ideas. I asked her for an +example. She gave the rock in the side of the mountain. It had never +moved. It could never act. There it had been from the foundation of the +earth, and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged till time +should be no longer. I remarked, that I would take another small stone +and _lay_ it on the great one which could never act, and now we say the +great rock _upholds_, _sustains_ or _supports_ the small one--all active +transitive verbs with an object expressed. + +She replied, she would give it up, for it had satisfied her of a new +principle which must be observed in the exposition of all language, +which accords with _facts as developed in physical and mental science_. + +I continued, not only does that rock act in resisting the force of the +small one which lays upon it, but, by the attraction of gravitation it +is able to _maintain_ its _position_ in the side of the mountain; by +cohesion it _retains_ its distinct identity and solidity, and repels all +foreign bodies. It is also subject to the laws which govern the earth in +its diurnal and annual revolutions, and moves in common with other +matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an hour! Who shall +teach children, in these days of light and improvement, the grovelling +doctrine of neutrality, this relic of the peripatetic philosophy? Will +parents send their children to school to learn falsehood? And can +teachers be satisfied to remain in ignorance, following with blind +reverence the books they have studied, and refuse to examine new +principles, fearing they shall be compelled to acknowledge former +errors and study new principles? They should remember it is wiser and +more honorable to confess a fault and correct it, than it is to remain +permanent in error. + +Let us take another example of the verb "_to lie_." A country pedagogue +who has followed his authorities most devotedly, and taught his pupils +that _lie_ is a "_neuter verb_, expressing neither action nor passion, +but simply being, or a state of being," goes out, during the +intermission, into a grove near by, to _exercise himself_. In attempting +to roll a log up the hill, he _makes_ a mis-step, and _falls_ +(intransitive verb, _nothing_ falls!) to the ground, and the log _rolls_ +(_nothing_) on to him, and _lies_ across his legs. In this condition he +is observed by his scholars to whom he cries (nothing) for help. "Do +(nothing) come (intransitive) and help me." They obey him and remain +_neuter_, or at least act _intransitively_, and produce no effects. He +cries again for help and his _cries_ are regarded. They _present_ +themselves before him. "Do roll this log off; it will break my legs." +"Oh no, master; how can that be? The log _lies_ on you, does it not?" +"Yes, and it will _press me_ to death." "No, no; that can never be. The +log can not act. =Lies= is a _neuter_ verb, signifying neither _action_ +nor passion, but simply being or a state of being. You have a _state_ of +being, and the log has a state of being. It can not harm you. You must +have forgotten the practical application of the truths you have been +teaching us." It would be difficult to explain neuter verbs in such a +predicament. + + "Now I _lay_ me down _to sleep_." + +"She died and they _laid her_ beside her lover under the spreading +branches of the willow." + +"They _laid it_ away so secure that they could never find it." + +They _laid_ down to _rest themselves_ after the fatigue of a whole day's +journey. + +We have now considered the model verbs of the neuter kind, with the +exception of the verb =to be=, which is left for a distinct +consideration, being the most active of all verbs. It is unnecessary to +spend much time on this point. The errors I have examined have all been +discovered by teachers of language, long ago, but few have ventured to +correct them. An alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in the +adoption of the intransitive verb, which "expresses an action that is +confined to the actor or agent." + +The remarks which have been given in the present lecture will serve as a +hint to the course we shall adopt in treating of them, but the more +particular examination of their character and uses, together with some +general observation on the agents and objects of verbs, will be deferred +to our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + + Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can + be known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known + by their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things + signified.--Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables. + --Minerals.--All things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained. + --First Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.-- + These principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of + Gallileo. + + +We resume the consideration of verbs. We closed our last lecture with +the examination of _neuter verbs_, as they have been called. It appears +to us that evidence strong enough to convince the most skeptical was +adduced to prove that _sit_, _sleep_, _stand_ and _lie_, stand in the +same relation to language as other verbs, that they do not, in any case, +express neutrality, but frequently admit an objective word after them. +These are regarded as the most neutral of all the verbs except _to be_, +which, by the way, expresses the highest degree of action, as we shall +see when we come to inquire into its meaning. + +Grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the books in the use +of a large portion of verbs which have been called neuter. To obviate +the difficulty, some of them have adopted the distinction of +_Intransitive_ verbs, which express action, but terminate on no object; +others still use the term _neuter_, but teach their scholars that when +the _object_ is _expressed_, it is active. This distinction has only +tended to perplex learners, while it afforded only a temporary expedient +to teachers, by which to dodge the question at issue. So far as the +action is concerned, which it is the business of the verb to express, +what is the difference whether "I _run_, or _run_ myself?" "A man +started in haste. He _ran_ so fast that he _ran himself_ to death." I +strike Thomas, Thomas _strikes David_, Thomas _strikes himself_. Where +is the difference in the action? What matters it whether the action +passes over to another object, or is confined within itself? + +"But," says the objector, "you mistake. An intransitive verb is one +where the 'effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass over +to any object.'" + +Very well, I think I understand the objection. When Thomas strikes David +the effects of the blow _passes over_ to him. And when he strikes +himself, it "is confined within the subject," and hence the latter is an +_intransitive_ verb. + +"No, no; there is an object on which the action terminates, in that +case, and so we must call it a _transitive_ verb." + +Will you give me an example of an _intransitive_ verb? + +"I _run_, he _walks_, birds _fly_, it _rains_, the fire _burns_. No +objects are expressed after these words, so the action is confined +within themselves." + +I now get your meaning. When the object is _expressed_ the verb is +transitive, when it is not it is intransitive. This distinction is +generally observed in teaching, however widely it may differ from the +intention of the makers of grammars. And hence children acquire the +habit of limiting their inquiries to what they see placed before them by +others, and do not think for themselves. When the verb has an objective +word after it _expressed_, they are taught to attach action to it; but +tho the action may be even greater, if the object is not expressed, +they consider the action as widely different in its character, and adopt +the false philosophy that a cause can exist without an effect resulting +from it. + +We assume this ground, and we shall labor to maintain it, that every +verb necessarily presupposes an _agent_ or _actor_, an _action_, and an +_object_ acted upon, or affected by the action. + +No action, as such, can be known to exist separate from the thing that +acts. We can conceive no idea of action, only by keeping our minds fixed +on the acting substance, marking its changes, movements, and tendencies. +"The book _moves_." In this case the eye rests on the book, and observes +its positions and attitudes, alternating one way and the other. You can +separate no action from the book, nor conceive any idea of it, as a +separate entity. Let the book be taken away. Where now is the action? +What can you think or say of it? There is the same space just now +occupied by the book, but no action is perceivable. + +The boy _rolls_ his marble upon the floor. All his ideas of the action +performed by it are derived from an observation of the marble. His eye +follows it as it moves along the floor. He sees it in that acting +condition. When he speaks of the action as a whole, he thinks where it +started and where it stopped. It is of no importance, so far as the verb +is concerned, whether the marble received an impulse from his hand, or +whether the floor was sufficiently inclined to allow it to roll by its +own inherent tendency. The action is, in this case, the obvious change +of the marble. + +Our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance of things in a +state of motion, or change, or exerting a tendency to change, or to +counteract an opposing substance. + +This will be admitted so far as material things are concerned. The same +principle holds good in reference to every thing of which we form ideas, +or concerning which we use language. In our definition of nouns we spoke +of immaterial and imaginary things to which we gave _names_ and which we +consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence in the production +of effects, or in resisting actions. It is therefore unimportant whether +the action be real or imaginary. It is still inseparably connected with +the thing that acts; and we employ it thus in the construction of +language to express our thoughts. Thus, lions roar; birds sing; minds +reflect; fairies dance; knowledge increases; fancies err; imagination +wanders. + +This fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to understand or +explain language. The mind should remain fixed to the acting substance, +to observe its changes and relations at different periods, and in +different circumstances. There is no other process by which any +knowledge can be gained of actions. The mind contemplates the acting +thing in a condition of change and determines the precise action by the +_altered condition_ of the thing, and thus learns to judge of actions by +their effects. The only method by which we can know whether a _vegetable +grows_ or not is by comparing its form to-day with what it was some days +ago. We can not decide on the improvement of our children only by +observing the same rule. + +"By their fruits ye shall know them," will apply in physics as well as +in morals; for we judge of causes only by their effects. First +principles can never be known. We observe things as they _are_, and +remember how they _have been_; and from hence deduce our conclusions in +reference to the _cause_ of things we do not fully understand, or those +consequences which will follow a condition of things as now existing. It +is the business of philosophy to mark these effects, and trace them back +to the causes which produced them, by observing all the intermediate +changes, forms, attitudes, and conditions, in which such things have, at +different times, been placed. + +We say, "_trees grow_." But suppose no change had ever been observed in +trees, that they had always been as they now are; in stature as lofty, +in foliage as green and beautiful, in location unaltered. Who would then +say, "trees grow?" + +In this single expression a whole train of facts are taken into the +account, tho not particularly marked. As a single expression we imply +that _trees increase their stature_. But this we all know could never be +effected without the influence of other causes. The soil where it stands +must contain properties suited to the _growth_ of the tree. A due +portion of moisture and heat are also requisite. These facts all exist, +and are indispensable to make good the expression that the "tree grows." +We might also trace the capabilities of the tree itself, its roots, +bark, veins or pores, fibres or grains, its succulent and absorbent +powers. But, as in the case of the "man that killed the deer," noticed +in a former lecture, the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete +whole, which is signified by the single expression, "trees grow." + +Let the following example serve in further illustration of this point. +Take two bricks, the one heated to a high temperature, the other cold. +Put them together, and in a short time you will find them of equal +temperature. One has grown warm, the other cool. One has _imparted_ heat +and _received_ cold, the other has _received_ heat and _imparted_ cold. +Yet all this would remain forever unknown, but for the effects which +must appear obvious to all. From these effects the causes are to be +learned. + +It must, I think, appear plain to all who are willing to see, that +action, as such, can never exist distinct from the thing that acts; that +all our notions of action are derived from an observance of _things_ in +an acting condition; and hence that no words can be framed to express +our ideas of action on any other principle. + +I hope you will bear these principles in mind. They are vastly important +in the construction of language, as will appear when we come to speak of +the _agents_ and _objects_ of action. We still adhere to the fact, that +no rules of language can be successfully employed, which deviate from +the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter and mind; a +fact which can not be too deeply impressed on your minds. + +In the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs, we must observe +that _power_, _cause_, _means_, _agency_, and _effects_, are +indispensable to their existence. Such principles exist _in fact_, and +must be observed in obtaining a complete knowledge of language; for +words, we have already seen, are the expression of ideas, and ideas are +the impression of things. + +In our attempts at improvement, we should strip away the covering, and +come at the reality. Words should be measurably forgotten, while we +search diligently for the things expressed by them. _Signs_ should +always conduct to the things _signified_. The weary traveller, hungry +and faint, would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of the +_sign_ before the inn, marking its form, the picture upon it, the nice +shades of coloring in the painting. He would go in, and search for the +thing signified. + +It has been the fault in teaching language, that learners have been +limited to the mere _forms_ of words, while the important duty of +teaching them to look at the thing signified, has been entirely +disregarded. Hence they have only obtained book knowledge. They know +what the grammars say; but how to _apply_ what they say, or what is in +reality meant by it, they have yet to learn. This explains the reason +why almost every man who has studied grammar will tell you that "he +_used_ to understand it, but it has all gone from him, for he has not +looked into a _book_ these many years." Has he lost a knowledge of +language? Oh, no, he learned that before he saw a grammar, and will +preserve it to the day of his death. What good did his two or three +years study of grammar do him? None at all; he has forgotten all that he +ever knew of it, and that is not much, for he only learned what some +author said, and a few arbitrary rules and technical expressions which +he could never understand nor apply in practice, except in special +cases. But I wander. I throw in this remark to show you the necessity of +bringing your minds to a close observance of things as they do in truth +exist; and from them you can draw the principles of speech, and be able +to use language correctly. For we still insist on our former opinion, +that all language depends on the permanent laws of nature, as exerted in +the regulation of matter and mind. + + * * * + +To return. I have said that all action denotes _power_, _cause_, +_means_, _agency_, and _effects_. + + * * * + +_Power_ depends on _physical energy_, or _mental skill_. I have hinted +at this fact before. Things act according to the power or energy they +possess. Animals walk, birds fly, fishes swim, minerals sink, poisons +kill. Or, according to the adopted theories of naturalists: + +Minerals _grow_. + +Vegetables _grow_ and _live_. + +Animals _grow_, and _live_, and _feel_. + +Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses. Man, possessed +of reason, devises means and produces ends. Beasts change locations, +devour vegetables, and sometimes other beasts. The lowest grade of +animals never change location, but yet eat and live. Vegetables live and +grow, but do not change location. They have the power to reproduce their +species, and some of them to kill off surrounding objects. "The +_carraguata_ of the West Indies, clings round," says Goldsmith, +"whatever tree it happens to approach; there it quickly gains the +ascendant, and, loading the tree with a verdure not its own, keeps away +that nourishment designed to feed the trunk, and at last entirely +destroys its supporter." In our country, many gardens and fields present +convincing proof of the ability of weeds to kill out the vegetables +designed to grow therein. You all have heard of the _Upas_, which has a +power sufficient to destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a +large distance around. Its very exhalations are death to whatever +approaches it. It serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious effects +of all vice, of slander and deceit, the effects of which are to the +moral constitution, what the tree itself is to natural objects, blight +and mildew upon whatever comes within its reach. + +Minerals are possessed of _power_ no less astonishing, which may be +observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call it forth. Active +poisons, able to slay the most powerful men and beasts, lie hid within +their bosoms. They have strong attractive and repelling powers. From the +iron is made the strong cable which _holds_ the vessel fast in her +moorings, _enabling_ it to outride the collected force of the winds and +waves which _threaten_ its destruction. From it also are manufactured +the manacles which bind the strong man, or fasten the lion in his cage. +Gold _possesses_ a power which _charms_ nearly all men to sacrifice +their ease, and too many their moral principles, to pay their blind +devotions at its shrine. + +Who will contend that the power of action is confined to the animal +creation alone, and that inanimate matter can not act? That there is a +superior power possessed by man, endowed with an immaterial spirit in a +corporeal body, none will deny. By the agency of the mind he can +accomplish wonders, which mere physical power without the aid of such +mental skill, could never perform. But with all his boasted superiority, +he is often made the slave of inanimate things. His lofty powers of body +and soul bend beneath the weight of accumulated sorrows, produced by the +secret _operations_ of contagious disease, which _slays_ his wife, +children, and friends, who fall like the ripened harvest before the +gatherers scythe. Nay, he often submits to the controlling power of the +vine, alcohol, or tobacco, which _gain_ a secret influence over his +nobler powers, and _fix_ on him the stamp of disgrace, and _throw_ +around him fetters from which he finds it no easy matter to extricate +himself. By the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed, and +long endures darkness and suffering, till he _regains_ his native +energies, and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth and virtue. + +What is that secret power which lies concealed beyond the reach of +human ken, and is transported from land to land unknown, till exposed in +conditions suited to its operation, will show its active and resistless +force in the destruction of life, and the devastation of whole cities or +nations? You may call it plague, or cholera, or small pox, miasma, +contagion, particles of matter floating in the air surcharged with +disease, or any thing else. It matters not what you call it. It is +sufficient to our present purpose to know that it has the ability to put +forth a prodigious power in the production of consequences, which the +highest skill of man is yet unable to prevent. + +I might pursue this point to an indefinite length, and trace the secret +powers possessed by all created things, as exhibited in the influence +they exert in various ways, both as regards themselves and surrounding +objects. But you will at once perceive my object, and the truth of the +positions I assume. A common power pervades all creation, operating by +pure and perfect laws, regulated by the Great First Cause, the Moving +Principle, which guides, governs, and controls the whole.[11] + +Degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit all action to the +animal frame as an organized body, moved by a living principle. Ours is +a sublimer duty; to trace the operations of the Divine Wisdom which acts +thro out all creation, in the minutest particle of dust which _keeps_ +its _position_ secure, till moved by some superior power; or in the +_needle_ which points with unerring skill to its fixed point, and +_guides_ the vessel, freighted with a hundred lives, safe thro the +midnight storm, to its destined haven; tho rocked by the waves and +driven by the winds, it remains uninfluenced, and tremblingly alive to +the important duties entrusted to its charge, continues its faithful +service, and is watched with the most implicit confidence by all on +board, as the only guide to safety. The same Wisdom is displayed thro +out all creation; in the beauty, order, and harmony of the universe; in +the planets which float in the azure vault of heaven; in the glow worm +that glitters in the dust; in the fish which cuts the liquid element; in +the pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean; in every thing +that lives, moves, or has a being; but more distinctly in man, created +in the moral image of his Maker, possessed of a heart to feel, and a +mind to understand--the third in the rank of intelligent beings. + +I cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that inimitable poem, +Pope's Essay on Man. It is rife with sentiment of the purest and most +exalted character. It is direct to our purpose. You may have heard it a +thousand times; but I am confident you will be pleased to hear it again. + + Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine, + Earth for whose use? Pride answers, "'Tis for mine: + "For me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r, + "Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flow'r; + "Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew + "The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew; + "For me, the mine a thousand treasures brings; + "For me health gushes from a thousand springs; + "Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; + "My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." + + But errs not nature from this gracious end, + From burning suns when livid deaths descend, + When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep + Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep? + "_No_," ('tis replied,) "_the first Almighty Cause + Acts not by partial, but by general laws; + Th' exceptions few; some change since all began: + And what created perfect?_" Why then man? + If the great end be human happiness, + Then nature deviates--and can man do less? + As much that end a constant course requires + Of show'rs and sunshine, as of man's desires; + As much eternal springs and cloudless skies, + As man forever temp'rate, calm, and wise. + If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design. + Why then a Borgia, or a Cataline? + Who knows but He whose hand the lightning forms, + Who heaves old ocean, and who wings the storms; + Pours fierce ambition in a Cæsar's mind; + Or turns young Ammon loose to scourge mankind? + From pride, from pride our very reas'ning springs; + Account for moral as for nat'ral things: + Why charge we heaven in those, in these acquit? + In both, to reason right, is to submit. + + Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, + Were there all harmony, all virtue here; + That never air or ocean felt the wind; + That never passion discomposed the mind. + But =all= subsists by elemental strife; + And passions are the elements of life. + The general =order=, since the whole began, + Is kept in nature, and is kept in man. + + * * * * * + + Look round our world, behold the chain of love. + Combining all below and all above; + See plastic nature working to this end, + The single atoms each to other tend; + Attract, attracted to, the next in place + Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace, + See matter next, with various life endued, + Press to one center still the gen'ral good. + See dying vegetables life sustain, + See life dissolving, vegetate again; + All forms that perish, other forms supply, + (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die) + Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, + They rise, they break, and to that sea return, + Nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole; + One all-extending, all-preserving soul + Connects each being greatest with the least; + Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; + All served, all serving; nothing stands alone; + The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. + +But _power_ alone is not sufficient to produce action. There must be a +=cause= to call it forth, to set in operation and exhibit its latent +energies. It will remain hid in its secret chambers till efficient +causes have set in operation the _means_ by which its existence is to be +discovered in the production of change, effects, or results. There is, +it is said, in every created thing a power sufficient to produce its own +destruction, as well as to preserve its being. In the human body, for +instance, there is a constant tendency to decay, to waste; which a +counteracting power resists, and, with proper assistance, keeps alive. + +The same may be said of vegetables which are constantly throwing off, or +exhaling the waste, offensive, or useless matter, and yet a restoring +power, assisted by heat, moisture, and the nourishment of the earth, +resists the tendency to decay and preserves it alive and growing. The +air, the earth, nay, the ocean itself, philosophers assure us, contain +powers sufficient to self-destruction. But I will not enlarge here. Let +the necessary _cause_ be exerted which will give vent to this hidden +power and actions the most astonishing and destructive would be the +effect. These are often witnessed in the tremendous earthquakes which +devastate whole cities, states, and empires; in the tornados which pass, +like the genius of evil, over the land, levelling whatever is found in +its course; or in the waterspouts and maelstroms which prove the grave +of all that comes within their grasp. + +In the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament of +England, by what is usually called the "gunpowder plot," the +arrangements were all made; two hogsheads and thirty-six barrels of +powder, sufficient to blow up the house of lords and the surrounding +buildings, were secreted in a vault beneath it, strown over with +faggots. Guy Fawkes, a spanish officer, employed for the purpose, lay at +the door, on the 5th of November, 1605, with the matches, or _means_, in +his pocket, which should set in operation the prodigious dormant +_power_, which would hurl to destruction James I., the royal family, and +the protestant parliament, give the ascendancy to the Catholics, and +change the whole political condition of the nation. The _project_ was +discovered, the _means_ were removed, the _cause_ taken away, and the +threatened _effects_ were prevented. + +The =cause= of action is the immediate subject which precedes or tends +to produce the action, without which it would not take place. It may +result from volition, inherent tendency, or communicated impulse; and is +known to exist from the effects produced by it, in the altered or new +condition of the thing on which it operates; which change would not have +been effected without it. + +Causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects which are +produced by them. The factory is put in operation, and the cloth is +manufactured. The careless observer would enter the building and see the +spindles, looms, and wheels operated by the hands, and go away satisfied +that he has seen enough, seen all. But the more careful will look +farther. He will trace each band and wheel, each cog and shaft, down by +the balance power, to the water race and floom; or thro the complicated +machinery of the steam engine to the piston, condenser, water, wood, and +fire; marking a new, more secret, and yet more efficient cause at each +advancing step. But all this curiously wrought machinery is not the +product of chance, operated without care. A superior cause must be +sought in human skill, in the deep and active ingenuity of man. Every +contrivance presupposes a contriver. Hence there must have been a power +and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of the water, or +generate and direct the steam. That power is vested in man; and hence, +man stands as the cause, in relation to the whole process operated by +wheels, bands, spindles, and looms. Yet we may say, with propriety, that +the water, or the steam; the water-wheel, or the piston; the shafts, +bands, cogs, pullies, spindles, springs, treddles, harnesses, reeds, +shuttles, an almost endless concatenation of instruments, are alike the +_causes_, which tend to produce the final result; for let one of these +intermediate causes be removed, and the whole power will be diverted, +and all will go wrong--the effect will not be produced. + +There must be a =first cause= to set in operation all inferior ones in +the production of action; and to that _first_ cause all action, nay, the +existence of all other causes, may be traced, directly, or more distant. +The intervening causes, in the consecutive order of things, may be as +diversified as the links in the chain of variant beings. Yet all these +causes are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of the +Almighty Father, the =Uncaused Cause= of all things and beings; who +spoke into existence the universe with all its various and complicated +parts and orders; who set the sun, moon, and stars in the firmament, +gave the earth a place, and fixed the sea a bed; throwing around them +barriers over which they can never pass. From the height of his eternal +throne, his eye pervades all his works; from the tall archangel, that +"adores and burns," down to the very hairs of our heads, which are all +numbered, his wise, benevolent, and powerful supervision may be traced +in legible lines, which may be seen and read of all men. And from +effects, the most diminutive in character, may be traced back, from +cause to cause, upward in the ascending scale of being, to the same +unrivalled Source of all power, splendor, and perfection, the presence +of Him, who spake, and it was done; who commanded, and it _stood still_; +or, as the poet has it: + + "Look thro nature up to nature's God." + +The _means_ of action are those aids which are displayed as the medium +thro which existing causes are to exhibit their hidden powers in +producing changes or effects. The matches in the pocket of Guy Fawkes +were the direct means by which he intended to set in operation a train +of causes which should terminate in the destruction of the house of +lords and all its inmates. Those matches, set on fire, would convey a +spark to the faggots, and thence to the powder, and means after means, +and cause after cause, in the rapid succession of events, would ensue, +tending to a final, inevitable, and melancholy result. + +A ball shot from a cannon, receives its first impulse from the powder; +but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle inherent in +itself, which power is finally overcome by the density of the atmosphere +which impedes its progress, and the law of gravitation finally attracts +it to the earth. These contending principles may be known by observing +the curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth to the +spot where it rests. But if there is no power in the ball, why does not +the ball of cork discharged from the same gun with the same momentum, +travel to the same distance, at the same rate? The action commences in +both cases with the same projectile force, the same exterior _means_ are +employed, but the results are widely different. The cause of this +difference must be sought for in the comparative power of each substance +to _continue its own movements_. + +Every boy who has played at ball has observed these principles. He +throws his ball, which, if not _counteracted_, will continue in a +straight line, _ad infinitum_--without end. But the air impedes its +progress, and gravitation brings it to the ground. When he throws it +against a hard substance, its velocity is not only overcome, but it is +sent back with great force. But if he takes a ball of wax, of snow, or +any strong adhesive substance, it will not bound. How shall we account +to him for this difference? He did the same with both balls. The impetus +given the one was as great as the other, and the resistance of the +intervening substance was as great in one case as the other; and yet, +one bounds and rebounds, while the other sticks fast as a friend, to the +first object it meets. The cause of this difference is to be sought for +in the different capabilities of the respective balls. One possesses a +strong elastic and repelling power; in the other, the attraction of +cohesion is predominant. + +Take another example. Let two substances of equal size and form, the one +made of lead, the other of cork, be put upon the surface of a cistern of +water. The external circumstances are the same, but the effects are +widely different--one sinks, the other floats. We must look for the +cause of this difference, not in the opposite qualities of surrounding +matter, but in the things themselves. If you add to the cork another +quality possessed by the lead, and give it the same form, size, and +_weight_, it will as readily sink to the bottom. But this last property +is possessed in different degrees by the two bodies, and hence, while +the one floats upon the water, the other displaces its particles and +sinks to the bottom. You may take another substance; say the mountain +ebony, which is heavier than water, but lighter than lead, and immerse +it in the water; it will not sink with the rapidity of lead, because its +inherent _power_ is not so strong. + +Take still another case. Let two balls, suspended on strings, be +equally, or, to use the technical term, _positively_ electrified. Bring +them within a certain distance, and they will repel each other. Let the +electric fluid be extracted from one, and the other will attract it. +Before, they were as enemies; now they embrace as friends. The magnet +furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we are laboring +to establish. Let one of sufficient power be let down within the proper +distance, it will overcome the power of gravitation, and _attract_ the +heavy steel to itself. What is the cause of this wonderful fact? Who can +account for it? Who can trace out the hidden cause; the "_primum +mobile_" of the Ptolmaic philosophy--the secret spring of motion? But +who will dare deny that such effects do exist, and that they are +produced by an efficient cause? Or who will descend into the still more +dark and perplexing mazes of neuter verb grammars, and deny that matter +has such a power to act? + +These instances will suffice to show you what we mean when we say, +_every thing acts according to the ability God has given it to act_. I +might go into a more minute examination of the properties of matter, +affinity, hardness, weight, size, color, form, mobility, &c., which even +old grammars will allow it to _possess_; but I shall leave that work +for you to perform at your leisure. + +Whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the abilities of all +things to _produce_, _continue_, or _prevent_ motion, will do well to +consult the prince of philosophers, Sir Isaac Newton, who, after +Gallileo, has treated largely upon the laws of motion. He asserts as a +fact, full in illustration of the principles I am laboring to establish, +that in ascending a hill, the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as +he draws that forward, only the horse overcomes the resistance of the +load, and moves it up the hill. On the old systems, no power would be +requisite to move the load, for it could oppose no resistance to the +horse; and the small child could move it with as much ease as the strong +team. + +Who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to know these things? +I can not believe there is a person present, who does not fully +comprehend my meaning, and discover the correctness of the ground I have +assumed. And it should be borne in mind, that no collection or +arrangement of words can be composed into a sentence, which do not +obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they exist and +operate in the material and intellectual world, and that it is not in +the power of man to frame a sentence, to think or speak, but in +conformity with these general and exceptionless laws. + +This important consideration meets us at every advancing step, as if to +admonish us to abandon the vain project of seeking a knowledge of +language without an acquaintance with the great principles on which it +depends. To look for the leading rules of speech in set forms of +expression, or in the capricious customs of any nation, however learned, +is as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by shutting +ourselves up in a room, and looking at paintings and drawings which may +be furnished by those who know as little of it as we do. How fallacious +would be the attempt, how much worse than time thrown away, for the +parent to shut up his child in a lonely room, and undertake to impress +upon its mind a knowledge of man, beasts, birds, fish, insects, rivers, +mountains, fields, flowers, houses, cities, &c., with no other aid than +a few miserable pictures, unlike the reality, and in many respects +contradictory to each other. And yet that would be adopting a course +very similar to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring a +knowledge of language; limited to a set of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, which the brightest geniuses could never +understand, nor the most erudite employ in the expression of ideas. The +grammars, it was thought, must be studied to acquire the use of +language, and yet they were forgotten before such knowledge was put in +practice. + + * * * * * + +A simple remark on the principles of _relative_ action, and we will pass +to the consideration of _agents_ and _objects_, or the more immediate +_causes_ and _effects_ of action. + +We go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun _sinking_ beneath +the horizon; we mark the varying hues of light as they appear, and +change, and fade away. We see the shades of night _approaching_, with a +gradual pace, till the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing, +the hills and the meadows; the farm house and the cultivated fields, the +grove, the orchard, and the garden; the tranquil lake and the babbling +brook; the dairy returning home, and the lambkins gambolling beside +their dams; all _recede_ from our view, and _appear_ to us no longer. +All this is _relative_ action. But so far as language and ideas are +concerned, it matters not whether the sun actually _sinks_ behind the +hills, or the hills interpose between it and us; whether the landscape +_recedes_ from our view, or the shades of night intercept so as to +obscure our vision. The habit of thought is the same, and the form of +expression must agree with it. We say the sun _rises_ and _sets_, in +reference to the obvious fact, without stopping to inquire whether it +really moves or not. Nor is such an inquiry at all necessary, as to +matter of fact, for all we mean by such expressions, is, that by some +process, immaterial to the case in hand, the sun stands in a new +relation to the earth, its altitude is elevated or depressed, and hence +the action is strictly relative. For we should remember that _rising_ +and _setting_, _up_ and _down_, _above_ and _below_, in reference to the +earth, are only relative terms. + +We speak and read of the _changes_ of the moon, and we correctly +understand each other. But in truth the moon changes no more at one time +than at another. The action is purely relative. One day we observe it +_before_ the sun, and the next _behind_ it, as we understand these +terms. The precise time of the change, when it will appear to us in a +different relation to the sun, is computed by astronomers, and set down +in our almanacs; but it changes no more at that time than at any other, +for like every thing else, it is _always changing_. + +In a case we mentioned in a former lecture, "John _looks_ like or +_resembles_ his brother," we have an example of relative action. So in +the case of two men travelling the same way, starting together, but +advancing at different rates; one, we say, _falls_ behind the other. In +this manner of expression, we follow exactly the principles on which we +started, and suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking. By +the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the eye +inversely, that is, upside down; but they are always seen in a proper +relation to each other, and if there is any thing wrong in the case, it +is overcome by early habit; and so our language accords with things as +they are manifested to our understandings. + +These examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by relative action, +when applied to natural philosophy or the construction of language. + +I had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents and objects +of verbs, to prove, in accordance with the first and closest principles +of philosophy, that every "_cause_ must have an _effect_," or, in other +words, that every action must terminate on some object, either expressed +or necessarily understood; but I am admonished that I have occupied more +than my usual quota of time in this lecture already, and hence I shall +leave this work for our next. + +I will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from the life of +that wonderful man, Gallileo Gallilei, who was many years professor of +mathematics at Padua. Possessed of a strong, reflecting mind, he had +early given his attention to the observation of things, their motions, +tendencies, and power of resistance, from which he ascended, step by +step, to the sublime science of astronomy. Being of an honest and frank, +as well as benevolent disposition, he shunned not to state and defend +theories at war with the then received opinions. All learning was, at +that time, in the hands or under the supervision of the ecclesiastics, +who were content to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy, which, +in many respects, was not unlike that still embraced in our _neuter verb +systems_ of grammar. There was a sworn hostility against all +improvement, or innovation as it was called, in science as well as in +theology. The copernican system, to which Gallileo was inclined, if it +had not been formally condemned, had been virtually denounced as false, +and its advocates heretical. Hence Gallileo never dared openly to defend +it, but, piece by piece, under different names, he brought it forth, +which, carried out, would establish the heretical system. Dwelling as a +light in the midst of surrounding darkness, he cautiously discovered the +precious truths revealed to his mind, lest the flood of light should +distract and destroy the mental vision, break up the elements of +society, let loose the resistless powers of ignorance, prejudice and +bigotry, and envelope himself and friends in a common ruin. At length +having prepared in a very guarded manner his famous "Dialogues on the +Ptolmaic and Copernican Systems," he obtained permission, and ventured +to publish it to the world, altho an edict had been promulgated +enjoining silence on the subject, and he had been personally instructed +"_not to believe or teach the motion of the earth in any manner_." + +By the false representation of his enemies, suspicions were aroused and +busily circulated prejudicial to Gallileo. Pope Urban himself, his +former friend, became exasperated towards him, and a sentence against +him and his books was fulminated by the Cardinals, prohibiting the "sale +and vending of the latter, and condemning him to the formal prison of +the Holy Office for a period determined at their pleasure." The sentence +of the Inquisition was in part couched in these words--"We pronounce, +judge, and declare, that you, the said Gallileo, by reason of these +things, which have been detailed in the course of this investigation, +and which, as above, you have confessed, have rendered yourself +vehemently suspected by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, +that you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy +and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the center of the world, +and that it does not _move_ from east to west, and that the earth does +_move_, and is not the center of the world; also, that an opinion _can +be held_ and _supported_ as _probable_, _after it has been_ declared, +and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scriptures"--by the Holy See!! +"From which," they continue, "it is _our_ pleasure that you be absolved, +provided that, first, with a _sincere_ heart, and _unfeigned faith_, in +our presence, you _abjure_, _curse_, and _detest_ the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and +Apostolic Church of Rome, in the form now shown to you." + +After suffering under this anathema some time, Gallileo, by the advice +of his friends, consented to make a public abjuration of his former +heresies on the laws of motion. Kneeling before the "Most Eminent and +Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal +Christian republic, against _heretical depravity_, having before his +eyes the Holy Gospels," he swears that he always "_believed_, and now +_believes_, and with the help of God, _will in future believe_, every +article which the Holy Catholic Church of Rome holds, teaches, and +preaches"--that he does altogether "abandon the false opinion which +maintains that the 'sun is the center of the world, and that the earth +is _not_ the center and _movable_,' that with a sincere heart and +unfeigned faith, he abjures, curses, and detests the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and sect contrary to the said Holy +Church, and that he will never more in future, say or assert any thing +verbally, or in writing, which may give rise to similar suspicion." As +he arose from his knees, it is said, he whispered to a friend standing +near him, "_E pur si muove_"--=it does move, tho=. + +In our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of the +Inquisition; but prejudice, if not as strong in power to execute, has +the ability to blind as truly as in other ages, and keep us from the +knowledge and adoption of practical improvements. And it is the same +philosophy now, which _asks_ if _inanimate matter can act_, which +_demanded_ of Gallileo if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand +miles in a minute, and no body feel the motion; and with Deacon +Homespun, in the dialogue, "why, if this world turned upside down, the +water did not spill from the mill ponds, and all the people fall +headlong to the bottomless pit?" + +If there are any such peripatetics in these days of light and science, +who still cling to the false and degrading systems of neutrality, +because they are honorable for age, or sustained by learned and good +men, and who will oppose all improvement, reject without examination, +or, what is still worse, refuse to adopt, after being convinced of the +truth of it, any system, because it is novel, an innovation upon +established forms, I can only say of them, in the language of Micanzio, +the Venetian friend of Gallileo--"The efforts of such enemies to get +these principles prohibited, will occasion no loss either to your +reputation, or to the intelligent part of the world. As to posterity, +this is just one of the surest ways to hand them down to them. But what +a wretched set this must be, to whom every good thing, and _all that is +found in nature_, necessarily appears hostile and odious." + + + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + + A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken + for granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from + the truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an + intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language + eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To + step.--Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To + smile.--Eat and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false + teaching.--A change is demanded.--These principles apply + universally.--Their importance. + + +We have made some general remarks on the power, cause, and means, +necessary in the production of action. We now approach nearer to the +application of these principles as observed in the immediate _agency_ +and _effects_ which precede and follow action, and as connected with the +verb. + +It is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted, that every +_effect_ is the product of a prior _cause_, and that every _cause_ will +necessarily produce a corresponding _effect_. This fact has always +existed and will forever remain unchanged. It applies universally in +physical, mental, and moral science; to God or man; to angels or to +atoms; in time or thro eternity. No language can be constructed which +does not accord with it, for no ideas can be gained but by an observance +of its manifestations in the material or spiritual universe. The manner +of _expressing_ this cause and effect may differ in different nations or +by people of the same nation, but the fact remains unaltered, and so +far as understood the idea is the same. In the case of the horse +mentioned in a former lecture,[12] the idea was the same, but the manner +of expressing it different. Let that horse _walk_, _lay_ down, _roll_ +over, _rise_ up, _shake_ himself, _rear_, or _stand_ still, all present +will observe the same attitude of the horse, and will form the same +ideas of his positions. Some will doubtless inquire more minutely into +the _cause_ and _means_ by which these various actions are produced, +what muscles are employed, what supports are rendered by the bones; and +the whole regulated by the will of the horse, and their conclusions may +be quite opposite. But this has nothing to do with the obvious fact +expressed by the words above; or, more properly, it is not necessary to +enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations, these secret +springs of motion, in order to relate the actions of the horse. For were +we to do this we should be required to go back, step by step, and find +the causes still more numerous, latent, and perplexing. The pursuit of +causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the horse, his +muscular energy, and voluntary action; for gravitation has no small +service to perform in the accomplishment of these results; as well as +other principles. Let gravitation be removed, and how could the horse +_lay_ down? He could _roll_ over as well in the air as upon the ground. +But the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in the +construction of language to express the actions of the horse; for he +stands as the obvious _agent_ of the whole, and the _effects_ are seen +to follow--the _horse_ is laid down, _his body_ is rolled over, _the +fore part_ of it is _reared up_, _himself_ is shaken, and the whole +_feat_ is produced by the direction of his master. + +Allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former lecture. I said no +action as such could be known distinct from the thing which acts; that +action as such is not perceptible, and that all things act, according to +the ability they possess. To illustrate this idea: Take a magnet and +lower it down over a piece of iron, till it attracts it to itself and +holds it suspended there. If you are not in possession of a magnet you +can make one at your pleasure, by the following process. Lay your knife +blade on a flat iron, or any hard, smooth surface; let another take the +old tongs or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length +of time, and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more. A magnetic +power will be conveyed from the tongs to the blade sufficient to take up +a common needle. The tongs themselves may be manufactured into a most +perfect magnet. Now as the knife _holds_ the needle suspended beneath it +you perceive there must be an action, a power, and cause exerted beyond +our comprehension. Let the magnetic power be extracted from the blade, +and the needle will drop to the floor. A common unmagnetized blade will +not _raise_ and _hold_ a needle as this does. How those tongs come in +possession of such astonishing power; by what process it is there +retained; the power and means of transmission of a part of it to the +knife blade, and the reason of the phenomena you now behold--an +inanimate blade drawing to itself and there holding this needle +suspended--will probably long remain unknown to mortals. But that such +are the facts, incontestibly true, none will deny, for the evidence is +before us. Now fix your attention on that needle. There is an active and +_acting_ principle in that as well as in the magnetized blade; for the +blade will not attract a splinter of wood, of whalebone, or piece of +glass, tho equal in size and weight. It will have no operation on them. +Then it is by a sort of mutual affinity, a reciprocity of attachment, +between the blade and needle, that this phenomena is produced. + +To apply this illustration you have only to reverse the case--turn the +knife and needle over--and see all things attracted to the earth by the +law of gravitation, a principle abiding in all matter. All that renders +the exhibition of the magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an +uncommon condition of things, an apparent counteraction of the regular +laws of nature. But we should know that the same sublime principle is +constantly operating thro out universal nature. Let that be suspended, +cease its active operations for a moment, and our own earth will be +decomposed into particles; the sun, moon and stars will dissolve and +mingle with the common dust; all creation will crumble into atoms, and +one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill the immensity of space. + +Are you then prepared to deny the principles for which we are +contending? I think you will not; but accede the ground, that such being +the fact, true in nature, language, correctly explained, is only the +medium by which the ideas of these great truths, may be conveyed from +one mind to another, and must correspond therewith. If language is the +sign of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things, it follows of +necessity, that no language can be employed unless it corresponds with +these natural laws, or first principles. The untutored child cannot talk +of these things, nor comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to +it. But some people act as tho they thought children must first acquire +a knowledge of words, and then begin to learn what such words mean. +This is putting the "cart before the horse." + +Much, in this world, is to be taken for granted. We can not enter into +the minutiæ of all we would express, or have understood. We go upon the +ground that other people know something as well as we, and that they +will exercise that knowledge while listening to our relation of some new +and important facts. Hence it is said that "brevity is the soul of wit." +But suppose you should talk of surds, simple and quadratic equations, +diophantine problems, and logarithms, to a person who knows nothing of +proportion or relation, addition or subtraction. What would they know +about your words? You might as well give them a description in Arabic or +Esquimaux. They must first learn the simple rules on which the whole +science of mathematics depends, before they can comprehend a +dissertation on the more abstruse principles or distant results. So +children must learn to observe things as they are, in their simplest +manifestations, in order to understand the more secret and sublime +operations of nature. And our language should always be adapted to their +capacities; that is, it should agree with their advancement. You may +talk to a zealot in politics of religion, the qualities of forbearance, +candor, and veracity; to the enthusiast of science and philosophy; to +the bigot of liberality and improvement; to the miser of benevolence and +suffering; to the profligate of industry and frugality; to the +misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism; to the degraded sinner of +virtue, truth, and heaven; but what do they know of your meaning? How +are they the wiser for your instruction? You have touched a cord which +does not vibrate thro their hearts, or, phrenologically, addressed an +organ they do not possess, except in a very moderate degree, at least. +Food must be seasoned to the palates of those who use it. Milk is for +babes and strong meat for men. Our instruction must be suited to the +capacities of those we would benefit, always elevated just far enough +above them to attract them along the upward course of improvement. + +But it should be remembered that evils will only result from a deviation +from truth, and that we can never be justified in doing wrong because +others have, or for the sake of meeting them half way. And yet this very +course is adopted in teaching, and children are learned to adopt certain +technical rules in grammar, not because they are _true_, but because +they are _convenient_! In fact, it is said by some, that language is an +arbitrary affair altogether, and is only to be taught and learned +mechanically! But who would teach children that _seven times seven_ are +_fifty_, and _nine times nine_ a _hundred_, and assign as a reason for +so doing, that _fifty_ and a _hundred_ are more easily remembered than +_forty-nine_ and _eighty-one_? Yet there would be as much propriety in +adopting such a principle in mathematics, as in teaching for a rule of +grammar that when an objective case comes after a verb, it is active; +but when there is none expressed, it is intransitive or neuter. + +The great fault is, grammarians do not allow themselves to _think_ on +the subject of language, or if they do, they only think intransitively, +that is, produce no _thoughts_ by their cogitations. + +This brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject before us. +All admit the correctness of the axiom that every effect must have a +cause, and that every cause will have an effect. It is equally true that +"_like causes will produce like effects_," a rule from which nature +itself, and thought, and language, can never deviate. It is as plain as +that two things mutually equal to each other, are equal to a third. On +this immutable principle we base our theory of the activity of all +verbs, and contend that they must have an object after them, either +expressed or _necessarily understood_. We can not yield this position +till it is proved that _causes_ can operate without producing effects, +which can never be till the order of creation is reversed! There never +was, to our knowledge, such a thing as an intransitive action, with the +solitary exception of the burning bush.[13] In that case the laws of +nature were suspended, and no effects were produced; for the _bush +burned_, but there was nothing burnt; no consequences followed to the +bush; it was not consumed. The records of the past present no instance +of like character, where effects have failed to follow, direct or more +distantly, every cause which has been set in operation. + +It makes no difference whether the object of the action is expressed or +not. It is the same in either case. But where it is not necessarily +implied from the nature and fitness of things, it must be expressed, and +but for such object or effect the action could not be understood. For +example, _I run_; but if there is no effect produced, _nothing_ run, how +can it be known whether I run or not. If I write, it is necessarily +understood that I write _something_--a _letter_, a _book_, a _piece_ of +poetry, a _communication_, or some other _writing_. When such object is +not liable to be mistaken, it would be superfluous to express it--it +would be a redundancy which should be avoided by all good writers and +speakers. All languages are, in this respect, more or less eliptical, +which constitutes no small share of their beauty, power, and elegance. + +This elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the objects of +verbs, but in the omission of many nouns after adjectives, which thus +assume the character of nouns; as, the Almighty, the Eternal, the +Allwise, applied to God, understood. So we say the wise, the learned, +the good, the faithful, the wicked, the vile, the base, to which, if +nouns, it would sound rather harsh to apply plurals. So we say, take +your hat off ( ); put your gloves on ( ); lay your coat off ( ); and +pull your boots on ( ); presuming the person so addressed knows enough +to fill the elipsis, and not take his hat off his back, pull his gloves +on his feet, or his boots on his head. + +In pursuing this subject farther, let us examine the sample words which +are called _intransitive_ verbs, because frequently used without the +object expressed after them; such as run, walk, step, fly, rain, snow, +burn, roll, shine, smiles, &c. + +"_I run._" + +That here is an action of the first kind, none will deny. But it is +contended by the old systems that there is no object on which the action +terminates. If that be true then there is _nothing_ run, no effect +produced, and the first law of nature is outraged, in the very onset; +for there is a _cause_, but no _effect_; an _action_, but no _object_. +How is the fact? Have you run nothing? conveyed nothing, moved nothing +from one place to another? no change, no effect, nothing moved? Look at +it and decide. It is said that a neuter or intransitive verb may be +known from the fact that it takes after it a preposition. Try it by this +rule. "A man run _against_ a post in a dark night, and broke his neck;" +that is, he run nothing against a post--no object to run--and yet he +broke his neck. Unfortunate man! + +The fact in relation to this verb is briefly this: It is used to +express the action which more usually terminates on the actor, than on +any other object. This circumstance being generally known, it would be +superfluous to mention the object, except in cases where such is not the +fact. But whenever we desire to be definite, or when there is the least +liability to mistake the object, it is invariably expressed. Instances +of this kind are numerous. "They _ran_ the _boat_ ashore." "The captain +_ran_ his _men_ to rescue them from the enemy." "They _ran_ the +_gauntlet_." "They _run_ a _stage_ to Boston." "He _ran himself_ into +discredit." "One bank _runs_ another." "The man had a hard _run_ of it." +"_Run_ the _account_ over, and see if it is right." "They _run forty +looms_ and two thousand spindles." "He _runs_ his _mill_ evenings." Such +expressions are common and correct, because they convey ideas, and are +understood. + +Two men were engaged in argument. The believer in intransitive verbs set +out to _run his opponent_ into an evident absurdity, and, contrary to +his expectation, he _ran himself_ into one. Leave out the objects of +this verb, run, and the sense is totally changed. He set out to _run_ +into an _evident absurdity_, and he ran into one; that is, he did the +very absurd thing which he intended to do.[14] + +"_I walk._" + +The action expressed by this verb is very similar in character to the +former, but rather _slower_ in performance. Writers on health tell us +that _to walk_ is a very healthy exercise, and that it would be well for +men of sedentary habits _to walk_ several miles every day. But if there +is no action in walk, or if it has no _object_ necessarily _walked_, it +would be difficult to understand what good could result from it. + +"Did you have a pleasant _walk_ this morning?" says a teacher to his +grammar class. + +"We did have a very pleasant one. The flowers were _blooming_ on each +side of the _walk_, and _sent_ forth their sweetest aroma, _perfuming_ +the soft breezes of the morning. Birds were _flitting from_ spray to +spray, _carolling_ their hymns of praise to Deity. The tranquil waters +of the lake lay _slumbering_ in silence, and _reflected_ the bright +_rays_ of the sun, _giving_ a sweet but solemn _aspect_ to the whole +scene. _To go_ thro the grove, down by the lake, and up thro the meadow, +is the most delightful _walk_ a person can take." + +"How did you get your _walk_?" + +"We walked it, to be sure; how did you think we got it?" + +"Oh, I did not know. _Walk_, your books tell you, is an intransitive +verb, terminating on no object; so I supposed, if you followed them, you +obtained it some other way; by _riding_, _running_, _sailing_, or, may +be, _bought_ it, as you could not have _walked it_! Were you tired on +your return?" + +"We were exceedingly fatigued, for you know it is a very long _walk_, +and we _walked it_ in an hour." + +"But _what_ tired you? If there are no effects produced by walking, I +can not conceive why _you_ should be fatigued by such exercise." + +Who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar rules are +committed every day, and every hour, and in almost every sentence that +is framed to express our knowledge of facts. + +_To step._ + +This verb is the same in character with the two just noticed. It +expresses the act of _raising_ each foot alternately, and usually +implies that the body is, by that means, conveyed from one place to +another. But as people _step_ their _feet_ and not their hands, or any +thing else, it is entirely useless to mention the object; for generally, +that can not be mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves, boots, +and hat. But it would be bad philosophy to teach children that there is +no objective word after it, because it is not written out and placed +before their eyes. They will find such teaching contradicted at every +_step_ they take. Let a believer in intransitive verbs _step_ on a red +hot iron; he will soon find to his sorrow, that he was mistaken when he +thought that he could _step_ without stepping any thing. It would be +well for grammar, as well as many other things, to have more practice +and less theory. The thief was detected by his steps. Step softly; put +your feet down carefully. + +_Birds fly._ + +We learned from our primers, that + + "The eagle's _flight_ + Is out of sight," + +How did the eagle succeed in producing a _flight_? I suppose he _flew_ +it. And if birds ever fly, they must produce a flight. Such being the +fact, it is needless to supply the object. But the action does not +terminate solely on the flight produced, for that is only the name given +to the action itself. The expression conveys to the mind the obvious +fact, that, by strong muscular energy, by the aid of feathers, and the +atmosphere, the bird carries itself thro the air, and changes its being +from one place to another. As birds rarely fly a race, or any thing but +_themselves_ and a _flight_, it is not necessary to suffix the object. + +_It rains._ + +This verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive action; +with what propriety, we will now inquire. It will serve as a clear +elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive verbs. + +What does the expression signify? It simply declares the fact, that +_water is shed_ down from the clouds. But is there no object after +_rains_? There is none expressed. Is there nothing rained? no effect +produced? If not, there can be no water fallen, and our cisterns would +be as empty, our streams as low, and fields as parched, after a rain as +before it! But who that has common sense, and has never been blinded by +the false rules of grammar, does not know that when _it rains_, it never +fails to _rain rain_, _water_, or _rain-water_, unless you have one of +the paddy's dry rains? When it hails, it hails _hail_, _hail-stones_, or +frozen _rain_. When it snows, it _snows snow_, sometimes two feet of it, +sometimes less. I should think teachers in our northern countries would +find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers that snow is an +intransitive verb--that it snows _nothing_. And yet so it is; people +will remain wedded to their old systems, and refuse to open their eyes +and behold the evidences every where around them. Teachers themselves, +the guides of the young--and I blush to say it, for I was long among the +number--have, with their scholars, labored all the morning, breaking +roads, _shovelling snow_, and clearing paths, to get to the +school-house, and then set down and taught them that _to snow_ is an +_in_transitive verb. What nonsense; nay, worse, what falsehoods have +been instilled into the youthful mind in the name of grammar! Can we be +surprised that people have not understood grammar? that it is a dry, +cold, and lifeless business? + +I once lectured in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In a conversation with Miss B., a +distinguished scholar, who had taught a popular female school for twenty +years; was remarking upon the subject of intransitive verbs, and the +apparent inconsistency of the new system, that all verbs must have an +object after them, expressed or understood; she said, "there was the +verb _rain_, (it happened to be a rainy day,) the whole action is +confined to the agent; it does not pass on to another object; it is +purely intransitive." Her aged mother, who had never looked into a +grammar book, heard the conversation, and very bluntly remarked, "Why, +you fool you, I want to know if you have studied grammar these thirty +years, and taught it more than twenty, and have never _larned_ that when +it rains it _always_ rains _rain_? If it didn't, do you s'pose you'd +need an umbrella to go out now into the storm? I should think you'd know +better. I always told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing, I +didn't b'lieve." "Amen," said I, to the good sense of the old lady, "you +are right, and have reason to be thankful that you have never been +initiated into the intricate windings, nor been perplexed with the false +and contradictory rules, which have blasted many bright geniuses in +their earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime +principles of language, on which depends so much of the happiness of +human life." The good matron's remark was a poser to the daughter, but +it served as a means of her entire deliverance from the thraldom of +neuter verbs, and the adoption of the new principles of the exposition +of language. + +The anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind will observe facts, +and employ words as correctly, if not more so, than those schooled in +the high pretensions of science, falsely taught. Who does not know from +the commonest experience, that the direct object of _raining_ must +follow as the necessary sequence? that it can never fail? And yet our +philologists tell us that such is not always the case; and that the +exception is to be marked on the singular ground, whether the word is +written out or omitted! What a narrow view of the sublime laws of +motion! What a limited knowledge of things! or else, what a _mistake_! + +"Then the Lord said unto Moses, behold, I will _rain_ bread for you from +heaven." + +"Then the _Lord rained_ down, upon Sodom and Gomorrah, _brimstone_ and +_fire_, from the Lord out of heaven."--_Bible._ + +_The fire burns._ + +The fire _burns_ the wood, the coal, or the peat. The great fire in +New-York _burned_ the buildings which covered fifty-two acres of ground. +Mr. Experiment _burns_ coal in preference to wood. His new grate _burns +it_ very finely. Red ash coal _burns_ the best; it _makes_ the fewest +_ashes_, and hence _is_ the most convenient. The cook _burns_ too much +fuel. The house took fire and _burned_ up. _Burned what_ up? Burn is an +intransitive verb. It would not trouble the unfortunate tenant to know +that there must be an _object burned_, or what _it_ was. He would find +it far more difficult to rebuild his _house_. Do you suppose fires never +burn any thing belonging to neuter verb folks? Then they never need pay +away insurance money. With the solitary exception I have mentioned--the +burning bush--this verb can not be intransitive. + +_The sun shines._ + +This is an intransitive verb if there ever was one, because the object +is not often expressed after it. But if the sun _emits_ no _rays_ of +light, how shall it be known whether it shines or not? "The _radiance_ +of the sun's bright beaming" is produced by the _exhibition_ of +_itself_, when it _brightens_ the objects exposed to its _rays_ or +_radiance_. We talk of _sun shine_ and moon shine, but if these bodies +never produce _effects_ how shall it be known whether such things are +real? _Sun shine_ is the direct effect of the sun's _shining_. But +clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending to the +earth; but _then_ we do not say "the sun _shines_." You see at once, +that all we know or can know of the fact we state as truth, is derived +from a knowledge of the very _effects_ which our grammars tell us do not +exist. Strange logic indeed! It is a mark of a wiser man, and a better +scholar, not to know the popular grammars, than it is to profess any +degree of proficiency in them! + +_To smile._ + +The _smiles_ of the morning, the _smiles_ of affection, a _smile_ of +kindness, are only produced by the appearance of something that _smiles_ +upon us. _Smiles_ are the direct consequence of _smiling_. If a person +should _smile_ ever so _sweetly_ and yet present no _smiles_, they +might, for aught we could know to the contrary, be _sour_ as vinegar. + +But this verb frequently has another object after it; as, "to _smile_ +the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age," or "_smile_ dull _cares_ away." "A +sensible wife would soon _reason_ and _smile him_ into good nature." + +But I need not multiply examples. When such men as Johnson, Walker, +Webster, Murray, Lowthe, and a host of other wise and renowned men, +gravely tell us that _eat_ and _drink_, which they define, "to _take +food_; _to feed_; _to take a meal_; _to go to meals_; to be maintained +in food; _to swallow liquors_; _to quench thirst_; to take any liquid;" +are _intransitive_ or _neuter_ verbs, having no objects after them, we +must think them insincere, egregiously mistaken, or else possessed of a +means of subsistence different from people generally! Did they _eat_ and +_drink_, "take food and swallow liquors," _in_transitively; that is, +without _eating_ or _drinking_ any thing? Is it possible in the nature +of things? Who does not see the absurdity? And yet they were _great_ +men, and nobody has a right to question such _high_ authority. And the +"_simplifiers_" who have come after, making books and teaching grammar +to _earn_ their _bread_, have followed close in their footsteps, and, I +suppose, _eaten_ nothing, and thrown their bread away! Was I a believer +in neuter verbs and desired to get money, my first step would be to set +up a boarding house for all believers in, and _practisers_ of, +intransitive verbs. I would board cheap and give good fare. I could +afford it, for no provisions would be consumed. + +Some over cautious minds, who are always second, if not last, in a good +cause, ask us why these principles, if so true and clear, were not found +out before? Why have not the learned who have studied for many +centuries, never seen and adopted them? It is a sufficient answer to +such a question, to ask why the copernican system of astronomy was not +sooner adopted, why the principles of chemistry, the circulation of the +blood, the power and application of steam, nay, why all improvement was +not known before. When grammar and dictionary makers, those wise +expounders of the principles of speech, have so far forgotten facts as +to teach that _eat_ and _drink_, "express neither action nor passion," +or are "confined to the agents;" that when a man eats, he eats nothing, +or when he drinks, he drinks nothing, we need not stop long to decide +why these things were unknown before. The wisest may sometimes mistake; +and the proud aspirant for success, frequently passes over, unobserved, +the humble means on which all true success depends. + +Allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which will serve to show +more clearly the importance of supplying the elipses, in order to +comprehend the meaning of the writers, or profit by their remarks. You +will supply the objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where +they are not expressed. + +"Ask ( ) and ye shall receive ( ); seek ( ) and ye shall find ( ); knock +( ) and _it_ shall be opened unto you." + +Ask _what_? Seek _what_? Knock _what_? That _it_ may be opened? Our +"Grammars Made Easy" would teach us to _ask_ and _seek_ nothing! no +objectives after them. What then could we reasonably expect to _receive_ +or _find_? The _thing_ we _asked_ for, of course, and that was nothing! +Well might the language apply to such, "Ye ask ( ) and _receive not_ +(naught) because ye ask ( ) amiss." False teaching is as pernicious to +religion and morals as to science. + +"Charge them that are rich in this world--that they _do good_, that they +be rich in good works, ready to _distribute_ ( ), willing to +_communicate_ ( )."--_Paul to Timothy._ + +The hearer is to observe that there is no object after these +words--_nothing_ distributed, or communicated! There is too much such +charity in the world. + +"He spoke ( ), and _it_ was done; he commanded ( ), and _it_ stood +fast." + +"_Bless_ ( ), and _curse_ ( ) not."--_Bible._ + +"_Strike_ ( ) while the iron is hot."--_Proverb._ + +"I _came_ ( ), I _saw_ ( ), I _conquered_ ( )."--_Cæsar's Letter._ + +He lives ( ) contented and happy. + +"The _life_ that I now _live_, in the flesh, I _live_ by the faith of +the son of God."--_Paul._ + +"Let me _die_ the _death_ of the righteous, and let my last _end be_ +like his."--_Numbers._ + +As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites ( ) to +sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against great disorders, it is to be +generally encouraged. Gymnastic exercises may be established for all +ages and for all classes. The Jews were ordered to _take a walk_ out of +the city on the Sabbath day; and here rich and poor, young and old, +master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent mirth or in the +pleasures of friendly intercourse.--_Spurzheim on Education._ + +"Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; fight ( ) for it; +die ( ) for it; any thing but live ( ) for it."--_Lacon._ + +"I have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and some may +accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in presuming ( ) to inscribe +a book to so small a minority. But a volume addressed to those that +think ( ) is in fact addressed to all the world; for altho the +proportion of those who _do_ ( ) think ( ) be extremely small, yet every +individual _flatters himself_ that he is one of the number."--_Idem._ + +What is the difference whether a man _thinks_ or not, if he produces no +_thoughts_? + +"He that _thinks himself_ the happiest man, really is so; but he that +_thinks himself_ the wisest, is generally the greatest fool."--_Idem._ + +"A man _has_ many _workmen employed_; some to plough ( ) and sow ( ), +others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to +score ( ) and hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory he +has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and +weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and +pay ( ). They eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and +as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, +sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; they rise ( ) up early to +go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress +( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) to read ( ), write +( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or intransitive verbs!! + +"The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on Tuesday evening in +the circus. He will leap ( ) over four bars, separately, in imitation of +the english hunter. He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at +the _word of command_. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, rear ( ) +and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a +cushion. To conclude ( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over +two horses."--_Cardell's Grammar._ + +The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no legerdemain upon the +public. He will stretch a line across the room, several feet from the +floor, over which he will leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will +stand ( ) on his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from side +to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; spring ( ) upon +his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out +touching his hands. He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) +like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) and cry ( ), as +if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp ( ) like a bird. To conclude +( ): He will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians, without +either "_action_ or _passion_," all the while having a "_state of +being_," motionless, in the center of the room!! + +What a lie! say you. _A lie?_ I hope you do not accuse _me_ of lying. If +there is any thing false in this matter it all _lies_ in the quotation, +at the conclusion, from the standard grammar. If that is false, whose +fault is it? Not mine, certainly. But what if I should _lie_ ( ), +intransitively? I should tell no falsehoods. + +But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or inconsistent, +any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the subject, it should be +remembered that it has been long taught, not only in common schools, but +in our academies and colleges, as serious, practical truth; as the only +means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves +for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile at such trash, +and well you may; but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only +thing in which we may turn round and _laugh_ ( ) at past follies. + +But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence +than to deserve our _laughter_. When I see the rising generation spend +months and years of the best and most important part of their lives, +which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and +useful, studying the dark and false theory of language as usually +taught, I am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which +imposes such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly the years that +have just gone by. I have seen too many blighted hopes, too many +wearisome hours, too many sad countenances, too many broken resolutions; +to say nothing of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter +that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, because +sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an important change, a +radical change, in this department of education, is imperiously +demanded, and teachers must obey the call, and effect the change. There +is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without +complaint, to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, merely from respect to age. It demands reason, +consistency and plainness; and yields assent only where they are found. +And teachers, if they will not lead in the reformation, must be +satisfied to follow after; for a reformation is loudly called for, and +will be had. None are satisfied with existing grammars, which, in +principle, are nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and +simplify Murray, have only acted _intransitively_, and accomplished very +little, if any good, save the employment given to printers, paper +makers, and booksellers. + +But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder at the errors +and mistakes of grammar makers, when our lexicographers tell us for +sober truth, that =to act=, _to be in action_, _not to rest_, to be in +_motion_, to _move_, is _v. n._ a verb neuter, signifying _no action_!! +or _v. i._ verb intransitive, producing _no effects_; and that a +"_neuter verb_ =expresses= (active transitive verb) _a state of being_!! +There are few minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing +therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. Truth is rarely +elicted from error, beauty from deformity, or order from confusion. +While, therefore, we allow the neuter systems to sink into +forgetfulness, as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut +our books, let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have +thoughtlessly (without _thinking thoughts_) and innocently lead us many +months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error and +contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness. But +let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following +the same unpleasant and unprofitable course, and endeavor to _reflect_ +the _light_ which may _shine_ upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding +darkness, and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall +come after us. + +Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of +foreign tongues. Because there are genitive cases, different kinds of +verbs, six tenses, etc. in the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions +should exist in our grammars. But this argument will not apply, +admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition +we have adopted, which we very seriously question, tho we have not time +to go into that investigation. We believe that the principles we have +adopted are capable of universal application; that what is action in +England would be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; +that "_like causes will produce like effects_" all the world over. It +matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, and all who +gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them, let them +speak what language they may. But if they have no ideas to express, they +need no language to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, +can speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because they +have nothing to say. + +Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous +multitude. They would all attempt a description of it, so far as they +were able to gain a knowledge of its construction, each in his own +language. Some might be unable to trace the _cause_, the moving _power_, +thro all the curiously arranged _means_, to the _agent_ who acted as +prime mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their +conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would find a _first +cause_ short of the Creator, the great original of all things and +actions; and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy. Heaven +has never left a vacuum where a new and _self_ sustaining power may be +set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision; and hence +the long talked of _perpetual motion_ is the vainest chimera which ever +occupied the human brain. It may well appear as the opposite extreme of +neuter verbs; for, while one would give no action to matter according to +the physical laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter +act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to take a more +rational and consistent stand; to view all things and beings as +occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite Wisdom, _acting_ according +to their several abilities, and subject to the regulation of the +all-pervading laws which guide, preserve, and harmonize the whole. + +If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence +of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an all-wise and ever-present +God, it is found in the order and harmony of all things, produced by the +regulation of Divine laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the +world is most clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt +language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse, or +in the transmission of thought, drawn from an observation and knowledge +of things as presented to his understanding. + +There is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect +and the future happiness of the child, as the knowledge of language. +Without it, what is life? Wherein would man be elevated above the brute? +And what is language without ideas? A sound without harmony--a shadow +without a substance. + +Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, as a +science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, a mere art, and +you will no longer hear the complaint of a "_dry_, _cold_, uninteresting +study." Its rules will be simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the +child will increase in the knowledge of more than _words_, in an +acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science. And if there +is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and +grovelling things of earth, and fill the soul with reverence and +devotion to the Holy Being who fills immensity with his presence, it is +when, from observing the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe +the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends to the +Intellectual Source of _light_, _life_, and _being_, and contemplates +the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of Deity; +soul mingling with soul, love absorbed in love, and God all in all. + + + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + + The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. + --Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, + =was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.-- + Cannot be in the present tense.--The past participle is an + adjective. + + +We have gone through the examination of _neuter_ and _intransitive_ +verbs, with the exception of the verb =to be=, which we propose to +notice in this place. Much more might be said on the subjects I have +discussed, and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and +operation of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to the +_objects_ of action; but I trust the hints I have given will be +satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your minds to _think_ +correct _thoughts_, and not _suffer_ them _to be_ misled by erroneous +teaching, you will arrive at the same conclusion that I have, viz. that +all verbs depend on a _common principle_ for their explanation; that +they are alike active, and necessarily take an object after them, either +expressed or understood, in accordance with the immutable law of nature, +which teaches that like causes will produce like effects. + + * * * * * + +The verb =to be=, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid of six +different words, in its various modes and tenses; _am_, _is_, _are_, +_was_, _were_, _be_. _Am_ is unchanged, always in the indicative mood, +present tense, agreeing with the _first_ person singular. _Is_ is also +unchanged, in the same mood and tense, agreeing with the _third_ person +singular. _Art_, in the singular, is the same as _are_ in the plural. +_Was_ and _wast_, are the same as _were_ and _wert_ in meaning, being +derived from the same etymon. _Be_, _being_, and _been_, are changes of +the same word. _Be_ was formerly extensively used in the indicative +present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete. _Were_ was also +used in the singular as well as plural, especially when coming before +the agent; as, "were I to go, I would do your business." But it is now +more common to have _was_ correctly used in that case. But, as one +extreme often follows another, people have laid _were_ quite too much +aside, and often crowd _was_ into its place in common conversation; as +"we _was_ (were) there yesterday." "There _was_ (were) five or six men +engaged in the business." This error appears to be gaining ground, and +should be checked before it goes farther. + +The combination of these different words was produced by habit, to avoid +the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word, so necessary in +the expression of thought, would occasion: the same as the past tense of +_go_ is made by the substitution of another word radically different, +_went_, the past tense of _wend_ or _wind_. "O'er hills and dales they +_wend_ their way." "The lowing herd _wind_ slowly o'er the lea." _Go_ +and _wend_ convey to our minds nearly the same ideas. The latter is a +little more poetical, because less used. But originally their +signification was quite different. So with the parts of the verb =to +be=. They were consolidated as a matter of convenience, and now appear +in their respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or +existence. + +I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. I will +now attempt to prove it. I should like to go into a labored and critical +examination of the words, and trace their changes thro various +languages, was it in accordance with the design of these lectures. But +as it is not, I shall content myself with general observations. + +_I am._ + +This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only said to be +"_the first person of to be_." We must look for its meaning some where +else. It is a compound of two ancient words, _ah_, _breath_, to +_breathe_, life, to _live_, _light_, to _light_; and _ma_, the _hand_, +or to _hand_. It signifies to _vivify_, _sustain_, or _support_ one's +self in being or existence. In process of time, like other things in +this mutable world, its form was changed, but the meaning retained. But +as one person could not _vivify_ or _live_ another, _inflate_ another's +lungs, or breathe another's breath, it became restricted to the first +person. It means, I _breathe breath_, _vivify myself_, _live life_, or +_exercise_ the power of _being_ or _living_. It conveys this fact in +every instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say _I am_. Let +any person pronounce the word _ah-ma_, and they will at once perceive +the appropriateness of the meaning here given. It is very similar to the +letter _h_, and the pronoun, (originally _noun_,) _he_, or the "_rough +breathing_" in the Greek language. _Ma_ is compounded with many words +which express action done by the hand; as, _ma_nufacture, _ma_numit. It +denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument; but, like +other words, it gradually changed its import, so as to express any +_effective_ operation. Hence the union of the words was natural and +easy, and _ahma_ denoted _breathing_, _to live_ or sustain life. _H_ is +a precarious letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation +of it by many who speak the English language, will prove. It was long +ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last _a_, so that we now have +the plain word _am_. + +It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as such may be found +in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses said unto God, Behold when I come unto +the children of Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers +sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his _name_? what +shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I =am= the I AM; and he +said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me +unto you." Chap. 6: 3.--"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto +Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name =Jehovah= (I AM) was +I not known unto them." The word _Jehovah_ is the same as _am_. It is +the name of the _self-existent_, _self-sustaining_ =Being=, who has not +only power to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime +action of _upholding_ or _sustaining himself_. This is the highest +possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation will be a +wreck. He is the _ever-living_, _uncontrolled_, _unfailing_, +_unassisted_, and _never-changing_ God, the Creator, Preserver, Alpha +and Omega, the Beginning and End of all things. He is the _First Cause_ +of all causes, the _Agent_, original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, +which set in motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and +governs them without "variableness or the shadow of turning." + + "I AM the first, and I, the last, + Thro endless years the same; + I AM is my memorial still, + And my eternal name." + _Watts' Hymn._ + +Ask the Jews the meaning of this _neuter verb_ in their language. They +hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence. After the +captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except +once a year when the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence +the true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare not +attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in characters +untranslated. When their Messiah comes they expect he will restore the +pronunciation, and by it they shall be able to accomplish all +things.[15] + +According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, =thou art=, +engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which is the second person +of =Eimi=, _I am_.[16] + +This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to whom it was given as +the name of the God of Jacob. The same name you may see engraven on +monuments, on pictures of the bible, on masonic implements, and in +various places, untranslated. + +Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," when the very +person incapable of it can not utter it, and no one else can speak it +for him? It denotes the highest conceivable action applied to Deity or +to man, and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this +fact. The action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not +terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is self-action. + +_He is._ + +This word is constructed from an old verb signifying _to stand forth_, +_to appear_, _to show one's self_, and may be traced, I think, to the +latin _eo_, _to go_, and _exist_, to _exeo_, _to go from_; that is, our +_being_ or _existence_, _came_ or _stood forth_ from God. It is +certainly a contraction from the old english _to exist_. _Ist_ is the +spelling still retained in the german and some other languages. It +denotes self-action. One man does not _exist_ another, but himself. He +_keeps himself_ in existence. + +_We are_, _thou are-est_, _arst_, or _art_. + +Be not surprised when I tell you this is the same word as _air_, for +such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to _air ourselves_, or +_breathe air_. "God _breathed_ into man the _breath of life_, and man +became a _living soul_." The new born infant _inhales air_, _inflates +its lungs_ with _air_, and begins to live. We all know how essential +_air_ is to the preservation of life. No animal can live an instant +without it. Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all _air_ has +been extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die where +there is no air. _Light_ is also indispensable to _life_ and _health_. +_Air_ is _inhaled_ and _exhaled_, and from it life receives support. The +fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed by the careless, as +tho it was more rare. But did you never see the man dying of a +consumption, when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? +How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows thrown open. At +length he _suffocates_ and dies. Most persons struggle hard for +_breath_ in the hour of dissolving nature. The heaving bosom, the hollow +gasp for _air_, tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be +extinguished, that the hour of their departure has come. + +When a person faints, we carry them into the _air_, or blow _air_ upon +them, that nature may be restored to its regular course. In certain +cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of +infants; they can after that _air_, themselves, _imbibe_ or _drink in +air_, or _inspirit_ themselves with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever +has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or +unwholesome air, can appreciate what we mean. + +_We were_; _he was_. + +I have said before that these words are the same, and are used in +certain cases irrespective of number. I have good authority for this +opinion, altho some etymologists give them different derivations. + +_Were_, _wert_; _worth_, _werth_; _word_ and _werde_, are derived from +the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. They signify +_spirit_, _life_, _energy_. "In the beginning was the _word_, and the +_word_ was with God." "By the _word_ of his grace." + +"_They were_," they _inspirited_ themselves, _possessed_ the life, +vitality, or _spirit_, the Creator gave them, and having that spirit, +life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due degree, they were +_worthy_ of the esteem, regard, sympathy, and good _word_ of others. + +_To be._ + +This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, and to +it all others are referred for a definition. Dictionaries give no +definition to _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, and _were_, all of them as truly +principal verbs as _be_, and possessed of as distinct a meaning. It can +hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our +language, and yet be incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the +most significant words in our language, and those most frequently used, +are undefined in the books. + +Mr. Webster says =to be= signifies, "to exist, to _have_ a real _state_ +or _existence_," and so say Walker and Johnson. Now if it is possible to +"=have= _a state of being_ without action or passion," then may this +word express neutrality. But the very definition requires activity, and +an object expressed. It denotes the _act of being_, or living; to +_exercise_ the powers of life, to _maintain_ a position or rank in the +scale of existent things. + +The name of the action is _being_, and applies to the Almighty BEING who +_exists_ unchanged as the source of all inferior _beings_ and things, +whose name is _Jehovah_, I AM, the Being of beings, the Fountain of +_light_, _life_, and _wisdom_. + +_Be_ is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, by every +body who employs language. "_Be_ here in ten minutes." "_Be it_ far from +thee." "I will _be_ in Boston before noon." If there is any action in +going from Providence to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or +before noon, it is all expressed by the verb _be_, which we are told +expresses _no action_. + +The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I want you _to be_ +in your seats in five minutes." What would they understand him to mean? +that they should stand still? or that they should _change their state of +being_ from play in the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There +is no word to denote such change, except the word _to be_. _Be_ off, +_be_ gone, _be_ here, _be_ there, are commands frequently given and +correctly understood. + +The master says to a bright little lad, who has well learned his +grammar, "_Be_ here in a minute." + +"Yes, sir, I will _be_ there;" but he does not move. + +"_Be_ here immediately." + +"Yes, yes, I will _be_ there." + +"Don't you understand me? I say, _be_ here instantly." + +"Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey." + +The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, "do you mean to +disobey my orders and insult me?" + +"Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies the honest +boy. + +"Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it." + +"No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have obeyed you as +well as I know how, to the very letter and spirit of your command." + +"Didn't I tell you _to be_ here in a minute, and have not you _remained_ +where you were? and didn't you say you would _be_ here?" + +"Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?" + +"Why, no, you blockhead; I told you _to be_ here." + +"Well, I told you I would _be_ there." + +"You _was_ not here." + +"Nor did you expect I would _be_, if you have taught me to _speak_, +_write_, and understand correctly." + +"What do you mean, you saucy boy?" + +"I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to." + +"Why didn't you do so then?" + +"I did." + +"You didn't." + +"I did." + +"You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will punish you severely." And in a passion +he starts for his ferrule, takes the boys hand, and bruises him badly; +the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any +intended wrong. + +In a short time they commence _parsing_ this sentence: "It is necessary +_to be_ very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we +use them." The master puts _to be_ to the same boy. He says it is an +_active verb_, infinitive mood. + +"How is that? an _active_ verb?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"No, it is not. It is a _neuter_ verb." + +"Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active." + +"Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will inform your parents of your conduct." + +"What have I done that is wrong?" + +"You say _to be_ is an _active_ verb, when _I_ tell you, and the +_grammar_ and _dictionary_ tell you, it is _neuter_!" + +"What is a _neuter_ verb, master?" + +"It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a state of +being.' Have you forgotten it?" + +"No, sir, I _thought_ that was the case." + +"What did you ask me for then?" + +"Because I supposed you had found another meaning for it." + +"To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? I'll not bear your +insults much longer." + +"For what did you punish me so severely just now?" + +"For disobeying my orders." + +"What did you order me to do?" + +"_To be_ here in a minute." + +"Well, did not I do what you told me?" + +"No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me." + +"Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that _to be_ is a +_neuter_ verb, expressing no _action_, but _being_. I had a _state_ of +_being_, and promised to keep it, and did keep it, and you punished me +for doing the very thing you told me to do!!" + +The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to say that grammar +is a "_dry_, _cold_, and _useless_" study, hardly worth the trouble of +learning it. + + * * * * * + +"_I am_ Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, +who _is_, and who _was_, and who _is_ to come, the Almighty."--_Rev. 1: +8._ + +If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by which all +things were created and are upheld, it is expressed in the verbs _am_, +_is_, and _was_. + +God said, "Let there _be_ light, and there _was_ light;" or more +properly rendered, "Light =be=, and light =was=." + +Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in the firmament, +and in causing them to _send_ forth the rays of light to _dispel_ the +surrounding darkness? If there was, _be_ and _was_ denote that action. + +"You are commanded =to be= and _appear_ before the court of common +pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply +with this citation--for neglecting to do what is expressed by the +_neuter verb_ to _be_. + +Such cases might be multiplied without number, where this verb is +correctly used by all who employ language, and correctly understood by +all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words. But I think you +must all be convinced of the truth of our proposition, that all verbs +express action, either _real_ or _relative_; and in all cases have an +object, expressed or necessarily implied, which stands as the _effect_, +and an agent, as the cause of action: and hence that language, as a +means for the communication of thought, does not deviate from the +soundest principles of philosophy, but in all cases, rightly explained, +serves to illustrate them, in the plainest manner. + + * * * * * + +A few remarks on the "Passive Verb," and I will conclude this part of +our subject, which has already occupied much more of our attention than +I expected at the outset. + +"_A verb passive_ expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving +of an action; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent +by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved; Penelope is loved by me." + +In the explanation of this verb, grammarians further tell us that a +passive verb is formed by adding the verb _to be_, which is thus made +auxiliary, to a past participle; as, Portia _was loved_. Pompey _was +conquered_. + +It is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are about observing +their own rules. Take an instance in Mr. Walker's octavo dictionary. +Look for the word _simeter_, a small sword. You will find it spelled +_scimitar_. Then turn over, and you will find it _s_im_i_t_a_r, with the +same definition, and the remark, "more properly _c_im_e_t_a_r." Then +turn back, and find the correct word as he spells it, and there you will +find it cimet_e_r. + +Unsettled as to the true spelling, go to our own honored Webster. Look +for "scimiter." He says, see cimit_a_r. Then look for "cimitar;" see +cim_e_t_e_r. Then hunt up the true word, be it _ar_ or _er_, and you +will find it still another way, cim_i_t_e_r. Here the scholar has seven +different ways to spell this word, and neither of his authorities have +followed their own examples. I cite this as one of a thousand instances, +where our savans have laid down rules for others, and disregarded them +themselves. + +Portia _is loved_ and _happy_. She is _respectable_, _virtuous_, +_talented_, and _respected_ by all who know her. She _is seated by the +door_. Does the _door_ seat her? What agent, then, causes her _passion_ +or _suffering_? + +The book is printed. Will you parse _is printed_? It is a passive verb, +indicative mood, _present tense_. Who _is_ printing it? causing it, in +the present tense, to _suffer_ or _receive_ the action? The act of +printing _was performed_ a hundred years ago. How can it be present +time? + +Penelope _is loved_ by me. The blow _is received_ by me. It _is given_ +by me. Penelope _is seated_ by me. The earthquake _is felt_ by her. The +evils _are suffered_ by her. The thunder _is heard_ by her. Does this +mean that she is the agent, and the earthquake, evils, and thunder, are +the objects which receive the _effects_ which she produces? That would +be singular philosophy, indeed. But _to feel_, _to suffer_, and _to +hear_, are active, and are constructed into passive verbs. Why is it not +as correct to say she _is suffering_ by another's wrongs, _is raging_ by +the operation of passion, or _is travelling_ by rail-road, are passive +verbs? The fact is, our language can not _be explained_ by set rules or +forms of speech. We must regard the sense. The past participle, as it is +called, becomes an adjective by use, and describes her as some way +affected by a previous action. She is _learned_, _handsome_, _modest_, +and, of course, _beloved_ by all who know her. + +To say "she _is placed_ by the water's edge," is a passive verb, and +that the water's edge, as the agent, causes her "passion, suffering, or +receiving of the action," is false and ridiculous, for she _placed_ +herself there. + +"We _are seated_ on our seats by the stove." What power is _now_ +operating on us to make us suffer or receive the action of being seated +on our seats? Does the stove perform this action? This is a passive +verb, _present tense_, which requires an "object acted upon, and an +_agent_ by which it is acted upon." But we came in and _seated +ourselves_ here an hour ago. + +The man _is acquitted_. He _stands acquitted_ before the public. He _is +learned_, wise, and happy, very much _improved_ within a few years. He +_is_ always active, studious, and _engaged_ in his own affairs. He _is +renowned_, and _valorous_. She _is respected_. She _lives respected_. + +If there is such a thing as a passive verb, it can never be used in the +present tense, for the action expressed by the principal verb which is +produced by the agent operating upon the object, is always _past_ tense, +and the auxiliary, or helping verb _to be_, is always present. Let this +verb be analyzed, and the true meaning of each word understood, little +difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation. + +I will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this attempted +distinction. It depends solely on a verbal form, but can never _be +explained_ so as _to be understood_ by any scholar. Most grammarians +have seen the fallacy of attempting to give the meaning of this verb. +They can show its _form_, but _are_ frequently _compelled_, as in the +cases above, to sort out the "_passed_ participles" from a host of +adjectives, and it will _be found_ exceeding troublesome to make +scholars perceive any difference in the use of the words, or in the +construction of a sentence. But it may be they have never thought that +duty belonged to them; that they have nothing to do but to show them +what the book says. Suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same +principles, and learn the scholars to set down 144 as the product of 12 +times 12. Let them look at the form of the figures, observe just how +they appear, and make some more like them, and thus go thro the book. +What would the child know of arithmetic? Just as much as they do of +grammar, and no more. They would understand nothing of the science of +numbers, of proportion, or addition. They would exercise the power of +imitation, and make one figure look like another. Beyond that, all would +be a _terra incognita_, a land unknown. So in the science of language; +children may learn that the verb _to be_, joined with the past +participle of an active verb, makes _a passive verb_; but what that +passive verb is when made, or how to apply it, especially in the present +tense, they have no means of knowing. Their knowledge is all taken on +trust, and when thrown upon their own resources, they have none on which +to rely. + + + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + + =Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions. + --Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future + explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.-- + Imperfect.--Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.-- + =Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will.--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +We are now come to consider the different relations of action in +reference to _manner_ and _time_. We shall endeavor to be as brief as +possible upon this subject, keeping in view meanwhile that candor and +perspicuity which are indispensable in all our attempts to explain new +views. + +_Mood_ signifies _manner_. Applied to verbs it explains _how_, in _what +manner_, by what means, under what circumstances, actions are performed. + +There are _three_ moods, the _indicative_ or declarative, the +_imperative_ or commanding, and the _infinitive_ or unlimited. + +The indicative mood declares an action to be _done_ or _doing_, _not +done_, or _not doing_. It is always in the past or present tense; as, +David _killed_ Goliath; scholars _learn_ knowledge; I _spoke not_ a +word; they _sing not_. + +The imperative mood denotes a command given from the first _person_ to +the _second_, _to do_ or _not do_ an action. It expresses the wish or +desire of the first person to have a certain action performed which +depends on the agency of the second. The command is _present_, but the +action signified by the word is _future_ to the giving of the command. +The second person cannot comply with the will of the first till such +will is made known; as, bring me a book; go to the door. + +The _infinitive_ mood has no direct personal agent, but is produced as a +necessary consequence, growing out of a certain condition of things. It +is always _future_ to such condition; that is, some prior arrangement +must be had before such consequences will follow. It is always _future_; +as, they are collecting a force _to besiege_ the city. We study grammar +_to acquire_ a knowledge of language. Windows are made _to admit_ light. +The act of besieging the city depends on the previous circumstance, the +collection of a force _to do_ it. Were there no windows, the light would +not be admitted to the room. + +These distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to every hearer. +You all are aware of the fact that action necessarily implies an actor, +as every effect must have an efficient cause; and such action clearly or +distinctly _indicated_, must have such an agent to produce it. 2d. You +are acquainted with the fact that one person can express his will to the +second, directing him to do or avoid some thing. 3d. From an established +condition of things, it is easy to deduce a consequence which will +follow, in the nature of things, as an unavoidable result of such a +combination of power, cause, and means. + +With these principles you are all familiar, whether you have studied +grammar or not. They are clearly marked, abundantly simple, and must be +obvious to all. They form the only necessary, because the only real, +distinction, in the formation and use of the verb to express action. Any +minor distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass the +learner. + +But some grammarians have passed these natural barriers, and built to +themselves schemes to accord with their own vain fancies. The remarks of +Mr. Murray upon this point are very appropos. He says: + +"Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have +assigned to them. They assert that the english language may be said, +without any great impropriety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary +verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound +expression which they help to form, point out those various dispositions +and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This +would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, +certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the english +language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We +must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; and do that +by their assistance, which has been done in the learned languages (a few +instances to the contrary excepted) in another manner, namely, by +varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary +to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity +and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, +therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and +introducing moods _interrogative_, _optative_, _promissive_, +_hortative_, _precative_, &c., we have exhibited such only as are +obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and +display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, +and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods +were introduced. + +"From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, +respecting this part of english grammar, on the principles and +constructions of languages which, in these points, do not suit the +peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may +naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor +perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than to inform +the learner." + +Had he followed this rule, he would have saved weeks and months to every +student in grammar in the community. But his remarks were aimed at Mr. +Harris, who was by far the most popular writer on language in England at +that time. He has adopted the very rules of Mr. Murray, and carried them +out. By a careful observance of the different forms and changes of the +verb and its auxiliaries, he makes out quite evidently to his own mind, +_fourteen_ moods, which I forbear to name. + +Most grammarians contend for _five_ moods, two of which, the _potential_ +or powerful, and the _subjunctive_, are predicated on the same +principles as Mr. Harris' optative, interrogative, etc., which they +condemn. It is impossible to explain the character of these moods so as +to be understood. _If_, it is said, is the sign of the subjunctive, and +_may_ and _can_ of the potential; and yet they are often found together; +as, "I will go _if I can_." No scholar can determine in what mood to put +this last verb. It of right belongs to both the potential and +subjunctive. _If_ I _may_ be allowed to speak my mind, I _should_ say +that such distinctions were false. + +I will not go into an exposure of these useless and false distinctions, +which are adopted to help carry out erroneous principles. The only +pretence for a subjunctive mood is founded on the fact that _be_ and +_were_ were formerly used in a character different from what they are +at present. _Be_ was used in the indicative mood, present tense, when +doubt or supposition was implied; as, If I _be_ there; if they _be_ +wise. _Be_ I a man, and _receive_ such treatment? _Were_ was also used +instead of _was_ in the past tense; as, "_Were_ I an American I would +fight for liberty. If I _were_ to admit the fact." In this character +these words are rapidly becoming obsolete. We now say, "If I _am_ there; +am I a man, and _receive_ such abuses? _was_ I an American; if I was to +admit," etc. + +All the round about, perplexing, and tedious affair of conjugating verbs +thro the different modes and tenses will appear in its true character, +when we come to give you a few brief examples, according to truth and +plain sense. But before doing that it will be necessary to make some +remarks on time. + +_Tense_ means _time_. We distinguish time according to certain events +which are generally observed. In the use of the verb we express action +in reference to periods of time when it is performed. + +There are three tenses, or divisions of time; _past_, _present_, and +_future_. + +_Past tense_ applies to actions which are accomplished; as, I _wrote_ a +book; he _recited_ his lesson. + +_Present tense_ denotes actions commenced, but not finished, and now in +operation; as, he _reads_ his book; we _sit_ on our seats and _hear_ the +lecture. + +_Future tense_ refers to actions, which are _to take_ place hereafter; +as, I am _to go_ from the Institute; we desire _to learn_ grammar +correctly. + +Every body can mark three plain distinctions of time, past, present, and +future. With the past we have been acquainted. It has ceased to be. Its +works are ended. The present is a mere line--, nothing as it +were--which is constantly passing unchecked from the past to the future. +It is a mere division of the past and future. The Hebrew, which is +strictly a philosophic language, admits no present; only a _past_ and +_future_. We speak of the present as denoting an action begun and not +finished. In the summer, we say the trees grow, and bear fruit. But when +the fruit is fallen, and the leaves seared by the frost, we change the +expression, and say, it _grew_ and _bore_ fruit. + +Of the _future_ we can know nothing definitely. Heaven has hung before +all human eyes an impenetrable veil which obscures all future events. No +man without prophetic vision bestowed by Him who "sees the end from the +beginning," can know what is _to be_, and no expression can be made, no +words employed which will positively declare a future action. We may see +a present condition of things, and from it argue what is _to be_, or +take place hereafter; but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and +deduced from a review of the present relation and tendencies of things. + +I hold the paper near the fire and you say it _will_ burn, and you say +truly, for it has a _will_, or what is the same, an inherent tendency +_to burn_. It is made of combustible matter, like paper which we have +seen burn, and hence we argue this has the same tendency to be consumed. +But how does your mind arrive at that fact? If you had never seen a +substance like it burn, why should you conclude this _will_? Does the +child know it _will_ burn? No; for it has not yet learned the quality of +the paper. It is not till the child has been burned that it dreads the +fire. Suppose I take some asbestus, of the kind called amianthus, which +is a mineral, and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax; and in +eastern countries, especially in Savoy and Corsica, is manufactured into +cloth, paper, and lamp wicks. It was used in making winding sheets for +the dead, in which the bodies were burned, and the ashes, retained in +the incombustible sheet, were gathered into an urn, and revered as the +manes of the dead. Suppose I take some of this incombustible paper or +cloth, and present to you. You say it _will_ burn. Why do you say thus? +Because you have seen other materials which appear like this, consume to +ashes. Let us put it into the fire. It _will not_ burn. It has no +_tendency_ to burn; no quality which will consume. But this is a new +idea to you and hence your mistake. You did not know it _would_ burn, +nor could you _indicate_ such a fact. You only told your opinion derived +from the present appearance of things, and hence you made an assertion +in the _indicative_ mood, present tense, and added to it an _infinitive_ +mood, in order to deduce the consequence of this future action--it +_wills_, or has a _tendency_ to burn. But you were mistaken, because +ignorant of the _nature_ of things. This amianthus looks like flax, and +to a person unacquainted with it, appears to be as truly combustible; +but the mineralogist, and all who know its properties, know very well +that it _will_ not--wills nothing, has no inclination, or tendency, to +burn. + +Take another example. Here is a steel needle. I hold it before you. You +say, "if I let go of it, it _will_ fall," and you say correctly, for it +has such a tendency. But suppose a magnet, as great as that which is +said to have drawn the iron coffin of Mohammed to the roof of the temple +at Mecca, should be placed in the room above us. The needle, instead of +falling to the floor, would be drawn in the nearest direction to that +magnet. The _will_ or _tendency_ of the needle, as generally understood, +would be overcome, the natural law of gravitation would lose its +influence, by the counteracting power of the loadstone. + +I say, "I will go home in an hour." But does that expression _indicate_ +the act of _going_? It is placed in the indicative mood in our grammars; +and _go_ is the principal, and _will_ the auxiliary verb. May be I shall +fall and die before I reach my home. But the expression is correct; +_will_ is _present_, go _future_. I _will_, I now _resolve_, am now +inclined _to go_ home. + +You see the correctness of our position, that we can not positively +assert a future active in the indicative mood. Try and form to +yourselves a phrase by which it can be done. Should you succeed, you +would violate a law of nature. You would penetrate the dark curtain of +the future, and claim to yourself what you do not possess, a power to +declare future actions. Prophets, by the help of the Almighty, had this +power conferred upon them. But in the revelation of the sublime truths +they were instructed to make known, they were compelled to adopt human +language, and make it agree with our manner of speech. + +The only method by which we express a future event, is to make an +assertion in the indicative mood, present tense, and to that append the +natural consequence in the infinitive or unlimited; as, I _am to go_ to +Boston. He is preparing _to visit_ New-York. The infinitive mood is +always future to the circumstance on which it depends. + +Mr. Murray says, that "tense, being the distinction of time, might seem +to admit of only the present, past, and future; but to mark it more +_accurately_, it is made to consist of six variations, viz.: the +present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first and second future +tenses." This _more accurate mark_, only serves to expose the author's +folly, and distract the learner's mind. Before, all was plain. The past, +present, and future are distinct, natural divisions, easily understood +by all. But what idea can a person form of an _imperfect_ tense in +action. If there was ever such an action in the world, it was when +_grammarians_ =made= their grammars, which is, if I mistake not, +according to their own authority, in the _im-perfect_ tense! I _wrote_ a +letter. He _read_ his piece well. The scholar learn_ed_ and recit_ed_ +his lesson _perfectly_; and yet _learned_, tho made _perfect_ by the +qualification of an _adverb_, is an _imperfect_ action! + +But this explains the whole mystery in the business of grammar. We can +here discover the cause of all the troubles and difficulties we have +encountered in the whole affair. When authors _made_ their books, they +_did_ it _imperfectly_; when teachers _taught_ them, it was +_imperfectly_; and when scholars _learned_ them, it was _imperfectly_!! +So at last, we have found the origin of this whole difficulty, in the +grammars themselves; it was all imperfectly done. + +But here, again, _mirabile dictu!_ wonderful to tell, we are presented +with a _plu-perfect_ tense; that is,--_plus_ means _more_,--a _more_ +than perfect tense! What must that be? If a thing is perfect, we can not +easily conceive any thing beyond. That is a _ne plus ultra_ to all +advancement--there can be no more beyond. If any change is introduced, +it must be by falling from _perfect_ back to _imperfect_. + +I _have said_, "many of the distinctions in the grammar books _have +proved_ mischievous; that they are as false as frivolous;" and +this is said _perfectly_, in the perfect tense. If I should say, +"they _had been_ of some benefit," that would be _more_ than +_perfect_--plu-perfect. But when I say, "they _exhibited_ great depth +of research, and _conveyed_ some light on the subject of which they +_treated_," it would all be _im_-perfect. + +Next, we are presented with a _second future_ tense, which attempts a +division of time unbounded and unknown. In the greek, they have what is +called a "_paulo post future_," which in plain english, means a "_little +after the future_;" that is, I suppose, when futurity has come to an +end, this tense will commence! At that time we may expect to meet a +"_præter plus quam perfectum_"--a more than perfect tense! But till that +period shall arrive, we see little need of making such false and +unphilosophic distinctions. + +A teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions of time to his +scholars from the clock dial which stood in the school room. Suppose +_twelve_ o'clock represents the _present_ tense; _nine_ would signify +the _perfect_; any thing between nine and twelve would be _imperfect_; +any thing beyond, _pluperfect_. On the other hand, any act, forward of +twelve, would be _future_; and at _three_ the _second future_ would +commence. I remarked that I thought this a wonderful improvement, +especially to those who were able to have clocks by which to teach +grammar, but that I could not discover why he did not have _three +future_, as well as _three past_ tenses. Why, he said, there were no +such tenses marked in the books, and hence there was no occasion to +explain them. I asked him why he did not have a tense for every hour, +and so he could distinguish with Mr. Webster, _twelve_ tenses, without +any trouble whatever; and, by going three times round the dial, he could +easily prove the correctness of Dr. Beattie's division; for he says, in +his grammar, there are _thirty-six_ tenses, and thinks there can not be +less without "introducing confusion in the grammatical _art_." But he +thought such a course would serve rather to perplex than enlighten; and +so thought I. But he was the teacher of a popular school in the city +of ----, and had published a duodecimo grammar of over 300 pages, +entitled "Murray's Grammar, _improved_, by ----." I will not give his +name; it would be libellous! + +Mr. Murray thinks because certain things which he asserts, but does not +prove, are found in greek and latin, "we may doubtless apply them to the +english verb; and extend the principle _as far as convenience_, and the +idiom of our language require." He found it to his "convenience" to note +_six_ principal, and as many _indefinite_ tenses. Mr. Webster does the +same. Dr. Beattie found it "convenient" to have _thirty-six_. In the +greek they have _nine_. Mr. Bauzee distinguishes in the french _twenty_ +tenses; and the royal academy of Spain present a very learned and +elaborate treatise on _seven future tenses_ in that language. The clock +dial of my friend would be found quite "_convenient_" in aiding the +"convenience" of such distinctions. + +The fact is, there are only three real divisions of time in any +language, because there are only three in nature, and the ideas of all +nations must agree in this respect. In framing language it was found +impossible to mark any other distinctions, without introducing other +words than those which express simple action. These words became +compounded in process of time, till they are now used as changes of the +same verb. I would here enter into an examination of the formation of +the tenses of greek, latin, french, spanish, and german verbs, did I +conceive it necessary, and show you how, by compounding two words, they +form the various tenses found in the grammars. But it will be more +edifying to you to confine my remarks to our own language. Here it will +be found impossible to distinguish more than three tenses, or find the +verb in any different form, except by the aid of other words, wholly +foreign from those that express the action under consideration. + +It is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect, pluperfect, or +future tenses are formed. But when it is shown you that these are +principal verbs, and like many other words, are used before the +infinitive mood without the word _to_ prefixed to them, you will +perceive the consistency of the plan we propose. That such is the fact +we have abundant evidence to show, and with your consent we will +introduce it in this place. I repeat, all the words long considered +auxiliaries, are _principal_ verbs, declarative of positive action, and +as such are in extensive use in our language. We can hardly agree that +the words _will_, _shall_, _may_, _must_, _can_, _could_, _would_, +_should_, etc. have no meaning, as our grammars and dictionaries would +teach us; for you may look in vain for a definition of them, as +principal verbs, with a few exceptions. + +The reason these words are not found in the same relation to other +words, with a _to_ after them, is because they are so often used that we +are accustomed to drop that word. The same may be said of all small +words in frequent use; as, _bid_, _do_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _have_, +_let_, _make_, _see_, and sometimes _needs_, _tell_, and a few others. +Bid him go. I _dare say_ so. I _feel_ it _move_. We _hear_ him _sing_. +_Let_ us _go_. _Make_ him _do_ it. He _must go_ thro Samaria. _Tell_ him +_do_ it immediately. + +It is a singular fact, but in keeping with neuter verb systems, that all +the _neuter_ verbs as well as the active, take these auxiliary or +_helping_ verbs, which, according to their showing _help them do +nothing_--"express neither action or passion." A wonderful _help_ +indeed! + + * * * * * + +=Will.= This verb signifies to _wish_, to _resolve_, to _exercise +volition_, in reference to a certain thing or action. "I will go." I +_now resolve_ to perform the act of going. When applied to inanimate +things incapable of volition, it signifies what is analogous to it, +_inherent tendency_; as, paper _will_ burn; iron _will_ sink; water +_will_ run. All these things have an inherent or active tendency to +change. Water is composed of minute particles of a round form, piled +together. While on a level they do not move; but let a descent be made, +and these particles, under the influence of gravitation, _will_ change +position, and roll one over another with a rapidity equalled to the +condition in which they are placed. The same may be observed in a +quantity of shot opened at one side which _will_ run thro the aperture; +but the particles being larger, they will not find a level like water. +Grain, sand, and any thing composed of small particles, _will_ exhibit +the same tendency. Iron, lead, or any mineral, in a state of igneous +solution, _will_ run, has the same _inclination_ to run as water, or any +other liquid. In oil, tallow, and lard, when expanded by heat, the same +tendency is observed; but severely chilled with the cold, it congeals, +and _will_ not, has no such _tendency_, to run. + +You have doubtless observed a cask filled with water and nearly tight, +(if it is possible, make it quite so,) and when an aperture is made in +the side, it _will_ run but a trifle before it will stop. Open a vent +upon the top of the cask and it _will_ run freely. This _will_ or +tendency was counteracted by other means which I will not stop here to +explain. + +This is a most important word in science, physical and moral, and may +be traced thro various languages where it exerts the same influence in +the expression of thought. + +"To avoid multiplying of words, I would crave leave here, under the word +_action_, to comprehend the _forbearance_ too of any action proposed; +_sitting still_, or _holding one's peace_, when _walking_ or _speaking_ +are proposed, tho mere forbearances, requiring as much the determination +of the _will_, and being as often weighty in their consequences as the +_contrary actions_, may, on that consideration, well enough pass for +actions too. For he that shall turn his thoughts inwards upon what +passes in his mind when he _wills_, shall see that the _will_ or power +of volition is conversant about nothing."--_Locke's Essay_, b. II. c. +21. § 30. + +It is correctly applied by writers to _matter_ as well as mind, as may +be seen by consulting their works. + + "Meanwhile as nature _wills_, night bids us rest." + _Milton._ + +The _lupulis_, or common hop, _feels_ for some elevated object which +will assist it in its high aspirations, and _will_ climb it by winding +from left to right, and _will_ not be obliged to go in an opposite +direction; while the _phaseolus_, or kidney bean, takes the opposite +direction. Neither _will_ be compelled to change its course. They _will_ +have their own way, and grow as they please, or they _will_ die in the +contest for liberty. + +Arsenic has a _tendency_ in itself, a latent power, which only requires +an opportunity suited to its objects, when it _will act_ in the most +efficacious manner. It _will_ destroy the life of the Emperor, who has +_voluntarily_ slain his thousand and tens of thousands. This secret +power does not reside in the flour of wheat, for that _will not_, has no +tendency, to produce such disastrous consequences. + +This word is applied in a similar manner to individuals and nations. +The man _will_ fall, not of intention, but of accident. He _will_ kill +himself. The man _will_ drown, and the boat _will_ swim. The water +_will_ hold up the boat, but it _will_ allow the man to sink. The +Russians _will_ conquer the Turks. If conquest depended solely on the +_will_, the Turks would as soon conquer as the Russians. But I have not +time to pursue this topic farther. You can follow out these hints at +your leisure. + +=Shall= signifies to be _bound_, _obligated_, or _required_, from +external necessity. Its etymology may be traced back thro various +languages. It is derived direct from the saxon _scaelan_ or _scylan_, +and is found as a principal verb in that language, as well as in ours. +In the church homily they say, "To Him alone we _schall us_ to devote +ourselves;" we _bind_ or _obligate_ ourselves. Chaucer, an early english +poet, says. + + "The faith we _shall_ to God." + +Great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between _shall_ and +_will_, and frequent essays have been written, to give arbitrary rules +for their use. If the words were well understood, there could be no +difficulty in employing them correctly. _Will_ signifies _inherent +tendency_, _aptitude_, or _disposition_, and _volition_ in beings +capable of using it. _Shall_ implies _external necessity_, or foreign +obligation. The parent says, "You _will_ suffer misery if you do evil," +for it is in accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce +misery. "You _shall_ regard my wishes," for you are under _obligation_, +from the relation in which you stand to me, to do so. Let these words be +clearly explained, and there will be no difficulty in using them +correctly. + +=May=, past tense _might_. This verb expresses _power_, _strength_, or +_ability_ to perform an action. It is a mistake that it means permission +or liberty only. It implies more than that, the delegation of a power to +perform the contemplated action. Suppose the scholar should faint, would +the teacher say to him you _may_ go into the open air? He has no +_power_, _might_, or _strength_, communicated by such liberty, and must +receive the _might_ or strength of others to carry him out. But to the +scholar in health he says you _may_ go out, thereby giving to him a +power and liberty sufficient to perform the action. This is done on the +same principle that one man gives another a "_power_ of attorney" to +transact his business; and that _power_ constitutes his _liberty_ of +action. + +=Must= signifies to be _confined_, _limited_, _bound_, or _restrained_. +I _must_, or am bound, to obey; certain obligations require me to obey. +The adjective of this word is in common use. The air in the cask is +_musty_. It has long been _bound_ or _confined_ there, and prevented +from partaking of the purifying qualities of the atmosphere, and hence +has become _musty_. + +=Can.= This word is found as a principal verb and as a noun in our +language, especially in the Scotch dialect. "I _ken_ nae where he'd +gone." Beyond the _ken_ of mortals. Far from all human _ken_. It +signifies to _know_, to perceive, to understand. I knew not where he had +gone. Beyond the knowledge of mortals. Far from all human reach. To +_con_ or _cun_ is a different spelling of the same word. _Cunning_ is +that quick _perception_ of things, which enables a person to use his +knowledge adroitly. The child _can_ read; _knows_ how to read. It _can_ +walk. Here it seems to imply _power_; but power, in this case, as in +most others, is gained only by knowledge, for =knowledge is power=. +Many children have strength sufficient to walk, long before they do. The +reason why they _can not_ walk, is, they do not _know how_; they have +not learned to balance themselves in an erect position, so as to move +forward without falling. + +A vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge. There is +not a being in creation so entirely incapable of self-support, as the +new-born infant; and yet, by the help of knowledge, he becomes the lord +of this lower world. Bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child, +and yet by dint of _can_, _ken_, _cunning_, or knowledge, he made all +Europe tremble. But his knowledge was limited. He became blind to +danger, bewildered by success, and he _could_ no longer follow the +prudent course of wisdom, but fell a sacrifice to his own unbridled +ambition, and blinded folly. An enlightened people _can_ govern +themselves; but _power_ of government is gained by a knowledge of the +principles of equality, and mutual help and dependency; and whenever the +people become ignorant of that fact, they _will_ fall, the degraded +victims of their own folly, and the wily influence of some more knowing +aspirant for power. + +This is a most important topic; but I dare not pursue it farther, lest I +weary your patience. A few examples _must_ suffice. + + "Jason, she cried, for aught I _see_ or _can_, + This deed," &c. + _Chaucer._ + + A famous man, + Of every _witte_ somewhat he _can_, + _Out take_ that him lacketh rule, + His own estate to guide and rule. + _Gower._ + +=Do= has been called a _helping_ verb; but it needs little observation +to discover that it is no more so than a hundred other words. "_Do_ +thy diligence to come before winter." "_Do_ the work of an +evangelist."--_Paul to Timothy._ I _do_ all in my power _to expose_ the +error and wickedness of false teaching. _Do_ afford relief. _Do_ +something to afford relief. + +=Have= has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the "helping verb +grammars," which has no other duty to perform than help conjugate other +verbs thro some of their moods and tenses. It is a word in very common +use, and of course must possess a very important character, which should +be carefully examined and distinctly known by all who desire a knowledge +of the construction of our language. + +The principal difficulty in the explanation of this word, is the +peculiar meaning which some have attached to it. It has been defined to +denote _possession_ merely. But when we say, a man _has_ much _property +destroyed_ by fire, we do not mean that he _gains_ or _possesses_ much +property by the fire; nor can we make _has_ auxiliary to _destroyed_, +for in that case it would stand thus: a man _has destroyed_ much +property by fire, which would be false, for the destruction was produced +by an incendiary, or some other means wholly unknown to him. + +You at once perceive that _to possess_ is not the only meaning which +attaches to _have_. It assumes a more important rank. It can be traced, +with little change in form, back thro many generations. It is the same +word as _heave_, originally, and retains nearly the same meaning. Saxon +_habban_, Gothic _haban_, German _haben_, Latin _habeo_, French _avoir_, +are all the same word, varied in spelling more than in sound; for _b_ in +many languages is sounded very much like _v_, or _bv_. It may mean to +_hold_, _possess_, _retain_, _sway_, _control_, _dispose of_, either as +a direct or _relative_ action; for a man sustains relations to his +actors, duties, family, friends, enemies, and all the world, as well as +to his possessions. He _has_ a hard task to perform. He _has_ much pain +_to suffer_. He _has_ suffered much unhappiness. + +I _have written_ a letter. I _have_ a written letter. I _have_ a letter +_written_. These expressions differ very little in meaning, but the verb +_have_ is the same in each case. By the first expression, I signify that +I have _caused_ the letter to be _written_; by the second that I have a +letter on which such action has been performed; and by the third, that +such written letter stands in such relation to myself. + +I _have written_ a letter and sent it away. _Written_ is the past +participle from _write_; as an adjective it describes the letter in the +condition I placed it; so that it will be defined, wherever it is found, +as my letter; that is, some way _related_ to me. + +We can here account for the old _perfect tense_, which is said, "not +only to refer to what is _past_, but also _to convey an allusion to the +present time_." The verb is in the _present_ tense, the participle is in +the _past_, and hence the reason of this allusion. I _have_ no _space +allowed_ me to go into a full investigation of this word, in its +application to the expression of ideas. But it is necessary to _have_ it +well _understood_, as it _has_ an important _service entrusted_ to it; +and I hope you will _have_ clear _views presented_ to your minds, strong +enough to _have_ former _errors eradicated_ therefrom. + +If you _have_ leisure _granted_, and patience and disposition equal-_ed_ +to the task, you have my consent to go back and read this sentence over +again. You will find it _has_ in it embodied much important information +in relation to the use of _have_ and the perfect tense. + + + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of + agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular + verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation + of verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood + varied.--A whole sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative + mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is always future. + + +I have said before that action can never be known separate from the +actor; that the verb applies to the agent in an _acting_ condition, as +that term has been defined and should be understood. Hence Person and +Number can never attach to the verb, but to the agent with which, of +course, the action must, in every respect, agree; as, "_I write_." In +this case the action corresponds with myself. But to say that _write_ is +in the "first person, singular number," would be wrong, for no such +number or person belongs to the verb, but is confined to myself as the +agent of the action. + +The form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the second or third +person singular; more on account of habit, I apprehend, than from any +reason, or propriety as to a change of meaning in the word. We say, when +using the regular _second_ person singular, "_thou writest_," a form +rarely observed except in addresses to Deity, or on solemn occasions. In +the _third_ person, an _s_ is added to the regular form; as, "_he +writes_." The old form, which was in general use at the time the common +version of the Bible was published, was still different, ending in +_eth_; as, _he thinketh_, _he writeth_. This style, altho considerably +used in the last century, is nearly obsolete. When the verb agrees with +the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees with the +first person; as, "_We write_, _you write_, _they write_." There are few +exceptions to these rules. + +Some people have been very tenacious about retaining the old forms of +words, and our books were long printed without alteration; but change +will break thro every barrier, and book-makers must keep pace with the +times, and put on the dress that is catered for them by the public +taste; bearing in mind, meanwhile, that great and practical truths are +more essential than the garb in which they appear. We should be more +careful of our health of body and purity of morals than of the costume +we put on. Many genteel coats wrap up corrupt hearts, and fine hats +cover silly heads. What is the chaff to the wheat? + +Even our good friends, the quakers, who have particularly labored to +retain old forms--"the plain language,"--have failed in their attempt, +and have substituted the _object_ form of the pronoun for the _agent_, +and say, "_thee thinks_," for _thou thinkest_. Their mistake is even +greater than the substitution of _you_ for _thou_. + +So far as language depends on the conventional regulation of those who +use it, it will be constantly changing; new words will be introduced, +and the spelling of old ones altered, so as to agree with modern +pronounciation. We have all lived long enough to witness the truth of +this remark. The only rule we can give in relation to this matter is, to +follow our own judgments, aided by our best writers and speakers. + +The words which express action, are in many cases very similar to the +agents which produce them; and the objects which are the direct results +produced by such action, do not differ very materially. I will give you +a few examples. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + Actors Act Actions + Breathers Breathe Breath + Builders Build Buildings + Coiners Coin Coins + Casters Cast Casts or castings + Drinkers Drink Drink + Dreamers Dream Dreams + Earners Earn Earnings + Fishers Fish Fishes + Gainers Gain Gain + Hewers Hew Hewings + Innkeepers Keep Inns + Light or lighters Light or shed Lights + Miners Mine or dig Mines + Pleaders Plead or make Pleas + Producers Produce Products + Raisers Raise Raisings or houses + Runners or racers Run Runs or races + Sufferers Suffer Sufferings + Speakers Speak Speeches + Thinkers Think Thoughts + Writers Write Writings + Workers Work Works + +I give you these examples to show you the near alliance between +_actors_, ( ,) and _actions_; or agents, _actions_, and objects. Such +expressions as the above are inelegant, because they are uncommon; but +for no other reason, for we, in numberless cases, employ the same word +for agent and verb; as, _painters paint_ buildings, and _artists_ paint +paintings; _bookbinders bind books_; _printers print_ books, and other +_prints_. A little observation will enable you to carry out these hints, +and profit by them. You have observed the disposition in children, and +foreigners, who are partially acquainted with our language, to make +verbs out of almost every noun, which appears to us very aukward; but +was it common, it would be just as correct as the verbs now used. There +are very few verbs which have not a noun to correspond with them, for we +make verbs, that is, we use words to express action, which are nearly +allied to the agent with which such action agrees.[17] From botany we +have made _botanize_; from Mr. McAdam, the inventor of a particular +kind of road, _macadamize_, which means to make roads as he made them. +Words are formed in this way very frequently. The word _church_ is often +used as a noun to express a building used for public worship; for the +services performed in it; for the whole congregation; for a portion of +believers associated together; for the Episcopal order, etc. It is also +used as a verb. Mr. Webster defines it, "To perform with any one the +office of returning thanks in the church after any signal deliverance." +But the word has taken quite a different turn of late. _To church_ a +person, instead of receiving him into communion, as that term would seem +to imply, signifies to deal with an offending member, to excommunicate, +or turn him out. + +But I will not pursue this point any farther. The brief hints I have +thrown out, will enable you to discover how the meaning and forms of +words are changed from their original application to suit the notions +and improvements of after ages. A field is here presented which needs +cultivation. The young should be taught to search for the etymology of +words, to trace their changes and meaning as used at different times and +by different people, keeping their minds constantly directed to the +object signified by such verbal sign. This is the business of +philosophy, under whatever name it may be taught; for grammar, rhetoric, +logic, and the science of the mind, are intimately blended, and should +always be taught in connexion. We have already seen that words without +meaning are like shadows without realities. And persons can not employ +language "correctly," or "with propriety," till they have acquainted +themselves with the import of such language--the ideas of things +signified by it. Let this course be adopted in the education of +children, and they will not be required to spend months and years in the +study of an "_art_" which they can not comprehend, for the simple reason +that they can not apply it in practice. Grammar has been taught as a +mere _art_, depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned, +rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest principles of +philosophy, which are to be known only as developed in common practice +among men, and in accordance with the permanent laws which govern human +thought. + +Verbs differ in the manner of forming their _past_ tenses, and +participles, or adjectives. Those ending in _ed_ are called _regular_; +those which take any other termination are _irregular_. There are about +two hundred of the latter in our language, which differ in various ways. +Some of them have the _past_ tense and the past participle the same; as, + + Bid Bid Bid + Knit Knit Knit + Shut Shut Shut + Let Let Let + Spread Spread Spread, etc. + +Others have the past tense and participle alike, but different from the +present; as, + + Lend Lent Lent + Send Sent Sent + Bend Bent Bent + Wend Went Went + Build Built or builded Built + Think Thought Thought, etc. + +Some have the present and past tense and participle different; as, + + Blow Blew Blown + Grow Grew Grown + Begin Began Begun + See Saw Seen + Write Wrote Written + Give Gave Given + Speak Spoke Spoken + Rise Rose Risen + Fall Fell Fallen, etc. + +There are a few which are made up of different radicals, which have been +wedded together by habit, to avoid the frequent and unpleasant +recurrence of the same word; as, + + Am Was Been + Go (wend) Went Gone, etc. + +Some which were formerly irregular, are now generally used with the +regular termination, in either the past tense or participle, or both; +as, + + Hang Hung or hanged Hung or hanged + Dare Dared or durst Dared + Clothe Clad or clothed Clad or clothed + Work Worked or wrought Worked + Shine Shined or shone Shone or shined + Spill Spilled or spilt Spilt or spilled, etc. + +The syllable _ed_ is a contraction of the past tense of _do_; as, I +_loved_, love _did_, _did_ love, or love-_ed_. He learn_ed_, learn did, +did learn, or learned. It signifies action, _did_, done, or +accomplished. You have all lived long enough to have noticed the change +in the pronounciation of this syllable. Old people sound it full and +distinct; and so do most others in reading the scriptures; but not so +generally as in former times. In poetry it was usually abbreviated so as +to avoid the full sound; and hence we may account for the _irregular_ +termination of many words, such as _heard_, for _heared_; _past_, for +_passed_; _learnt_, for _learned_; _built_, for _builded_. In modern +poetry, however, the _e_ is retained, tho sounded no more than formerly. + +_Ing_ is derived from the verb to _be_, and signifies _being_, +_existing_; and, attached to a verb, is used as a noun, or adjective, +retaining so much of its former character as to have an object after it +which is affected by it; as, "I am _writing_ a lecture." Here _writing_, +the present participle of _write_, describes myself in my present +employment, and yet retains its action as a verb, and terminates on +_lecture_ as the thing written. "The man was taken in the act of +_stealing_ some money." In this case _stealing_ names the action which +the man was performing when detected, which action thus named, has +_money_ for the object on which it terminates. + +I barely allude to this subject in this place to give you an idea of the +method we adopt to explain the meaning and use of participles. It +deserves more attention, perhaps, to make it plain to your minds; but as +it is not an essential feature in the new system, I shall leave it for +consideration in a future work. Whoever is acquainted with the formation +of the present participle in other languages, can carry out the +suggestions I have made, and fully comprehend my meaning. + +I will present you with an example of the conjugations of a few verbs +which you are requested to compare with the "_might could would should +have been loved_" systems, which you were required to learn in former +times. You will find the verb in every _form_ or position in which it +ever occurs in our language, written or spoken. + +Conjugation of the regular verb =to love=. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I _love_ We _love_ + Present tense Thou _lovest_ You _love_ + He, she, or it _loves_ They _love_ + + I _loved_ We _loved_ + Past tense Thou _lovedst_ You _loved_ + He, she, or it _loved_ They _loved_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Love._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To love._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Loving_ + Past, _Loved_ + +The irregular verb =to have=, is thus conjugated. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _have_ We _have_ + Present tense Thou _hast_ You _have_ + He _has_ They _have_ + + I _had_ We _had_ + Past tense Thou _hadst_ You _had_ + He _had_ They _had_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Have._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To have._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Having_ + Past, _Had_ + +The irregular verb =to be=, stands thus: + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _am_ We _are_ + Present tense Thou _art_ You _are_ + He _is_ They _are_ + + I _was_ We _were_ + Past tense Thou _wast_ You _were_ + He _was_ They _were_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Be._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To be._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Being_ + Past, _Been_ + +These examples will suffice to give you an idea of the ease and +simplicity of the construction of verbs, and by a comparison with old +systems, you can, for yourselves, determine the superiority of the +principles we advocate. The above tabular views present every form which +the verb assumes, and every position in which it is found. In use, +these words are frequently compounded together;[18] but with a +knowledge of the above principles, and the _meaning_ of the words--a +most essential consideration--you will always be able to analyze any +sentence, and parse it correctly. I have not time to enlarge on this +point, to show how words are connected together. Nor do I think it +necessary to enable you to understand my views. To children such a work +would be indispensable, and shall be attended to if we are able to +publish a grammar containing the simple principles of language. + + * * * * * + +The indicative mood is varied four ways. 1st, affirmatively, _he +writes_; 2d, negatively, _he writes not_; 3d, interrogatively, _does_ he +write? or _writes_ he? 4th, suppositively, if _he writes_, _suppose he +writes_, allow _he writes_. + +The _first_ is a simple affirmation of a fact, and is easily understood. +The _second_ is formed by annexing a term to express negation. _Not_ is +a contraction from _nought_ or _naught_, which is a compound of _ne_, +negative, and ought or aught, _ne-aught_, meaning _no-thing_. _He writes +not_; he writes nothing. He does _not_ write; he does _nothing_ to +write. _Neither_ is a compound of _ne_ and _either_, _not either_. He +_can not_ read; he _can_, _kens_, _knows nothing_, has no ability _to +read_. + +The third is constructed into a question by placing the verb before the +agent, or by prefixing another word before the agent, and then placing +the former verb as an infinitive after it; as, _Does_ he write? or +_writes_ he? When another verb is prefixed, one is always chosen which +will best decide the query. Does he _any thing_ to write? Does he make +any motions or show any indications to write? When the _will_ or +disposition of a person is concerned, we choose a word accordingly. +_Will_ he write? Has he the _will_ or disposition to write? _Can_ he +write? Is he able--_knows_ he how to write? A little observation will +enable you to understand my meaning. + +In the fourth place, a supposition is made in the imperative mood, in +accordance with which the action is performed. "_If_ ye _love_ me, keep +my commandments." _Give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_ this fact--you +_love_ me, keep my commandments. I will go if I can. I _resolve_, +_will_, or _determine_ to go; _if_, _gif_, _give_, grant, allow this +fact, I _can_, _ken_, _know_ how, or _am_ able _to go_. But more on this +point when we come to the consideration of contractions. + +In this mood the verb must have an agent and object, expressed or +implied; as, "_farmers_ cultivate the _soil_." But a whole sentence, +that is, an idea written out, may perform this duty; as, "The study of +grammar, on false principles, is productive of no good." What is +productive of no good? What is the agent of _is_? "The _study_," our +books and teachers tell us. But does such a construction give the true +meaning of the sentence? I think not, for _study_ is indispensable to +knowledge and usefulness, and _the study_ of grammar, properly directed, +is a most useful branch of literature, which should never be dispensed +with. It is the study of grammar _on false principles_, which _is +productive of no good_. You discover my meaning, and will not question +its correctness. You must also see how erroneous it would be to teach +children that "_to study_ is productive of no good." The force of the +sentence rests on the "false principles" taught. Hence the whole +statement is truly the agent of the verb. + +The object on which the action terminates is frequently expressed in a +similar manner; as, "He wrote to me, that he will adopt the new system +of grammar, if he can procure some books to give his scholars to learn." +Will you parse _wrote_? Most grammarians will call it an _intransitive_ +verb, and make out that "he wrote" _nothing_ to me, because there is no +regular objective word after it. Will you parse _that_? It is a +"conjunction _copulative_." What does it connect? "_He wrote_" to the +following sentence, according to Rule 18 of Mr. Murray; "conjunctions +connect the _same_ moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and +pronouns." Unluckily you have two different tenses connected in this +case. Will you parse _if_? It is a _copulative_ conjunction, connecting +the two members of the sentence--_he will adopt_ if _he can procure_: +Rule, as above. How exceeding unfortunate! You have _two_ different +moods, and too different tenses, connected by a _copulative_ conjunction +which the rule says "connects _the same_ moods and tenses! What +nonsense! What a falsehood! What a fine thing to be a grammarian! And +yet, I venture the opinion, and I judge from what I have seen in myself +and others, there is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn +children to parse as above, and apply the same rule to it. "I _will go_ +if I _can_." "I _do_ and _will_ contend." "As it _was_ in the beginning, +_is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_." "I _am_ here and _must_ remain." "He +_will do_ your business _if_ he _has_ time." "I _am_ resolved _to +expose_ the errors of grammar, _and will do_ it thoroly _if_ I _can_." + +In these examples you have different moods and tenses, indiscriminately, +yet correctly coupled together, despite the rules of syntax which teach +us to explain language "with propriety." + +_That_, in the sentence before us, is an adjective, referring to the +following sentence, which is the _object_ of _wrote_, or is the thing +written. "He wrote to me _that_" fact, sentiment, opinion, +determination, or resolution, that writing, letter, or word--"he will +adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure some books." + +This subject properly belongs to that department of language called +syntax; but as I shall not be able to treat of that in this course of +lectures, I throw in here these brief remarks to give you some general +ideas of the arrangement of words into sentences, according to their +true meaning, as obtained from a knowledge of their etymology. You +cannot fail to observe this method of constructing language if you will +pay a little attention to it when reading; keeping all the time in view +the fact that words are only the signs of ideas, derived from an +observation of things. You all know that it is not merely the steam that +propels the boat, but that it is steam _applied to machinery_. Steam is +the more latent cause; and the engine with its complicated parts is the +direct means. In the absence of either, the boat would not be propelled. +In the formation of language, I may say correctly, "Solomon _built_ the +temple;" for he stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it +would not have been built without his direction and command. To +accomplish such an action, however, he need not raise a hammer or a +gavel, or draw a line on the trestle board. His command made known to +his ministers was sufficient to _cause_ the work to be done. Hence the +whole fact is _indicated_ or declared by the single expression, "Solomon +_built_ the temple." + +The Imperative mood is unchanged in form. I can say to one man, _go_, or +to a thousand, _go_. The commander when drilling _one_ soldier, says, +_march_; and he bids the whole battalion, _march_. The agent who is _to +perform_ the action is understood when not expressed; as, _go_, _go +thou_, or _go you_. The agent is generally omitted, because the address +is given direct to the person who is expected to obey the instruction, +request, or command. This verb always agrees with an agent in the +_second_ person. And yet our "grammars made easy" have given us _three +persons_ in this mood--"_Let me love_; _love_, _love thou_, or _do_ thou +_love_; let him love." In the name of common sense, I ask, what can +children learn by such instruction? "_Let me love_," in the conjugation +of the verb _to love_! To whom is this command given? To _myself_ of +course! I command myself to "_let me love_!" What nonsense! "Let _him_ +love." I stand here, you set there, and the _third_ person is in +Philadelphia. I utter these words, "Let _him love_." What is my meaning? +Why, our books tell us, that the verb to _love_ is _third_ person. Then +I command _him_ to _let himself love_! What jargon and falsehood! You +all know that we can address the _second_ person only. You would call me +insane if I should employ language according to the rules of grammar as +laid down in the standard books. In my room alone, no person near me, I +cry out, "_let me be quiet_"--imperative mood, first person of _to be_! +Do I command myself to _let_ myself _be_ quiet? Most certainly, if _be_ +is the principal verb in the first person, and _let_ the auxiliary. The +teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a classmate who +sets near him. He says, "_let him have it_." To whom is the command +given? It is the imperative mood, third person of the verb _to have_. +Does he command the third person, the boy who _has_ not the pencil? Such +is the resolution of the sentence, according to the authority of +standard grammars. But where is there a child five years old who does +not know better. Every body knows that he addresses the second person, +the boy who has the pencil, to _let_ the other _have_ it. + +Teachers have learned their scholars the _first_ and _third_ persons of +this mood when committing the conjugation of verbs; but not one in ten +thousand ever adopted them in parsing. "_Let me love._" _Let_, all +parse, Mr. Murray not excepted, in the _second_ person, and _love_ in +the infinitive mood after it, without the sign _to_; according to the +rule, that "verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, +_needs_, _speak_," etc. are in the infinitive mood. It is strange people +will not eat their own cooking. + +There can be no trouble in understanding this mood, as we have explained +it, always in the future tense, that is, future to the command or +request, agreeing with the _second_ person, and never varied on account +of number. + +The only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission of _to_ in +certain cases, which is considered as a part of the verb; tho in truth +it is no more so than when used in the character of an old fashioned +preposition. In certain cases, as we have before observed, it is not +expressed. This is when the infinitive verb follows small words in +frequent use; as, shall, will, let, can, must, may, bid, do, have, make, +feel, hear, etc. + +This mood is always in the future tense; that is, it is future to the +circumstances or condition of things upon which it depends; as, they are +making preparations _to raise_ the building. Here _to raise_ is future +to the preparations, for if they make no preparations, the buildings +will not be raised. The boy studies his book _to learn_ his lesson. If +he does not study, he will not be likely _to learn_ his lesson. + +The allied powers of Europe combined their forces _to defeat_ Napoleon. +In this instance the whole expression is in the past tense; +nevertheless, the action expressed in the infinitive mood, _was future_ +to the circumstance on which it depended; that is, the _defeat_ was +_future_ to the _combination_ of the forces. Abraham raised the knife +_to slay_ his son. Not that he did _slay_ him, as that sentence must be +explained on the common systems, which teach us that _to slay_ is in the +_present tense_; but he raised the fatal knife for that purpose, the +fulfilment of which was future; but the angel staid his hand, and +averted the blow. The patriots of Poland _made_ a noble attempt _to +gain_ their liberty. But they did not _gain it_, as our grammars would +teach us. _To gain_ was future to the attempt, and failed because the +circumstances _indicated_ by the event, were insufficient to produce so +favorable a result. + +No person of common discernment can fail to observe the absolute +falsehood of existing systems in respect to this mood. It is used by our +authors of grammar in the _present_ and _past_ tenses, but never in the +_future_. Let us give a moment to the consideration of this matter. Take +the following example. He _will prepare_ himself next week _to go_ to +Europe. Let the school master parse _will prepare_. It is a verb, +indicative mood, _first future_ tense. _Next week_ is the point in +futurity when the _preparation_ will be _made_. Now parse _to go_. It +is a verb, infinitive mood, _present tense_! Then _he_ is already on his +way to Europe, when he is not _to prepare_ himself till next week! An +army is collected _to fight_ the enemy. Is the fight already commenced? +_To fight_ is present tense, say the books. We shall study grammar next +year, _to obtain_ a knowledge of the principles and use of language. Is +_to obtain_ present tense? If so there is little need of spending time +and money to study for a knowledge we _already possess_. + + "Hope springs eternal in the human breast; + Man never _is_, but always =to be= blest." + _Pope._ + +"Who _was_, and who _is_, and who _is_ =to come=."--_Bible._ It is not +that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but +hopes =to be= qualified, etc. + +I _am to go_ in an hour. He _is to go_ to-morrow. I _am_ ready _to hear_ +you recite your lesson. He _has been waiting_ a long time _to see_ if +some new principles will not be introduced. He is prepared _to appear_ +before you whenever you shall direct. We _are_ resolved _to employ_ +neuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, +and second future tenses, no longer. False grammars _are_ only fit-_ted +to be_ laid aside. We are in duty bound _to regard_ and _adopt_ truth, +and _reject_ error; and we _are_ determined _to do_ it in grammar, and +every thing else. + +We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually +taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, +or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. +The hints I have given must suffice. + +Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as +these lectures are not designed for _a system_ of grammar _to be +taught_, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the +way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall +leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to +comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been +somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we +should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the +time of the Institute, which is designed as a means of improvement on +general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if +you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate +and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the +theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be +adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the +study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here +attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain +philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and +adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and +ineffectual teaching be still preserved. + + + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + + A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have + a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should + be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray. + --Awake.--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, + till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence. + --Perhaps.--Not.--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Distinctions + false.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho.--Yet. + + +We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words. +Things _named_, _defined_ and _described_, and their _actions_, +_relations_, and _tendencies_, have been considered under the classes of +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these classes all words belong when +properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in +all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many +words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and +disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they +are difficult of explanation. These words we have classed under the head +of _Contractions_, a term better calculated than any other we have seen +adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on +the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary +expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then +be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed. + +Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, +conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and +meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be +conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only +reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in +numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with +such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses some _quality_ or +circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a +conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of _two_ to +make only _one_ sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words +with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been +explained. They have been _passed over_ with little difficulty by +teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of +speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for +ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have +been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be +pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such +explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is +the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and +exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology. + +But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the +expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and +so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known. +Horne Tooke calls them "the _wheels_ of language, the _wings_ of +Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would +be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he +undertakes to show that they were _constructed_ for this object, he +mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that +purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they +have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he +says,[19] "_abbreviation_ and _corruption_ are always busiest with the +words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being +very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their +passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country." + +In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not +get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and +exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, +language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, +and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty +figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of +invention. It was not until people had _ideas_ to communicate, that they +sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and +then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their +purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part +completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions, +_sign_-ificant of things, or _ideas_ of _things_ and _actions_, were +first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20] As the +human mind advanced in knowledge, by observing the character, +relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, +compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; +just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and +distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most +complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and +great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles +on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some +wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different +kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the +engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with +immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being +unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and +should be clearly understood by him who would build or _use_ the latter. +So, in the formation of language, simple _first_ principles must be +observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would +obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with +propriety." + +In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting +science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their +various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be +known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may +aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language are +equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood. +But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, +is the paucity of _means_ to trace back to their original form and +meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been +employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that +long space has undergone many and strange modifications. At the +dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned +thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick +up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, +and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, +as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the +different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were +thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the +trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose +affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, +will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced. + +In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a +measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who +use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their +stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; +and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been +changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in +1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the +necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old +writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this +lecture. + +The words which we class under the head of Contractions, are so altered +and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion +are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to +attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid +that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability +to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the +words which belong to this class. I will be candid, if I am not +successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may +be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the +ground we have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the +subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words. + +But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I +am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few +exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common +grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the _meaning_ of these +words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like pens or +reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed +to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, +they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, +I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain +circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives," +and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not +unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, +drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping +cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can +you write your lesson? _Not yet quite well enough._ "_But and if_ that +evil servant,"[21] etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally +used _both as_ a conjunction _and as_ an adverb, and sometimes _as_ a +preposition. + +Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from +the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered +parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, +and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy. +Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called +contractions, for such they _mostly_ are, as adverbs or any thing else; +for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other. + +In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by +sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and +whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the +true and practical use of these words. + +Let us begin with _Adverbs_. + +I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into +which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of +speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have been _contrived_ +to express compendiously in _one word_, what must _otherwise_ have +required two or more; as, "he acted _wisely_." They could have been +"_contrived_" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they +are made up of various words combined together, which are used to +express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very +example Mr. M. has given. _Wisely_ is made up of two words; _wise_ and +_like_. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did he _act_? _Wisely_, we +are taught, expresses the "_manner_ or quality" of the verb _act_. But +_act_, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and _wisely_ +expresses the _manner of action_ where there is none! But he must have +_acted something_ which was _wise_ like something else. What did he act? +If he produced no _actions_, how can it be known that he _acted_ wisely +or unwisely? _Action_ or _acts_ is the direct object of to _act_. Hence +the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He acted _acts_ or +_actions_ like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears +aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, +improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we +have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in +which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with +the latest fashions. + +"The bird sings _sweetly_." The bird sings _songs_, _notes_, or _tunes_, +_like sweet notes_, _tunes,_ or _songs_. The comparison here made, is +not in reference to the agent or action, but the _object_ of the action; +and this explains the whole theory of those _adverbs_, which are said to +"qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that no _action_, as +such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the +_thing_ or _agent_ which _acts_; and such action can only be determined +by the _changed_ or altered condition of something which is the _object_ +of such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be +known to _qualify_ the action, as distinct from the object or agent? And +if it does not in _fact_, how can we explain words to children, or to +our own minds, so as to understand what is not true? + +Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing +by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of +comparison; as, a likely man, a _very_ likely man, a likelier, and the +_likeliest_ man. "He is the _most likely_ pedlar I ever knew." "He is +_more liable_ to be deceived." "A _lively_ little fellow." "He is +worthless." He is worth less, _less worthy_ of respect and confidence. +"He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words _like very +correct_ letters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind +the fact, that _ly_ is a contraction of _like_, which is often retained +in many words; as god_like_, christian_like_, etc., and search for a +definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a +large portion of this adverb family. + +It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still +adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs _qualify neuter_ as well +as active verbs, and express the _quality_ or _manner of action_, where +there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When +a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest +course is to return back and start again. + +Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying from _eleven_ to +_seventy-two_, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the +nice shades of form which these words have assumed. But a bonnet is a +bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on +as many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a +bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it a _bonnet_, and +talk about its _appendages_. But when it is constructed into something +else, then we will give it a new name. + +Adjectives, we have said, are _derived_ from either nouns or verbs, and +we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either +adjectives, nouns, or verbs. In defence of this sentiment we will +adduce a few words in this place for examples. + +=Ago.= "Three years _ago_, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past +participle from the verb _ago_, meaning the same as _gone_ or _agone_, +and was so used a few centuries _ago_--_agone_, or _gone by_. + + "For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, + God wotte, worldly ioye is soone _ago_." + _Chaucer._ + + "For if it erst was well, tho was it bet + A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require + _Ago_ was euery sorowe and euery fere." + _Troylus, boke 3, p. 2._ + + "Of such examples as I finde + Upon this point of tyme _agone_ + I thinke for to tellen one." + _Gower_, lib. 5, p. 1. + + "Which is no more than has been done + By knights for ladies, long _agone_." + _Hudibras._ + + "Twenty years _agone_." + _Tillotson's sermon._ + + "Are all _the go_." + _Knickerbocker._ + +=Astray.= "They went astray." _Astrayed_, wandered or were scattered, +and of course soon became _estranged_ from each other. Farmers all know +what it is for cattle to _stray_ from home; and many parents have felt +the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons _strayed_ from the paths of +virtue. In that condition they are _astray-ed_. + + "This prest was drank and goth _astrayede_." + + "Achab to the bottle went. + When Benedad for all his shelde + Him slough, so that upon the felde + His people goth aboute _astraie_." + _Gower._ + +=Awake.= "He is _awake_." "Samson _awaked_ out of his sleep." "That I +may _awake_ him out of sleep." "It is high time to _awake_." "As a man +that is _wakened_ out of sleep." The Irish hold _a wake_--they do not +sleep the night after the loss of friends. + +=Asleep.= + + "When that pyte, which longe _on sleep_ doth tary + Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse." + _Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1._ + + "Ful sound _on sleep_ did caucht thare rest be kind." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 283. + +"In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd and _in +sleepe_."--_Fabian._ + +A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, which, from their +frequent recurrence, are used without their usual connexion with small +words. The letter _a_ is compounded with many of these words, which may +have been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaning _on_, +_to_, _at_, _in_, as it is used in the french and some other languages. +You often hear expressions like these, "he is _a_-going; he is +_a_-writing; he began _a_-new," etc. The old adverbs which take this +letter, you can easily analyze; as, "The house is _a_-fire"--on fire; +"He fell _a_-sleep"--he fell _on_ sleep. "When deep sleep falleth on +men."--_Job._ "He stept _a_-side"--on one side. "He came _a_-board"--on +board. "They put it _a_-foot"--on foot. "He went _a_-way"--a way, +followed some _course_, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all the _go_ +now _a_-days," etc. + +The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these +words: + + "Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre, + And al thare schyppis and navy set _in fire_." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 274. + + "Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with _ane_ swak, + Now bendis he up his bourdon with _ane_ mynt, + _On side_ (a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt." + _Idem._ + + "That easter fire and flame aboute + Both at mouth and at nase + So that thei setten all _on blaze_," (ablaze.) + _Gower._ + + "And tyl a wicked deth him take + _Him had_ leuer _asondre_ (a-sunder) shake + And let al his lymmes _asondre_ ryue + Thane leaue his richesse in his lyue." + _Chaucer._ + +Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length. But +the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these +words, and also, by comparison with the present, of the changes which +have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries. + +A large portion of adverbs relate to _time_ and _place_, because many of +our ideas, and much of our language, are employed in reference to them; +as, _then_, _when_, _where_, _there_, _here_, _hence_, _whence_, +_thence_, _while_, _till_, _whether_, etc. These are compound words +considerably disguised in their meaning and formation. Let us briefly +notice some of them. + +_Per annum_ is a latin phrase, _for the year_, a _year_; and _the annum_ +is _the year_, _round_ or _period_ of time, from which it was corrupted +gradually into its present shape. _Thanne_, tha anne, _thane_, _thenne_, +_then_, _than_, are different forms of the same word. + +"We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, face to face. +Nowe I know of partye; _thanne_ forsathe schal know as I am knowen."--1. +Cor. 13: 12. _Translation in 1350._ + +I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which stands thus: +"For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: but _thene_ face to face: now +I know in part: but _then_ shal I know even as I am knowen." Here +several words are spelled differently in the same verse. + +=Then=, _the anne_, that time. =When=, _wha anne_, "_wha-icht-anne_," +which, or what _anne_, period of time. + +_Area_ means an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or place. Arena is +from the same etymon, altered in application. =There=, _the area_, the +_place_ or _spot_. "If we go _there_," to that place. =Where=, which, or +what ("wha-icht area") place. =Here=, _his_ (latin word for _this_,) +_area_, this place. These words refer to _place_, _state_, or +_condition_. + +_While_ is another spelling for _wheel_. "To while away our time," is to +_pass_, spend, or _wheel_ it away. _While_ applies to the _period_, or +space of time, in which something _wheels_, _whirls_, _turns_ round, or +transpires; as, "You had better remain here _while_ (during the time) he +examines whether it is prudent for you to go." + +=Till= is _to while_, to the _period_ at which something is expected to +follow. "If I will that he tarry _till_ (to the time) I come what is +that to thee?" + +The idea of _time_ and _place_ are often blended together. It is not +uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in some parts of our +country say "down _till_ the bottom, over _till_ the woods." etc. Altho +we do not regard such expressions correct, yet they serve to explain the +meaning of the word. The only mistake is in applying it to _place_ +instead of _time_. + +=Whether= is _which either_. "Shew _whether_ of these _two_ thou hast +chosen."--_Acts 1: 24._ It is more frequently applied in modern times to +circumstance and events _than to_ persons and things. "I will let you +know _whether_ I _will_ or _will not_ adopt it," one or the other. + +=Together= signifies two or more united. _Gethered_ is the past +participle of _gather_. + + "As Mailie, an' her lambs _thegither_, + Were ae day nibbling on the tether." + _Burns._ + +=Ever= means _time_, _age_, _period_. It originally and essentially +signified _life_. _For ever_ is for the age or period. _For ever_ and +_ever_, to the ages of ages. _Ever-lasting_ is _age-lasting_. +Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc. + +=Never=, _ne-ever_, _not ever_, at no time, age or period. + +=When-ever.=--At what point or space of _time_ or _age_. + +=What-ever.=--What thing, fact, circumstance, or event. + +=Where-ever.=--To, at, or in what place, period, age, or time. + +=Whither-so-ever=, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, never-the-less, +etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning will appear obvious to +all. + +=Oft=, _often_, _oft-times_, often-_times_, can be understood by all, +because the noun to which they belong is _oft-en_ retained in practice. + +=Once=, twice, at one time, two times. + +=Hence=, _thence_, _whence_, from _this_, _that_, or _what_, place, +spot, circumstance, post, or starting place. + +=Hence-for-ward=, _hence-forth_, in time _to come_, after this period. + +=Here-after=, after this _era_, or present time. + +=Hither=, to this spot or place. _Thither_, to that place. _Hither-to_, +_hither-ward_, etc. the same as _to you ward_, or to God ward, still +retained in our bibles. + +=Per-haps=, it may hap. _Perchance_, _peradventure_, by chance, by +adventure. The latin _per_ means _by_. + +=Not=, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound of _ne_ and _ought_ +or _a_ught. + +=Or= is a contraction from other, and _nor_ from _ne-or_, no-or, no +other. + +=No-wise=, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another way or manner, +you must go. + +=Than=, _the ane_, the one, that one, alluding to a particular object +with which a comparison is made; as, This book is larger _than_ that +bible. That _one_ bible, this book is larger. It is always used with the +comparative degree, to define particularly the object with which the +comparison is made. Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often +bestowed regardless of merit, talent is better. + +=As= is an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, that, these, +the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first kind. You practice +_as_ you have been taught--_the same duties_ or _principles_ understood. +We use language _as_ we have learned it; in _the same_ way or manner. It +is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way, +manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. I can go _as +well as_ you. In _the same well_, easy, convenient way or manner you can +go, I can go in _the same_ way. He was _as_ learned, _as_ pious, _as_ +benevolent, _as_ brave, _as_ faithful, _as_ ardent. These are purely +adjectives, used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity +between the things compared. Secondary words are often added to this, to +aid the distinction or definition; as, (_the same_ illustrated,) He is +_just as willing_. I am _quite as well_ pleased without it. _As_, like +many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, in which +case it was formerly parsed by Murray himself _as_ (like, or the same) a +relative pronoun; as, "And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the +tip, _as happens_ in acute diseases."--_Dr. Sweetster._ "The ground I +have assumed is tenable, _as will appear_."--_Webster._ "Bonaparte had +a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris is France, _as has_ +often been observed."--_Channing._ "The words are such _as +seem_."--_Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro._ + +=So= has nearly the same signification as the word last noticed, and is +frequently used along with it, to define the other member of the +comparison. _As_ far _as_ I can understand, _so_ far I approve. _As_ he +directed, _so_ I obeyed. It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; +as, "In pious and benevolent offices _so_ simple, _so_ minute, _so_ +steady, _so_ habitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a course +_so_ unvarying."--_Channing._ + +These words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary, +because (_for this cause_, be this the cause, this is the cause) they +are the most frequently used; and yet there are no words _so_ little +understood, or _so_ much abused by grammarians, _as_ these are. + +We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech. +"Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech void of +signification, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or +more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." Mr. Harris +gives about forty "species." Murray admits of only the _dis_-junctive +and copulative, and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But +what is meant by a _dis_-junctive _con_-junctive word, is left for you +to determine. It must be in keeping with _in_definite _defining_ +articles, and _post_-positive _pre_-positions. He says, "it joins words, +but disjoins the sense."[22] And what is a _word_ with out _sense_," +pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," how, in the name of +reason, can you give the sign and separate the sense? You can as well +separate the shadow from the substance, or a quality from matter. + +We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use of +conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. "As it +_was_ in the beginning, _is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_."--_Common +Prayer._ "What I _do_, _have done,_ or _may_ hereafter _do_, _has +been_, and _will_ always _be_ matter of inclination, the gratifying of +which _pays_ itself: and I _have_ no more merit in employing my time +and money in the way I _am known_ to do, than another has in other +occupations."--_Howard._ + +The following examples must suffice. + +=If.= This word is derived from the saxon _gifan_, and was formerly +written _giff_, _gyff_, _gif_, _geve_, _give_, _yiff_, _yef_, _yeve_. It +signifies _give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_, _admit_, and is always a +verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence or idea for +its object. "_If_ a pound of sugar cost ten cents, what will ten pounds +cost?" _Give_, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact,) _one pound cost_, etc. +In this case the supposition which stands as a predicate--_one pound of +sugar cost ten cents_, is the object of _if_--the thing to be allowed, +supposed, or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost of +_ten_ pounds is to be drawn. + +"He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, (the fact,) he +has the means, he will assist us. + + "_Gif_ luf be vertew, than is it leful thing; + _Gif_ it be vice, it is your undoing." + _Douglas_ p. 95. + + "Ne I ne wol non reherce, _yef_ that I may." + _Chaucer._ + + "She was so charitable and so pytous + She wolde wepe _yf that_ she sawe a mous + Caught in a trappe, _if_ it were deed or bledde." + _Prioresse._ + + "O haste and come to my master dear." + + "_Gin_ ye be Barbara Allen." + _Burns._ + +=But.= This word has two opposite significations. It is derived from two +different radicals. _But_, from the saxon _be_ and _utan_, _out_, means +_be out_, _leave out_, _save_, _except_, _omit_, as, "all _but_ one are +here." _Leave out_, _except_, _one_, all are here. + + "Heaven from all creation hides the book of fate + All _but_ (_save_, _except_) the page prescribed our present state." + + "When nought _but_ (_leave out_) the _torrent_ is heard on the hill, + And nought _but_ (_save_) the nightingale's _song_ in the grove." + +"Nothing _but fear_ restrains him." In these cases the direct _objects_ +of the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed. + +_But_ is also derived from _botan_, which signifies _to add_, +_superadd_, _join_ or _unite_; as, in the old form of a deed, "it is +_butted_ and bounded as follows." Two animals _butt_ their heads +together. The _butt_ of a log is that end which was _joined_ to the +stump. A _butt_, _butment_ or _a-butment_ is the joined end, where there +is a connexion with something else. A _butt_ of ridicule is an object to +which ridicule is attached. + + "Not only saw he all that was, + _But (add) much_ that never came to pass." + _M'Fingal._ + +_To button_, _butt-on_, is derived from the same word, to join one side +to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly spelled _botan_, +_boote_, _bote_, _bot_, _butte_, _bute_, _but_. It is still spelled +_boot_ in certain cases as a verb; as, + + "What _boots it_ thee to fly from pole to pole, + Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll? + What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam, + _If_ thou, O man, a stranger art at home?" + _Grainger._ + + "If love had _booted_ care or cost." + +A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and received fifty +dollars to _boot_; _to add_ to his property, and make the exchange +equal. + +_Let_ presents the same construction in form and meaning as _but_, for +it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. It means +sometimes to _permit_ or _allow_; as, _let_ me go; _let_ me have it; and +to _hinder_ or _prevent_; as, "I proposed to come unto you, _but_ (add +this fact) I was _let_ hitherto."--_Rom. 1: 13._ "He who now _letteth_, +will _let_ until he be taken out of the way."--_2 Thess. 2: 7._ + +=And= is a past participle signifying _added_, _one-ed_, _joined_. It +was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, David, _and_, +(_united to-_gether_-ed_,) go to school." We now place it _before_ the +last word. + +=Tho=, _altho_, _yet_. "Tho (_admit_, _allow_, _the fact_) he slay me, +yet (_get_, _have_, _know_, _the fact_) I will trust in him." _Yes_ is +from the same word as _yet_. It means _get_ or _have_ my consent to the +question asked. _Nay_ is the opposite of _yes_, _ne_-aye, nay, no. The +_ayes_ and _noes_ were called for. + +I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned me have been +overrun already. What light may have been afforded you in relation to +these words, will enable you to discover that they have _meaning_ which +must be learned before they can be explained correctly; that done, all +difficulty is removed. + +Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part of language, but +may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men. They are indistinct +utterances of emotions, which come not within the range of human speech. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, + revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High School, as a + correct system of teaching practical orthography. + +[2] Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the science + of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho the + doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false--which is + quite doubtful--or receive extensive modifications, yet the + consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. + The very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of + the mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long + deserve peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the + introduction of a vocabulary, from which may be selected words for + the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects. + +[3] Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and + principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the + philosophy of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another + meaning. Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, + that nobody could understand them; and hence, _metaphysical_ is now + applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a + speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. + "How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but he + was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand + him. + +[4] In this respect, many foreign languages possess a great advantage + over ours. They can augment or diminish the same word to increase + or lessen the meaning. For instance; in the Spanish, we can say + _Hombre_, a man; _Hombron_, a _large_ man; _Hombrecito_, a _young_ + man, or youth; _Hombrecillo_, a _miserable little_ man; _Pagaro_, a + bird; _Pagarito_, a _pretty little_ bird; _Perro_, a dog; + _Perrillo_, an _ugly little_ dog; _Perrazo_, a _large_ dog. + + The Indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way. In the + Delaware dialect, they are formed by the suffix _tit_, in the class + of animate nouns; but by _es_, to the inanimate; as, _Senno_, a + man; _Sennotit_, a _little_ man; _Wikwam_, a house; _Wikwames_, a + _small_ house.--_Enc. Amer. Art. Indian Languages, vol. 6, p. 586._ + +[5] Mr. Harris, in his "Hermes," says, "A preposition is a part of + speech, _devoid itself of signification_; but so formed as to unite + two words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce or + unite themselves." + + Mr. Murray says, "Prepositions serve to _connect_ words with one + another, and show the relation between them." + +[6] "Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that with a slender + _twist_, that none can doe with a tough _with_." + _Euphues and his England, p. 136._ + + "They had arms under the straw in the boats, and had cut the + _withes_ that held the oars of the town boats, to prevent any + pursuit." + _Ludlow's Memoirs, p. 435._ + + "The only furniture belonging to the houses, appears to be an + oblong vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a _withe_." + _Cooke's Description of Botany Bay._ + +[7] See Galatians, chap. 1, verse 15. "When it pleased God, who + _separated_ me," &c. + +[8] Acts, xvii, 28. + +[9] St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.--Dr. Hunter's translation, pp. + 172-176. + +[10] It is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees + are now standing in the garden of Gethsemane under which the + Saviour wept and near which he was betrayed. This is rendered more + probable from the fact, that a tax is laid, by the Ottoman Porte, + on all olive trees planted since Palestine passed into the + possession of the Turks, and that several trees standing in + Gethsemane do not pay such tribute, while all others do. + +[11] We do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and poets, + who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a soul, + like the human body, which is the spirit of Deity himself; but that + by the operation of wise and perfect laws, he exerts a supervision + in the creation and preservation of all things animate and + inanimate. Virgil stated the opinions of his times, in his Æneid, + B. VI. l. 724. + + "Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes, + Lucentemque globum, Lunæ, Titaniaque astra + Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus + Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet." + + "Know, first, that heaven, and earth's compacted frame, + And flowing waters, and the starry flame, + And both the radiant lights, _one common soul_ + Inspires and feeds--and _animates the whole_. + This active mind, infused thro all the space, + Unites and mingles with the mighty mass." + _Dryden_, b. VI. l. 980. + + This sentiment, he probably borrowed from Pythagoras and Plato, who + argue the same sentiment, and divide this spirit into + "_intellectus_, _intelligentia_, et _natura_"--intellectual, + intelligent, and natural. Whence, "_Ex hoc Deo, qui est mundi + anima: quasi decerptæ particulæ sunt vitæ hominum et pecudum._" Or, + "Omnia animalia ex quatuor elementis et _divino spiritu_ constare + manifestum est. Trahunt enim a terra carnem, ab aqua humorem, ab + ære anhelitum, ab igne fervorem, _a divino spiritu + ingenium_."--_Timeus, chap. 24, and Virgil's Geor. b. 4, l. 220, + Dryden's trans. l. 322._ + + Pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines: + + "All are but parts of one stupendous whole. + Whose body nature is, and God the soul." + +[12] Page 41. + +[13] Exodus, iii. 2, 3. + +[14] Cardell's grammar. + +[15] The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to keep it + from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm that by this + mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed the wonders + recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name from the temple and put + it into his thigh between the flesh and skin, and by its power + accomplished the miracles attributed to him. They think if they + could pronounce the word correctly, the very heavens and earth + would tremble, and angels be filled with terror. + +[16] Plutarch says, "This title is not only _proper_ but _peculiar to + God_, because =He= alone is _being_; for mortals have no + participation of _true being_, because that which _begins_ and + _ends_, and is constantly _changing_, is never _one_ nor the + _same_, nor in the same state. The deity on whose temple this word + was inscribed was called =Apollo=, Apollon, from _a_ negative and + _pollus_, _many_, because God is =one=, his nature simple, and + _uncompounded_."--_Vide, Clark's Com._ + +[17] The same fact may be observed in other languages, for all people + form language alike, in a way to correspond with their ideas. The + following hasty examples will illustrate this point. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + _English_ Singers Sing Songs + _French_ Les chanteurs Chantent Les chansons + _Spanish_ Los cantores Cantan Las cantinelas + _Italian_ I cantori Cantano I canti + _Latin_ Cantores Canunt Cantus + + _English_ Givers Give Gifts + _French_ Les donneurs Donnent Les dons + _Spanish_ Los donadores Dan o donan Los dones + _Italian_ I danatori Dano o danano I doni + _Latin_ Datores Donant Dona + + _English_ Fishers Fish Fishes + _French_ Les pecheurs Pechent Les poissons + _Spanish_ Los pescadores Pescan Los peces + _Italian_ I pescatori Pescan I pesci + _Latin_ Piscatores Piscantur Pisces + + _English_ Students Study Studies + _French_ Les etudiens Etudient Les etudes + _Spanish_ Los estudiantes Estudian Los estudios + _Italian_ I studienti Studiano I studii + _Latin_ Studiosi Student Studia + +[18] Mr. Murray says, "These compounds," _have_, _shall_, _will_, + _may_, _can_, _must_, _had_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and + _should_, which he uses as auxiliaries to _help_ conjugate _other_ + verbs, "are, however, to be considered as _different forms_ of the + _same_ verb." I should like to know, if these words have any thing + to do with the _principal_ verbs; if they only alter the _form_ of + the verb which follows them. I _may_, _can_, _must_, _shall_, + _will_, or _do love_. Are these only different forms of _love_? or + rather, are they not distinct, important, and original verbs, pure + and perfect _in_ and _of_ themselves? Ask for their etymons and + meaning, and then decide. + +[19] Diversions of Purley, vol. 1, p. 77. + +[20] Dr. Edwards observes, in a communication to the Connecticut Society + of Arts and Sciences, from personal knowledge, that "the Mohegans + (Indians) have _no adjectives_ in all their language. Altho it may + at first seem not only singular and curious, but impossible, that a + language should exist without adjectives, yet it is an indubitable + fact." But it is proved that in later times the Indians employ + adjectives, derived from nouns or verbs, as well as other nations. + Altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious, yet they + suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words and + phrases. They added the ideas of definition and description to the + things themselves, and expressed them in the _same_ word, in a + modified form. + +[21] Matthew, chap. 24, v. 48. + +[22] Examples of a _dis_-junctive conjunction. "They came with her, + _but_ they went without her."--_Murray._ + + Murray is _wrong_, _and_ Cardell is _right_. The simplifiers are + wrong, _but_ their standard is so likewise. + + "Me he restored to my office, _and_ him he hanged."--_Pharaoh's + Letter._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE + +The following printer's errors have been corrected in this etext. +Changes are indicated in brackets. + +Contents ON NOUNS AMD [AND] PRONOUNS + +Lecture I process of time as ingle [a single] + will not unfrequenly [unfrequently] represent + +Lecture III German, Danish, Dutch, Sweedish [Swedish] + +Lecture V _David_ killed Goliah [Goliath] + +Lecture VI and cosinder [consider] them in this place + +Lecture VII We are told there are are [are] two articles + the mother is _mascu.line_ [masculine] + dress handkerchief.["] The resolution + +Lecture VIII object will be to ascertion [ascertain] + ["]But wherefore _sits he_ there? + act _transitively_, acording [according] to + +Lecture IX the pocket of Guy Fawks [Fawkes] + For we should rember [remember] + _looks_ like or _resembles_ his brother,["] + +Lecture X A philosophical axiom[.]--Manner + And our languge [language] should + ["]I have addressed this volume + +Lecture XI Be not surprized [surprised] when I tell you + +Lecture XII the qualifification [qualification] of an _adverb_, + --"express neither actionn [action] or passion." + +Lecture XIV trace back to their orignal [original] form + ["]He stept _a_-side" + ["]As Mailie, an' her lambs + ["]Not only saw he all that was, + +Footnote 22 Murray is _wroug_ [wrong] + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lectures on Language, by William S. 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Balch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lectures on Language + As Particularly Connected with English Grammar. + +Author: William S. Balch + +Release Date: January 24, 2006 [EBook #17594] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Amy Cunningham, Bill Tozier +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tnote"><h4>Transcriber's Notes</h4> + +<p>Bracketed words, such as [the?], were present in the original text. +They were not added by the transcriber.</p> + +<p>Obvious printing errors were repaired and noted by the use of +a dashed <ins class="correction" title="like this">underline</ins> +in the text. Scrolling the mouse over such text will display the change +that was made. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it +appears in the original book. In particular, many mismatched quotation +marks have not been changed.</p> +</div> + + + +<p><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> +<h1>LECTURES ON LANGUAGE,</h1> + +<h5>AS PARTICULARLY CONNECTED WITH</h5> + +<h2>ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br /><br /></h2> + + +<h5>DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND ADVANCED +LEARNERS.<br /><br /><br /></h5> + +<h3>BY WM. S. BALCH.<br /><br /><br /></h3> + +<p class="center">Silence is better than unmeaning words.—<i>Pythagoras.</i><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="center">PROVIDENCE:<br /> +B. CRANSTON & CO.<br /> +1838.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838,</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By B. Cranston & Co.</span></p> + +<p class="center">In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode-Island.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="date"><span class="smcap">Providence</span>, Feb. 24, 1838.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">To Wm. S. Balch</span>,</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>—The undersigned, in behalf of the Young People's Institute, +hasten to present to you the following <i>Resolutions</i>, together with +their personal thanks, for the Lectures you have delivered before +them, on the Philosophy of Language. The uncommon degree of +interest, pleasure and profit, with which you have been listened to, +is conclusive evidence, that whoever possesses taste and talents to +comprehend and appreciate the philosophy of language, which you +have so successfully cultivated, cannot fail to attain a powerful influence +over the minds of his audience. The Committee respectfully +request you to favor them with a copy of your Lectures for +the Press.</p> + +<p class="sign"> +Very respectfully,<br /> +<span class="sig1">Your most obedient servants,</span><br /> +<span class="sig2">C. T. JAMES,</span><br /> +<span class="sig2">E. F. MILLER,</span><br /> +<span class="sig2">H. L. WEBSTER.</span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed +by the Lectures of our President, on the subject of Language; +that we consider the principles he has advocated, immutably +true, exceedingly important, and capable of an easy adoption in +the study of that important branch of human knowledge.</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That we have long regretted the want of a system to +explain the grammar of our vernacular tongue, on plain, rational, +and consistent principles, in accordance with philosophy and truth, +and in a way to be understood and practised by children and adults.</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That in our opinion, the manifold attempts which have +been made, though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions, +to simplify and make easy existing systems, have failed entirely of +their object, and tended only to perplex, rather than enlighten +learners.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> +<i>Resolved</i>, That in our belief, the publication of these Lectures +would meet the wants of the community, and throw a flood of light +upon this hitherto dark, and intricate, and yet exceedingly interesting +department of a common education, and thus prove of immense +service to the present and future generations.</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That Messrs. Charles T. James, Edward F. Miller, +and Henry L. Webster, be a Committee to wait on Rev. William +S. Balch, and request the publication of his very interesting Course +of Lectures before this Institute.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p class="date"><span class="smcap">Providence</span>, Feb. 25, 1838.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Messrs. C. T. James, E. F. Miller, and H. L. Webster</span>:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>—Your letter, together with the Resolutions accompanying +it, was duly and gratefully received. It gives me no ordinary +degree of pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been, +and still is, felt by the members of our Institute, as well as the public +generally, on this important subject; for it is one which concerns +the happiness and welfare of our whole community; but especially +the rising generation.</p> + +<p>The only recommendation of these Lectures is the subject of +which they treat. They were written in the space of a few weeks, +and in the midst of an accumulation of engagements which almost +forbade the attempt. But presuming you will make all due allowances +for whatever errors you may discover in the style of composition, +and regard the <i>matter</i> more than the <i>manner</i>, I consent to +their publication, hoping they will be of some service in the great +cause of human improvement.</p> + +<p class="sign"> +I am, gentlemen,<br /> +<span class="sig1">Very respectfully yours,</span><br /> +<span class="sig2">WM. S. BALCH.</span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>There is no subject so deeply interesting and important to +rational beings as the knowledge of language, or one which +presents a more direct and powerful claim upon all classes +in the community; for there is no other so closely interwoven +with all the affairs of human life, social, moral, political +and religious. It forms a basis on which depends a vast +portion of the happiness of mankind, and deserves the first +attention of every philanthropist.</p> + +<p>Great difficulty has been experienced in the common +method of explaining language, and grammar has long been +considered a dry, uninteresting, and tedious study, by nearly +all the teachers and scholars in the land. But it is to be +presumed that the fault in this case, if there is any, is to be +sought for in the manner of teaching, rather than in the +science itself; for it would be unreasonable to suppose that +a subject which occupies the earliest attention of the parent, +which is acquired at great expense of money, time, and +thought, and is employed from the cradle to the grave, in +all our waking hours, can possibly be dull or unimportant, +if rightly explained.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +Children have been required to learn verbal forms and +changes, to look at the mere signs of ideas, instead of the +things represented by them. The consequence has been +that the whole subject has become uninteresting to all who +do not possess a retentive verbal memory. The philosophy +of language, the sublime principles on which it depends for +its existence and use, have not been sufficiently regarded to +render it delightful and profitable.</p> + +<p>The humble attempt here made is designed to open the +way for an exposition of language on truly philosophical +principles, which, when correctly explained, are abundantly +simple and extensively useful. With what success this point +has been labored the reader will determine.</p> + +<p>The author claims not the honor of entire originality. +The principles here advanced have been advocated, believed, +and successfully practised. William S. Cardell, Esq., a +bright star in the firmament of American literature, reduced +these principles to a system, which was taught with triumphant +success by Daniel H. Barnes, formerly of the New-York +High School, one of the most distinguished teachers +who ever officiated in that high and responsible capacity in +our country. Both of these gentlemen, so eminently calculated +to elevate the standard of education, were summoned +from the career of the most active usefulness, from +the scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the +aid of their transcendant intellects, to unseen realities in the +world of spirits; where mind communes with mind, and soul +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> +mingles with soul, disenthraled from error, and embosomed +in the light and love of the Great Parent Intellect.</p> + +<p>The author does not pretend to give a system of exposition +in this work suited to the capacities of small children. +It is designed for advanced scholars, and is introductory to +a system of grammar which he has in preparation, which +it is humbly hoped will be of some service in rendering easy +and correct the study of our vernacular language. But +this book, it is thought, may be successfully employed in +the instruction of the higher classes in our schools, and will +be found an efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime +principles of which it treats.</p> + +<p>These Lectures, as now presented to the public, it +is believed, will be found to contain some important information +by which all may profit. The reader will bear in +mind that they were written for, and delivered before a popular +audience, and published with very little time for modification. +This will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes +which may occur, and for whatever may have the appearance +of severity, irony, or pleasantry, in the composition.</p> + +<p>On the subject of Contractions much more might be said. +But verbal criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common +audience; and hence the consideration of that matter was +made more brief than was at first intended. It will however +be resumed and carried out at length in another work. +The hints given will enable the student to form a tolerable +correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +which have long been passed over with little knowledge of +their meaning or importance.</p> + +<p>The author is aware that the principles he has advocated +are new and opposed to established systems and the common +method of inculcation. But the difficulties acknowledged +on all hands to exist, is a sufficient justification of this humble +attempt. He will not be condemned for his good intentions. +All he asks is a patient and candid examination, +a frank and honest approval of what is true, and as honest a +rejection of what is false. But he hopes the reader will +avoid a rash and precipitate conclusion, either for or against, +lest he is compelled to do as the author himself once did, +approve what he had previously condemned.</p> + +<p>With these remarks he enters the arena, and bares himself +to receive the sentence of the public voice.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.<br /><br /></h2> + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_I">LECTURE I.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_I">GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Study of Language long considered difficult. — Its importance. — Errors +in teaching. — Not understood by Teachers. — Attachment +to old systems. — Improvement preferable. — The +subject important. — Its advantages. — Principles laid +down. — Orthography. — Etymology. — Syntax. — Prosody. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_13"> +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads '12'">13</ins></a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_II">LECTURE II.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_II">THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">General principles of Language. — Business of Grammar. — Children +are Philosophers. — Things, ideas, and words. — Actions. — Qualities +of things. — Words without ideas. — Grammatical +terms inappropriate. — Principles of Language permanent. — Errors +in mental science. — Facts admit of no +change. — Complex ideas. — Ideas of qualities. — An example. — New +ideas. — Unknown words. — Signs without things signified. — Fixed +laws regulate matter and mind. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_III">LECTURE III.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_III">WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Principles never alter. — They should be known. — Grammar a +most important branch of science. — Spoken and written +Language. — Idea of a thing. — How expressed. — An example. — Picture +writing. — An anecdote. — Ideas expressed by +actions. — Principles of spoken and written Language. — Apply +universally. — Two examples. — English language. — Foreign +words. — Words in science. — New words. — How formed. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_IV">LECTURE IV.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_IV">ON NOUNS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Nouns defined. — Things. +— Qualities of matter. — Mind. — Spiritual +beings. — Qualities of mind. — How learned. — Imaginary +things. — Negation. — Names of actions. +— Proper nouns. — Characteristic +names. — Proper nouns may become common. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_V">LECTURE V.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_V">ON NOUNS +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'AMD'">AND</ins> PRONOUNS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Nouns in respect to persons. +— Number. — Singular. — Plural. — How +formed. — Foreign plurals. — Proper names admit of +plurals. — Gender. — No neuter. +— In figurative language. — Errors. — Position +or case. — Agents. — Objects. — Possessive +case considered. — A definitive word. +— Pronouns. — One kind. — Originally +nouns. — Specifically applied. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_VI">LECTURE VI.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_VI">ON ADJECTIVES.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Definition of adjectives. +— General character. — Derivation. — How +understood. — Defining and describing. — Meaning changes +to suit the noun. — Too numerous. — Derived from nouns. — Nouns +and verbs made from adjectives. — Foreign adjectives. — A +general list. — Difficult to be understood. — An example. — Often +superfluous. — Derived from verbs. — Participles. — Some +prepositions. — Meaning unknown. — With. — In. — Out. — Of. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_VII">LECTURE VII.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_VII">ON ADJECTIVES.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Adjectives. — How formed. +— The syllable <i>ly</i>. — Formed from +proper nouns. — The apostrophe and letter <i>s</i>. — Derived from +pronouns. — Articles. — <i>A</i> comes from <i>an</i>. +— <i>In</i>definite. — <i>The</i>. — Meaning +of <i>a</i> and <i>the</i>. — Murray's example. +— That. — What. — "Pronoun +adjectives." — <i>Mon</i>, <i>ma</i>. — Degrees of comparison. — Secondary +adjectives. — Prepositions admit of comparison. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_VIII">LECTURE VIII.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_VIII">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Unpleasant to expose error. — Verbs defined. — Every thing +acts. — Actor and object. — Laws. +— Man. — Animals. — Vegetables. — Minerals. — Neutrality +degrading. — Nobody can explain +a neuter verb. — <i>One</i> kind of verbs. +— <i>You</i> must decide. — Importance +of teaching children the truth. — Active verbs. — Transitive +verbs false. — Samples. — Neuter verbs examined. +— Sit. — Sleep. — Stand. — Lie. — Opinion +of Mrs. W. — Anecdote. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_IX">LECTURE IX.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_IX">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Neuter and intransitive. — Agents. — Objects. — No actions as +such can be known distinct from the agent. — Imaginary +actions. — Actions known by their effects. — Examples. — Signs +should guide to things signified. — Principles of +action. — <span class="smcap">Power</span>. +— Animals. — Vegetables. — Minerals. — All things +act. — Magnetic needle. — +<span class="smcap">Cause</span>. — Explained. — First +Cause. — <span class="smcap">Means</span>. +— Illustrated. — Sir I. Newton's example. — These +principles must be known. — +<span class="smcap">Relative</span> action. — Anecdote of +Gallileo. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_X">LECTURE X.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_X">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">A philosophical axiom. — Manner of expressing action. — Things +taken for granted. — Simple facts must be known. — Must +never deviate from the truth. — Every <i>cause</i> will have an +<i>effect</i>. — An example of an intransitive verb. — Objects expressed +or implied. — All language eliptical. — Intransitive +verbs examined. — I run. — I walk. — To step. — Birds fly. — It +rains. — The fire burns. — The sun shines. — To smile. — Eat +and drink. — Miscellaneous examples. — Evils of false +teaching. — A change is demanded. — These principles apply +universally. — Their importance. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_XI">LECTURE XI.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_XI">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">The verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>. +— Compounded of different radical words. — +<span class="smcap">Am</span>. — Defined. — The +name of Deity. — <i>Ei</i>. — +<span class="smcap">Is</span>. — <span class="smcap">Are</span>. +— <span class="smcap">Were</span>, +<span class="smcap">was</span>. — <span class="smcap">Be</span>. +— A dialogue. — Examples. — Passive Verbs examined. — Cannot +be in the present tense. — The past participle +is an adjective. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_XII">LECTURE XII.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_XII">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc"><span class="smcap">Mood</span>. — Indicative. +— Imperative. — Infinitive. — Former distinctions. — Subjunctive +mood. — <span class="smcap">Time</span>. — Past. — +Present. — Future. — The +future explained. — How formed. — Mr. Murray's +distinction of time. — Imperfect. — Pluperfect. — +Second future. — How +many tenses. — <span class="smcap">Auxiliary Verbs</span>. +— Will. — Shall. — May. — Must. — Can. — Do. — Have. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_XIII">LECTURE XIII.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_XIII">ON VERBS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">Person and number in the agent, not in the action. — Similarity +of agents, actions, and objects. — Verbs made from nouns. — Irregular +verbs. — Some examples. — Regular Verbs. — <i>Ed</i>. +— <i>Ing</i>. — Conjugation +of verbs. — To love. — To have. — To be. — The +indicative mood varied. — A whole sentence may be +agent or object. — Imperative mood. — Infinitive mood. — Is +always future. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a href="#LECTURE_XIV">LECTURE XIV.</a></h3> + +<h5><a href="#LECTURE_XIV">ON CONTRACTIONS.</a></h5> + +<p class="toc">A temporary expedient. — Words not understood. — All words +must have a meaning. — Their formation. — Changes of meaning +and form. — Should be observed. — <span class="smcap">Adverbs</span>. — Ending in +<i>ly</i>. — Examples. — Ago. — Astray. — Awake. +— Asleep. — Then, +when. — There, where, here. — While, till. — Whether, +together. — Ever, +never, whenever, etc. — Oft. — Hence. — Perhaps. — Not. +— Or. — Nor. — Than. — As. — So. — Conjunctions. — Rule +18. — If. — But. — Tho. — Yet. +<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURES_ON_LANGUAGE" id="LECTURES_ON_LANGUAGE"></a>LECTURES ON LANGUAGE.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_I" id="LECTURE_I"></a>LECTURE I.</h2> + +<h3>GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Study of Language long considered difficult. — Its importance. — Errors +in teaching. — Not understood by Teachers. — Attachment +to old systems. — Improvement preferable. — The subject important. — Its +advantages. — Principles laid down. — Orthography. +— Etymology. — Syntax. — Prosody.</p></div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Ladies and Gentlemen</span>,</p> + +<p>It is proposed to commence, this evening, a course of +Lectures on the Grammar of the English Language. I am +aware of the difficulties attending this subject, occasioned +not so much by any fault in itself, as by the thousand and +one methods adopted to teach it, the multiplicity of books +pretending to "simplify" it, and the vast contrariety of opinion +entertained by those who profess to be its masters. By +many it has been considered a needless affair, an unnecessary +appendage to a common education; by others, altogether +beyond the reach of common capacities; and by all, +cold, lifeless, and uninteresting, full of doubts and perplexities, +where the wisest have differed, and the firmest often +changed opinions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +All this difficulty originates, I apprehend, in the wrong +view that is taken of the subject. The most beautiful landscape +may appear at great disadvantage, if viewed from an +unfavorable position. I would be slow to believe that the +means on which depends the whole business of the community, +the study of the sciences, all improvement upon the +past, the history of all nations in all ages of the world, social +intercourse, oral or written, and, in a great measure, the +knowledge of God, and the hopes of immortality, can be +either unworthy of study, or, if rightly explained, uninteresting +in the acquisition. In fact, on the principles I am +about to advocate, I have seen the deepest interest manifested, +from the small child to the grey-headed sire, from +the mere novice to the statesman and philosopher, and all +alike seemed to be edified and improved by the attention bestowed +upon the subject.</p> + +<p>I confess, however, that with the mention of <i>grammar</i>, an +association of ideas are called up by no means agreeable. +The mind involuntarily reverts to the days of childhood, +when we were compelled, at the risk of our bodily safety, +to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules, which we +could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language. +Formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended +on any higher authority than the books put into our +hands. And learners were not only dissuaded, but strictly +forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in the etymological +and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they +were referred. If a query ever arose in their minds, and +they modestly proposed a plain question as to the <i>why</i> and +<i>wherefore</i> things were thus, instead of giving an answer according +to common sense, in a way to be understood, the +authorities were pondered over, till some rule or remark +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +could be found which would apply, and this settled the matter +with "proof as strong as holy writ." In this way an +end may be put to the inquiry; but the thinking mind will +hardly be satisfied with the mere opinion of another, who +has no evidence to afford, save the undisputed dignity of his +station, or the authority of books. This course is easily accounted +for. Rather than expose his own ignorance, the +teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others, thinking, no +doubt, that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed, +than fresh from his own responsibility. Or else on +the more common score, that "misery loves company."</p> + +<p>Teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in +an unenviable position by the honest inquiries of some thinking +urchin, who has demanded why "<i>one noun governs</i> another +in the possessive case," as "master's slave;" why +there are more tenses than <i>three</i>; what is meant by a <i>neuter</i> +verb, which "signifies neither action nor passion;" or +an "intransitive verb," which expresses the highest possible +action, but terminates on no object; a cause without an effect; +why <i>that</i> is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, +and not unfrequently a conjunction, &c. &c. They +may have succeeded, by dint of official authority, in silencing +such inquiries, but they have failed to give a satisfactory +answer to the questions proposed.</p> + +<p>Long received opinions may, in some cases, become law, +pleading no other reason than antiquity. But this is an age +of investigation, which demands the most lucid and unequivocal +proof of the point assumed. The dogmatism of the +schoolmen will no longer satisfy. The dark ages of mental +servility are passing away. The day light of science +has long since dawned upon the world, and the noon day of +truth, reason, and virtue, will ere long be established on a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +firm and immutable basis. The human mind, left free to +investigate, will gradually advance onward in the course of +knowledge and goodness marked out by the Creator, till it +attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest +glory, its truest bliss.</p> + +<p>You will perceive, at once, that our inquiries thro out +these lectures will not be bounded by what has been said or +written on the subject. We take a wider range. We adopt +no sentiment because it is ancient or popular. We refer to +no authority but what proves itself to be correct. And we +ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they +agree with the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of +matter and thought, and apply in common practice among +men.</p> + +<p>Have we not a right to expect, in return, that you will be +equally honest to yourselves and the subject before us? So +far as the errors of existing systems shall be exposed, will +you not reject them, and adopt whatever appears conclusively +true and practically useful? Will you, can you, be +satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others, systems +of grammar, for no other reason than because they +are old, and claim the support of the learned and honorable?</p> + +<p>Such a course, generally adopted, would give the ever-lasting +quietus to all improvement. It would be a practical +adoption of the philosophy of the Dutchman, who was content +to carry his grist in one end of the sack and a stone to +balance it in the other, assigning for a reason, that his honored +father had always done so before him. Who would +be content to adopt the astrology of the ancients, in preferance +to astronomy as now taught, because the latter is more +modern? Who would spend three years in transcribing a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +copy of the Bible, when a better could be obtained for one +dollar, because manuscripts were thus procured in former +times? What lady would prefer to take her cards, wheel, +and loom, and spend a month or two in manufacturing for +herself a dress, when a better could be earned in half the +time, merely because her respected grandmother did so before +her? Who would go back a thousand years to find a +model for society, rejecting all improvements in the arts +and sciences, because they are innovations, encroachments +upon the opinions and practices of learned and honorable +men?</p> + +<p>I can not believe there is a person in this respected audience +whose mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce +the adoption of such a course. I see before me minds which +sparkle in every look, and thoughts which are ever active, +to acquire what is true, and adopt what is useful. And I +flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of the +science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable.</p> + +<p>I feel the greater confidence from the consideration that +your minds are yet untrammeled; not but what many, +probably most of you, have already studied the popular systems +of grammar, and understood them; if such a thing is +possible; but because you have shown a disposition to learn, +by becoming members of this Institute, the object of which +is the improvement of its members.</p> + +<p>Let us therefore make an humble attempt, with all due +candor and discretion, to enter upon the inquiry before us +with an unflinching determination to push our investigations +beyond all reasonable doubt, and never rest satisfied till we +have conquered all conquerable obstacles, and come into +the possession of the light and liberty of truth.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +The attempt here made will not be considered unimportant, +by those who have known the difficulties attending the +study of language. If any course can be marked out to +shorten the time tediously spent in the acquisition of what is +rarely attained—a thoro knowledge of language—a great +benefit will result to the community; children will save +months and years to engage in other useful attainments, +and the high aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge +will not be curbed in its first efforts to improve by a +set of technical and arbitrary rules. They will acquire a +habit of thinking, of deep reflection; and never adopt, for +fact, what appears unreasonable or inconsistent, merely because +great or good men have said it is so. They will feel +an independence of their own, and adopt a course of investigation +which cannot fail of the most important consequences. +It is not the saving of time, however, for +which we propose a change in the system of teaching language. +In this respect, it is the study of one's life. New +facts are constantly developing themselves, new combinations +of ideas and words are discovered, and new beauties +presented at every advancing step. It is to acquire a knowledge +of correct principles, to induce a habit of correct +thinking, a freedom of investigation, and at that age when the +character and language of life are forming. It is, in short, +to exhibit before you truth of the greatest practical importance, +not only to you, but to generations yet unborn, in the +most essential affairs of human life, that I have broached +the hated subject of grammar, and undertaken to reflect +light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject.</p> + +<p>With a brief sketch of the outlines of language, as based +on the fixed laws of nature, and the agreement of those +who employ it, I shall conclude the present lecture.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +We shall consider all language as governed by the invariable +laws of nature, and as depending on the conventional +regulations of men.</p> + +<p>Words are the signs of ideas. Ideas are the impressions +of things. Hence, in all our attempts to investigate the important +principles of language, we shall employ the sign as +the means of coming at the thing signified.</p> + +<p>Language has usually been considered under four divisions, +viz.: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.</p> + +<p>Orthography is <i>right spelling</i>; the combination of certain +letters into words in such a manner as to agree with the +spoken words used to denote an idea. We shall not labor +this point, altho we conceive a great improvement might be +effected in this department of learning. My only wish is to +select from all the forms of spelling, the most simple and +consistent. Constant changes are taking place in the method +of making words, and we would not refuse to cast in our +mite to make the standard more correct and easy. We +would prune off by degrees all unnecessary appendages, as +unsounded or italic letters, and write out words so as to be +capable of a distinct pronunciation. But this change must +be <i>gradually</i> effected. From the spelling adopted two centuries +ago, a wonderful improvement has taken place. +And we have not yet gone beyond the possibility of improvement. +Let us not be too sensitive on this point, nor +too tenacious of old forms. Most of our dictionaries differ +in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography, +and our true course is to adopt every improvement +which is offered. Thro out this work we shall spell some +words different from what is customary, but intend not, +thereby, to incur the ignominy of bad spellers. Let small +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +improvements be adopted, and our language may soon be +redeemed from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners +in their first attempts to convey ideas by written +words.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>In that department of language denominated Etymology, +we shall contend that all words are reducible to two general +classes, nouns and verbs; or, <i>things</i> and <i>actions</i>. We +shall, however, admit of subdivisions, and treat of pronouns, +adjectives, and contractions. We shall contend for only +two cases of nouns, one kind of pronouns, one kind of verbs, +that all are active; three modes, and as many tenses; that +articles, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, +have no distinctive character, no existence, in fact, to +warrant a "local habitation or a name."</p> + +<p>In the composition of sentences, a few general rules of +Syntax may be given; but the principal object to be obtained, +is the possession of correct ideas derived from a +knowledge of things, and the most approved words to express +them; the combination of words in a sentence will +readily enough follow.</p> + +<p>Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, rules of accent +and pronunciation, and the arrangement of syllables +and words so as to produce harmony. It applies specially +to versification. As our object is not to make poets, who, +it is said, "are born, and not made," but to teach the true +principles of language, we shall give no attention to this finishing +stroke of composition.</p> + +<p>In our next we shall lay before you the principles upon +which all language depends, and the process by which its +use is to be acquired.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_II" id="LECTURE_II"></a>LECTURE II.</h2> + +<h3>FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>General principles of Language. — Business of Grammar. — Children +are Philosophers. — Things, ideas, and words. — Actions. — Qualities +of things. — Words without ideas. — Grammatical terms inappropriate. — Principles +of Language permanent. — Errors in mental +science. — Facts admit of no change. — Complex ideas. — Ideas +of qualities. — An example. — New ideas. — Unknown words. — Signs +without things signified. — Fixed laws regulate matter and +mind.</p></div> + + +<p>All language depends on two general principles.</p> + +<p><i>First.</i> The fixed and unvarying laws of nature which +regulate matter and mind.</p> + +<p><i>Second.</i> The agreement of those who use it.</p> + +<p>In accordance with these principles all language must be +explained. It is not only needless but impossible for us to +deviate from them. They remain the same in all ages and +in all countries. It should be the object of the grammarian, +and of all who employ language in the expression of +ideas, to become intimately acquainted with their use.</p> + +<p>It is the business of grammar to explain, not only verbal +language, but also the sublime principles upon which all +written or spoken language depends. It forms an important +part of physical and mental science, which, correctly explained, +is abundantly simple and extensively useful in its +application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of +human enjoyment.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +It will not be contended that we are assuming a position +beyond the capacities of learners, that the course here adopted +is too philosophic. Such is not the fact. Children are philosophers +by nature. All their ideas are derived from things +as presented to their observations. No mother learns +her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being, +but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar, +and which are most constantly before it; such as father, +mother, brother, sister.</p> + +<p>She constantly points to the object named, that a distinct +impression may be made upon its mind, and the thing +signified, the idea of the thing, and the name which represents +it, are all inseparably associated together. If the father +is absent, the child may <i>think</i> of him from the idea or impression +which his person and affection has produced in the +mind. If the mother pronounces his <i>name</i> with which it has +become familiar, the child will start, look about for the object, +or thing signified by the <i>name</i>, father, and not being +able to discover him, will settle down contented with the +<i>idea</i> of him deeply impressed on the mind, and as distinctly +understood as if the father was present in person. So with +every thing else.</p> + +<p>Again, after the child has become familiar with the name +of the being called father; the name, idea and object itself +being intimately associated the mother will next begin to +teach it another lesson; following most undeviatingly the +course which nature and true philosophy mark out. The +father comes and goes, is present or absent. She says on +his return, father <i>come</i>, and the little one looks round to see +the thing signified by the word father, the idea of which is +distinctly impressed on the mind, and which it now sees present +before it. But this loved object has not always been +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +here. It had looked round and called for the father. But +the mother had told it <i>he was gone</i>. Father gone, father +come, is her language, and here the child begins to learn +ideas of actions. Of this it had, at first, no notion whatever, +and never thought of the father except when his person +was present before it, for no impressions had been distinctly +made upon the mind which could be called up by a sound +of which it could have no conceptions whatever. Now +that it has advanced so far, the idea of the father is retained, +even tho he is himself absent, and the child begins to associate +the notion of coming and going with his presence or absence. +Following out this course the mind becomes acquainted +with things and actions, or the changes which +things undergo.</p> + +<p>Next, the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction +and qualities of things. When the little sister +comes to it in innocent playfulness the mother says, "<i>good</i> +sister," and with the descriptive word <i>good</i> it soon begins to +associate the quality expressed by the affectionate regard, +of its sister. But when that sister strikes the child, or pesters +it in any way, the mother says "<i>naughty</i> sister," "bad +sister." It soon comprehends the descriptive words, <i>good</i> +and <i>bad</i>, and along with them carries the association of ideas +which such conduct produces. In the same way it learns +to distinguish the difference between <i>great</i> and <i>small</i>, <i>cold</i> +and <i>hot</i>, hard and soft.</p> + +<p>In this manner the child becomes acquainted with the +use of language. It first becomes acquainted with things, +the idea of which is left upon the mind, or, more properly, +the <i>impression of which</i>, left on the mind, <i>constitutes the +idea</i>; and a vocabulary of words are learned, which represent +these ideas, from which it may select those best +calcu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>lated +to express its meaning whenever a conversation is +had with another.</p> + +<p>You will readily perceive the correctness of our first +proposition, that all language depends on the fixed and unerring +laws of nature. Things exist. A knowledge of +them produces ideas in the mind, and sounds or signs are +adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to +another.</p> + +<p>It would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any +person, however great, or learned, or wise, could employ +language correctly without a knowledge of the things expressed +by that language. No matter how chaste his words, +how lofty his phrases, how sweet the intonations, or mellow +the accents. It would avail him nothing if <i>ideas</i> were not +represented thereby. It would all be an unknown tongue +to the hearer or reader. It would not be like the loud +rolling thunder, for that tells the wondrous power of God. +It would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening, the radiance +of the sun, the twinkling of the stars; for they speak +the intelligible language of sublimity itself, and tell of the +kindness and protection of our Father who is in heaven. +It would not be like the sweet notes of the choral songsters +of the grove, for they warble hymns of gratitude to God; +not like the boding of the distant owl, for that tells the profound +solemnity of night; not like the hungry lion roaring +for his prey, for that tells of death and plunder; not like +the distant notes of the clarion, for that tells of blood and +carnage, of tears and anguish, of widowhood and orphanage. +It can be compared to nothing but a Babel of confusion +in which their own folly is worse confounded. And +yet, I am sorry to say it, the languages of all ages and nations +have been too frequently perverted, and compiled into +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +a heterogeneous mass of abstruse, metaphysical volumes, +whose only recommendation is the elegant bindings in which +they are enclosed.</p> + +<p>And grammars themselves, whose pretended object is to +teach the rules of speaking and writing correctly, form but +a miserable exception to this sweeping remark. I defy any +grammarian, author, or teacher of the numberless systems, +which come, like the frogs of Egypt, all of one genus, to +cover the land, to give a reasonable explanation of even the +terms they employ to define their meaning, if indeed, meaning +they have. What is meant by an "<i>in</i>-definite article," +a <i>dis</i>-junctive <i>con</i>-junction, an <i>ad</i>-verb which qualifies an +<i>adjective</i>, and "sometimes another <i>ad</i>-verb?" Such "parts of +speech" have no existence in fact, and their adoption in rules +of grammar, have been found exceedingly mischievous and +perplexing. "Adverbs and conjunctions," and "<i>adverbial</i> +phrases," and "conjunctive expressions," may serve as common +sewers for a large and most useful class of words, +which the teachers of grammar and lexicographers have +been unable to explain; but learners will gain little information +by being told that such is an <i>adverbial phrase</i>, and +such, a <i>conjunctive expression</i>. This is an easy method, I +confess, a sort of wholesale traffic, in parsing (<i>passing</i>) language, +and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the teachers +and makers of grammars. But it will reflect little light +on the principles of language, or prove very efficient helps +to "speak or write with propriety." Those who <i>think</i>, will +demand the <i>meaning</i> of these words, and the reason of their +use. When that is ascertained, little difficulty will be found +in giving them a place in the company of respectable words. +But I am digressing. More shall be said upon this point in +a future lecture, and in its proper place.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +I was endeavoring to establish the position that all language +depends upon permanent principles; that words are +the signs of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things +communicated to the mind thro the medium of some one of +the five senses. I think I have succeeded so far as simple +material things are concerned, to the satisfaction of all who +have heard me. It may, perhaps, be more difficult for me +to explain the words employed to express complex ideas, +and things of immateriality, such as mind, and its attributes. +But the rules previously adopted will, I apprehend, apply +with equal ease and correctness in this case; and we shall +have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon +which the whole superstructure of language is based.</p> + +<p>In pursuing this investigation I shall endeavor to avoid +all abstruse and metaphysical reasoning, present no wild +conjectures, or vain hypotheses; but confine myself to plain, +common place matter of fact. We have reason to rejoice +that a wonderful improvement in the science and cultivation +of the mind has taken place in these last days; that we are +no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms, the wild speculations +which occupied the giant minds of a Descartes, a +Malebranch, a Locke, a Reid, a Stewart, and hosts of others, +whose shining talents would have qualified them for the +brightest ornaments of literature, real benefactors of mankind, +had not their education lead them into dark and metaphysical +reasonings, a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries, +in which they became entangled, till, at length, they +were entirely lost in the labyrinth of their own conjectures.</p> + +<p>The occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt +to investigate the faculties of the mind without any means +of getting at it. They did not content themselves with an +adoption of the principles which lay at the foundation of all +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +true philosophy, viz., that the facts to be accounted for, <i>do +exist</i>; that truth is eternal, and we are to become acquainted +with it by the means employed for its development. They +quitted the world of materiality they inhabited, refused to +examine the development of mind as the effect of an existing +cause; and at one bold push, entered the world of +thought, and made the unhallowed attempt to reason, a priori, +concerning things which can only be known by their +manifestations. But they soon found themselves in a strange +land, confused with sights and sounds unknown, in the <i>explanation</i> +of which they, of course, choose terms as unintelligible +to their readers, as the <i>ideal realities</i> were to them. +This course, adopted by Aristotle, has been too closely followed +by those who have come after +him.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +But a new era +has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind, and a corresponding +change in the method of inculcating the principles +of language must +follow.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>In all our investigations we must take things as we find +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +them, and account for them as far as we can. It would be a +thankless task to attempt a change of principles in any thing. +That would be an encroachment of the Creator's rights. It +belongs to mortals to use the things they have as not abusing +them; and to Deity to regulate the laws by which those +things are governed. And that man is the wisest, the truest +philosopher, and brightest Christian, who acquaints himself +with those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter +and mind, in the promotion of physical and moral enjoyment, +and endeavors to conform to them in all his thoughts +and actions.</p> + +<p>From this apparent digression you will at once discover +our object. We must not endeavor to change the principles +of language, but to understand and explain them; to +ascertain, as far as possible, the actions of the mind in obtaining +ideas, and the use of language in expressing them. +We may not be able to make our sentiments understood; +but if they are not, the fault will originate in no obscurity +in the facts themselves, but in our inability either to understand +them or the words employed in their expression. Having +been in the habit of using words with either no meaning +or a wrong one, it may be difficult to comprehend the +subject of which they treat. A man may have a quantity +of sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, but it is not until he learns +their properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder. +Let us then adopt a careful and independent course +of reasoning, resolved to meddle with nothing we do not understand, +and to use no words until we know their meaning.</p> + +<p>A complex idea is a combination of several simple ones, +as a tree is made up of roots, a trunk, branches, twigs, and +leaves. And these again may be divided into the wood, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +the bark, the sap, &c. Or we may employ the botanical +terms, and enumerate its external and internal parts and +qualities; the whole anatomy and physiology, as well as +variety and history of trees of that species, and show its +characteristic distinctions; for the mind receives a different +impression on looking at a maple, a birch, a poplar, a tamarisk, +a sycamore, or hemlock. In this way complex ideas +are formed, distinct in their parts, but blended in a common +whole; and, in conformity with the law regulating language, +words, sounds or signs, are employed to express the complex +whole, or each distinctive part. The same may be +said of all things of like character. But this idea I will +illustrate more at large before the close of this lecture.</p> + +<p>First impressions are produced by a view of material +things, as we have already seen; and the notion of action +is obtained from a knowledge of the changes these things +undergo. The idea of quality and definition is produced by +contrast and comparison. Children soon learn the difference +between a sweet apple and a sour one, a white rose +and a red one, a hard seat and a soft one, harmonious sounds +and those that are discordant, a pleasant smell and one +that is disagreeable. As the mind advances, the application +is varied, and they speak of a sweet rose, changing +from <i>taste</i> and <i>sight</i> to smell, of a sweet song, of a hard apple, +&c. According to the qualities thus learned, you may +talk to them intelligibly of the <i>sweetness</i> of an apple, the +<i>color</i> of a rose, the <i>hardness</i> of iron, the <i>harmony</i> of sounds, +the <i>smell</i> or scent of things which possess that quality. As +these agree or disagree with their comfort, they will call +them <i>good</i> or <i>bad</i>, and speak of the qualities of goodness and +badness, as if possessed by the thing itself.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +In this apparently indiscriminate use of words, the ideas +remain distinct; and each sign or object calls them up separately +and associates them together, till, at length, in the +single object is associated all the ideas entertained of its size, +qualities, relations, and affinities.</p> + +<p>In this manner, after long, persevering toil, principles of +thought are fixed, and a foundation laid for the whole course +of future thinking and speaking. The ideas become less +simple and distinct. Just as fast as the mind advances in the +knowledge of things, language keeps pace with the ideas, +and even goes beyond them, so that in process of time +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'as ingle'">a single</ins> +term will not +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'unfrequenly'">unfrequently</ins> +represent a complexity of +ideas, one of which will signify a whole combination of +things.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there are many instances where the +single declaration of a fact may convey to the untutored +mind, a single thought or nearly so, when the better cultivated +will take into the account the whole process by +which it is effected. To illustrate: <i>a man killed a deer</i>. +Here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet +fully able to comprehend. He will see the obvious fact that +the man levels his musket, the gun goes off with a loud report, +and the deer falls and dies. How this is all produced +he does not understand, but knowing the fact he asserts the +single truth—the man killed the deer. As the child advances, +he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more +than he at first perceived. He now understands how it was +accomplished. The man had a gun. Then he must go +back to the gunsmith and see how it was made, thence back +to the iron taken from its bed, and wrought into bars; all +the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun, +the tools and machinery employed; the wood for the stock, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +its quality and production; the size, form and color of the +lock, the principle upon which it moves; the flint, the effect +produced by a collision with the steel, or a percussion cap, +and its composition; till he finds a single gun in the hands of +a man. The man is present with this gun. The motives +which brought him here; the movements of his limbs, regulated +by the determinations of the mind, and a thousand +other such thoughts, might be taken into the account. Then +the deer, his size, form, color, manner of living, next may +claim a passing thought. But I need not enlarge. Here +they both stand. The man has just seen the deer. As +quick as thought his eye passes over the ground, sees the +prey is within proper distance, takes aim, pulls the trigger, +that loosens a spring, which forces the flint against the steel; +this produces a spark, which ignites the charcoal, and the +sulphur and nitre combined, explode and force the wad, +which forces the ball from the gun, and is borne thro the +air till it reaches the deer, enters his body by displacing the +skin and flesh, deranges the animal functions, and death ensues. +The whole and much more is expressed in the single +phrase, "a man killed a deer."</p> + +<p>It would be needless for me to stop here, and examine all +the operations of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge. +That is not the object of the present work. Such +a duty belongs to another treatise, which may some day be +undertaken, on logic and the science of the mind. The hint +here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands, +and how language keeps pace with every advancing +step, and, also, how combinations are made from simple +things, as a house is made of timber, boards, shingles, nails, +and paints; or of bricks, stone, and mortar; as the case +may be, and when completed, a single term may express +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +the idea, and you speak of a wood, or a brick house. Following +this suggestion, by tracing the operations of the +mind in the young child, or your own, very minutely, in the +acquisition of any knowledge before wholly unknown to you, +as a new language, or a new science; botany, mineralogy, +chemistry, or phrenology; you will readily discover how +the mind receives new impressions of things, and a new vocabulary +is adopted to express the ideas formed of plants, +minerals, chemical properties, and the development of the +capacities of the mind as depending on material organs; +how these things are changed and combined; and how their +existence and qualities, changes and combinations, are expressed +by words, to be retained, or conveyed to other minds.</p> + +<p>But suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted +with these things, will he understand you? Talk to him of +stamens, pistils, calyxes; of monandria, diandria, triandria; +of gypsum, talc, calcareous spar, quartz, topaz, mica, garnet, +pyrites, hornblende, augite, actynolite; of hexahedral, +prismatic, rhomboidal, dodecahedral; of acids and alkalies; +of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon; of the configuration +of the brain, and its relative powers; do all this, and +what will he know of your meaning? So of all science. +Words are to be understood from the things they are employed +to represent. You may as well talk to a man in +the hebrew, chinese, or choctaw languages, as in our own, +if he does not know what is signified by the words selected +as the medium of thought.</p> + +<p>Your language may be most pure, perfect, full of meaning, +but you cannot make yourself understood till your +hearers can look thro your signs to the things signified. +You may as well present before them a picture of <i>nothing</i>.</p> + +<p>The great fault in the popular system of education is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +easily accounted for, particularly in reference to language. +Children are taught to study signs without looking at the +thing signified. In this way they are mere copyists, and +the mind can never expand so as to make them independent, +original thinkers. In fact, they can, in this way, never +learn to reason well or employ language correctly; no +more than a painter can be successful in his art, by merely +looking at the pictures of others without having ever seen +the originals. A good artist is a close observer of nature. +So children should be left free to examine and reflect, and +the signs will then serve their proper use—the means of +acquiring the knowledge of things. In vain you may give +a scholar a knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, +learn him to translate with rapidity or speak our own language +fluently. If he has not thereby learned the knowledge +of things signified by such language, he is, in principle, advanced +no farther than the parrot which says "pretty +poll, pretty poll."</p> + +<p>I am happy, however, in the consideration that a valuable +change is taking place in this respect. Geography is +no longer taught on the old systems, but maps are given +to represent more vividly land and water, rivers, islands, +and mountains. The study of arithmetic, chemistry, and +nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within +a few years. Grammar alone remains in quiet possession +of its unquestioned authority. Its nine "parts of +speech," its three genders, its three cases, its half dozen +kinds of pronouns, and as many moods and tenses, have +rarely been disquieted. A host of book makers have fondled +around them, but few have dared molest them, finding +them so snugly ensconced under the sanctity of age, and +the venerated opinions of learned and good men. Of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +numberless attempts to simplify grammar, what has been +the success? Wherein do modern "simplifiers" differ from +Murray? and he was only a <i>compiler</i>! They have all +discovered his errors. But who has corrected them? They +have all deviated somewhat from his manner. But what +is that but saying, that with all his grammatical knowledge, +he could not explain his own meaning?</p> + +<p>All the trouble originates in this; the rules of grammar +have not been sought for where they are only to be found, +in the laws that govern matter and thought. Arbitrary rules +have been adopted which will never apply in practice, except +in special cases, and the attempt to bind language down +to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought, or +stop the waters of Niagara with a straw. Language will +go on, and keep pace with the mind, and grammar should +explain it so as to be correctly understood.</p> + +<p>I wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all +thro my remarks, that you may challenge every position I +assume till proved to be correct—till you distinctly understand +it and definite impressions are made upon your minds. +In this way you will discover a beauty and perfection in +language before unknown; its rules will be found few and +simple, holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime +principles upon which they depend; and you will have reason +to admire the works and adore the character of the +great Parent Intellect, whose presence and protection pervade +all his works and regulate the laws of matter and +mind. You will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with +sentiments of gratitude for the gift of mind, its affections, +powers, and means of operation and communication, and +resolved more than ever to employ these faculties in human +improvement and the advancement of general happiness.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_III" id="LECTURE_III"></a>LECTURE III.</h2> + +<h3>WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Principles never alter. — +They should be known. — Grammar a most +important branch of science. — Spoken and written Language. — Idea +of a thing. — How expressed. — An example. — Picture writing. — An +anecdote. — Ideas expressed by actions. — Principles of +spoken and written Language. — Apply universally. — Two examples. — English +language. — Foreign words. — Words in science. — New +words. — How formed.</p></div> + + +<p>We now come to take a nearer view of language as generally +understood by grammar. But we shall have no occasion +to depart from the principles already advanced, for +there is existing in practice nothing which may not be accounted +for in theory; as there can be no effect without an +efficient cause to produce it.</p> + +<p>We may, however, long remain ignorant of the true explanation +of the principles involved; but the fault is ours, +and not in the things themselves. The earth moved with +as much grandeur and precision around its axis and in its +orbit before the days of Gallileo Gallilei, when philosophers +believed it flat and stationary, as it has done since. So the +great principles on which depends the existence and use of +all language are permanent, and may be correctly employed +by those who have never examined them; but this does not +prove that to be ignorant is better than to be wise. We +may have taken food all our days without knowing much +of the process by which it is converted into nourishment and +incorporated into our bodies, without ever having heard of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +delutition chymification, chylification, or even digestion, as +a whole; but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge +of these things is unimportant, or that ignorance of them +is not the cause of much disease and suffering among mankind. +And it is, or should be, the business of the physiologist +to explain these things, and show the great practical +benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them. So +the grammarian should act as a sort of physiologist of language. +He should analyze all its parts and show how it +is framed together to constitute a perfect whole.</p> + +<p>Instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of +technical expressions, and arbitrary rules, I most urgently +exhort you to continue, with unremitting assiduity, your inquiries +into the reason and propriety of the positions which +may be taken. It is the business of philosophy, not to +meddle with things to direct how they should be, but to account +for them and their properties and relations as they +are. So it is the business of grammar to explain language +as it exists in use, and exhibit the reason why it is used +thus, and what principles must be observed to employ it +correctly in speaking and writing. This method is adopted +to carry out the principles already established, and show +their adaptation to the wants of the community, and how +they may be correctly and successfully employed. Grammar +considered in this light forms a department in the science +of the mind by no means unimportant. And it can not +fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in +the business, social, literary, moral, or religious concerns of +life. Those who have thoughts to communicate, or desire +an acquaintance with the minds of others, can not be indifferent +to the means on which such intercourse depends. I +am convinced, therefore, that you will give me your most +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +profound attention as I pursue the subject of the present +lecture somewhat in detail. And I hope you will not consider +me tedious or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks.</p> + +<p>I will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes +of spoken and written language, altho that topic of itself, in +the different sounds and signs employed in different ages +and by different nations to express the same idea, would +form a most interesting theme for several lectures. But +that work must be reserved for a future occasion. You +are all acquainted with the signs, written and spoken, which +are employed in our language as vehicles (some of them +like omnibusses) of thought to carry ideas from one mind +to another. Some of you doubtless are acquainted with the +application of this fact in other languages. In other words, +you know how to sound the name of a thing, how to describe +its properties as far as you understand them, and its +attitudes or changes. This you can do by vocal sounds, or +written, or printed signs.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, you can receive a similar impression +by hearing the description of another, or by seeing it written +or printed. But here you will bear in mind the fact +that the word, spoken or written, is but the sign of the idea +derived from the thing signified. For example: Here is +an apple. I do not now speak of its composition, the skin, +the pulp, &c.; nor of its qualities, whether sour, or sweet, +or bitter, good or bad, great or small, long or short, round +or flat, red, or white, or yellow. I speak of a single thing—an +apple. Here it is, present before you. Look at it. +It is now removed. You do not see it. Your minds are +occupied with something else, in looking at that organ, or this +representation of Solomon's temple, or, perhaps, lingering +in melancholy review of your old systems of grammar +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +thro which you plodded at a tedious rate, goaded on by the +stimulus of the ferule, or the fear of being called ignorant. +From that unhappy reverie I recal your minds, by saying +<i>apple</i>. An apple? where? There is none in sight. No; +but you have distinct recollections of a single object I just +now held before you. You see it, mentally, and were you +painters you might paint its likeness. What has brought +this object so vividly before you? The single sound <i>apple</i>. +This sound has called up the idea produced in your mind +on looking at this object which I now again present before +you. Here is the thing represented—the apple. Again I +lay it aside, and commence a conversation with you on the +varieties of apples, the form, color, flavor, manner of production, +their difference from other fruit, where found, when, +and by whom. Here! look again. What do you see? +A-P-P-L-E—<i>Apple</i>. What is that? The representation +of the idea produced in the mind by a certain object you +saw a little while ago. Here then you have the spoken +and written signs of this single object I now again present +to your vision. This idea may also be called up by the +sense of feeling, smelling, or tasting, under certain restrictions. +Here you would be no more liable to be mistaken +than by seeing. We can indeed imagine things which would +feel, and smell, and taste, and look some like an apple, but +it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to make their +suppositions, and then account for them—to imagine things, +and then treat of them as realities. We are content with +the knowledge of things as they do exist, and think there is +little danger of mistaking a potato for an apple, or a squash +for a pear. Tho in the dark we may lay hold of the +Frenchman's <i>pomme de terre</i>—apple of the earth, the first +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too metaphysical.</p> + +<p>The same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture +of the apple presented to your sight. On this ground +the picture writing of the ancients may be accounted for; +and after that, the hieroglyphics of Egypt and other countries, +which was but a step from picture writing towards the +use of the alphabet. But these signs or vehicles for the +conveyance or transmission of their thoughts, compared +with the present perfect state of language, were as aukward +and uncomly as the carriages employed for the conveyance +of their bodies were compared with those now in use. +They were like ox carts drawn by mules, compared with +the most splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys.</p> + +<p>A similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted +with alphabetical writing. It was so with the +merchant who could not write. He sold his neighbor a +grindstone, on trust. Lest he should forget it—lest the <i>idea</i> +of it should be obliterated from the mind—he, in the absence +of his clerk, took his book and a pen and drew out a <i>round +picture</i> to represent it. Some months after, he dunned his +neighbor for his pay for a cheese. "I have bought no +cheese of you," was the reply. Yes, you have, for I have +it charged. "You must be mistaken, for I never bought a +cheese. We always make our own." How then should +I have one charged to you? "I cannot tell. I have never +had any thing here on credit except a grindstone." Ah! +that's it, that's it, only I forgot to make a hole through +it!"</p> + +<p>Ideas may also be exchanged by actions. This is the +first and strongest language of nature. It may be employed, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +when words have failed, in the most effectual manner. +The angry man, choked with rage, unable to speak, tells +the violent passions, burning in his bosom, in a language +which can not be mistaken. The actions of a friend are a +surer test of friendship than all the honied words he may +utter. Actions speak louder than words. The first impressions +of maternal affection are produced in the infant +mind by the soothing attentions of the mother. In the same +way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb. +Certain motions express certain ideas. These being duly +arranged and conformed to our alphabetic signs, and well +understood, the pupil may become acquainted with book +knowledge as well as we. They go by sight and not by +sound. A different method is adopted with the blind. Letters +with them are so arranged that they can <i>feel</i> them. +The signs thus felt correspond with the sounds they hear. +Here they must stop. They cannot see to describe. Those +who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf, can have +but a faint knowledge of language, or the ideas of others.</p> + +<p>On similar principles we may explain the pantomime +plays sometimes performed, where the most entertaining +scenes of love and murder are represented, but not a word +spoken.</p> + +<p>Three things are always to be born in mind in the use +and study of all language: 1st, the thing signified; 2d, the +idea of the thing; and 3d, the word or sign chosen to represent +it.</p> + +<p><i>Things</i> exist.</p> + +<p>Thinking beings conceive <i>ideas of things</i>.</p> + +<p>Those who employ language adopt <i>sounds or signs to +convey those ideas</i> to others.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +On these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure +of all language, spoken or written. Objects are presented +to the mind, impressions are there made, which, retained, +constitute the idea, and, by agreement, certain words are +employed as the future signs or representations of those +ideas. If we saw an object in early life and knew its <i>name</i>, +the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea which +had long lain dormant in the memory, (if I may so speak,) +and we can converse about it as correctly as when we first +saw it.</p> + +<p>These principles, I have said, hold good in all languages. +Proof of this may not improperly be offered here, provided +it be not too prolix. I will endeavor to be brief.</p> + +<p>In an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated +a delegation from every language under heaven. All are +so arranged as to face a common center. A white horse +is led into that spot and all look at the living animal +which stands before them. The same impression must be +made on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned. +But as the whole is made up of parts, so their minds will +soon diverge from a single idea, and one will think of his +size, compared with other horses; another of his form; another +of his color. Some will think of his noble appearance, +others of his ability to travel, or (in jockey phrase) his +<i>speed</i>. The farrier will look for his blemishes, to see if he +is <i>sound</i>, and the jockey at his teeth, to <i>guess</i> at his <i>age</i>. +The anatomist will, in thought, dissect him into parts and +see every bone, sinew, cartilage, blood vessel, his stomach, +lungs, liver, heart, entrails; every part will be laid open; +and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single object—a +white horse—others will, at a single glance, read volumes of +instruction. Oh! the importance of knowledge! how little +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +is it regarded! What funds of instruction might be gathered +from the lessons every where presented to the mind!</p> + +<p>One impression would be made on all minds in reference +to the single tangible object before them; no matter how +learned or ignorant. There stands an animal obvious to +all. Let him be removed out of sight, and a very exact +picture of him suspended in his place. All again agree. +Here then is the proof of our first general principle, viz. all +language depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature.</p> + +<p>Let the picture be removed and a man step forth and +pronounce the word, <i>ippos</i>. The Greek starts up and says, +"Yes, it is so." The rest do not comprehend him. He then +writes out distinctly, ΙΠΠΟΣ. They are in the dark +as to the meaning. They know not whether a horse, a +man, or a goose is named. All the Greeks, however, understand +the meaning the same as when the horse or picture +was before them, for they had <i>agreed</i> that <i>ippos</i> should +represent the <i>idea</i> of that animal.</p> + +<p>Forth steps another, and pronounces the word <i>cheval</i>. +Every Frenchman is aroused: Oui, monsieur? Yes, sir. +Comprenez vous? Do you understand? he says to the rest. +But they are dumb. He then writes C-H-E-V-A-L. +All are as ignorant as before, save the Frenchmen who had +agreed that <i>cheval</i> should be the name for horse.</p> + +<p>Next go yourself, thinking all will understand you, and +say, <i>horse</i>; but, lo! none unacquainted with your language +are the wiser for the sound you utter, or the sign you suspended +before them; save, perhaps, a little old Saxon, who, +at first looks deceived by the similarity of sound, but, seeing +the sign, is as demure as ever, for he omits the <i>e</i>, and pronounces +it shorter than we do, more like a yorkshire man. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +But why are you not understood? Because others have +not entered into an <i>agreement</i> with you that <i>h-o-r-s-e</i>, spoken +or written, shall represent that animal.</p> + +<p>Take another example. Place the living animal called +man before them. Less trouble will be found in this case +than in the former, for there is a nearer agreement than before +in regard to the signs which shall be employed to express +the idea. This word occurs with very little variation +in the modern languages, derived undoubtedly from the Teutonic, +with a little change in the spelling, as Saxon <i>mann</i> or +<i>mon</i>, Gothic <i>manna</i>, German, Danish, +Dutch, <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Sweedish'">Swedish</ins> and +Icelandic like ours. In the south of Europe, however, this +word varies as well as others.</p> + +<p>Our language is derived more directly from the old Saxon +than from any other, but has a great similarity to the +French and Latin, and a kind of cousin-german to all the +languages of Europe, ancient and modern. Ours, indeed, +is a compound from most other languages, retaining some of +their beauties and many of their defects. We can boast little +distinctive character of our own. As England was possessed +by different nations at different periods, so different +dialects were introduced, and we can trace our language to +as many sources, German, Danish, Saxon, French, and +Roman, which were the different nations amalgamated +into the British empire. We retain little of the real old +english—few words which may not be traced to a foreign +extraction. Different people settling in a country would of +course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them; +and from the whole compound a general agreement would, +in process of time, take place, and a uniform language be +established. Such is the origin and condition of our +lan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>guage, +as well as every other modern tongue of which we +have any knowledge.</p> + +<p>There is one practice of which our savans are guilty, at +which I do most seriously demur—the extravagant introduction +of exotic words into our vocabulary, apparently for +no other object than to swell the size of a dictionary, and +boast of having found out and defined thousands of words +more than any body else. A mania seems to have seized +our lexicographers, so that they have forsaken the good old +style of "plainness of speech," and are flourishing and +brandishing about in a cloud of verbiage as though the +whole end of instruction was to teach loquacity. And some +of our popular writers and speakers have caught the infection, +and flourish in borrowed garments, prizing themselves +most highly when they use words and phrases which no +body can understand.</p> + +<p>I will not contend that in the advancement of the arts +and sciences it may not be proper to introduce foreign terms +as the mean of conveying a knowledge of those improvements +to others. It is better than to coin new words, inasmuch +as they are generally adopted by all modern nations. +In this way all languages are approximating together; and +when the light of truth, science, and religion, has fully +shone on all the nations, we may hope one language will +be spoken, and the promise be fulfilled, that God has "turned +unto the people a pure language, that they may call upon +the name of the Lord, to serve him with one consent."</p> + +<p>New ideas are formed like new inventions. Established +principles are employed in a new combination, so as to produce +a new manifestation. Words are chosen as nearly +allied to former ideas as possible, to express or represent +this new combination. Thus, Fulton applied steam power +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +to navigation. A new idea was produced. A boat was +seen passing along the waters without the aid of wind or +tide. Instead of coining a new word to express the whole, +a word which nobody would understand, two old ones +were combined, and "<i>steamboat</i>" became the sign to represent +the idea of the thing beheld. So with rail-road, cotton-mill, +and gun-powder. In the same way we may account +for most words employed in science, although in that +case we are more dependant on foreign languages, in +as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived +from them. But we may account for them on the same +principle as above. <i>Phrenology</i> is a compound of two +greek words, and means the science or knowledge of the +mind. So of geology, mineralogy, &c. But when +improvements are made by those who speak the english, +words in our own language are employed and used not only +by ourselves, but also by those nations who profit by our +investigations.</p> + +<p>I trust I have now said enough on the general principles +of language as applied to things. In the next lecture I will +come down to a sort of bird's eye view of grammar. But +my soul abhors arbitrary rules so devoutly, I can make no +promises how long I will continue in close communion with +set forms of speech. I love to wander too well to remain +confined to one spot, narrowed up in the limits fixed by +others. Freedom is the empire of the mind; it abjures +all fetters, all slavery. It kneels at the altar of virtue and +worships at the shrine of truth. No obstacles should be +thrown in the way of its progress. No limits should be set +to it but those of the Almighty.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_IV" id="LECTURE_IV"></a>LECTURE IV.</h2> + +<h3>ON NOUNS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Nouns defined. — Things. — +Qualities of matter. — Mind. — Spiritual +beings. — Qualities of mind. — How learned. — +Imaginary things. — Negation. — Names +of actions. — Proper nouns. — Characteristic +names. — Proper nouns may become common.</p></div> + + +<p>Your attention is, this evening, invited to the first divisions +of words, called <i>Nouns</i>. This is a most important class, and +as such deserves our particular notice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Nouns are the names of things.</i></p></div> + +<p>The word <i>noun</i> is derived from the Latin <i>nomen</i>, French +<i>nom</i>. It means <i>name</i>. Hence the definition above given.</p> + +<p>In grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of +words which name things, or stand as signs or representatives +of things.</p> + +<p>We use the word <i>thing</i> in its broadest sense, including +every possible entity; every being, or thing, animate or inanimate, +material or immaterial, real or imaginary, physical, +moral, or intellectual. It is the noun of the Saxon +<i>thincan</i> or <i>thingian</i>, to think; and is used to express every +conceivable object of thought, in whatever form or manner +presented to the human mind.</p> + +<p>Every word employed to designate things, or name them, +is to be ranked in the class called <i>nouns</i>, or names. You +have only to determine whether a word is used thus, to learn +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +whether it belongs to this or some other class of words. +Here let me repeat:</p> + + +<ul><li>1. Things exist.</li> +<li>2. We conceive ideas of things.</li> +<li>3. We use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others.</li> +<li>4. We denominate the class of words thus used, <i>nouns</i>.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Perhaps I ought to stop here, or pass to another topic. +But as these lectures are intended to be so plain that all +can understand my meaning, I must indulge in a few more +remarks before advancing farther.</p> + +<p>In addition to individual, tangible objects, we conceive +ideas of the <i>qualities</i> of things, and give <i>names</i> to such +qualities, which become <i>nouns</i>. Thus, the <i>hardness</i> of iron, the +<i>heat</i> of fire, the <i>color</i> of a rose, the <i>bitterness</i> of gall, +the <i>error</i> of grammars. The following may serve to make my +views more plain. Take two tumblers, the one half filled +with water, the other with milk; mix them together. You +can now talk of the milk in the water, or the water in the +milk. Your ideas are distinct, tho the objects are so intimately +blended, that they can not be separated. So with +the qualities of things.</p> + +<p>We also speak of mind, intellect, soul; but to them we +can give no form, and of them paint no likeness. Yet we +have ideas of them, and employ words to express them, +which become <i>nouns</i>.</p> + +<p>This accounts for the reason why the great Parent Intellect +has strictly forbidden, in the decalogue, that a likeness +of him should be constructed. His being and attributes are +discoverable only thro the medium of his works and word. +No man can see him and live. It would be the height of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +folly—it would be more—it would be blasphemy—to attempt +to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills +immensity—whose center is every where, and whose +circumference is no where. The name of this Spirit or Being +was held in the most profound reverence by the Jews, as +we shall have occasion to mention when we come to treat +of the verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>.</p> + +<p>We talk of angels, and have seen the unhallowed attempt +to describe their likeness in the form of pictures, which display +the fancy of the artist very finely, but give a miserable +idea of those pure spirits who minister at the altar of +God, and chant his praises in notes of the most unspeakable +delight.</p> + +<p>We have also seen <i>death</i> and the pale horse, the firy +dragon, the mystery of Babylon, and such like things, +represented on canvass; but they betoken more of human +talent to depict the marvellous, than a strict regard for truth. +Beelzebub, imps, and all Pandemonium, may be vividly +imagined and finely arranged in fiction, and we can name +them. Wizzards, witches, and fairies, may play their sportive +tricks in the human brain, and receive names as tho they +were real.</p> + +<p>We also think and speak of the qualities and affections +of the mind as well as matter, as wisdom, knowledge, virtue, +vice, love, hatred, anger. Our conceptions in this case +may be less distinct, but we have ideas, and use words to +express them. There is, we confess, a greater liability to +mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its +qualities, than of matter. The reason is evident, people +know less of it. Its operations are less distinct and more +varying.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +The child first sees material objects. It is taught to +name them. It next learns the qualities of things; as the +sweetness of sugar, the darkness of night, the beauty of +flowers. From this it ascends by gradation to the higher +attainments of knowledge as revealed in the empire of mind, +as well as matter. Great care should be taken that this +advancement be easy, natural, and thoro. It should be +constantly impressed with the importance of obtaining clear +and definite ideas of things, and never employ words till +it has ideas to express; never name a thing of which it has +no knowledge. This is ignorance.</p> + +<p>It would be well, perhaps, to extend this remark to those +older than children, in years, but less in real practical +knowledge. The remark is of such general application, that no +specification need be made, except to the case before us; +to those affected proficients in grammar, whose only knowledge +is the memory of words, which to them have no meanings, +if, indeed, the writers themselves had any to express +by them; a fact we regard as questionable, at best. There +is hardly a teacher of grammar, whose self-esteem is not +enormous, who will not confess himself ignorant on many of +the important principles of language; that he has never +understood, and could never explain them. He finds no difficulty +in repeating what the books say, but if called upon to +express an opinion of his own, he has none to give. He has +learned and used words without knowing their meaning.</p> + +<p>Children should be taught language as they are taught +music. They should learn the simple tones on which the +whole science depends. Distinct impressions of sounds +should be made on their minds, and the characters which +represent them should be inseparably associated with them. +They will then learn tunes from the compositions of those +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +sounds, as represented by notes. By dint of application, +they will soon become familiar with these principles, if +possessed of a talent for song, and may soon pass the acme with +ease, accuracy, and rapidity. But there are those who may +sing very prettily, and tolerably correct, who have never +studied the first rudiments of music. But such can never +become adepts in the science.</p> + +<p>So there are those who use language correctly, who never +saw the inside of a grammar book, and who never examined +the principles on which it depends. But this, by no +means, proves that it is better to sing by rote, than "with +the understanding." These rudiments, however, should +form the business of the nursery, rather than the grammar +school. Every mother should labor to give distinct and +forcible impressions of such things as she learns her children +to <i>name</i>. She should carefully prevent them from +employing words which have no meaning, and still more +strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong +meaning to those they do use. In this way, the foundation +for future knowledge and eminence, would be laid broad and +deep. But I wander.</p> + +<p>We attach names to imaginary things; as ghosts, genii, +imps.</p> + +<p>To this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients, +who were frequently represented by emblems significant +of the characters attached to them. We employ +words to name these imaginary things, so that we read and +converse about them understandingly, tho our ideas may be +exceedingly various.</p> + +<p>Nouns are also used to express negation, of which no +idea can be formed. In this case, the mind rests on what +exists, and employs a word to express what does not. We +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +speak of <i>a hole</i> in the paper. But we can form no idea of +<i>a hole</i>, separated from the surrounding substances. Remove +the parts of the paper till nothing is left, and then you +may look in vain for the hole. It is not there. It never +was. In the same way we use the words nothing, nobody, +nonentity, vacuum, absence, space, blank, annihilation, and +oblivion. These are relative terms, to be understood in reference +to things which are known to exist. We must know +of <i>some</i>thing before we can talk of <i>no</i>thing, of an entity before +we can think of nonentity.</p> + +<p>In a similar way we employ words to name actions, which +are produced by the changes of objects. We speak of a +race, of a flight, of a sitting or session, of a journey, of a +ride, of a walk, of a residence, etc. In all these cases, the +mind is fixed on the persons who performed these things. +Take for example, a race. Of that, we can conceive no +idea separate from the agent or object which <i>ran</i> the <i>race</i>. +Without some other word to inform us we could not decide +whether a <i>horse</i> race, a <i>foot</i> race, a boat race, the race of +a mill, or some other race, was the object of remark. The +same may be said of flight, for we read of the flight of birds, +the flight of Mahommed, the flight of armies, and the flight +of intellect.</p> + +<p>We also give names to actions as tho they were taking +place in the present tense. "The <i>reading</i> of the report +was deferred;" steamboat <i>racing</i> is dangerous to public +safety; <i>stealing</i> is a crime; false <i>teaching</i> deserves the +reprobation of all.</p> + +<p>The hints I have given will assist you in acquiring a +knowledge of nouns as used to express ideas in vocal or +written language. This subject might be pursued further +with profit, if time would permit. As the time allotted to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +this lecture is nearly exhausted, I forbear. I shall hereafter +have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be +used to name an idea, and as such stand as the agent or +object of a verb.</p> + +<p>Some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects, +and distinguish them from the class to which they +usually belong. In this way they assume a distinctive +character, and are usually denominated <span class="smcap">proper nouns</span>. +They apply to persons, places and things; as, John Smith, +Boston, Hylax. <i>Boy</i> is applied in common to all young +males of the human species, and as such is a <i>common noun</i> +or name. <i>John Smith</i> designates a particular boy from the +rest.</p> + +<p>Proper names may be also applied to animals and things. +The stable keeper and stageman has a name for every +horse he owns, to distinguish it from other horses; the dairyman +for his cows, the boy for his dog, and the girl for +her doll. Any word, in fact, may become a proper name +by being specifically used; as the ship Fair Trader, the +brig Success, sloop Delight in Peace, the race horse Eclipse, +Black Hawk, Round Nose, and Red Jacket.</p> + +<p>Proper names were formerly used in reference to certain +traits of character or circumstances connected with the place +or thing. <i>Abram</i> was changed to <i>Abraham</i>, the former +signifying <i>an elevated father</i>, the latter, <i>the father of a multitude</i>. +<i>Isaac</i> signified <i>laughter</i>, and was given because his +mother laughed at the message of the angel. <i>Jacob</i> signified +<i>a supplanter</i>, because he was to obtain the birthright +of his elder brother.</p> + +<p>A ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to +express scripture sentiments in the names of their children, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +as may be seen by consulting the records of the Plymouth +and Massachusetts colonies.</p> + +<p>This practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day, +for we hear of the names of Hope, Mercy, Patience, Comfort, +Experience, Temperance, Faith, Deliverance, Return, and +such like, applied usually to females, (being more in character +probably,) and sometimes to males. We have also +the names of White, Black, Green, Red, Gray, Brown, Olive, +Whitefield, Blackwood, Redfield, Woodhouse, Stonehouse, +Waterhouse, Woodbridge, Swiftwater, Lowater, +Drinkwater, Spring, Brooks, Rivers, Pond, Lake, Fairweather, +Merryweather, Weatherhead, Rice, Wheat, Straw, +Greatrakes, Bird, Fowle, Crow, Hawks, Eagle, Partridge, +Wren, Goslings, Fox, Camel, Zebra, Bear, Wolf, Hogg, +Rain, Snow, Haile, Frost, Fogg, Mudd, Clay, Sands, Hills, +Valley, Field, Stone, Flint, Silver, Gould, and Diamond.</p> + +<p>Proper nouns may also become common when used as +words of general import; as, <i>dunces</i>, corrupted from Duns +Scotus, a distinguished theologian, born at Dunstane, Northumberland, +an opposer of the doctrines of Thomas Aquinus. +He is a real <i>solomon</i>, jack tars, judases, antichrist, +and so on.</p> + +<p>Nouns may also be considered in respect to person, number, +gender, and positive, or case. There are <i>three</i> persons, +<i>two</i> numbers, <i>two</i> genders, and <i>two</i> cases. But the +further consideration of these things will be deferred, which, +together with Pronouns, will form the subject of our next +lecture.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_V" id="LECTURE_V"></a>LECTURE V.</h2> + +<h3>ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Nouns in respect to persons. +— Number. — Singular. — Plural. — How +formed. — Foreign plurals. — Proper names admit of plurals. — Gender. — No +neuter. — In figurative language. — Errors. — Position +or case. — Agents. — Objects. — Possessive case considered. — A +definitive word. — Pronouns. — One kind. — Originally nouns. — Specifically +applied.</p></div> + + +<p>We resume the consideration of nouns this evening, in +relation to person, number, gender, and position or case.</p> + +<p>In the use of language there is a speaker, person spoken +to, and things spoken of. Those who speak are the <i>first</i> +persons, those who hear the <i>second</i>, and those who are the +subject of conversation the <i>third</i>.</p> + +<p>The first and second persons are generally used in reference +to human beings capable of speech and understanding. +But we sometimes condesend to hold converse with animals +and inanimate matter. The bird trainer talks to his parrots, +the coachman to his horses, the sailor to the winds, +and the poet to his landscapes, towers, and wild imaginings, +to which he gives a "local habitation and a name."</p> + +<p>By metaphor, language is put into the mouths of animals, +particularly in fables. By a still further license, places +and things, flowers, trees, forests, brooks, lakes, mountains, +towers, castles, stars, &c. are made to speak the most +eloquent language, in the first person, in addresses the most +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +pathetic. The propriety of such a use of words I will not +stop to question, but simply remark that such figures should +never be employed in the instruction of children. As the +mind expands, no longer content to grovel amidst mundane +things, we mount the pegasus of imagination and soar thro +the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and fiction, and study +a language before unknown. But it would be an unrighteous +demand upon others, to require them to understand us; +and quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance +because they do not.</p> + +<p>Most nouns are in the third person. More things are +talked about than talk themselves, or are talked to by others. +Hence there is little necessity for teaching children +to specify except in the first or second person, which is +very easily done.</p> + +<p>In English there are two <i>numbers</i>, singular and plural. +The singular is confined to one, the plural is extended to +any indefinite number. The Greeks, adopted a dual number +which they used to express two objects united in pairs, +or couples; as, a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a brace +of pistols, a pair of shoes. We express the same idea with +more words, using the singular to represent the union of the +two. We also extend this use of words and employ what +are called <i>nouns of multitude</i>; as, a people, an army, a +host, a nation. These and similar words are used in the +singular referring to many combined in a united whole, or +in the plural comprehending a diversity; as, "the armies +met," "the nations are at peace." <i>People</i> admits no change +on account of number. We say "<i>many</i> people are collected +together and form <i>a</i> numerous people."</p> + +<p>The plural is not always to be understood as expressing +an increase of number, but of qualities or sorts of things, as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the merchant has a variety of <i>sugars</i>, <i>wines</i>, <i>teas</i>, <i>drugs</i>, +<i>medicines</i>, <i>paints</i> and <i>dye-woods</i>. We also speak of <i>hopes</i>, +<i>fears</i>, <i>loves</i>, <i>anxieties</i>.</p> + +<p>Some nouns admit of no plural, in fact, or in use; as, +chaos, universe, fitness, immortality, immensity, eternity. +Others admit of no singular; as, scissors, tongs, vitals, molasses. +These words probably once had singulars, but having +no use for them they became obsolete. We have long +been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together, +so that in speaking of one whole, we say shears, and +of apart, half of a shears. But of some words originally, +and in fact plural, we have formed a singular; as, "one +twin died, and, tho the other one survived its dangerous +illness, the mother wept bitterly for her twins." <i>Twin</i> is +composed of <i>two</i> and <i>one</i>. It is found in old books, spelled +<i>twane</i>, two-one, or twin. Thus, the <i>twi</i>-light is formed by +the mingling of two lights, or the division of the rays of light +by the approaching or receding darkness. They <i>twain</i> +shall be one flesh. Sheep and deer are singular or plural.</p> + +<p>Most plurals are formed by adding <i>s</i> to the singular, or, +when euphony requires it, <i>es</i>; as, tree, trees; sun, suns; dish, +dishes; box, boxes. Some retain the old plural form; as, +ox, oxen; child, children; chick, chicken; kit, kitten. But +habit has burst the barrier of old rules, and we now talk of +chicks and chickens, kits and kittens. <i>Oxen</i> alone stands +as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon +plurals.</p> + +<p>Some nouns form irregular plurals. Those ending in <i>f</i> +change that letter to <i>v</i> and then add <i>es</i>; as, half, halves; +leaf, leaves; wolf, wolves. Those ending in <i>y</i> change that +to <i>i</i> and add the <i>es</i>; as, cherry, cherries; berry, berries; +except when the <i>y</i> is preceded by a vowel, in which case it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +only adds the <i>s</i>; as, day, days; money, moneys (not <i>ies</i>); +attorney, attorneys. All this is to make the sound more +easy and harmonious. <i>F</i> and <i>v</i> were formerly used indiscriminately, +in singulars as well as plurals, and, in fact, in +the composition of all words where they occurred. The +same may be said of <i>i</i> and <i>y</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The Fader (Father) Almychty of the heven abuf (above)<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In the mene tyme, unto Juno his <i>luf</i> (love)<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thus spak; and sayd."<br /></span></div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Douglas, booke 12, pag. 441.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"They lyued in ioye and in felycite<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For eche of hem had other lefe and dere."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer, Monks Tale, fol. 81, p. 1.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"When straite twane beefes he tooke<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And an the aultar layde."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The reason why <i>y</i> is changed into <i>i</i> in the formation of +plurals, and in certain other cases, is, I apprehend, accounted +for from the fact that words which now end in <i>y</i> formerly +ended in <i>ie</i>, as may be seen in all old books. The regular +plural was then formed by adding <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>"And upon those members of the <i>bodie</i>, which <i>wee</i> thinke +most unhonest, put <i>wee</i> more honestie on." "It rejoyceth +not in iniquitie—diversitie of gifts—all thinges edifie not." +See old bible, 1 Cor., chap. 13 and 14.</p> + +<p>Other words form their plurals still more differently, for +which no other rule than habit can be given; as, man, men; +foot, feet; tooth, teeth; die, dice; mouse, mice; penny, +pence, and sometimes pennies, when applied to distinct +pieces of money, and not to value.</p> + +<p>Many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the +nations from whom we have borrowed them; as, cherub, +cherubim; seraph, seraphim; radius, radii; memorandum, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +memoranda; datum, data, &c. We should be pleased to +have such words carried home, or, if they are ours by virtue +of possession, let them be adopted into our family, and +put on the garments of naturalized citizens, and no longer +appear as lonely strangers among us. There is great aukwardness +in adding the english to the hebrew plural of +cherub, as the translators of the common version of the +bible have done. They use <i>cherub</i> in the singular and +cherub<i>ims</i> in the plural. The <i>s</i> should be omitted and the +Hebrew plural retained, or the preferable course adopted, +and the final <i>s</i> be added, making cherubs, seraphs, &c. +The same might be said of all foreign nouns. It would add +much to the regularity, dignity, and beauty, of our vernacular +tongue.</p> + +<p>Proper nouns admit of the plural number; as, there are +sixty-four John Smiths in New-York, twenty Arnolds in +Providence, and fifteen Davises in Boston. As we are not +accustomed to form the plurals of proper names there is +not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we +have found in those with which we are more familiar; especially +those we have rarely heard pronounced. Habit +surmounts the greatest obstacles and makes things the most +harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable.</p> + +<p>Gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes. There +are two—masculine and feminine. The former is applied to +males, the latter to females. Those words which belong to +neither gender, have been called <i>neuter</i>, that is, <i>no gender</i>. +But it is hardly necessary to perplex the minds of learners +with <i>negatives</i>. Let them distinguish between masculine +and feminine genders, and little need be said to them about +a <i>neuter</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +There are some nouns of both genders, as student, writer, +pupil, person, citizen, resident. <i>Poet</i>, <i>author</i>, editor, and +some other words, have of late been applied to females, instead +of poet<i>ess</i>, author<i>ess</i>, edit<i>ress</i>. Fashion will soon +preclude the necessity of this former distinction.</p> + +<p>Some languages determine their genders by the form of +the endings of their nouns, and what is thus made masculine +in Rome, may be feminine in France. It is owing, no doubt, +to this practice, in other nations, that we have attached the +idea of gender to inanimate things; as, "the sun, <i>he</i> shines +majestically;" while of the moon, it is said, "<i>she</i> sheds a +milder radiance." But we can not coincide with the reason +assigned by Mr. Murray, for this distinction. His notion +is not valid. It does not correspond with facts. While +in the south of Europe the sun is called masculine and the +moon feminine, the northern nations invariably reverse the +distinction, particularly the dialects of the Scandinavian. It +was so in our own language in the time of Shakspeare. He +calls the sun a "<i>fair wench</i>."</p> + +<p>By figures of rhetoric, genders may be attached to inanimate +matter. Where things are personified, we usually +speak of them as masculine and feminine; but this practice +depends on fancy, and not on any fixed rules. There is, in +truth, but two genders, and those confined to animals. When +we break these rules, and follow the undirected wanderings +of fancy, we can form no rules to regulate our words. We +may have as many fanciful ones as we please, but they will +not apply in common practice. For example: poets and +artists have usually attached female loveliness to angels, +and placed them in the feminine gender. But they are invariably +used in the masculine thro out the scriptures.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +There is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship +General Williams, <i>she</i> is beautiful; or, of the steamboat +Benjamin Franklin, <i>she</i> is out of date. It were far better +to use no gender in such cases. But if people will continue +the practice of making distinctions where there are none, +they must do it from habit and whim, and not from any reason +or propriety.</p> + +<p>There are three ways in which we usually distinguish +the forms of words in reference to gender. 1st. By words +which are different; as boy, girl; uncle, aunt; father, mother. +2d. By a different termination of the same word; as instructor, +instructress; lion, lioness; poet, poetess. <i>Ess</i> is +a contraction from the hebrew <i>essa</i>, a female. 3d. By +prefixing another word; as, a male child, a female child; +a man servant, a maid servant; a he-goat, a she-goat.</p> + +<p>The last consideration that attaches to nouns, is the <i>position</i> +they occupy in written or spoken language, in relation +to other words, as being <i>agents</i>, or <i>objects</i> of action. This +is termed <i>position</i>.</p> + +<p>There are two positions in which nouns stand in reference +to their meaning and use. First, as <i>agents</i> of action, as +<i>David</i> killed <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Goliah'">Goliath</ins>. +Second, as <i>objects</i> on which action +terminates; as, <i>Richard</i> conquered <i>Henry</i>. These two distinctions +should be observed in the use of all nouns. But +the propriety of this division will be more evident when we +come to treat of verbs, their agents and objects.</p> + +<p>It will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of +the "<i>possessive case</i>," a distinction which has been insisted +on in our grammars; and also changed the names of the +other two. As we would adopt nothing that is new without +first being convinced that something is needed which the +thing proposed will supply; so we would reject nothing that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +is old, till we have found it useless and cumbersome. It +will be admitted on all hands that the fewer and simpler the +rules of grammar, the more readily will they be understood, +and the more correctly applied. We should guard, on the +one hand, against having so many as to perplex, and on the +other, retain enough to apply in the correct use of language. +It is on this ground that we have proposed an improvement +in the names and number of cases, or positions.</p> + +<p>The word noun signifies name, and <i>nominative</i> is the adjective +derived from noun, and partakes of the same meaning. +Hence the <i>nominative</i> or <i>naming</i> case may apply as +correctly to the object as the agent. "<i>John</i> strikes <i>Thomas</i>, +and <i>Thomas</i> strikes <i>John</i>." John and Thomas name +the boys who strike, but in the first case John is the actor +or agent and Thomas the object. In the latter it is changed. +To use a <i>nominative name</i> is a redundancy which should +be avoided. You will understand my meaning and see the +propriety of the change proposed, as the mind of the learner +should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases.</p> + +<p>But our main objection lies against the "possessive case." +We regard it as a false and unnecessary distinction. What +is the possessive case? Murray defines it as "expressing +the relation of property or possession; as, my father's +house." His rule of syntax is, "one substantive governs +another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or +genitive case; as, my father's house." I desire you to understand +the definition and use as here given. Read it over +again, and be careful that you know the meaning of <i>property</i>, +<i>possession</i>, and <i>government</i>. Now let a scholar parse +correctly the example given. "<i>Father's</i>" is a common +noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, and +<i>governed</i> by house:" Rule, "One noun <i>governs</i> another," +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +&c. Then my father does not govern his own house, but +his house him! What must be the conduct and condition of +the family, if they have usurped the government of their +head? "John Jones, hatter, keeps constantly for sale all +kinds of <i>boy's hats</i>. Parse boy's. It is a noun, possessive +case, <i>governed</i> by hats." What is the possessive case? +It "signifies the <i>relation of property or possession</i>." Do the +hats belong to the boys? Oh no. Are they the <i>property</i> +or in the <i>possession</i> of the boys? Certainly not. Then +what relation is there of property or possession? None at +all. They belong to John Jones, were made by him, are +his property, and by him are advertised for sale. He has +used the word <i>boy's</i> to distinguish their size, quality, and +fitness for boy's use.</p> + +<p>"The master's slave." Master's is in the possessive +case, and <i>governed</i> by slave! If grammars are true there +can be no need of abolition societies, unless it is to look +after the master and see that he is not abused. The rider's +horse; the captain's ship; the general's army; the governor's +cat; the king's subject. How false it would be to +teach scholars the idea of <i>property</i> and <i>government</i> in such +cases. The <i>teacher's scholars</i> should never learn that by +virtue of their grammars, or the <i>apostrophe</i> and letter <i>s</i>, +they have a right to <i>govern</i> their teachers; nor the mother's +son, to govern his mother. Our merchants would dislike +exceedingly to have the <i>ladies</i> understand them to +signify by their advertisements that the "ladies' merino +shawls, the ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils, the ladies' +gloves and elegant Thibet, silk and challa dresses, +were the <i>property</i> of the ladies; for in that case they might +claim or <i>possess</i> themselves of their <i>property</i>, and no longer +trouble the merchant with the care of it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +"Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." "<i>His</i> physician +said that <i>his</i> disease would require <i>his</i> utmost skill to +defeat <i>its</i> progress in <i>his</i> limbs." Phrases like these are +constantly occurring, which can not be explained intelligibly +by the existing grammars. In fact, the words said to be +nouns in the possessive case, have changed their character, +by use, from nouns to adjectives, or definitive words, and +should thus be classed. Russia iron, Holland gin, China +ware, American people, the Washington tavern, Lafayette +house, Astor house, Hudson river, (formerly Hudson's,) +Baffin's bay, Van Dieman's land, John street, Harper's ferry, +Hill's bridge, a paper book, a bound book, a red book, +John's book—one which John is known to use, it may be +a borrowed one, but generally known as some way connected +with him,—Rev. Mr. Smith's church, St. John's +church, Grace church, Murray's grammar; not the property +nor in the possession of Lindley Murray, neither does it +<i>govern him</i>; for he has gone to speak a purer language +than he taught on earth. It is mine. I bought it, have +possessed it these ten years; but, thank fortune, am little +<i>governed</i> by it. But more on this point when we come to +the proper place. What I have said, will serve as a hint, +which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the +"possessive case."</p> + +<p>It may be said that more cases are employed in other +languages. That is a poor reason why we should break +the barriers of natural language. Beside, I know not how +we should decide by that rule, for none of them have a <i>case</i> +that will compare with the English possessive. The genitive +of the French, Latin, or Greek, will apply in only a +few respects. The former has <i>three</i>, the latter five, and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +Latin six cases, neither of which correspond with the possessive, +as explained by Murray and his satellites. We +should be slow to adopt into our language an idiom which +does not belong to it, and compel learners to make distinctions +where none exist. It is an easy matter to tell children +that the apostrophe and letter <i>s</i> marks the possessive +case; but when they ask the difference in the meaning between +the use of the noun and those which all admit are adjectives, +it will be no indifferent task to satisfy them. What +is the difference in the construction of language or the sense +conveyed, between Hudson'<i>s</i> river, and <i>Hudson</i> river? Davis's +straits, or Bass straits? St. John's church, or Episcopal +church? the sun's beams, or sun shine? In all cases +these words are used to define the succeeding noun. They +regard "property or possession," only when attending circumstances, +altogether foreign from any quality in the form +or meaning of the word itself, are so combined as to give it +that import. And in such cases, we retain these words as +adjectives, long after the property has passed from the hands +of the persons who gave it a name. <i>Field's</i> point, <i>Fuller's</i> +rocks, <i>Fisher's</i> island, <i>Fulton's</i> invention, will long be retained +after those whose names were given to distinguish +these things, have slept with their fathers and been forgotten. +Blannerhassett's Island, long since ceased to be his +property or tranquil possession, by confiscation; but it will +retain its specific name, till the inundations of the Ohio's +waters shall have washed it away and left not a wreck behind.</p> + +<p>The distinctions I have made in the positions of nouns, +will be clearly understood when we come to the verbs. A +few remarks upon pronouns will close the present lecture.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>PRONOUNS.</h4> + +<p>Pronouns are such as the word indicates. <i>Pro</i> is the +latin word <i>for</i>; pro-nomen, <i>for nouns</i>. They are words, +originally nouns, used specifically <i>for</i> other nouns, to avoid +the too frequent repetition of the same words; as, Washington +was the father of his country; <i>he</i> was a valiant officer. +<i>We</i> ought to respect <i>him</i>. The word <i>we</i>, stands for the +speaker and all present, and saves the trouble of naming +them; <i>he</i> and <i>him</i>, stand for Washington, to avoid the monotony +which would be produced by a recurrence of his +name.</p> + +<p>Pronouns are all of one kind, and few in number. I will +give you a list of them in their respective positions.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronouns"> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1"><i>Agents.</i></td> + <td><i>Objects.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="5" align="center"><i>Singular</i></td> + <td rowspan="5" align="right" valign="top"><span class="bracket5">{</span></td> + <td class="right1">1st</td> + <td class="right1">person,</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">I,</td> + <td align="left">me,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1">2d</td> + <td class="right1" align="center">"</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">thou,</td> + <td align="left">thee,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1">3d</td> + <td class="right1" align="center">"</td> + <td>mas.</td> + <td rowspan="2" align="right"><span class="bracket2">{</span></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">he,</td> + <td align="left">him,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="center">"</td> + <td>fem.</td> + <td class="right1" align="left">she,</td> + <td align="left">her,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1 bottom1" align="left">it,</td> + <td class="bottom1" align="left">it.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="3" align="center"><i>Plural</i></td> + <td rowspan="3" align="right"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td> + <td class="right1">1st</td> + <td class="right1">person,</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">we,</td> + <td align="left">us,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1">2d</td> + <td class="right1" align="center">"</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">ye, or you,</td> + <td align="left">you,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right1">3d</td> + <td class="right1" align="center">"</td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">they,</td> + <td align="left">them,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="right1" align="left">who,</td> + <td align="left">whom.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The two last may be used in either person, number, or +gender.</p> + +<p>The frequent use of these words render them very important, +in the elegant and rapid use of language. They +are so short, and their sound so soft and easy, that the frequency +of their recurrence does not mar the beauty of a sentence, +but saves us from the redundancy of other words. +They are substituted only when there is little danger of +mistaking the nouns for which they stand. They are, however, +sometimes used in a very broad sense; as, "<i>they say</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +it is so;" meaning no particular persons, but the general +sentiment. <i>It</i> frequently takes the lead of a sentence, and +the thing represented by it comes after; as, "It is currently +reported, that things were thus and so." Here <i>it</i> represents +the single idea which is afterward stated at length. "<i>It</i> is +so." "<i>It</i> may be that the nations will be destroyed by +wars, earthquakes, and famines." But more of this when +we come to speak of the composition of sentences.</p> + +<p>The words now classed as pronouns were originally +<i>names</i> of things, but in this character they have long been +obsolete. They are now used only in their secondary +character as the representatives of other words. The word +<i>he</i>, for instance, signified originally <i>to breathe</i>. It was applied +to the living beings who inhaled air. It occurs with +little change in the various languages of Europe, ancient +and modern, till at length it is applied to the male agent +which lives and acts. The word <i>her</i> means <i>light</i>, but is +specifically applied to females which are the objects of action.</p> + +<p>Was it in accordance with the design of these lectures, it +would give me pleasure to go into a minute examination of +the origin, changes and meaning of these words till they +came to be applied as specific words of exceeding limited +character. Most of them might be traced thro all the languages +of Europe; the Arabic, Persic, Arminian, Chaldean, +Hebrew, and, for ought I know, all the languages of +Asia. But as they are now admitted a peculiar position in +the expression of thought from which they never vary; and +as we are contending about philosophic principles rather +than verbal criticisms, I shall forbear a further consideration +of these words.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +In the proper place I shall consider those words formerly +called "Adjective Pronouns," "Pronoun Adjectives," or +"Pronominal Adjectives," to suit the varying whims of those +grammar makers, who desired to show off a speck of improvement +in their "simplifying" works without ever having +a new idea to express. It is a query in some minds +whether the seventy-two "simplifiers" and "improvers" +of Murray's grammar ever had any distinct notions in their +heads which they did not obtain from the very man, who, +it would seem by their conduct, was unable to explain his +own meaning.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_VI" id="LECTURE_VI"></a>LECTURE VI.</h2> + +<h3>ON ADJECTIVES.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Definition of adjectives. — +General character. — Derivation. — How +understood. — Defining and describing. — Meaning changes to suit +the noun. — Too numerous. — Derived from nouns. — Nouns and +verbs made from adjectives. — Foreign adjectives. — A general +list. — Difficult to be understood. — An example. +— Often superfluous. — Derived +from verbs. — Participles. — Some prepositions. — Meaning +unknown. — With. — In. — Out. — Of.</p></div> + + +<p>The most important sub-division of words is the class +called Adjectives, which we propose to notice this evening. +<i>Adjective</i> signifies <i>added</i> or <i>joined to</i>. We employ the term +in grammar to designate that class of words which are +<i>added to nouns to define or describe them</i>. In doing this, we +strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced, +and do not deviate from the laws of nature, as developed in +the regulation of speech.</p> + +<p>In speaking of things, we had occasion to observe that +the mind not only conceived ideas of things, but of their +properties; as, the hardness of flint; the heat of fire; and +that we spoke of one thing in reference to another. We +come now to consider this subject more at large.</p> + +<p>In the use of language the mind first rests on the thing +which is present before it, or the word which represents the +idea of that thing. Next it observes the changes and attitudes +of these things. Thirdly, it conceives ideas of their +qualities and relations to other things. The first use of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +these words is to name things. This we call <i>nouns</i>. The +second is to express their actions. This we call <i>verbs</i>. +The last is to define or describe things. This we call <i>adjectives</i>. +There is a great similarity between the words +used to name things and to express their actions; as, builders +build buildings; singers sing songs; writers write writings; +painters paint paintings. In the popular use of language +we vary these words to avoid the monotony and give +pleasantness and variety. We say builders <i>erect</i> houses, +barns, and other buildings; singers perform pieces of music; +musicians play tunes; the choir sing psalm tunes; +artists paint pictures.</p> + +<p>From these two classes a third is derived which partakes +somewhat of the nature of both, and yet from its secondary +use, it has obtained a distinctive character, and as such is +allowed a separate position among the classes of words.</p> + +<p>It might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration +of adjectives till we have noticed the character and +use of verbs, from which an important portion of them is +derived. But as they are used in connexion with nouns, and +as the character they borrow from the verb will be readily +understood, I have preferred to retain the old arrangement, +and <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'cosinder'">consider</ins> +them in this place.</p> + +<p><i>Adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe +them.</i> They are derived either, 1st, from nouns; as, +<i>window</i> glass, <i>glass</i> window, a stone house, building stone, +maple sugar, sugar cane; or, 2d, from verbs; as, a <i>written</i> +paper, a <i>printed</i> book, a <i>painted</i> house, a <i>writing</i> desk. In +the first case we employ one noun, or the name of one thing, +to define another, thus giving it a secondary use. A <i>glass</i> +window is one made of glass, and not of any thing else. It +is neither a <i>board</i> window, nor a <i>paper</i> window. <i>Maple</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +sugar is not <i>cane</i> sugar, nor <i>beet</i> sugar, nor <i>molasses</i> sugar; +but it may be <i>brown</i> sugar, if it has been browned, or <i>white</i> +if it has been whit<i>ed</i> or whit<i>ened</i>. In this case, you at once +perceive the correctness of our second proposition, in the +derivation of adjectives from verbs, by which we describe +a thing in reference to its condition, in some way affected +by the operation of a prior action. A <i>printed</i> book is one +on which the action of printing has been performed. A +<i>written</i> book differs from the former, in as much as its appearance +was produced by writing and not by printing.</p> + +<p>In the definition or description of things, whatever is best +understood is employed as a definitive or descriptive term, +and is attached to the object to make known its properties +and relations. Speaking of nations, if we desire to distinguish +some from others, we choose the words supposed to +be best known, and talk of European, African, American, +or Indian nations; northern, southern, eastern, or western +nations. These last words are used in reference to their +relative position, and may be variously understood; for we +speak of the northern, eastern, western, and southern nations +of Europe, of Africa, and the world.</p> + +<p>Again, we read of civiliz<i>ed</i>, half-civilized, and barbarous +nations; learned, unlearned, ignorant, and enlightened; rich, +powerful, enterprising, respected, ancient or modern, christian, +mahomedan or pagan. In these, and a thousand similar +cases, we decide the meaning, not alone from the word +employed as an adjective, but from the subject of remark; +for, were we to attach the same meaning to the same word, +wherever used, we could not receive correct or definite impressions +from the language of others—our inferences would +be the most monstrous. A <i>great</i> mountain and a <i>great</i> pin, +a <i>great</i> continent and a <i>great</i> farm, a <i>great</i> ocean and a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +<i>great</i> pond, a <i>great</i> grammar and a <i>great</i> scholar, refer to +things of very different dimensions and character; or, as +Mr. Murray would say, "<i>qualities</i>." A mountain is great +by comparison with other mountains; and a pin, compared +with other pins, may be very large—exceeding great—and +yet fall very far short of the size of a very small mountain. +A <i>small</i> man may be a <i>great</i> scholar, and a rich neighbor +a poor friend. A sweet flower is often very bitter to the +taste. A <i>good</i> horse would make a <i>bad</i> dinner, but <i>false</i> +grammar can never make <i>true</i> philologists.</p> + +<p>All words are to be understood according to their use. +Their meaning can be determined in no other way. Many +words change their forms to express their relations, but +fewer in our language than in most others, ancient or modern. +Other words remain the same, or nearly so, in every +position; noun, adjective, or verb, agent or object, past or +present. To determine whether a word is an adjective, +first ascertain whether it names a thing, defines or describes +it, or expresses its action, and you will never be at a loss to +know to what class it belongs.</p> + +<p>The business of adjectives is twofold, and they may be +distinguished by the appellations of <i>defining</i> or <i>describing</i> +adjectives. This distinction is in many cases unimportant; +in others it is quite essential. The same word in one case +may <i>define</i>, in others <i>describe</i> the object, and occasionally +do both, for we often specify things by their descriptions. +The learner has only to ascertain the meaning and use of +the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the +subject of remark. If it is employed to distinguish one +thing from the general mass, or one class from other classes, +it has the former character; but after such thing is pointed +out, if it is used to give a description of its character or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +properties, its character is different, and should be so understood +and explained.</p> + +<p><i>Defining adjectives</i> are used to <i>point out</i>, specify or distinguish +certain things from others of their kind, or one sort +from other sorts, and answer to the questions <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, +<i>how many</i>, or <i>how much</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Describing adjectives</i> express the character and qualities +of things, and give a more full and distinct knowledge than +was before possessed.</p> + +<p>In a case before mentioned, we spoke of the "Indian nations." +The word <i>Indian</i> was chosen to specify or define +what nations were alluded to. But all may not decide alike +in this case. Some may think we meant the aborigines of +America; others, that the southern nations of Asia were +referred to. This difficulty originates in a misapprehension +of the definitive word chosen. India was early known as +the name of the south part of Asia, and the people there, +were called Indians. When Columbus discovered the new +world, supposing he had reached the country of India, which +had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of Africa, +he named it India, and the people Indians. But when the +mistake was discovered, and the truth fully known, instead +of effecting a change in the name already very generally +understood, and in common use, another word was chosen +to distinguish between countries so opposite and <i>West</i> India +became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands; +and as India was little better known in Europe at that +time, instead of retaining their old name unaltered, another +word was prefixed, and they called it <i>East</i> India. When, +therefore, we desire to be definite, we retain these words, +and say, East Indians and West Indians. Without this distinction, +we should understand the native people of our own +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +country; but in Europe, Asia, and Africa, they would think +we alluded to those in Asia. So with all other adjectives +which are not understood. <i>Indian</i>, as an adjective, may +also be employed to <i>describe</i> the character and condition of +the aborigines. We talk of an indian temper, indian looks, +indian blankets, furs, &c.</p> + +<p>In writing and conversation we should employ words to +explain, to define and describe, which are better understood +than those things of which we speak. The pedantry of +some modern writers in this respect is ridiculous. Not satisfied +to use plain terms which every body can understand, +they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega, and not +unfrequently overleap the "king's english," and ransack +other languages to find an unheard of word, or a list of adjectives +never before arranged together, in so nice a manner, +so that their ideas are lost to the common reader, if not +to themselves. This fault may be alleged against too many +of our public speakers, as well as the affected gentry of the +land. They are like Shakspeare's Gratiano, "who speaks +an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice; +his reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels +of chaff: you shall seek all day ere you find them; and, +when you have found them, they are not worth the search." +Such sentences remind us of the painting of the young artist +who drew the form of an animal, but apprehensive that +some might mistake it, wrote under it, "<i>This is a horse.</i>"</p> + +<p>In forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective, +the mind should pause to determine the meaning of +such word when used as a distinct name for some object, in +order to determine the import of it in this new capacity. +A <i>tallow</i> candle is one made of a substance called tallow, +and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +candles. The adjective in this case, names the article of +which the candle is made, and is thus a noun, but, as we +are not speaking of tallow, but of candles, we place it in a +new relation, and give it a new grammatical character. +But you will perceive the correctness of a former assertion, +that all words may be reduced to two classes, and that adjectives +are derived from nouns or verbs.</p> + +<p>But you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in +use which have no corresponding verb or noun from which +they are derived. There are many words in our language +which in certain uses have become obsolete, but are retained +in others. We now use some words as verbs which +originally were known only as nouns, and others as nouns +which are unknown as verbs. We also put a new construction +upon words and make nouns, verbs and adjectives +promiscuously and with little regard to rule or propriety. +Words at one time unknown become familiar by use, and +others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable. +These facts are so obvious that I shall be excused from extending +my remarks to any great length. But I will give +an example which will serve as a clew to the whole. Take +the word <i>happy</i>, long known only as an adjective. Instead +of following this word <i>back</i> to its primitive use and deriving +it directly from its noun, or as a past participle, such as it +is in truth, we have gone <i>forward</i> and made from it the +noun <i>happiness</i>, and, in more modern days, are using the +verb <i>happify</i>, a word, by the way, in common use, but +which has not yet been honored with a place in our dictionaries; +altho Mr. Webster has given us, as he says, the +<i>unauthorised</i> (un-author-ised) word "<i>happifying</i>." Perhaps +he had never heard or read some of our greatest +sa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>vans, +who, if not the authors, employ the word <i>happify</i> very +frequently in the pulpit and halls of legislation, and at the +bar, as well as in common parlance.</p> + +<p><i>Happy</i> is the past participle of the verb <i>to hap</i>, or, as afterwards +used, with a nice shade of change in the meaning, +<i>to happen</i>. It means <i>happied</i>, or made happy by those favorable +circumstances which have <i>happened</i> to us. Whoever +will read our old writers no further back than Shakspeare, +will at once see the use and changes of this word. +They will find it in all its forms, simple and compound, as +a verb, noun, and adjective. "It may <i>hap</i> that he will +come." It happened as I was going that I found my lost +child, and was thereby made quite happy. The man desired +to <i>hap</i>pify himself and family without much labor, so +he engaged in speculation; and <i>hap</i>pily he was not so <i>hap</i>less +in his pursuit of <i>hap</i>piness as often <i>hap</i>pens to such +<i>hap</i>-hazard fellows, for he soon became very <i>hap</i>py with a +moderate fortune.</p> + +<p>But to the question. There are many adjectives in our +language which are borrowed from foreign words. Instead +of <i>adjectiving</i> our own nouns we go to our neighbors and +<i>adjective</i> and anglicise [english-ise] their words, and adopt +the pampered urchins into our own family and call them +our favorites. It is no wonder that they often appear aukward +and unfamiliar, and that our children are slow in +forming an intimate acquaintance with them. You are +here favored with a short list of these words which will +serve as examples, and enable you to comprehend my +meaning and apply it in future use. Some of them are regularly +used as adjectives, with or without change; others +are not.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="English Nouns and Foreign Adjectives"> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>ENGLISH NOUNS.</td> + <td align='left'>FOREIGN ADJECTIVES.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Alone</td> + <td align='left'>Sole, solitary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Alms</td> + <td align='left'>Eleemosynary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Age</td> + <td align='left'>Primeval</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Belief</td> + <td align='left'>Credulous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Blame</td> + <td align='left'>Culpable</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Breast</td> + <td align='left'>Pectoral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Being</td> + <td align='left'>Essential</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Bosom</td> + <td align='left'>Graminal, sinuous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Boy, boyish</td> + <td align='left'>Puerile</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Blood, bloody</td> + <td align='left'>Sanguinary, sanguine</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Burden</td> + <td align='left'>Onerous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Beginning</td> + <td align='left'>Initial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Boundary</td> + <td align='left'>Conterminous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Brother</td> + <td align='left'>Fraternal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Bowels</td> + <td align='left'>Visceral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Body</td> + <td align='left'>Corporeal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Birth</td> + <td align='left'>Natal, native</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Calf</td> + <td align='left'>Vituline</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Carcass</td> + <td align='left'>Cadaverous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Cat</td> + <td align='left'>Feline</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Cow</td> + <td align='left'>Vaccine</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Country</td> + <td align='left'>Rural, rustic</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Church</td> + <td align='left'>Ecclesiastical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Death</td> + <td align='left'>Mortal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Dog</td> + <td align='left'>Canine</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Day</td> + <td align='left'>Diurnal, meridian, ephemeral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Disease</td> + <td align='left'>Morbid</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>East</td> + <td align='left'>Oriental</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Egg</td> + <td align='left'>Oval</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Ear</td> + <td align='left'>Auricular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Eye</td> + <td align='left'>Ocular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> + Flesh</td> + <td align='left'>Carnal, carnivorous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Father</td> + <td align='left'>Paternal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Field</td> + <td align='left'>Agrarian</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Flock</td> + <td align='left'>Gregarious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Foe</td> + <td align='left'>Hostile</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Fear</td> + <td align='left'>Timorous, timid</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Finger</td> + <td align='left'>Digital</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Flattery</td> + <td align='left'>Adulatory</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Fire</td> + <td align='left'>Igneous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Faith</td> + <td align='left'>Fiducial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Foot</td> + <td align='left'>Pedal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Groin</td> + <td align='left'>Inguinal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Guardian</td> + <td align='left'>Tutelar</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Glass</td> + <td align='left'>Vitreous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Grape</td> + <td align='left'>Uveous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Grief</td> + <td align='left'>Dolorous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Gain</td> + <td align='left'>Lucrative</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Help</td> + <td align='left'>Auxiliary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Heart</td> + <td align='left'>Cordial, cardiac</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Hire</td> + <td align='left'>Stipendiary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Hurt</td> + <td align='left'>Noxious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Hatred</td> + <td align='left'>Odious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Health</td> + <td align='left'>Salutary, salubrious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Head</td> + <td align='left'>Capital, chief</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Ice</td> + <td align='left'>Glacial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Island</td> + <td align='left'>Insular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>King</td> + <td align='left'>Regal, royal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Kitchen</td> + <td align='left'>Culinary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Life</td> + <td align='left'>Vital, vivid, vivarious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Lungs</td> + <td align='left'>Pulmonary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Lip</td> + <td align='left'>Labial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> + Leg</td> + <td align='left'>Crural, isosceles</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Light</td> + <td align='left'>Lucid, luminous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Love</td> + <td align='left'>Amorous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Lust</td> + <td align='left'>Libidinous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Law</td> + <td align='left'>Legal, loyal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Mother</td> + <td align='left'>Maternal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Money</td> + <td align='left'>Pecuniary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Mixture</td> + <td align='left'>Promiscuous, miscellaneous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Moon</td> + <td align='left'>Lunar, sublunary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Mouth</td> + <td align='left'>Oral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Marrow</td> + <td align='left'>Medulary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Mind</td> + <td align='left'>Mental</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Man</td> + <td align='left'>Virile, male, human, masculine</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Milk</td> + <td align='left'>Lacteal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Meal</td> + <td align='left'>Ferinaceous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Nose</td> + <td align='left'>Nasal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Navel</td> + <td align='left'>Umbilical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Night</td> + <td align='left'>Nocturnal, equinoctial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Noise</td> + <td align='left'>Obstreperous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>One</td> + <td align='left'>First</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Parish</td> + <td align='left'>Parochial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>People</td> + <td align='left'>Popular, populous, public, epidemical, endemical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Point</td> + <td align='left'>Punctual</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Pride</td> + <td align='left'>Superb, haughty</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Plenty</td> + <td align='left'>Copious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Pitch</td> + <td align='left'>Bituminous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Priest</td> + <td align='left'>Sacerdotal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Rival</td> + <td align='left'>Emulous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Root</td> + <td align='left'>Radical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Ring</td> + <td align='left'>Annular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> + Reason</td> + <td align='left'>Rational</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Revenge</td> + <td align='left'>Vindictive</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Rule</td> + <td align='left'>Regular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Speech</td> + <td align='left'>Loquacious, garrulous, eloquent</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Smell</td> + <td align='left'>Olfactory</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sight</td> + <td align='left'>Visual, optic, perspicuous, conspicuous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Side</td> + <td align='left'>Lateral, collateral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Skin</td> + <td align='left'>Cutaneous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Spittle</td> + <td align='left'>Salivial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Shoulder</td> + <td align='left'>Humeral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Shepherd</td> + <td align='left'>Pastoral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sea</td> + <td align='left'>Marine, maritime</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Share</td> + <td align='left'>Literal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sun</td> + <td align='left'>Solar</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Star</td> + <td align='left'>Astral, sideral, stellar</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sunday</td> + <td align='left'>Dominical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Spring</td> + <td align='left'>Vernal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Summer</td> + <td align='left'>Estival</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Seed</td> + <td align='left'>Seminal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Ship</td> + <td align='left'>Naval, nautical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Shell</td> + <td align='left'>Testaceous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sleep</td> + <td align='left'>Soporiferous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Strength</td> + <td align='left'>Robust</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sweat</td> + <td align='left'>Sudorific</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Step</td> + <td align='left'>Gradual</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sole</td> + <td align='left'>Venal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Two</td> + <td align='left'>Second</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Treaty</td> + <td align='left'>Federal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Trifle</td> + <td align='left'>Nugatory</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> + Tax</td> + <td align='left'>Fiscal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Time</td> + <td align='left'>Temporal, chronical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Town</td> + <td align='left'>Oppidan</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thanks</td> + <td align='left'>Gratuitous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Theft</td> + <td align='left'>Furtive</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Threat</td> + <td align='left'>Minatory</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Treachery</td> + <td align='left'>Insidious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thing</td> + <td align='left'>Real</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Throat</td> + <td align='left'>Jugular, gutteral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Taste</td> + <td align='left'>Insipid</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thought</td> + <td align='left'>Pensive</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thigh</td> + <td align='left'>Femoral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Tooth</td> + <td align='left'>Dental</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Tear</td> + <td align='left'>Lachrymal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Vessel</td> + <td align='left'>Vascular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>World</td> + <td align='left'>Mundane</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Wood</td> + <td align='left'>Sylvan, savage</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Way</td> + <td align='left'>Devious, obvious, impervious, trivial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Worm</td> + <td align='left'>Vermicular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Whale</td> + <td align='left'>Cutaceous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Wife</td> + <td align='left'>Uxorious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Word</td> + <td align='left'>Verbal, verbose</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Weak</td> + <td align='left'>Hebdomadal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Wall</td> + <td align='left'>Mural</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Will</td> + <td align='left'>Voluntary, spontaneous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Winter</td> + <td align='left'>Brumal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Wound</td> + <td align='left'>Vulnerary</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>West</td> + <td align='left'>Occidental</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>War</td> + <td align='left'>Martial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> + Women</td> + <td align='left'>Feminine, female, effeminate</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Year</td> + <td align='left'>Annual, anniversary, perennial, triennial</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language +from other nations. The list will enable you to discover +that when we have no adjective of our own to correspond +with the noun, we borrow from our neighbors an +adjective derived from one of their nouns, to which we give +an english termination. For example:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Borrowed Adjectives"> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'><i>English Noun.</i></td> + <td class="right1" align='left'><i>Latin Noun.</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>Adjective.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Boy</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Puer</td> + <td align='left'>Puerile</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Grief</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Dolor</td> + <td align='left'>Dolorous</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thought</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Pensa</td> + <td align='left'>Pensive</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Wife</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Uxor</td> + <td align='left'>Uxorious</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Word</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Verbum</td> + <td align='left'>Verbal, verbose</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Year</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Annum</td> + <td align='left'>Annual</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Body</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Corpus</td> + <td align='left'>Corporeal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Head</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Caput</td> + <td align='left'>Capital</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Church</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Ekklesia (<i>Greek</i>)</td> + <td align='left'>Ecclesiastical</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>King</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Roi (<i>French</i>)</td> + <td align='left'>Royal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Law</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Loi "</td> + <td align='left'>Loyal</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of +many nouns with which we are familiar, from the fact above +stated, that they are derived from other languages, and not +our own. The most thoro scholars have found this task no +easy affair. Most grammarians have let it pass unobserved; +but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation +upon this point, to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological +derivation and meaning of these words. I would +here enter farther into this subject, but I am reminded that +I am surpassing the limits set me for this course of lectures.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +The attention I have bestowed on this part of the present +subject, will not be construed into a mere verbal criticism. +It has been adopted to show you how, in the definition or +description of things, the mind clings to one thing to gain +some information concerning another. When we find a +thing unlike any thing else we have ever known, in form, +in size, in color, in every thing; we should find it a difficult +task, if not an impossibility, to describe it to another in a +way to give any correct idea of it. Having never seen its +like before, we can say little of its character. We may +give it a <i>name</i>, but that would not be understood. We +could say it was as large as—no, it had no size; that it +was like—but no, it had no likeness; that it resembled—no, +it had no resemblance. How could we describe it? +What could we say of it? Nothing at all.</p> + +<p>What idea could the Pacha of Egypt form of ice, having +never seen any till the french chemists succeeded in freezing +water in his presence? They told him of ice; that it +was <i>cold</i>; that it would freeze; that whole streams were +often frozen over, so that men and teams could walk over +them. He believed no such thing—it was a "christian lie." +This idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists, +which failed of success. But when, on the second attempt, +they succeeded, he was all in raptures. A new field was +open before him. New ideas were produced in his mind. +New qualities were learned; and he could now form some +idea of the <i>ice</i> bergs of the north; of <i>frozen</i> regions, which +he had never seen; of <i>icy</i> hearts, and storms of <i>frozen</i> rain.</p> + +<p>We often hear it said, such a man is very <i>stoical</i>; another +is an <i>epicurean</i>; and another is a <i>bacchanal</i>, or <i>bacchanalian</i>. +But what idea should we form of such persons, +if we had never read of the Stoics and their philosophy; of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +Epicurus and his notions of happiness and duty; or of Bacchus, +the god of wine and revelry, whose annual feasts, or +Dionysia, were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness +thro out Greece and Rome, till put down by the +Senate of the latter.</p> + +<p>You can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge +on which we here insist. The meaning you attach to words +is exceedingly diverse; and hence you are not always able +to think alike, or understand each other, nor derive the same +sentiment from the same language. The contradictory opinions +which exist in the world may be accounted for, in a +great measure, in this way. Our knowledge of many things +of which we speak, is limited, either from lack of means, or +disposition to employ them. People always differ and contend +most about things of which they know the least. Did +we all attach the same meaning to the same words, our +opinions would all be the same, as true as the forty-fifth +problem of Euclid. How important, then, that children +should always be taught the same meaning of words, and +learn to use them correctly. Etymology, viewed in this +light, is a most important branch of science.</p> + +<p>Whenever a word is sufficiently understood, no adjective +should be connected with it. There is a ridiculous practice +among many people, of appending to every noun one or +more adjectives, which have no other effect than to expose +their own folly. Some writers are so in the habit of annexing +adjectives to all nouns, that they dare not use one +without. You will not unfrequently see adjectives different +in form, added to a noun of very similar meaning; as, sad +melancholy, an ominous sign, this mundane earth, pensive +thoughts.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +When words can be obtained, which not only name the +object, but also describe its properties, it should be preferred +to a noun with an adjective; as <i>pirate</i>, for <i>sea robber</i>; <i>savan</i>, +for a <i>learned</i> or <i>wise +man</i>.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>In relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs, +we will be brief. They include what have been termed participles, +not a distinct "part of speech," but by some included +in the verbs. We use them as adjectives to describe things +as standing in some relation to other things on the account +of the action expressed by the verb from which they are +derived. "The man is respected." <i>Respected</i>, in this case, +describes the man in such a relation to those who have become +acquainted with his good qualities, that he now receives +their respect. He is respect<i>able</i>, (<i>able</i> to command, +or worthy of respect,) and of course, respected for his respectability. +To avoid repetition, we select different words +to assist in the expression of a complex idea. But I indulge +in phrases like the above, to show the nice shades of meaning +in the common use of words, endeavoring to analyze, as +far as possible, our words and thoughts, and show their mutual +connexion and dependencies.</p> + +<p>What has been termed the "present participle" is also +an adjective, describing things in their present condition in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +reference to actions. "The man is writing." Here, <i>writing</i> +describes the man in his present employment. But the +consideration of this matter more properly belongs to the +construction of sentences.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>There is another class or variety of words properly belonging +to this division of grammar, which may as well be +noticed in this place as any other. I allude to those words +generally called "Prepositions." We have not time now +to consider them at large, but will give you a brief view of +our opinion of them, and reserve the remainder of our remarks +till we come to another part of these lectures.</p> + +<p>Most of the words called prepositions, in books of grammar, +are participles, derived from verbs, many of which are +still in use, but some are obsolete. They are used in the +true character of adjectives, <i>describing one thing by its relation +to another</i>. But their meaning has not been generally +understood. Our dictionaries have afforded no means by +which we can trace their etymology. They have been regarded +as a kind of cement to stick other words together, +having no meaning or importance in +themselves.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Until +their meaning is known, we can not reasonably expect to +draw them from their hiding places, and give them a respectable +standing in the transmission of thought.</p> + +<p>Many words, from the frequency of their use, fail to attract +our attention as much as those less employed; not because +they are less important, but because they are so +fa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>miliarly +known that the operations of thought are not observed +in the choice made of them to express ideas. If we +use words of which little is known, we ponder well before +we adopt them, to determine whether the sense usually attached +to them accords exactly with the notions we desire +to convey by them. The same can not be said of small +words which make up a large proportion of our language, +and are, in fact, more necessary than the others, in as much +as their meaning is more generally known. Those who employ +carriages to convey their bodies, observe little of their +construction, unless there is something singular or fine in +their appearance. The common parts are unobserved, yet +as important as the small words used in the common construction +of language, the vehicle of thought. As the apostle +says of the body politic, "those members of the body, +which seem to be more feeble, are necessary;" so the words +least understood by grammarians are most necessary in the +correct formation of language.</p> + +<p>It is an easy matter to get along with the words called +prepositions, after they are all learned by rote; but when +their meaning and use are inquired into, the best grammarians +have little to say of them.</p> + +<p>A list of prepositions, alphabetically arranged, is found in +nearly every grammar, which scholars are required to commit +to memory, without knowing any thing of their meaning +or use, only that they are prepositions when an objective +word comes after them, <i>because the books say so</i>; but +occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and adjectives. +There is, however, no trouble in "parsing" them, +unless the list is forgotten. In that case, you will see the +pupil, instead of inquiring after the meaning and duty of the +word, go to the book and search for it in the lists of +prepo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>sitions +or conjunctions; or to the dictionary, to see if there +is a "<i>prep.</i>" appended to it. What will children ever learn +of language in this way? Of what avail is all such grammar +teaching? As soon as they leave school it is all forgotten; +and you will hear them say, at the very time they +should be reaping the harvest of former toil, that they once +understood grammar, but it is all gone from them. Poor +souls! their memory is very treacherous, else they have +never learned language as they ought. There is a fault +somewhere. To us it is not difficult to determine where +it is.</p> + +<p>That certain words are prepositions, there can be no doubt, +because the books say they are; but <i>why</i> they are so, is +quite another matter. All we desire is to have their meaning +understood. Little difficulty will then be found in determining +their use.</p> + +<p>I have said they are derived from verbs, many of which +are obsolete. Some are still in use, both as verbs and +nouns. Take for example the word <span class="smcap">with</span>. This word +signifies <i>joined</i> or <i>united</i>. It is used to show that two things +are some how joined together so that they are spoke of in +connexion. It frequently occurs in common conversation, +as a verb and noun, but not as frequently in the books as +formerly. The farmer says to his <i>hired</i> man, "Go and get +a <i>withe</i> and come and <i>withe</i> up the fence;" that is, get some +pliant twigs of tough wood, twist them together, and <i>withe</i> +or bind them round these posts, so that one may stand firm +<i>with</i>, or <i>withed</i> to, the other. A book <i>with</i> a cover, is one +that has a cover <i>joined</i>, bound, or attached to it. "A +father <i>with</i> a son, a man <i>with</i> an estate, a nation <i>with</i> a constitution." +In all such cases <i>with</i> expresses the relation +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +between the two things mentioned, produced by a <i>union</i> or +connexion with each +other.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> is used in the same way. It is still retained as a +noun and is suspended on the signs of many public houses. +"The traveller's <i>inn</i>," is a house where travellers <i>in</i> themselves, +or go <i>in</i>, for entertainment. It occurs frequently in +Shakspeare and in more modern writers, as a verb, and is +still used in common conversation as an imperative. "Go, +<i>in</i> the crops of grain." "<i>In</i> with you." "<i>In</i> with it." +In describes one thing by its relation to another, which is the +business of adjectives. It admits of the regular degrees of +comparison; as, <i>in</i>, <i>inner</i>, <i>innermost</i> or <i>inmost</i>. It also has +its compounds. <i>In</i>step, the <i>inner</i> part of the foot, <i>in</i>let, <i>in</i>vestment, +<i>in</i>heritance. In this capacity it is extensively +used under its different shades of meaning which I cannot +stop to notice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> signifies <i>divided</i>, <i>separated</i>, or <i>parted</i>. "The ship is +<i>off</i> the coast." "I am bound <i>off</i>, and you are bound <i>out</i>." +"A part <i>of</i> a pencil," is that part which is <i>separated</i> from +the rest, implying that the act of <i>separating</i>, or <i>offing</i>, has +taken place. "A branch <i>of</i> the tree." There is the tree; +this branch is from it. "Our communication was broken <i>off</i> +several years ago." "Sailors record their <i>off</i>ings, and parents +love their <i>off</i>spring," or those children which sprung +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +from them.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +"We also <i>are his offspring</i>;" that is, sprung +from God.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> +In all these, and every other case, you will perceive +the meaning of the word, and its office will soon appear +essential in the expression of thought. Had all the +world been a compact whole, nothing ever separated from +it, we could never speak of a part <i>of</i> it, for we could never +have such an idea. But we look at things, as separated, +divided, parted; and speak of one thing as separated from +the others. Hence, when we speak of the part of the earth +we inhabit, we, in imagination, separate it from some other +<i>part</i>, or the general whole. We can not use this word in +reference to a thing which is indivisible, because we can conceive +no idea of a part <i>of</i> an indivisible thing. We do not +say, a portion <i>of</i> our mind taken as a whole, but as capable +of division. A share <i>of</i> our regards, supposes that the remainder +is reserved for something else.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Out</span>, out<i>er</i> or utter, outer<i>most</i> or utmost, admits of the +same remark as <i>in</i>.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>In this manner, we might explain a long list of words, +called adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. But I forbear, +for the present, the further consideration of this subject, +and leave it for another lecture.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_VII" id="LECTURE_VII"></a>LECTURE VII.</h2> + +<h3>ON ADJECTIVES.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Adjectives. — How formed. — The +syllable <i>ly</i>. — Formed from proper +nouns. — The apostrophe and letter <i>s</i>. — Derived from +pronouns. — Articles. — <i>A</i> +comes from <i>an</i>. — <i>In</i>definite. — <i>The</i>. +— Meaning of <i>a</i> +and <i>the</i>. — Murray's example. — That. — What. +— "Pronoun adjectives." — <i>Mon</i>, +<i>ma</i>. — Degrees of comparison. — Secondary adjectives. — Prepositions +admit of comparison.</p></div> + + +<p>We resume the consideration of Adjectives. The importance +of this class of words in the expression of our thoughts, +is my excuse for bestowing upon it so much labor. Had +words always been used according to their primitive meaning, +there would be little danger of being misunderstood. +But the fact long known, "<i>Verba mutanter</i>"—words change—has +been the prolific source of much of the diversity of +opinion, asperity of feeling, and apparent misconstruction of +other's sentiments, which has disturbed society, and disgraced +mankind. I have, in a former lecture, alluded to +this point, and call it up in this place to prepare your minds +to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of +words in the character of adjectives.</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of adjectives in general, as derived +from nouns and verbs, and was somewhat particular upon +the class sometimes called <i>prepositions</i>, which describe one +thing by its relation to another, produced by some action +which has placed them in such relation. We will now pass +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +to examine a little more minutely into the character and use +of certain adjectives, and the manner of their derivation.</p> + +<p>We commence with those derived from nouns, both common +and proper, which are somewhat peculiar in their character. +I wish you distinctly to bear in mind the use of adjectives. +They are words <i>added to nouns to define or describe +them</i>.</p> + +<p>Many words which name things, are used as adjectives, +with out change; as, <i>ox</i> beef, <i>beef</i> cattle, <i>paper</i> books, <i>straw</i> +hats, <i>bonnet</i> paper. Others admit of change, or addition; +as, nation<i>al</i> character, a merci<i>ful</i> (mercy-<i>ful</i>) man, a gloom<i>y</i> +prospect, a fam<i>ous</i> horse, a gold<i>en</i> ball. The syllables +which are added, are parts of words, which are at first compounded +with them, till, by frequency of use, they are incorporated +into the same word. "A merci<i>ful</i> man" is one +who is full of mercy. A gold<i>en</i> ball is one made of gold. +This word is sometimes used without change; as, a <i>gold</i> +ring.</p> + +<p>A numerous portion of these words take the syllable <i>ly</i>, +contracted from <i>like</i>, which is still retained in many words; +as, Judas-<i>like</i>, lady-<i>like</i>, gentleman-<i>like</i>. These two last +words, are of late, occasionally used as other words, lady<i>ly</i>, +gentleman<i>ly</i>; but the last more frequently than the former. +She behaved very ladi<i>ly</i>, or lady<i>like</i>; and his appearance +was quite gentleman<i>ly</i>. But to say ladi<i>ly</i> appearance, does +not yet sound quite soft enough; but it is incorrect only because +it is uncommon. God<i>ly</i> and god<i>like</i> are both in use, +and equally correct, with a nice shade of difference in +meaning.</p> + +<p>All grammarians have found a difficulty in the word <i>like</i>, +which they were unable to unravel. They could never account +for its use in expressing a relation between two +objec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>tives. +They forgot that to be like, one thing must be <i>likened</i> +to another, and that it was the very meaning of this word to +express such like<i>ness</i>. John looks <i>like</i> his brother. The +looks, the countenance, or appearance of John, are <i>likened</i> +to his brother's looks or appearance. "This machine is +more like the pattern than any I have seen." Here the +adjective <i>like</i> takes the comparative degree, as it is called, +to show a nearer resemblance than has been before observed +between the things compared. "He has a statesman-<i>like</i> +appearance." I <i>like</i> this apple, because it agrees with +my taste; it has qualities <i>like</i> my notion of what is palateable." +In every situation the word is used to express likeness +between two things. It describes one thing by its likeness +to another.</p> + +<p>Many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding +an apostrophe and the letter <i>s</i>, except when the word +ends in <i>s</i>, in which case the final <i>s</i> is usually omitted for +the sake of euphony. This, however, was not generally +adopted by old writers. It is not observed in the earliest +translations of the Bible into the english language. It is +now in common practice. Thus, Montgomery's monument +in front of St. Paul's church; Washington's funeral; Shay's +rebelion; England's bitterest foes; Hamlet's father's ghost; +Peter's wife's mother; Todd's, Walker's, Johnson's dictionary; +Winchell's Watts' hymns; Pond's Murray's grammar. +No body would suppose that the "relation of property or +possession" was expressed in these cases, as our grammar +books tell us, but that the terms employed are used to <i>define</i> +certain objects, about which we are speaking. They +possess the true character and use of adjectives, and as +such let them be regarded. It must be as false as frivolous +to say that Montgomery, who nobly fell at the siege of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +Quebec, <i>owns</i> the monument erected over his remains, which +were conveyed to New-York many years after his death; +or that St. Paul <i>owns</i> or <i>possesses</i> the church beneath which +they were deposited; that Hamlet owned his father, and +his father his ghost; that Todd owns Walker, and Walker +owns Johnson, and Johnson his dictionary which may have +had a hundred owners, and never been the property of its +author, but printed fifty years after his death. These words, +I repeat, are merely <i>definitive</i> terms, and like others serve +to point out or specify particular objects which may thus be +better known.</p> + +<p>Words, however, in common use form adjectives the +same as other words; as, Russia iron, China ships, India +silks, Vermont cheese, Orange county butter, New-York +flour, Carolina potatoes. Morocco leather was first manufactured +in a city of Africa called by that name, but it is +now made in almost every town in our country. The same +may be said of Leghorn hats, Russia binding, French shoes, +and China ware. Although made in our own country we +still retain the words, morocco, leghorn, russia, french, and +china, to define the fashion, kind, or quality of articles to +which we allude. Much china ware is made in Liverpool, +which, to distinguish it from the real, is called liverpool +china. Many french shoes are made in Lynn, and many +Roxbury russets, Newton pippins, and Rhode-Island greenings, +grow in Vermont.</p> + +<p>It may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived +from pronouns, which retain so much of their character +as relates to the persons who employ them. These are +<i>my</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>our</i>, +<i>your</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>whose</i>. This is <i>my</i> +book, that is <i>your</i> pen, this is <i>his</i> knife, and that is <i>her</i> letter. +Some of these, like other words, vary their ending +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +when standing alone; as, two apples are your<i>s</i>, three her<i>s</i>, +six their<i>s</i>, five our<i>s</i>, and the rest mine. <i>His</i> does not alter +in popular use. Hence the reason why you hear it so often, +in common conversation, when standing without the noun +expressed, pronounced as if written <i>hisen</i>. The word <i>other</i>, +and some others, come under the same remark. When the +nouns specified are expressed, they take the regular termination; +as, give me these Baldwin apples, and a few others—a +few other apples.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>There is a class of small words which from the frequency +of their use have, like pronouns, lost their primitive +character, and are now preserved only as adjectives. Let +us examine a few of them by endeavoring to ferret out their +true meaning and application in the expression of ideas. +We will begin with the old articles, <i>a</i>, <i>an</i>, and <i>the</i>, by testing +the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned +to them in our grammars.</p> + +<p>The standard grammar asserts that "an article is a word +prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and to show how +far their signification extends; as, "a garden, an eagle, the +woman." Skepticism in grammar is no crime, so we will +not hesitate to call in question the correctness of this "best +of all grammars beyond all comparison." Let us consider +the very examples given. They were doubtless the best +that could be found. Does <i>a</i> "point out" the garden, or +"show how far its signification extends?" It does neither +of these things. It may name "<i>any</i>" garden, and it certainly +does not define whether it is a <i>great</i> or a <i>small</i> one. +It simply determines that <i>one</i> garden is the subject of remark. +All else is to be determined by the word <i>garden</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +We <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'are are'">are</ins> +told there are two articles, the one <i>in</i>definite, +the other definite—<i>a</i> is the former, and <i>the</i> the latter. I +shall leave it with you to reconcile the apparent contradiction +of an <i>indefinite</i> article which "is used in a <i>vague sense, +to point out the signification</i> of another word." But I challenge +teachers to make their pupils comprehend such a jargon, +if they can do it themselves. But it is as good sense +as we find in many of the popular grammars of the day.</p> + +<p>Again, Murray says "<i>a</i> becomes <i>an</i> before a vowel or +silent <i>h</i>;" and so say all his <i>simplifying</i> satellites after him. +Is such the fact? Is he right? He is, I most unqualifiedly +admit, with this little correction, the addition of a single +word—he is right <i>wrong</i>! Instead of <i>a</i> becoming <i>an</i>, the +reverse is the fact. The word is derived directly from the +same word which still stands as our first numeral. It was a +short time since written <i>ane</i>, as any one may see by consulting +all old books. By and by it dropped the <i>e</i>, and afterwards, +for the sake of euphony, in certain cases, the <i>n</i>, +so that now it stands a single letter. You all have lived +long enough to have noticed the changes in the word. +Formerly we said <i>an</i> union, <i>an</i> holiday, <i>an</i> universalist, <i>an</i> +unitarian, &c., expressions which are now rarely heard. +We now say <i>a</i> union, &c. This single instance proves +that arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation +of language. Its barriers are of sand, soon removed. +It will not be said that this is an unimportant mistake, +for, if an error, it is pernicious, and if a grammarian +knows enough to say that <i>a</i> becomes <i>an</i>, he ought to know +that he tells a falsehood, and that <i>an</i> becomes <i>a</i> under certain +circumstances. Mr. Murray gives the following example +to illustrate the use of <i>a</i>. "Give me <i>a</i> book; that +is, <i>any</i> book." How can the learner understand such a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +rule? How will it apply? Let us try it. "A man has <i>a</i> +wife;" that is, <i>any</i> man has <i>any</i> wife. I have a hat; that +is, <i>any</i> hat. A farmer has a farm—<i>any</i> farmer has <i>any</i> +farm. A merchant in Boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth—<i>any</i> +merchant in Boston has any beautiful piece of +broadcloth. A certain king of Europe decreed a protestant +to be burned—<i>any</i> king of Europe decreed <i>any</i> protestant +to be burned. How ridiculous are the rules we have learned +and taught to others, to enable them to "speak and write +with propriety." No wonder we never understood grammar, +if so at variance with truth and every day's experience. +The rules of grammar as usually taught can never +be observed in practice. Hence it is called a <i>dry study</i>. +In every thing else we learn something that we can understand, +which will answer some good purpose in the affairs +of life. But this branch of science is among the things +which have been tediously learned to no purpose. No good +account can be given of its advantages.</p> + +<p><i>The</i>, we are told, "is called the definite article, because +it ascertains what <i>particular</i> thing or things are meant." A +most unfortunate definition, and quite as erroneous as the +former. Let us try it. <i>The</i> stars shine, <i>the</i> lion roars, <i>the</i> +camel is a beast of burden, <i>the</i> deer is good for food, <i>the</i> +wind blows, <i>the</i> clouds appear, <i>the</i> Indians are abused. +What is there in these examples, which "ascertain what +<i>particular</i> thing or things are meant?" They are expressions +as <i>in</i>definite as we can imagine.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, should I say <i>a</i> star shines, <i>a</i> lion roars, +<i>an</i> Indian is abused, <i>a</i> wind blows, <i>a</i> cloud appears, you +would understand me to allude very <i>definitely</i> to <i>one</i> "particular" +object, as separate and distinguished from others of +its kind.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +But what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and +use of these two little words that makes them so unlike +every thing else, as to demand a separate "part of speech?" +You may be surprised when I tell you that there are other +words in our language derived from the same source and +possessed of the same meaning; but such is the fact, as +will soon appear. Let us ask for the etymology of these +important words. <i>A</i> signifies <i>one</i>, never more, never less. +In this respect it is always <i>definite</i>. It is sometimes applied +to a single thing, sometimes to a whole class of things, +to a [one] man, or to a [one] hundred men. It may be +traced thro other languages, ancient and modern, with little +modification in spelling; Greek <i>eis</i>, ein; Latin <i>unus</i>; +Armoric <i>unan</i>; Spanish and Italian <i>uno</i>; Portuguese <i>hum</i>; +French <i>un</i>; German <i>ein</i>; Danish <i>een</i>, <i>en</i>; Dutch <i>een</i>; +Swedish <i>en</i>; Saxon, <i>an</i>, <i>aen</i>, <i>one</i>—from which ours is +directly derived—old English <i>ane</i>; and more modernly +<i>one</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>a</i>. In all languages it defines a thing to be <i>one</i>, a +united or congregated whole, and the word <i>one</i> may always +be substituted without affecting the sense. From it is derived +our word <i>once</i>, which signifies <i>oned</i>, <i>united</i>, <i>joined</i>, +as we shall see when we come to speak of "contractions." +In some languages <i>a</i> is styled an article, in others it is not. +The Latin, for instance, has no article, and the Greek has +no <i>indefinite</i>. But all languages have words which are +like ours, pure adjectives, employed to specify certain +things. The argument drawn from the fact that some other +languages have <i>articles</i>, and therefore ours should, is fallacious. +The Latin, which was surpassed for beauty of style +or power in deliverance by few, if any others, never suffered +from the lack of articles. Nor is there any reason why +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank +to the exclusion of others quite as worthy.</p> + +<p><i>The</i> is always used as a definitive word, tho it is the least +definite of the defining adjectives. In fact when we desire +to "<i>ascertain particularly</i> what thing is meant," we select +some more definite word. "Give me <i>the</i> books." Which? +"Those with red covers, that in calf, and this in Russia +binding." <i>The</i> nations are at peace. What nations? +<i>Those</i> which were at war. You perceive how we employ +words which are more definite, that is, better understood, to +"<i>point out</i>" the object of conversation, especially when there +is any doubt in the case. What occasion, then, is there to +give these [the?] words a separate "part of speech," +since in character they do not differ from others in the language?</p> + +<p>We will notice another frivolous distinction made by Mr. +Murray, merely to show how learned men may be mistaken, +and the folly of trusting to special rules in the general +application of words. He says, "Thou art <i>a</i> man," +is a very general and <i>harmless</i> expression; but, thou art +<i>the</i> man, (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable +of striking terror and remorse into the heart." The distinction +in meaning here, on which he insists, attaches to +the articles <i>a</i> and <i>the</i>. It is a sufficient refutation of this +definition to make a counter statement. Suppose we say, +"Murray is <i>the</i> best grammarian in the world; or, he is <i>a</i> +fool, <i>a</i> knave, and <i>a</i> liar." Which, think you, would be +considered the most <i>harmless</i> expression? Suppose it had +been said to Aaron Burr, thou art <i>a</i> traitor, or to General +William Hull, thou art <i>a</i> coward, would they regard the +phrase as "<i>harmless!</i>" On the other hand, suppose a +beautiful, accomplished, and talented young lady, should +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +observe to one of her suitors, "I have received offers of +marriage from several gentlemen besides yourself, but thou +art <span class="smcap">the</span> man of my choice;" would it, think you, <i>strike</i> +terror and remorse into his heart? I should pity the young +student of Murray whose feelings had become so stoical +from the false teaching of his author as to be filled with +"terror and remorse" under such favorable circumstances, +while fair prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly +brightening before him. I speak as to the wise, judge ye +what I say.</p> + +<p>The adjective <i>that</i> has obtained a very extensive application +in language. However, it may seem to vary in its +different positions, it still retains its primitive meaning. It +is comprised of <i>the</i> and <i>it</i>, thait, theat, thaet (Saxon,) thata +(Gothic,) dat (Dutch.) It is the most decided definitive in +our language. It is by use applied to things in the singular, +or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole. By +use, it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence; +as, it was resolved, <i>that</i>. What? Then follows +<i>that fact</i> which was resolved. "Provided <i>that</i>, in case he +does" so and so. "It was agreed <i>that</i>," <i>that fact</i> was +agreed to which is about to be made known. I wish you +to understand, all thro these lectures, <i>that</i> I shall honestly +endeavor to expose error and establish truth. Wish you +to understand <i>what</i>? <i>that fact</i>, afterwards stated, "I shall +endeavor," &c. You can not mistake my meaning: <i>that</i> +would be impossible. What would be impossible? Why, +to mistake my meaning.</p> + +<p>You can not fail to observe the true character of this +word called by our grammarians "adjective pronoun," +"relative pronoun," and "conjunction." They did not think +to look for its meaning. Had that (duty) been done, it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +would have stood forth in its true character, an important +defining word.</p> + +<p>The only difficulty in the explanation of this word, originates +in the fact, that it was formerly applied to the plural +as well as singular number. It is now applied to the singular +only when referring directly to an object; as, <i>that +man</i>. And it never should be used otherwise. But we often +see phrases like this; "These are the men <i>that</i> rebeled." +It should be, "these are the men <i>who</i> rebeled." This difficulty +can not be overcome in existing grammars on any +other ground. In modern writings, such instances are rare. +<i>This</i> and <i>that</i> are applied to the singular; <i>these</i> and <i>those</i> +to the plural.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p><span class="smcap">What</span> is a compound of two original words, and often retains +the meaning of both, when employed as a compound +relative, "having in itself both the antecedent and the +relative," as our authors tell us. But when it is dissected, +it will readily enough be understood to be an adjective, defining +things under particular relations.</p> + +<p>But I shall weary your patience, I fear, if I stay longer +in this place to examine the etymology of small words. I +intended to have shown the meaning and use of many words +included in the list of conjunctions, which are truly adjectives, +such as <i>both</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>neither</i>, <i>and</i>, etc.; but I let them +pass for the present, to be resumed under the head of contractions.</p> + +<p>From the view we have given of this class of words, we +are saved the tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions +made in the books, where no real distinctions exist. +In character these words are like adjectives; their meaning, +like the meaning of all other words, is peculiar to +them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>selves. +Let that be known, and there will be little difficulty +in classing them. We need not confuse the learner with +"adjective pronouns, possessive adjective pronouns, distributive +adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective pronouns, +<i>indefinite</i> adjective pronouns," nor any other adjective pronouns, +which can never be understood nor explained. Children +will be slow to apprehend the propriety of a union of +<i>adjectives</i> and <i>pronouns</i>, when told that the former is always +used <i>with</i> a noun, and never <i>for</i> one; and the latter always +<i>for</i> a noun, but never <i>with</i> one; and yet, that there is +such a strange combination as a "<i>distributive or indefinite +adjective pronoun</i>,"—"confusion worse confounded."</p> + +<p>In the french language, the gender of adjectives is varied +so as to agree with the nouns to which they belong. "Possessive +pronouns," as they are called, come under the same +rule, which proves them to be in character, and formation, +adjectives; else the person using them must change gender. +The father says, <i>ma</i> (feminine) <i>fille</i>, my daughter; +and the mother, <i>mon</i> (masculine) <i>fils</i>, my son; the same as +they would say, <i>bon pere</i>, good father; <i>bonne mere</i>, good +mother; or, in Latin, <i>bonus pater</i>, or <i>bona mater</i>; or, in +Spanish, <i>bueno padre</i>, <i>buena madre</i>. In the two last languages, +as well as all others, where the adjectives vary the +termination so as to agree with the noun, the same fact may +be observed in reference to their "pronouns." If it is a +fact that these words are <i>pronouns</i>, that is, stand for other +<i>nouns</i>, then the father is <i>feminine</i>, and the mother +is <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'mascu.line'"><i>masculine</i></ins>; +and whoever uses them in reference to the opposite +sex must change gender to do so.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>Describing adjectives admit of variation to express different +degrees of comparison. The regular degrees have been +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +reckoned three; positive, comparative, and superlative. +These are usually marked by changing the termination. +The <i>positive</i> is determined by a comparison with other +things; as, a great house, a small book, compared with others +of their kind. This is truly a comparative degree. The +<i>comparative</i> adds <i>er</i>; as, a great<i>er</i> house, a small<i>er</i> book. +The <i>superlative</i>, <i>est</i>; as, the great<i>est</i> house, the small<i>est</i> +book.</p> + +<p>Several adjectives express a comparison less than the +positive, others increase or diminish the regular degrees; +as, whit<i>ish</i> white, <i>very</i> white, <i>pure</i> white; whit<i>er</i>, <i>considerable</i> +whiter, <i>much</i> whiter; whit<i>est</i>, the <i>very</i> whitest, <i>much</i> +the whitest <i>beyond all comparison</i>, so that there can be none +<i>whiter</i>, nor <i>so white</i>.</p> + +<p>We make an aukward use of the words <i>great</i> and <i>good</i>, +in the comparison of things; as, a <i>good deal</i>, or <i>great deal</i> +whiter; a <i>good</i> many men, or a <i>great</i> many men. As we +never hear of a <i>small</i> deal, or a <i>bad</i> deal whiter, nor of a +<i>bad many</i>, nor <i>little many</i>, it would be well to avoid such +phrases.</p> + +<p>The words which are added to other adjectives, to increase +or diminish the comparison, +or <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'asist'">assist</ins> in their definition, +may properly be called <i>secondary adjectives</i>, for such +is their character. They do not refer to the thing to be <i>defined</i> +or <i>described</i>, but to the adjective which is affected, in +some way, by them. They are easily distinguished from +the rest by noticing this fact. Take for example: "A <i>very +dark red</i> raw silk lady's dress +handkerchief<ins class="correction" title="Trancriber's Note: original lacks "">."</ins> The resolution +of this sentence would stand thus:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Secondary Adjectives"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>A</i></td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'><i>red</i></td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='center'><span style="float: left;">(</span><span style="float: right;">)</span></td> + <td align='center'><i>dark</i></td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>A</td> + <td align='center'><i>very</i></td> + <td align='center'>dark</td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='center'></td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='center'>very</td> + <td align='center'>dark</td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='center'><span style="float: left;">(</span><span style="float: right;">)</span></td> + <td align='center'><i>silk</i></td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='center'>very</td> + <td align='center'>dark</td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='center'><i>raw</i></td> + <td align='center'>silk</td> + <td align='left'>(</td> + <td align='right'>)</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='center'>very</td> + <td align='center'>dark</td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='center'>raw</td> + <td align='center'>silk</td> + <td align='center'><span style="float: left;">(</span><span style="float: right;">)</span></td> + <td align='center'><i>dress</i></td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>A</td> + <td align='center'>very</td> + <td align='center'>dark</td> + <td align='center'>red</td> + <td align='center'>raw</td> + <td align='center'>silk</td> + <td align='center'><i>lady's</i></td> + <td align='center'>dress</td> + <td align='center'>handkerchief.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>We might also observe that <i>hand</i> is an adjective, compounded +by use with <i>kerchief</i>. It is derived from the french +word <i>couvrir</i>, to cover, and <i>chef</i>, the head. It means a +head dress, a cloth to cover, a neck cloth, a napkin. By +habit we apply it to a single article, and speak of <i>neck</i> +handkerchief.</p> + +<p>The nice shade of meaning, and the appropriate use of +adjectives, is more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors +than in any thing else, for the simple reason, that there is +nothing in nature so closely observed. For instance, take +the word <i>green</i>, derived from <i>grain</i>, because it is grain color, +or the color of the fair carpet of nature in spring and summer. +But this hue changes from the <i>deep grass green</i>, to +the light olive, and words are chosen to express the thousand +varying tints produced by as many different objects. In the +adaptation of language to the expression of ideas, we do not +separate these shades of color from the things in which such +colors are supposed to reside. Hence we talk of <i>grass</i>, <i>pea</i>, +<i>olive</i>, <i>leek</i>, <i>verdigris</i>, <i>emerald</i>, <i>sea</i>, and <i>bottle</i> green; also, of +<i>light</i>, <i>dark</i>, <i>medium</i>; <i>very</i> light, or dark grass, pea, olive, or +<i>invisible</i> green.</p> + +<p><i>Red</i>, as a word, means <i>rayed</i>. It describes the appearance +or substance produced when <i>rayed</i>, reddened, or radiated +by the morning beams of the sun, or any other <i>radiating</i> +cause.</p> + +<p><i>Wh</i> is used for <i>qu</i>, in white, which means <i>quite</i>, <i>quited</i>, +<i>quitted</i>, <i>cleared</i>, <i>cleansed</i> of all <i>color</i>, <i>spot</i>, or <i>stain</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +<i>Blue</i> is another spelling for <i>blew</i>. Applied to color, it +describes something in appearance to the sky, when the +clouds and mists are <i>blown</i> away, and the clear <i>blue ether</i> +appears.</p> + +<p>You will be pleased with the following extract from an +eloquent writer of the last +century,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +who, tho somewhat extravagant +in some of his speculations, was, nevertheless, a +close observer of nature, which he studied as it is, without +the aid of human theories. The beauty of the style, and +the correctness of the sentiment, will be a sufficient apology +for its length.</p> + +<p>"We shall employ a method, not quite so learned, to +convey an idea of the generation of colors, and the decomposition +of the solar ray. Instead of examining them in a +prism of glass, we shall consider them in the heavens, and +there we shall behold the five primordial colours <i>unfold +themselves</i> in the order which we have indicated.</p> + +<p>"In a fine summer's night, when the sky is loaded only +with some light vapours, sufficient to stop and to refract the +rays of the sun, walk out into an open plain, where the first +fires of Aurora may be perceptible. You will first observe +the horizon <i>whiten</i> at the spot where she is to make +her appearance; and this radiance, from its colour, has +procured for it, in the French language, the name of <i>aube</i>, +(the dawn,) from the Latin word <i>alba</i>, white. This whiteness +insensibly ascends in the heavens, <i>assuming</i> a tint of +yellow some degrees above the horizon; the yellow as it +rises passes into orange; and this shade of orange rises upward +into the lively vermilion, which extends as far as the +zenith. From that point you will perceive in the heavens +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +behind you the violet succeeding the vermilion, then the +azure, after it the deep blue or indigo colour, and, last of all, +the black, quite to the westward.</p> + +<p>"Though this display of colours presents a multitude of +intermediate shades, which rapidly succeed each other, yet +at the moment the sun is going to exhibit his disk, the +dazzling white is visible in the horizon, the pure yellow at +an elevation of forty-five degrees; the fire color in the zenith; +the pure blue forty-five degrees under it, toward the +west; and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering +on the horizon. I think I have remarked this progression +between the tropics, where there is scarcely any +horizontal refraction to make the light prematurely encroach +on the darkness, as in our climates.</p> + +<p>"Sometimes the trade-winds, from the north-east or south-east, +blow there, card the clouds through each other, then +sweep them to the west, crossing and recrossing them over +one another, like the osiers interwoven in a transparent basket. +They throw over the sides of this chequered work +the clouds which are not employed in the contexture, roll +them up into enormous masses, as white as snow, draw +them out along their extremities in the form of a crupper, +and pile them upon each other, moulding them into the +shape of mountains, caverns, and rocks; afterwards, as +evening approaches, they grow somewhat calm, as if afraid +of deranging their own workmanship. When the sun sets +behind this magnificent netting, a multitude of luminous +rays are transmitted through the interstices, which produce +such an effect, that the two sides of the lozenge illuminated +by them have the appearance of being girt with gold, and +the other two in the shade seem tinged with <i>ruddy</i> orange. +Four or five divergent streams of light, emanated from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +setting sun up to the zenith, <i>clothe</i> with fringes of gold the +undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier, and strike +with the reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral +aerial mountains, which then appear to consist of <i>silver</i> and +<i>vermilion</i>. At this moment of the evening are perceptible, +amidst their redoubled ridges, a multitude of valleys extending +into infinity, and distinguishing themselves at their opening +by some shade of flesh or of rose colour.</p> + +<p>"These celestial valleys present in their different contours +inimitable tints of white, melting away into white, or shades +lengthening themselves out without mixing over other shades. +You see, here and there, issuing from the cavernous sides +of those mountains, tides of <i>light</i> precipitating themselves, in +ingots of gold and silver, over rocks of coral. Here it is a +gloomy rock, pierced through and through, disclosing, beyond +the aperture, the pure azure of the firmament; there +it is an extensive strand, covered with sands of gold, stretching +over the rich ground of heaven; <i>poppy-coloured</i>, <i>scarlet</i>, +and <i>green</i> as the emerald.</p> + +<p>"The reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself +over the sea, whose azure billows it <i>glazes</i> with saffron +and purple. The mariners, leaning over the gunwale of +the ship, admire in silence those aerial landscapes. Sometimes +this sublime spectacle presents itself to them at the +hour of prayer, and seems to invite them to lift up their +hearts with their voices to the heavens. It changes every +instant into forms as variable as the shades, presenting celestial +colors and forms which no pencil can pretend to imitate, +and no language can describe.</p> + +<p>"Travellers who have, at various seasons, ascended to +the summits of the highest mountains on the globe, never +could perceive, in the clouds below them, any thing but a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +gray and lead-colored surface, similar to that of a lake. +The sun, notwithstanding, illuminated them with his whole +light; and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction +to which our systems of physics have subjected +them. Hence not a single shade of color is employed in +vain, through the universe; those celestial decorations being +made for the level of the earth, their magnificent point +of view taken from the habitation of man.</p> + +<p>"These admirable concerts of lights and forms, manifest +only in the lower region of the clouds the least illuminated +by the sun, are produced by laws with which I am totally +unacquainted. But the whole are reducible to five colors: +yellow, a generation from white; red, a deeper shade of +yellow; blue, a strong tint of red; and black, the extreme +tint of blue. This progression cannot be doubted, on observing +in the morning the expansion of the light in the +heavens. You there see those five colors, with their intermediate +shades, generating each other nearly in this order: +white, sulphur yellow, lemon yellow, yolk of egg yellow, +orange, aurora color, poppy red, full red, carmine red, purple, +violet, azure, indigo, and black. Each color seems to +be only a strong tint of that which precedes it, and a faint +tint of that which follows; thus the whole together appear +to be only modulations of a progression, of which white is +the first term, and black the last.</p> + +<p>"Indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage, +with the Negroes, Tartars, Americans, and East-Indians, +but through the medium of red cloths. The testimonies of +travellers are unanimous respecting the preference universally +given to this color. I have indicated the universality +of this taste, merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the philosophic +axiom, that tastes are arbitrary, or that there are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +in Nature no laws for beauty, and that our tastes are the +effects of prejudice. The direct contrary of this is the truth; +prejudice corrupts our natural tastes, otherwise the same +over the whole earth.</p> + +<p>"With red Nature heightens the brilliant parts of the +most beautiful flowers. She has given a complete clothing +of it to the rose, the queen of the garden: and bestowed +this tint on the blood, the principle of life in animals: she +invests most of the feathered race, in India, with a plumage +of this color, especially in the season of love; and there are +few birds without some shades, at least, of this rich hue. +Some preserve entirely the gray or brown ground of their +plumage, but glazed over with red, as if they had been rolled +in carmine; others are besprinkled with red, as if you +had blown a scarlet powder over them.</p> + +<p>"The red (or <i>rayed</i>) color, in the midst of the five primordial +colors, is the harmonic expression of them by way of +excellence; and the result of the union of two contraries, +light and darkness. There are, besides, agreeable tints, +compounded of the oppositions of extremes. For example, +of the second and fourth color, that is, of yellow and blue, +is formed green, which constitutes a very beautiful harmony, +and ought, perhaps, to possess the second rank in beauty, +among colors, as it possesses the second in their generation. +Nay, green appears to many, if not the most beautiful tint, +at least the most lovely, because it is less dazzling than red, +and more congenial to the eye."</p> + +<p>Many words come under the example previously given +to illustrate the secondary character of adjectives, which +should be carefully noticed by the learner, to distinguish +whether they define or describe things, or are added to increase +the distinction made by the adjectives themselves, for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition; +as, <i>old</i> English coin, New England rebelion; a mounted +whip, and a <i>gold</i> mounted sword—not a gold sword; a +<i>very fine</i> Latin scholar.</p> + +<p>Secondary adjectives, also, admit of comparison in various +ways; as, <i>dearly</i> beloved, a <i>more</i> beloved, the <i>best</i> beloved, +the <i>very</i> best beloved brother.</p> + +<p>Words formerly called "prepositions," admit of comparison, +as I have before observed. "Benhadad fled into an +<i>inner</i> chamber." The in<i>ner</i> temple. The in<i>most</i> recesses +of the heart. The <i>out</i> fit of a squadron. The out<i>er</i> coating +of a vessel, or house. The ut<i>most</i> reach of grammar. +The <i>up</i> and <i>down</i> hill side of a field. The up<i>per</i> end of the +lot. The upper<i>most</i> seats. A part <i>of</i> the book. Take it +<i>farther off</i>. The <i>off</i> cast. India <i>beyond</i> the Ganges. Far +beyond the boundaries of the nation. I shall go <i>to</i> the city. +I am <i>near to</i> the town. <i>Near</i> does not <i>qualify the verb</i>, for +it has nothing to do with it. I can exist in one place as well +as another. It is <i>below</i> the surface; <i>very far</i> below it. It +is above the earth—"high above all height."</p> + +<p>Such expressions frequently occur in the expression of +ideas, and are correctly understood; as difficult as it may +have been to describe them with the theories learned in the +books—sometimes calling them one thing, sometimes another—when +their character and meaning was unchanged, +or, according to old systems, had "no meaning at all of their +own!"</p> + +<p>But I fear I have gone <i>far</i> beyond your patience, and, +perhaps, entered <i>deeper</i> into this subject than was necessary, +to enable you to discover my meaning. I desired to make +the subject <i>as</i> distinct <i>as</i> possible, that all might see the important +improvement suggested. I am apprehensive even +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +now, that some will be compelled to <i>think</i> many <i>profound +thoughts</i> before they will see the end of the obscurity under +which they have long been shrouded, in reference to the +false rules which they have been taught. But we have one +consolation—those who are not bewildered by the grammars +they have tried in vain to understand, will not be very likely +to make a wrong use of adjectives, especially if they have +ideas to express; for there is no more danger of mistaking +an adjective for a noun, or verb, than there is of mistaking +a <i>horse</i> chestnut for a <i>chestnut</i> horse.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>In our next we shall commence the consideration of Verbs, +the most important department in the science of language, +and particularly so in the system we are defending. I hope +you have not been uninterested thus far in the prosecution +of the subject of language, and I am confident you will not +be in what remains to be said upon it. The science, so long +regarded <i>dry</i> and uninteresting, becomes delightful and easy; +new and valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing +step, and we feel to bless God for the ample means afforded +us for obtaining knowledge from, and communicating it to +others, on the most important affairs of time and eternity.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_VIII" id="LECTURE_VIII"></a>LECTURE VIII.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Unpleasant to expose error. — Verbs defined. +— Every thing acts. — Actor +and object. — Laws. — Man. — Animals. — Vegetables. +— Minerals. — Neutrality +degrading. — Nobody can explain a neuter verb. — <i>One</i> +kind of verbs. — <i>You</i> must decide. — Importance of teaching +children the truth. — Active verbs. — Transitive verbs false. — Samples. — Neuter +verbs examined. — Sit. — Sleep. — Stand. — Lie. — Opinion +of Mrs. W. — Anecdote.</p></div> + + +<p>We now come to the consideration of that class of words +which in the formation of language are called <i>Verbs</i>. You +will allow me to bespeak your favorable attention, and to +insist most strenuously on the propriety of a free and thoro +examination into the nature and use of these words. I shall +be under the necessity of performing the thankless task of +exposing the errors of honest, wise, and good men, in order +to remove difficulties which have long existed in works on +language, and clear the way for a more easy and consistent +explanation of this interesting and essential department +of literature. I regret the necessity for such labors; but +no person who wishes the improvement of mankind, or is +willing to aid the growth of the human intellect, in its high +aspirations after truth, knowledge, and goodness, should +shrink from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error, +nor refuse his assistance, feeble tho it may be, in the +establishment of correct principles.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +In former lectures we have confined our remarks to +things and a description of their characters and relations, +so that every entity of which we can conceive a thought, +or concerning which we can form an expression, has been +defined and described in the use of nouns and adjectives. +Every thing in creation, of which we think, material or immaterial, +real or imaginary, and to which we give a name, +to represent the idea of it, comes under the class of words +called nouns. The words which specify or distinguish one +thing from another, or describe its properties, character, or +relations, are designated as adjectives. There is only one +other employment left for words, and that is the expression +of the actions, changes, or inherent tendencies of things. +This important department of knowledge is, in grammar, +classed under the head of <span class="smcap">Verbs</span>.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p><i>Verb</i> is derived from the Latin <i>verbum</i>, which signifies a +<i>word</i>. By specific application it is applied to those <i>words</i> +only which express action, correctly understood; the same +as Bible, derived from the Greek "<i>biblos</i>" means literally +<i>the book</i>, but, by way of eminence, is applied to the sacred +scriptures only.</p> + +<p>This interesting class of words does not deviate from the +correct principles which we have hitherto observed in these +lectures. It depends on established laws, exerted in the +regulation of matter and thought; and whoever would learn +its sublime use must be a close observer of things, and the +mode of their existence. The important character it sustains +in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies +of things and in the transmission of thought, will be +found simple, and obvious to all.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +Things exist; Nouns name them.</p> + +<p>Things differ; Adjectives define or describe them.</p> + +<p>Things act; Verbs express their actions.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>All Verbs denote action.</i></p></div> + +<p>By action, we mean not only perceivable motion, but an +inherent tendency to change, or resist action. It matters +not whether we speak of animals possessed of the power of +locomotion; of vegetables, which <i>send</i> forth their branches, +leaves, blossoms, and fruits; or of minerals, which <i>retain</i> +their forms, positions, and properties. The same principles +are concerned, the same laws exist, and should be observed +in all our attempts to understand their operations, or employ +them in the promotion of human good. Every thing acts +according to the ability it possesses; from the small particle +of sand, which <i>occupies</i> its place upon the sea shore, up +thro the various gradation of being, to the tall archangel, +who <i>bows</i> and <i>worships</i> before the throne of the uncreated +Cause of all things and actions which exist thro out his vast +dominions.</p> + +<p>As all actions presuppose an <i>actor</i>, so every action must +result on some <i>object</i>. No effect can exist without an efficient +cause to produce it; and no cause can exist without +a corresponding effect resulting from it. These mutual relations, +helps, and dependencies, are manifest in all creation. +Philosophy, religion, the arts, and all science, serve only to +develope these primary laws of nature, which unite and +strengthen, combine and regulate, preserve and guide the +whole. From the Eternal I AM, the uncreated, self-existent, +self-sustaining <span class="smcap">Cause</span> of all things, down to the minutest +particle of dust, evidences may be traced of the existence +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +and influence of these laws, in themselves irresistible, exceptionless, +and immutable. Every thing has a place and +a duty assigned it; and harmony, peace, and perfection are +the results of a careful and judicious observance of the laws +given for its regulation. Any infringement of these laws +will produce disorder, confusion, and distraction.</p> + +<p>Man is made a little lower than the angels, possessed of +a mind capable of reason, improvement, and happiness; +an intellectual soul inhabiting a mortal body, the connecting +link between earth and heaven—the material and spiritual +world. As a physical being, he is subject, in common with +other things, to the laws which regulate matter: as an intellectual +being, he is governed by the laws which regulate +mind: as possessed of both a body and mind, a code of +moral laws demand his observance in all the social relations +and duties of life. Obedience to these laws is the certain +source of health of body, and peace of mind. An infringement +of them will as certainly be attended with disease and +suffering to the one, and sorrow and anguish to the other.</p> + +<p>Lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in +common with man. In some they are deficient; in others +they are superior. Some animals are possessed of all but +reason, and even in that, the highest of them come very little +short of the lowest of the human species. If they have +not reason, they possess an instinct which nearly approaches +it. These qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various +orders and varieties of animated nature, to the lowest +grade of animalculæ, a multitude of which may inhabit a +single drop of water; or to the zoophytes and lythophytes, +which form the connecting link between the animal and +vegetable kingdom; as the star-fish, the polypus, and +spunges. Then strike off into another kingdom, and +ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>serve +the laws vegetable life. Mark the tall pine which +has grown from a small seed which <i>sent</i> forth its root downwards +and its trunk upwards, drawing nourishment from +earth, air, and water, till it now waves its top to the passing +breeze, a hundred feet above this dirty earth: or the oak +or olive, which have <i>maintained</i> their respective positions a +dozen centuries despite the operations of wind and weather, +and have shed their foliage and their seeds to propagate +their species and extend their kinds to different places. +While a hundred generations have lived and died, and the +country often changed masters, they resist oppression, scorn +misrule, and retain rights and privileges which are slowly +encroached upon by the inroads of time, which will one +day triumph over them, and they fall helpless to the earth, +to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve +their very being and cause them to mingle with the common +dust, yielding their strength to give life and power to +other vegetables which shall occupy their +places.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Or mark +the living principle in the "sensitive plant," which withers +at every touch, and suffers long ere it regains its former +vigor.</p> + +<p>Descend from thence, down thro the various gradations of +vegetable life, till you pass the narrow border and enter the +mineral world. Here you will see displayed the same sublime +principle, tho in a modified degree. Minerals <i>assume</i> +different shapes, hues and relations; they increase and +di<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>minish, +attach and divide under various circumstances, all +the while <i>retaining</i> their identity and properties, and exerting +their abilities according to the means they possess, till +compelled to yield to a superior power, and learn to submit +to the laws which operate in every department of this mutable +world.</p> + +<p><i>Every</i> thing <i>acts</i> according to the ability God has bestowed +upon it; and man can do no more. He has authority +over all things on earth, and yet he is made to depend +upon all. His authority extends no farther than a privilege, +under wholesome restrictions, of making the whole +subservient to his real good. When he goes beyond this, he +usurps a power which belongs not to him, and the destruction +of his happiness pays the forfeit of his imprudence. +The injured power rises triumphant over the aggressor, and +the glory of God's government, in the righteous and immediate +execution of his laws, is clearly revealed. So long as +man obeys the laws which regulate health, observes temperance +in all things, uses the things of this world as not +abusing them, he is at rest, he is blessed, he is happy: but +no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he becomes the +slave, and the servant assumes the master. But I am digressing. +I would gladly follow this subject further, but I +shall go beyond my limits, and, it may be, your patience.</p> + +<p>I would insist, however, on the facts to which your attention +has been given, for it is impossible, as I have before +contended, to use language correctly without a knowledge +of the things and ideas it is employed to represent.</p> + +<p>Grovelling, indeed, must be the mind which will not trace +the sublime exhibitions of Divine power and skill in all the +operations of nature; and false must be that theory which +teaches the young mind to think and speak of neutrality as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +attached to things which do exist. As low and debasing as +the speculations of the schoolmen were, they gave to things +which they conceived to be incapable of action, a principle +which they called "<i>vis inertiæ</i>," or, <i>power to lie still</i>. Shall +our systems of instruction descend below them, throw an +insurmountable barrier in the way of human improvement, +and teach the false principles that actions can exist without +an effect, or that there is a class of words which +"express neither action or passion." Such a theory is at +war with the first principles of philosophy, and denies that +"like causes produce like effects."</p> + +<p>The ablest minds have never been able to explain the +foundation of a "neuter verb," or to find a single word, with +a solitary exception, which does not, in certain conditions, +express a positive action, and terminate on a definite object; +and that exception we shall see refers to a verb which expresses +the highest degree of conceivable action. Still they +have insisted on <i>three</i> and some on <i>four</i> kinds of verbs, one +expressing action, another passion or suffering, and the +third neutrality. We propose to offer a brief review of +these distinctions, which have so long perplexed, not only +learners, but teachers themselves, and been the fruitful +source of much dissention among grammarians.</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as +great candor as you have heretofore manifested, and as +fully resolved to take nothing for granted, because it has +been said by good or great men, and to reject nothing because +it appears new or singular. Let truth be our object +and reason our guide to direct us to it. We can not fail +of arriving at safe and correct conclusions.</p> + +<p>Mr. Murray tells us that "verbs are of three kinds, <i>active</i>, +<i>passive</i>, and <i>neuter</i>. In a note he admits of "active +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +<i>transitive</i> and intransitive verbs," as a subdivision of his +first kind. Most of his "improvers" have adopted this distinction, +and regard it as of essential importance.</p> + +<p>We shall contend, as before expressed, that <i>all</i> verbs are +of <i>one kind</i>, that they <i>express action</i>, for the simple yet +sublime reason, that every thing acts, at all times, and under +every possible condition; according to the true definition +of <i>action</i> as understood and employed by all writers on +grammar, and natural and moral science. Here we are at +issue. Both, contending for principles so opposite, can not +be correct. One or the other, however pure the motives, +must be attached to a system wrong in theory, and of course +pernicious in practice. You are to be the umpires in the +case, and, if you are faithful to your trust, you will not be +bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others. +If divested of all former attachments, if free from all prejudice, +there can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your +conclusions. But I am apprehensive I expect too much, if I +place the <i>new</i> system of grammar on a footing equally favorable +in your minds with those you have been taught to +respect, as the only true expositions of language, from your +childhood up, and which are recommended to you on the +authority of the learned and good of many generations. I +have to combat early prejudices, and systems long considered +as almost sacred. But I have in my favor the common +sense of the world, and a feeling of opposition to existing +systems, which has been produced, not so much by a detection +of their errors, as by a lack of capacity, as the learner +verily thought, to understand their profound mysteries. I +am, therefore, willing to risk the final decision with you, if +<i>you</i> will decide. But I am not willing to have you made +the tools of the opposite party, determined, whether +con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>vinced +or not, to hold to your old <i>neuter</i> verb systems, right +or wrong, merely because others are doing so. All I ask +is <i>your</i> adoption of what is proved to be undeniably true, +and rejection of whatever is found to be false.</p> + +<p>Here is where the matter must rest, for it will not be pretended +that it is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient +and popular, than truth because it is novel. Teachers, +in this respect, stand in a most responsible relation to +their pupils. They should always insist with an unyielding +pertinacity, on the importance of truth, and the evils of error. +Every trifling incident, in the course of education, +which will serve to show the contrast, should be particularly +observed. If an error can be detected in their books, +they should be so taught as to be able to correct it; and +they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it. They +should not be skeptics, however, but close observers, original +thinkers, and correct reasoners. It is degrading to the +true dignity and independence of man, to submit blindly to +any proposition. Freedom of thought is the province of all. +Children should be made to breathe the free air of honest +inquiry, and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and charity. +They should not study their books as the end of learning, +but as a means of knowing. Books should be regarded as +lamps, which are set by the way side, not as the objects to +be looked at, but the aids by which we may find the object +of our search. Knowledge and usefulness constitute the +leading motives in all study, and no occasion should be lost, +no means neglected, which will lead the young mind to their +possession.</p> + +<p>Your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on +the distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs. Let +us carefully examine the meaning of these <i>three kinds</i> and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +see if there is any occasion for such a division; if they have +any foundation in truth, or application in the correct use of +language. We will follow the arrangements adopted by +the most popular grammars.</p> + +<p>"A <i>verb active</i> expresses an action, and necessarily implies +an agent, and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love +Penelope." A very excellent definition, indeed! Had +grammarians stopped here, their works would have been +understood, and proved of some service in the study of language. +But when they diverge from this bright spot in the +consideration of verbs—this oasis in the midst of a desert—they +soon become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture, +and follow each their own dim light, to hit on a +random track, which to follow in the pursuit of their object.</p> + +<p>We give our most hearty assent to the above definition +of a verb. It expresses action, which necessarily implies +an <i>actor</i>, and an <i>object</i> influenced by the action. In our +estimation it matters not whether the object on which the +action terminates is expressed or <i>understood</i>. If I <i>love</i>, I +must love some object; either my neighbor, my enemy, my +family, <i>myself</i>, or something else. In either case the <i>action</i> +is the same, tho the objects may be different; and it is regarded, +on all hands, as an active verb. Hence when the +object on which the action terminates is not expressed, it is +necessarily understood. All language is, in this respect, +more or less eliptical, which adds much to its richness and +brevity.</p> + +<p>Active verbs, we are told, are divided into <i>transitive</i> and +<i>intransitive</i>. Mr. Murray does not exactly approve of this +distinction, but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter +together. Others, aware of the fallacy of attempting to +make children conceive any thing like neutrality in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +verbs, <i>run</i>, <i>fly</i>, <i>walk</i>, <i>live</i>, &c., have preferred to mark the +distinction and call them <i>in</i>transitive; because, say they, they +do not terminate on any object expressed.</p> + +<p>A <i>transitive verb</i> "expresses an action which passes from +the agent to the object; as, Cæsar conquered Pompey." +To this definition we can not consent. It attempts a distinction +where there is none. It is not true in principle, and +can not be adopted in practice.</p> + +<p>"Cæsar conquered Pompey." Did the act of conquering +pass <i>transitively</i> over from <i>Cæsar</i> to Pompey? They might +not have seen each other during the whole battle, nor been +within many miles of each other. They, each of them, +stood at the head of their armies, and alike gave orders to +their subordinate officers, and they again to their inferiors, +and so down, each man contending valiantly for <i>victory</i>, till, +at last, the fate of the day sealed the downfall of Pompey, +and placed the crown of triumph on the head of Cæsar. The +expression is a correct one, but the action expressed by the +verb "conquered," is not transitive, as that term is understood. +A whole train of causes was put in operation which +finally terminated in the defeat of one, and the conquest of +the other.</p> + +<p>"Bonaparte <i>lost</i> the battle of Waterloo." What did <i>he</i> +do to <i>lose</i> the battle? He exerted his utmost skill to <i>gain</i> +the battle and escape defeat. He did not do a single act, +he entertained not a single thought, which lead to such a +result; but strove against it with all his power. If the fault +was <i>his</i>, it was because he failed to act, and not because he +labored to <i>lose</i> the battle. He had too much at stake to +adopt such a course, and no man but a teacher of grammar, +would ever accuse him of <i>acting</i> to <i>lose</i> the battle.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +"A man was sick; he desired to recover (his health). +He took, for medicine, opium by mistake, and <i>lost</i> his life +by it." Was he guilty of suicide? Certainly, if our grammars +are true. But he <i>lost</i> his life in trying to get well.</p> + +<p>"A man in America <i>possesses</i> property in Europe, and +his children <i>inherit</i> it after his death." What do the children +do to <i>inherit</i> this property, of which they know nothing?</p> + +<p>"The geese, by their gabbling, <i>saved</i> Rome from destruction." +How did the geese save the city? They made +a noise, which waked the sentinels, who roused the soldiers +to arms; they fought, slew many Gauls, and delivered the +city.</p> + +<p>"A man in New-York <i>transacts</i> business in Canton." +How does he do it? He has an agent there to whom he +sends his orders, and he transacts the business. But how +does he get his letters? The clerk writes them, the postman +carries them on board the ship, the captain commands +the sailors, who work the ropes which unfurl the sails, the +wind blows, the vessel is managed by the pilot, and after a +weary voyage of several months, the letters are delivered +to the agent, who does the business that is required of him.</p> + +<p>The miser <i>denies</i> himself every comfort, and spends his +whole life in hoarding up riches; and yet he dies and <i>leaves</i> +his gold to be the possession of others.</p> + +<p>Christians <i>suffer</i> insults almost every day from the Turks.</p> + +<p>Windows <i>admit</i> light and <i>exclude</i> cold.</p> + +<p>Who can discover any thing like <i>transitive</i> action—a +passing from the agent to the object—in these cases? What +transitive action do the windows perform to <i>admit the light</i>; +or the christians, to <i>suffer insults</i>; or the miser, to <i>leave his +money</i>? If there is neutrality any where, we would look for +it here. The fact is, these words express <i>relative</i> action, as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +we shall explain when we come to the examination of the +true character of the verb.</p> + +<p><i>Neutrality</i> signifies (transitive verb!) no action, and <i>neuter</i> +verbs <i>express a state of being</i>! A class of words which +can not act, which apply to things in a quiescent state, <i>perform</i> +the transitive action of "<i>expressing</i> a state of being!"</p> + +<p>Who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such +distinctions? And who has not found himself perplexed, if +not completely bewildered in the dark and intricate labyrinths +into which he has been led by the false grammar +books! Every attempt he has made to extricate himself, by +the dim light of the "simplifiers," has only tended to bewilder +him still more, till he is utterly confounded, or else +abandons the study altogether.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>An <i>intransitive</i> verb "denotes action which is confined to +the actor, and does not pass over to another object; as, I +sit, he lives, they sleep."</p> + +<p>"A verb <i>neuter</i> expresses neither action nor passion, but +being, or a state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit."</p> + +<p>These verbs are nearly allied in character; but we will +examine them separately and fairly. The examples are +the same, with exception of the verb <i>to be</i>, which we will +notice by itself, and somewhat at large, in another place.</p> + +<p>Our first object will be +to <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'ascertion'">ascertain</ins> +the <i>meaning</i> and use +of the words which have been given as samples of neutrality. +It is unfortunate for the neuter systems that they can +not define a "neuter verb" without making it express an action +which terminates on some object.</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p>"The man <i>sits</i> in his chair."</p> + +<p><i>Sits</i>, we are told, is a neuter verb. What does it mean? +The man <i>places</i> himself in a sitting posture in his <i>seat</i>. He +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +<i>keeps</i> himself in his chair by muscular energy, assisted by +gravitation. The chair <i>upholds</i> him in that condition. Bring +a small child and <i>sit</i> it (active verb,) in a chair beside him. +Can it <i>sit</i>? No; it falls upon the floor and is injured. Why +did it fall? It was not able to <i>keep</i> itself from falling. The +lady fainted and <i>fell</i> from her <i>seat</i>. If there is no action in +sitting, why did she not remain as she was? A company of +ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college, +entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs; and he +asked them to <i>sit</i> down, or be <i>seated</i>. They were neutral. +He called them impolite. But they replied, that <i>sit</i> "expresses +neither action nor passion," and hence he could not +expect them to occupy his seats.</p> + +<p>"<i>Sit</i> or <i>set</i> it away; <i>sit</i> near me; <i>sit</i> farther along; <i>sit</i> +still;" are expressions used by every teacher in addressing +his scholars. On the system we are examining, what would +they understand by such inactive expressions? Would he +not correct them for disobeying his orders? But what did +he order them to do? Nothing at all, if <i>sit</i> denotes no action.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"I <i>sat</i> me down and wept."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"He <i>sat him</i> down by a pillar's base,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And drew his hand athwart his face."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Byron.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Then, having shown his wounds, he'd <i>sit him</i> down,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And, all the live long day, discourse of war."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Tragedy of Douglass.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i8"><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">"But</ins> + wherefore <i>sits he</i> there?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Death on my state! <i>This act</i> convinces me<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That this retiredness of the duke and her,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Is plain contempt."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>King Lear.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Sitting</i>, the <i>act of resting</i> on a seat.<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Session</i>, the <i>act of sitting</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Johnson's Dictionary.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="minor" /> +<p>"<i>I sleep.</i>"</p> + +<p>Is sleep a neuter verb? So we are gravely told by our +authors. Can grammarians follow their own rules? If so, +they may spend the "live long night" and "its waking +hours," without resorting to "tired nature's sweet restorer, +balmy sleep;" for there is no process under heaven whereby +they can procure sleep, unless they <i>sleep</i> it. For one, I +can never <i>sleep</i> without sleeping <i>sleep</i>—sometimes only a +short <i>nap</i>. It matters not whether the object is expressed +or not. The action remains the same. The true object is +necessarily understood, and it would be superfluous to name +it. Cases, however, often occur where, both in speaking +and writing, it becomes indispensable to mention the object. +"The stout hearted have <i>slept</i> their sleep." "They shall +<i>sleep</i> the <i>sleep</i> of death." "They shall <i>sleep</i> the perpetual +<i>sleep</i>, and shall not awake." "<i>Sleep</i> on now and <i>take</i> your +rest." The child was troublesome and the mother sung it +to sleep, and it <i>slept itself</i> quiet. A lady took opium and +<i>slept herself</i> to death. "Many persons sleep themselves +into a kind of unnatural stupidity." Rip Van Winkle, according +to the legend, <i>slept</i> away a large portion of a common +life.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Sleep, sleep to-day, tormenting cares."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"And <i>sleep</i> dull <i>cares</i> away."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Was your sleep refreshing last night? How did you procure +it? Let a person who still adheres to his <i>neuter</i> verbs, +that sleep expresses no action, and has no object on which +it terminates, put his theory in practice; he may as well +sleep with his eyes open, sitting up, as to <i>lie himself</i> upon his +bed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +A man lodged in an open chamber, and while he was +<i>sleeping</i> (doing nothing) he <i>caught</i> a severe <i>cold</i> (active +transitive verb) and had a long <i>run</i> of the fever. Who +does not see, not only the bad, but also the false philosophy +of such attempted distinctions? How can you make a child +discover any difference in the <i>act of sleeping</i>, whether there +is an object after it, or not? Is it not the same? And is not +the object necessarily implied, whether expressed or not? +Can a person <i>sleep</i>, without procuring <i>sleep</i>?</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p>"<i>I stand.</i>"</p> + +<p>The man <i>stands</i> firm in his integrity. Another stands in +a very precarious condition, and being unable to retain his +hold, <i>falls</i> down the precipice and is killed. Who is killed? +The man, surely. Why did he fall? Because he could not +<i>stand</i>. But there is no <i>action</i> in <i>standing</i>, say the books.</p> + +<p>"<i>Stand</i> by thyself, come not near me?" "<i>Stand</i> fast +in the liberty wherewith Christ hath made you free, and <i>be</i> +not again entangled in the yoke of bondage." "Let him +that thinketh he <i>standeth</i>, take heed lest he <i>fall</i>." If it requires +no act to <i>stand</i>, there can be no danger of falling.</p> + +<p>"Two pillars stood together; the rest had fallen to the +ground. The one on the right was quite perfect in all its +parts. The other <i>resembled it</i> very much, except it had <i>lost</i> +its capital, and <i>suffered</i> some other injuries." How could +the latter column, while performing no action in <i>standing</i>, +act <i>transitively</i>, <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'acording'">according</ins> +to our grammars, and do something +to <i>resemble</i> the other? or, what did it do to <i>lose</i> its capital, +and <i>suffer</i> other injury?</p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p>"To <i>lie</i>, or <i>lay</i>."</p> + +<p>It has been admitted that the verbs before considered are +often used as active verbs, and that there is, in truth, action +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +expressed by them. But when the man has fallen from his +seat and <i>lies</i> upon the floor, it is contended that he no longer +acts, and that <i>lie</i> expresses no action. He has ceased +from physical, muscular action regulated by his will, and +is now subject to the common laws which govern matter.</p> + +<p>Let us take a strong example. The book <i>lies</i> or <i>lays</i> +on the desk. Now you ask, does that book perform any +action in laying on the desk? I answer, yes; and I will +prove it on the principles of the soundest philosophy, to the +satisfaction of every one present. Nor will I deviate from +existing grammars to do it, so far as real action is concerned.</p> + +<p>The book <i>lies</i> on the desk. The desk <i>supports</i> the book. +Will you parse <i>supports</i>? It is, according to every system, +an active transitive verb. It has an objective case after it +on which the action terminates. But what does the desk +do to <i>support</i> the book? It barely resists the action which +the book <i>performs</i> in lying on it. The action of the desk +and book is reciprocal. But if the book does not act, neither +can the desk act, for that only repels the force of the +book in pressing upon it in its tendency towards the earth, +in obedience to the law of gravitation. And yet our authors +have told us that the desk is <i>active</i> in resisting no action +of the book! No wonder people are unable to understand +grammar. It violates the first principles of natural +science, and frames to itself a code of laws, unequal, false, +and exceptionable, which bear no affinity to the rest of the +world, and will not apply in the expression of ideas.</p> + +<p>I was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of +New-York. Mrs. W., the distinguished teacher of one of +the most popular Female Seminaries in our country, attended. +At the close of one lecture she remarked that the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +greatest fault she had discovered in the new system, was +the want of a class of words to express neutrality. Children, +she said, conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state, +and words should be taught them by which to communicate +such ideas. I asked her for an example. She gave the +rock in the side of the mountain. It had never moved. It +could never act. There it had been from the foundation +of the earth, and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged +till time should be no longer. I remarked, that I +would take another small stone and <i>lay</i> it on the great one +which could never act, and now we say the great rock <i>upholds</i>, +<i>sustains</i> or <i>supports</i> the small one—all active transitive +verbs with an object expressed.</p> + +<p>She replied, she would give it up, for it had satisfied her +of a new principle which must be observed in the exposition +of all language, which accords with <i>facts as developed in +physical and mental science</i>.</p> + +<p>I continued, not only does that rock act in resisting the +force of the small one which lays upon it, but, by the attraction +of gravitation it is able to <i>maintain</i> its <i>position</i> in +the side of the mountain; by cohesion it <i>retains</i> its distinct +identity and solidity, and repels all foreign bodies. It is +also subject to the laws which govern the earth in its diurnal +and annual revolutions, and moves in common with other +matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an +hour! Who shall teach children, in these days of light +and improvement, the grovelling doctrine of neutrality, this +relic of the peripatetic philosophy? Will parents send their +children to school to learn falsehood? And can teachers +be satisfied to remain in ignorance, following with blind +reverence the books they have studied, and refuse to examine +new principles, fearing they shall be compelled to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +acknowledge former errors and study new principles? +They should remember it is wiser and more honorable to +confess a fault and correct it, than it is to remain permanent +in error.</p> + +<p>Let us take another example of the verb "<i>to lie</i>." A +country pedagogue who has followed his authorities most +devotedly, and taught his pupils that <i>lie</i> is a "<i>neuter verb</i>, +expressing neither action nor passion, but simply being, or +a state of being," goes out, during the intermission, into a +grove near by, to <i>exercise himself</i>. In attempting to roll a +log up the hill, he <i>makes</i> a mis-step, and <i>falls</i> (intransitive +verb, <i>nothing</i> falls!) to the ground, and the log <i>rolls</i> (<i>nothing</i>) +on to him, and <i>lies</i> across his legs. In this condition +he is observed by his scholars to whom he cries (nothing) +for help. "Do (nothing) come (intransitive) and help me." +They obey him and remain <i>neuter</i>, or at least act <i>intransitively</i>, +and produce no effects. He cries again for help +and his <i>cries</i> are regarded. They <i>present</i> themselves before +him. "Do roll this log off; it will break my legs." +"Oh no, master; how can that be? The log <i>lies</i> on you, +does it not?" "Yes, and it will <i>press me</i> to death." "No, +no; that can never be. The log can not act. <span class="smcap">Lies</span> is a +<i>neuter</i> verb, signifying neither <i>action</i> nor passion, but simply +being or a state of being. You have a <i>state</i> of being, +and the log has a state of being. It can not harm you. +You must have forgotten the practical application of the +truths you have been teaching us." It would be difficult +to explain neuter verbs in such a predicament.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Now I <i>lay</i> me down <i>to sleep</i>."</p></div> + +<p>"She died and they <i>laid her</i> beside her lover under the +spreading branches of the willow."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +"They <i>laid it</i> away so secure that they could never find +it."</p> + +<p>They <i>laid</i> down to <i>rest themselves</i> after the fatigue of a +whole day's journey.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the model verbs of the neuter +kind, with the exception of the verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>, which is left for +a distinct consideration, being the most active of all verbs. +It is unnecessary to spend much time on this point. The +errors I have examined have all been discovered by teachers +of language, long ago, but few have ventured to correct +them. An alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in +the adoption of the intransitive verb, which "expresses an action +that is confined to the actor or agent."</p> + +<p>The remarks which have been given in the present lecture +will serve as a hint to the course we shall adopt in +treating of them, but the more particular examination of +their character and uses, together with some general observation +on the agents and objects of verbs, will be deferred +to our next lecture.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_IX" id="LECTURE_IX"></a>LECTURE IX.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Neuter and intransitive. — Agents. — Objects. — No actions as such +can be known distinct from the agent. — Imaginary actions. — Actions +known by their effects. — Examples. — Signs should guide +to things signified. — Principles of action. — +<span class="smcap">Power</span>. — Animals. — Vegetables. — Minerals. — All +things act. — Magnetic needle. — <span class="smcap">Cause</span>. +— Explained. — First +Cause. — <span class="smcap">Means</span>. — Illustrated. — Sir I. +Newton's example. — These principles must be known. — <span class="smcap">Relative</span> +action. — Anecdote of Gallileo.</p></div> + + +<p>We resume the consideration of verbs. We closed our +last lecture with the examination of <i>neuter verbs</i>, as they +have been called. It appears to us that evidence strong +enough to convince the most skeptical was adduced to prove +that <i>sit</i>, <i>sleep</i>, <i>stand</i> and <i>lie</i>, stand in the same relation to +language as other verbs, that they do not, in any case, express +neutrality, but frequently admit an objective word after +them. These are regarded as the most neutral of all +the verbs except <i>to be</i>, which, by the way, expresses the +highest degree of action, as we shall see when we come to +inquire into its meaning.</p> + +<p>Grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the +books in the use of a large portion of verbs which have +been called neuter. To obviate the difficulty, some of them +have adopted the distinction of <i>Intransitive</i> verbs, which express +action, but terminate on no object; others still use the +term <i>neuter</i>, but teach their scholars that when the <i>object</i> is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +<i>expressed</i>, it is active. This distinction has only tended to +perplex learners, while it afforded only a temporary expedient +to teachers, by which to dodge the question at issue. +So far as the action is concerned, which it is the business of +the verb to express, what is the difference whether "I <i>run</i>, +or <i>run</i> myself?" "A man started in haste. He <i>ran</i> so fast +that he <i>ran himself</i> to death." I strike Thomas, Thomas +<i>strikes David</i>, Thomas <i>strikes himself</i>. Where is the difference +in the action? What matters it whether the action +passes over to another object, or is confined within itself?</p> + +<p>"But," says the objector, "you mistake. An intransitive +verb is one where the 'effect is confined within the subject, +and does not pass over to any object.'"</p> + +<p>Very well, I think I understand the objection. When +Thomas strikes David the effects of the blow <i>passes over</i> to +him. And when he strikes himself, it "is confined within +the subject," and hence the latter is an <i>intransitive</i> verb.</p> + +<p>"No, no; there is an object on which the action terminates, +in that case, and so we must call it a <i>transitive</i> verb."</p> + +<p>Will you give me an example of an <i>intransitive</i> verb?</p> + +<p>"I <i>run</i>, he <i>walks</i>, birds <i>fly</i>, it <i>rains</i>, the fire <i>burns</i>. No +objects are expressed after these words, so the action is +confined within themselves."</p> + +<p>I now get your meaning. When the object is <i>expressed</i> +the verb is transitive, when it is not it is intransitive. This +distinction is generally observed in teaching, however widely +it may differ from the intention of the makers of grammars. +And hence children acquire the habit of limiting +their inquiries to what they see placed before them by others, +and do not think for themselves. When the verb has +an objective word after it <i>expressed</i>, they are taught to attach +action to it; but tho the action may be even greater, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +if the object is not expressed, they consider the action as +widely different in its character, and adopt the false philosophy +that a cause can exist without an effect resulting +from it.</p> + +<p>We assume this ground, and we shall labor to maintain +it, that every verb necessarily presupposes an <i>agent</i> or <i>actor</i>, +an <i>action</i>, and an <i>object</i> acted upon, or affected by the +action.</p> + +<p>No action, as such, can be known to exist separate from +the thing that acts. We can conceive no idea of action, +only by keeping our minds fixed on the acting substance, +marking its changes, movements, and tendencies. "The +book <i>moves</i>." In this case the eye rests on the book, and +observes its positions and attitudes, alternating one way and +the other. You can separate no action from the book, nor +conceive any idea of it, as a separate entity. Let the +book be taken away. Where now is the action? What +can you think or say of it? There is the same space just +now occupied by the book, but no action is perceivable.</p> + +<p>The boy <i>rolls</i> his marble upon the floor. All his ideas +of the action performed by it are derived from an observation +of the marble. His eye follows it as it moves along +the floor. He sees it in that acting condition. When he +speaks of the action as a whole, he thinks where it started +and where it stopped. It is of no importance, so far as the +verb is concerned, whether the marble received an impulse +from his hand, or whether the floor was sufficiently inclined +to allow it to roll by its own inherent tendency. The action +is, in this case, the obvious change of the marble.</p> + +<p>Our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance +of things in a state of motion, or change, or exerting a +tendency to change, or to counteract an opposing substance.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +This will be admitted so far as material things are concerned. +The same principle holds good in reference to every thing +of which we form ideas, or concerning which we +use language. In our definition of nouns we spoke of immaterial +and imaginary things to which we gave <i>names</i> and +which we consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence +in the production of effects, or in resisting actions. It +is therefore unimportant whether the action be real or imaginary. +It is still inseparably connected with the thing +that acts; and we employ it thus in the construction of language +to express our thoughts. Thus, lions roar; birds +sing; minds reflect; fairies dance; knowledge increases; +fancies err; imagination wanders.</p> + +<p>This fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to +understand or explain language. The mind should remain +fixed to the acting substance, to observe its changes and +relations at different periods, and in different circumstances. +There is no other process by which any knowledge can be +gained of actions. The mind contemplates the acting thing +in a condition of change and determines the precise action +by the <i>altered condition</i> of the thing, and thus learns to +judge of actions by their effects. The only method by +which we can know whether a <i>vegetable grows</i> or not is by +comparing its form to-day with what it was some days ago. +We can not decide on the improvement of our children only +by observing the same rule.</p> + +<p>"By their fruits ye shall know them," will apply in +physics as well as in morals; for we judge of causes only +by their effects. First principles can never be known. +We observe things as they <i>are</i>, and remember how they +<i>have been</i>; and from hence deduce our conclusions in reference +to the <i>cause</i> of things we do not fully understand, or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +those consequences which will follow a condition of things +as now existing. It is the business of philosophy to mark +these effects, and trace them back to the causes which produced +them, by observing all the intermediate changes, +forms, attitudes, and conditions, in which such things have, +at different times, been placed.</p> + +<p>We say, "<i>trees grow</i>." But suppose no change had +ever been observed in trees, that they had always been as +they now are; in stature as lofty, in foliage as green and +beautiful, in location unaltered. Who would then say, +"trees grow?"</p> + +<p>In this single expression a whole train of facts are taken +into the account, tho not particularly marked. As a single +expression we imply that <i>trees increase their stature</i>. But +this we all know could never be effected without the influence +of other causes. The soil where it stands must contain +properties suited to the <i>growth</i> of the tree. A due +portion of moisture and heat are also requisite. These facts +all exist, and are indispensable to make good the expression +that the "tree grows." We might also trace the capabilities +of the tree itself, its roots, bark, veins or pores, fibres or +grains, its succulent and absorbent powers. But, as in the +case of the "man that killed the deer," noticed in a former +lecture, the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete +whole, which is signified by the single expression, "trees +grow."</p> + +<p>Let the following example serve in further illustration of +this point. Take two bricks, the one heated to a high temperature, +the other cold. Put them together, and in a short +time you will find them of equal temperature. One has +grown warm, the other cool. One has <i>imparted</i> heat and +<i>received</i> cold, the other has <i>received</i> heat and <i>imparted</i> cold. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +Yet all this would remain forever unknown, but for the effects +which must appear obvious to all. From these effects +the causes are to be learned.</p> + +<p>It must, I think, appear plain to all who are willing to +see, that action, as such, can never exist distinct from the +thing that acts; that all our notions of action are derived +from an observance of <i>things</i> in an acting condition; and +hence that no words can be framed to express our ideas of +action on any other principle.</p> + +<p>I hope you will bear these principles in mind. They are +vastly important in the construction of language, as will +appear when we come to speak of the <i>agents</i> and <i>objects</i> of +action. We still adhere to the fact, that no rules of language +can be successfully employed, which deviate from +the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter +and mind; a fact which can not be too deeply impressed +on your minds.</p> + +<p>In the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs, +we must observe that <i>power</i>, <i>cause</i>, <i>means</i>, <i>agency</i>, and +<i>effects</i>, are indispensable to their existence. Such principles +exist <i>in fact</i>, and must be observed in obtaining a complete +knowledge of language; for words, we have already +seen, are the expression of ideas, and ideas are the impression +of things.</p> + +<p>In our attempts at improvement, we should strip away +the covering, and come at the reality. Words should be +measurably forgotten, while we search diligently for the +things expressed by them. <i>Signs</i> should always conduct +to the things <i>signified</i>. The weary traveller, hungry and +faint, would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of +the <i>sign</i> before the inn, marking its form, the picture upon +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +it, the nice shades of coloring in the painting. He would +go in, and search for the thing signified.</p> + +<p>It has been the fault in teaching language, that learners +have been limited to the mere <i>forms</i> of words, while the +important duty of teaching them to look at the thing signified, +has been entirely disregarded. Hence they have only +obtained book knowledge. They know what the grammars +say; but how to <i>apply</i> what they say, or what is in reality +meant by it, they have yet to learn. This explains the +reason why almost every man who has studied grammar +will tell you that "he <i>used</i> to understand it, but it has all +gone from him, for he has not looked into a <i>book</i> these many +years." Has he lost a knowledge of language? Oh, no, +he learned that before he saw a grammar, and will preserve +it to the day of his death. What good did his two or three +years study of grammar do him? None at all; he has +forgotten all that he ever knew of it, and that is not much, +for he only learned what some author said, and a few arbitrary +rules and technical expressions which he could never +understand nor apply in practice, except in special cases. +But I wander. I throw in this remark to show you the +necessity of bringing your minds to a close observance of +things as they do in truth exist; and from them you can +draw the principles of speech, and be able to use language +correctly. For we still insist on our former opinion, that +all language depends on the permanent laws of nature, as +exerted in the regulation of matter and mind.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>To return. I have said that all action denotes <i>power</i>, +<i>cause</i>, <i>means</i>, <i>agency</i>, and <i>effects</i>.<br /><br /></p> + +<p><i>Power</i> depends on <i>physical energy</i>, or <i>mental skill</i>. I +have hinted at this fact before. Things act according to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +the power or energy they possess. Animals walk, birds +fly, fishes swim, minerals sink, poisons kill. Or, according +to the adopted theories of naturalists:</p> + +<p>Minerals <i>grow</i>.</p> + +<p>Vegetables <i>grow</i> and <i>live</i>.</p> + +<p>Animals <i>grow</i>, and <i>live</i>, and <i>feel</i>.</p> + +<p>Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses. +Man, possessed of reason, devises means and produces ends. +Beasts change locations, devour vegetables, and sometimes +other beasts. The lowest grade of animals never change +location, but yet eat and live. Vegetables live and grow, +but do not change location. They have the power to reproduce +their species, and some of them to kill off surrounding +objects. "The <i>carraguata</i> of the West Indies, clings +round," says Goldsmith, "whatever tree it happens to approach; +there it quickly gains the ascendant, and, loading +the tree with a verdure not its own, keeps away that nourishment +designed to feed the trunk, and at last entirely destroys +its supporter." In our country, many gardens and +fields present convincing proof of the ability of weeds to +kill out the vegetables designed to grow therein. You all +have heard of the <i>Upas</i>, which has a power sufficient to +destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a large distance +around. Its very exhalations are death to whatever +approaches it. It serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious +effects of all vice, of slander and deceit, the effects of +which are to the moral constitution, what the tree itself is +to natural objects, blight and mildew upon whatever comes +within its reach.</p> + +<p>Minerals are possessed of <i>power</i> no less astonishing, which +may be observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call +it forth. Active poisons, able to slay the most powerful +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +men and beasts, lie hid within their bosoms. They have +strong attractive and repelling powers. From the iron is +made the strong cable which <i>holds</i> the vessel fast in her +moorings, <i>enabling</i> it to outride the collected force of the +winds and waves which <i>threaten</i> its destruction. From it +also are manufactured the manacles which bind the strong +man, or fasten the lion in his cage. Gold <i>possesses</i> a power +which <i>charms</i> nearly all men to sacrifice their ease, and +too many their moral principles, to pay their blind devotions +at its shrine.</p> + +<p>Who will contend that the power of action is confined to +the animal creation alone, and that inanimate matter can +not act? That there is a superior power possessed by man, +endowed with an immaterial spirit in a corporeal body, none +will deny. By the agency of the mind he can accomplish +wonders, which mere physical power without the aid of +such mental skill, could never perform. But with all his +boasted superiority, he is often made the slave of inanimate +things. His lofty powers of body and soul bend beneath +the weight of accumulated sorrows, produced by the secret +<i>operations</i> of contagious disease, which <i>slays</i> his wife, children, +and friends, who fall like the ripened harvest before +the gatherers scythe. Nay, he often submits to the controlling +power of the vine, alcohol, or tobacco, which <i>gain</i> +a secret influence over his nobler powers, and <i>fix</i> on him +the stamp of disgrace, and <i>throw</i> around him fetters from +which he finds it no easy matter to extricate himself. By +the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed, and long +endures darkness and suffering, till he <i>regains</i> his native +energies, and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth +and virtue.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +What is that secret power which lies concealed beyond +the reach of human ken, and is transported from land to +land unknown, till exposed in conditions suited to its operation, +will show its active and resistless force in the destruction +of life, and the devastation of whole cities or nations? +You may call it plague, or cholera, or small pox, miasma, +contagion, particles of matter floating in the air surcharged +with disease, or any thing else. It matters not what you +call it. It is sufficient to our present purpose to know that +it has the ability to put forth a prodigious power in the production +of consequences, which the highest skill of man is +yet unable to prevent.</p> + +<p>I might pursue this point to an indefinite length, and trace +the secret powers possessed by all created things, as exhibited +in the influence they exert in various ways, both as +regards themselves and surrounding objects. But you will +at once perceive my object, and the truth of the positions +I assume. A common power pervades all creation, operating +by pure and perfect laws, regulated by the Great First +Cause, the Moving Principle, which guides, governs, and +controls the whole.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +Degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit +all action to the animal frame as an organized body, moved +by a living principle. Ours is a sublimer duty; to trace +the operations of the Divine Wisdom which acts thro out all +creation, in the minutest particle of dust which <i>keeps</i> its +<i>position</i> secure, till moved by some superior power; or in +the <i>needle</i> which points with unerring skill to its fixed point, +and <i>guides</i> the vessel, freighted with a hundred lives, safe +thro the midnight storm, to its destined haven; tho rocked +by the waves and driven by the winds, it remains uninfluenced, +and tremblingly alive to the important duties entrusted +to its charge, continues its faithful service, and is +watched with the most implicit confidence by all on board, +as the only guide to safety. The same Wisdom is displayed +thro out all creation; in the beauty, order, and harmony +of the universe; in the planets which float in the +azure vault of heaven; in the glow worm that glitters in +the dust; in the fish which cuts the liquid element; in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean; in every +thing that lives, moves, or has a being; but more distinctly +in man, created in the moral image of his Maker, possessed +of a heart to feel, and a mind to understand—the third in +the rank of intelligent beings.</p> + +<p>I cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that +inimitable poem, Pope's Essay on Man. It is rife with sentiment +of the purest and most exalted character. It is direct +to our purpose. You may have heard it a thousand +times; but I am confident you will be pleased to hear it +again.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Earth for whose use? Pride answers, "'Tis for mine:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"For me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flow'r;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"For me, the mine a thousand treasures brings;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"For me health gushes from a thousand springs;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"My footstool earth, my canopy the skies."<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">But errs not nature from this gracious end,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From burning suns when livid deaths descend,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"<i>No</i>," ('tis replied,) "<i>the first Almighty Cause</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Acts not by partial, but by general laws;</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Th' exceptions few; some change since all began:</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>And what created perfect?</i>" Why then man?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">If the great end be human happiness,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Then nature deviates—and can man do less?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">As much that end a constant course requires<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of show'rs and sunshine, as of man's desires;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">As much eternal springs and cloudless skies,<br /></span> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +<span class="i0">As man forever temp'rate, calm, and wise.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Why then a Borgia, or a Cataline?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who knows but He whose hand the lightning forms,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who heaves old ocean, and who wings the storms;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Pours fierce ambition in a Cæsar's mind;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or turns young Ammon loose to scourge mankind?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From pride, from pride our very reas'ning springs;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Account for moral as for nat'ral things:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Why charge we heaven in those, in these acquit?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In both, to reason right, is to submit.<br /></span> +</div> + +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">Better for us, perhaps, it might appear,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Were there all harmony, all virtue here;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That never air or ocean felt the wind;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That never passion discomposed the mind.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But <span class="smcap">all</span> subsists by elemental strife;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And passions are the elements of life.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The general <span class="smcap">order</span>, since the whole began,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Is kept in nature, and is kept in man.<br /></span> +</div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">Look round our world, behold the chain of love.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Combining all below and all above;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">See plastic nature working to this end,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The single atoms each to other tend;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Attract, attracted to, the next in place<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">See matter next, with various life endued,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Press to one center still the gen'ral good.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">See dying vegetables life sustain,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">See life dissolving, vegetate again;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All forms that perish, other forms supply,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(By turns we catch the vital breath, and die)<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They rise, they break, and to that sea return,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nothing is foreign—parts relate to whole;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">One all-extending, all-preserving soul<br /></span> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +<span class="i0">Connects each being greatest with the least;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All served, all serving; nothing stands alone;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>But <i>power</i> alone is not sufficient to produce action. +There must be a <span class="smcap">cause</span> to call it forth, to set in operation +and exhibit its latent energies. It will remain hid in its +secret chambers till efficient causes have set in operation +the <i>means</i> by which its existence is to be discovered in the +production of change, effects, or results. There is, it is +said, in every created thing a power sufficient to produce +its own destruction, as well as to preserve its being. In +the human body, for instance, there is a constant tendency +to decay, to waste; which a counteracting power resists, +and, with proper assistance, keeps alive.</p> + +<p>The same may be said of vegetables which are constantly +throwing off, or exhaling the waste, offensive, or useless +matter, and yet a restoring power, assisted by heat, moisture, +and the nourishment of the earth, resists the tendency +to decay and preserves it alive and growing. The air, the +earth, nay, the ocean itself, philosophers assure us, contain +powers sufficient to self-destruction. But I will not enlarge +here. Let the necessary <i>cause</i> be exerted which will give +vent to this hidden power and actions the most astonishing +and destructive would be the effect. These are often witnessed +in the tremendous earthquakes which devastate +whole cities, states, and empires; in the tornados which +pass, like the genius of evil, over the land, levelling whatever +is found in its course; or in the waterspouts and maelstroms +which prove the grave of all that comes within their +grasp.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +In the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament +of England, by what is usually called the "gunpowder +plot," the arrangements were all made; two hogsheads +and thirty-six barrels of powder, sufficient to blow up the +house of lords and the surrounding buildings, were secreted +in a vault beneath it, strown over with faggots. Guy +Fawkes, a spanish officer, employed for the purpose, lay at +the door, on the 5th of November, 1605, with the matches, +or <i>means</i>, in his pocket, which should set in operation the +prodigious dormant <i>power</i>, which would hurl to destruction +James I., the royal family, and the protestant parliament, +give the ascendancy to the Catholics, and change the whole +political condition of the nation. The <i>project</i> was discovered, +the <i>means</i> were removed, the <i>cause</i> taken away, and the +threatened <i>effects</i> were prevented.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">cause</span> of action is the immediate subject which precedes +or tends to produce the action, without which it would +not take place. It may result from volition, inherent tendency, +or communicated impulse; and is known to exist +from the effects produced by it, in the altered or new condition +of the thing on which it operates; which change +would not have been effected without it.</p> + +<p>Causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects +which are produced by them. The factory is put in +operation, and the cloth is manufactured. The careless observer +would enter the building and see the spindles, looms, +and wheels operated by the hands, and go away satisfied +that he has seen enough, seen all. But the more careful +will look farther. He will trace each band and wheel, each +cog and shaft, down by the balance power, to the water +race and floom; or thro the complicated machinery of the +steam engine to the piston, condenser, water, wood, and fire; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +marking a new, more secret, and yet more efficient cause at +each advancing step. But all this curiously wrought machinery +is not the product of chance, operated without care. +A superior cause must be sought in human skill, in the deep +and active ingenuity of man. Every contrivance presupposes +a contriver. Hence there must have been a power +and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of +the water, or generate and direct the steam. That power +is vested in man; and hence, man stands as the cause, in +relation to the whole process operated by wheels, bands, +spindles, and looms. Yet we may say, with propriety, that +the water, or the steam; the water-wheel, or the piston; +the shafts, bands, cogs, pullies, spindles, springs, treddles, harnesses, +reeds, shuttles, an almost endless concatenation of instruments, +are alike the <i>causes</i>, which tend to produce the +final result; for let one of these intermediate causes be removed, +and the whole power will be diverted, and all will +go wrong—the effect will not be produced.</p> + +<p>There must be a <span class="smcap">first cause</span> to set in operation all inferior +ones in the production of action; and to that <i>first</i> cause +all action, nay, the existence of all other causes, may be +traced, directly, or more distant. The intervening causes, in +the consecutive order of things, may be as diversified as the +links in the chain of variant beings. Yet all these causes +are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of +the Almighty Father, the <span class="smcap">Uncaused Cause</span> of all things +and beings; who spoke into existence the universe with all +its various and complicated parts and orders; who set the +sun, moon, and stars in the firmament, gave the earth a +place, and fixed the sea a bed; throwing around them barriers +over which they can never pass. From the height of +his eternal throne, his eye pervades all his works; from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +tall archangel, that "adores and burns," down to the very +hairs of our heads, which are all numbered, his wise, benevolent, +and powerful supervision may be traced in legible +lines, which may be seen and read of all men. And from +effects, the most diminutive in character, may be traced back, +from cause to cause, upward in the ascending scale of being, +to the same unrivalled Source of all power, splendor, +and perfection, the presence of Him, who spake, and it was +done; who commanded, and it <i>stood still</i>; or, as the poet +has it:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Look thro nature up to nature's God."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The <i>means</i> of action are those aids which are displayed +as the medium thro which existing causes are to exhibit +their hidden powers in producing changes or effects. The +matches in the pocket of +Guy <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Fawks'">Fawkes</ins> were the direct means +by which he intended to set in operation a train of causes +which should terminate in the destruction of the house of +lords and all its inmates. Those matches, set on fire, would +convey a spark to the faggots, and thence to the powder, +and means after means, and cause after cause, in the rapid +succession of events, would ensue, tending to a final, inevitable, +and melancholy result.</p> + +<p>A ball shot from a cannon, receives its first impulse from +the powder; but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle +inherent in itself, which power is finally overcome by +the density of the atmosphere which impedes its progress, +and the law of gravitation finally attracts it to the earth. +These contending principles may be known by observing the +curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth +to the spot where it rests. But if there is no power in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +ball, why does not the ball of cork discharged from the same +gun with the same momentum, travel to the same distance, +at the same rate? The action commences in both cases +with the same projectile force, the same exterior <i>means</i> are +employed, but the results are widely different. The cause +of this difference must be sought for in the comparative +power of each substance to <i>continue its own movements</i>.</p> + +<p>Every boy who has played at ball has observed these +principles. He throws his ball, which, if not <i>counteracted</i>, +will continue in a straight line, <i>ad infinitum</i>—without end. +But the air impedes its progress, and gravitation brings it to +the ground. When he throws it against a hard substance, its +velocity is not only overcome, but it is sent back with great +force. But if he takes a ball of wax, of snow, or any strong +adhesive substance, it will not bound. How shall we account +to him for this difference? He did the same with both +balls. The impetus given the one was as great as the other, +and the resistance of the intervening substance was as great +in one case as the other; and yet, one bounds and rebounds, +while the other sticks fast as a friend, to the first object it +meets. The cause of this difference is to be sought for in +the different capabilities of the respective balls. One possesses +a strong elastic and repelling power; in the other, +the attraction of cohesion is predominant.</p> + +<p>Take another example. Let two substances of equal +size and form, the one made of lead, the other of cork, be +put upon the surface of a cistern of water. The external +circumstances are the same, but the effects are widely different—one +sinks, the other floats. We must look for the +cause of this difference, not in the opposite qualities of surrounding +matter, but in the things themselves. If you add +to the cork another quality possessed by the lead, and give +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +it the same form, size, and <i>weight</i>, it will as readily sink to +the bottom. But this last property is possessed in different +degrees by the two bodies, and hence, while the one floats +upon the water, the other displaces its particles and sinks to +the bottom. You may take another substance; say the +mountain ebony, which is heavier than water, but lighter +than lead, and immerse it in the water; it will not sink with +the rapidity of lead, because its inherent <i>power</i> is not so +strong.</p> + +<p>Take still another case. Let two balls, suspended on +strings, be equally, or, to use the technical term, <i>positively</i> +electrified. Bring them within a certain distance, and they +will repel each other. Let the electric fluid be extracted +from one, and the other will attract it. Before, they were +as enemies; now they embrace as friends. The magnet +furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we +are laboring to establish. Let one of sufficient power be +let down within the proper distance, it will overcome the +power of gravitation, and <i>attract</i> the heavy steel to itself. +What is the cause of this wonderful fact? Who can account +for it? Who can trace out the hidden cause; the "<i>primum +mobile</i>" of the Ptolmaic philosophy—the secret spring of motion? +But who will dare deny that such effects do exist, +and that they are produced by an efficient cause? Or who +will descend into the still more dark and perplexing mazes +of neuter verb grammars, and deny that matter has such a +power to act?</p> + +<p>These instances will suffice to show you what we mean +when we say, <i>every thing acts according to the ability God +has given it to act</i>. I might go into a more minute examination +of the properties of matter, affinity, hardness, weight, +size, color, form, mobility, &c., which even old grammars +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +will allow it to <i>possess</i>; but I shall leave that work for you +to perform at your leisure.</p> + +<p>Whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the +abilities of all things to <i>produce</i>, <i>continue</i>, or <i>prevent</i> motion, +will do well to consult the prince of philosophers, Sir Isaac +Newton, who, after Gallileo, has treated largely upon the +laws of motion. He asserts as a fact, full in illustration of +the principles I am laboring to establish, that in ascending +a hill, the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as he +draws that forward, only the horse overcomes the resistance +of the load, and moves it up the hill. On the old systems, +no power would be requisite to move the load, for it +could oppose no resistance to the horse; and the small child +could move it with as much ease as the strong team.</p> + +<p>Who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to +know these things? I can not believe there is a person present, +who does not fully comprehend my meaning, and discover +the correctness of the ground I have assumed. And +it should be borne in mind, that no collection or arrangement +of words can be composed into a sentence, which do +not obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they +exist and operate in the material and intellectual world, and +that it is not in the power of man to frame a sentence, to +think or speak, but in conformity with these general and +exceptionless laws.</p> + +<p>This important consideration meets us at every advancing +step, as if to admonish us to abandon the vain project of +seeking a knowledge of language without an acquaintance +with the great principles on which it depends. To look for +the leading rules of speech in set forms of expression, or in +the capricious customs of any nation, however learned, is +as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +shutting ourselves up in a room, and looking at paintings +and drawings which may be furnished by those who know +as little of it as we do. How fallacious would be the attempt, +how much worse than time thrown away, for the +parent to shut up his child in a lonely room, and undertake +to impress upon its mind a knowledge of man, beasts, birds, +fish, insects, rivers, mountains, fields, flowers, houses, cities, +&c., with no other aid than a few miserable pictures, unlike +the reality, and in many respects contradictory to each +other. And yet that would be adopting a course very similar +to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring +a knowledge of language; limited to a set of arbitrary, false, +and contradictory rules, which the brightest geniuses could +never understand, nor the most erudite employ in the expression +of ideas. The grammars, it was thought, must be +studied to acquire the use of language, and yet they were +forgotten before such knowledge was put in practice.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>A simple remark on the principles of <i>relative</i> action, and +we will pass to the consideration of <i>agents</i> and <i>objects</i>, or +the more immediate <i>causes</i> and <i>effects</i> of action.</p> + +<p>We go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun +<i>sinking</i> beneath the horizon; we mark the varying hues of +light as they appear, and change, and fade away. We see +the shades of night <i>approaching</i>, with a gradual pace, till +the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing, the +hills and the meadows; the farm house and the cultivated +fields, the grove, the orchard, and the garden; the tranquil +lake and the babbling brook; the dairy returning home, and +the lambkins gambolling beside their dams; all <i>recede</i> from +our view, and <i>appear</i> to us no longer. All this is <i>relative</i> +action. But so far as language and ideas are concerned, it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +matters not whether the sun actually <i>sinks</i> behind the hills, +or the hills interpose between it and us; whether the landscape +<i>recedes</i> from our view, or the shades of night intercept +so as to obscure our vision. The habit of thought is the +same, and the form of expression must agree with it. We +say the sun <i>rises</i> and <i>sets</i>, in reference to the obvious fact, +without stopping to inquire whether it really moves or not. +Nor is such an inquiry at all necessary, as to matter of fact, +for all we mean by such expressions, is, that by some process, +immaterial to the case in hand, the sun stands in a new +relation to the earth, its altitude is elevated or depressed, +and hence the action is strictly relative. For we should +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'rember'">remember</ins> +that <i>rising</i> and <i>setting</i>, <i>up</i> and <i>down</i>, <i>above</i> and <i>below</i>, +in reference to the earth, are only relative terms.</p> + +<p>We speak and read of the <i>changes</i> of the moon, and we +correctly understand each other. But in truth the moon +changes no more at one time than at another. The action +is purely relative. One day we observe it <i>before</i> the +sun, and the next <i>behind</i> it, as we understand these terms. +The precise time of the change, when it will appear to us +in a different relation to the sun, is computed by astronomers, +and set down in our almanacs; but it changes no +more at that time than at any other, for like every thing +else, it is <i>always changing</i>.</p> + +<p>In a case we mentioned in a former lecture, "John <i>looks</i> +like or <i>resembles</i> his +brother<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">,"</ins> +we have an example of relative +action. So in the case of two men travelling the same way, +starting together, but advancing at different rates; one, we +say, <i>falls</i> behind the other. In this manner of expression, +we follow exactly the principles on which we started, and +suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking. By +the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +eye inversely, that is, upside down; but they are always +seen in a proper relation to each other, and if there is any +thing wrong in the case, it is overcome by early habit; and +so our language accords with things as they are manifested +to our understandings.</p> + +<p>These examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by +relative action, when applied to natural philosophy or the +construction of language.</p> + +<p>I had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents +and objects of verbs, to prove, in accordance with the first +and closest principles of philosophy, that every "<i>cause</i> must +have an <i>effect</i>," or, in other words, that every action must +terminate on some object, either expressed or necessarily +understood; but I am admonished that I have occupied +more than my usual quota of time in this lecture already, +and hence I shall leave this work for our next.</p> + +<p>I will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from +the life of that wonderful man, Gallileo Gallilei, who was +many years professor of mathematics at Padua. Possessed +of a strong, reflecting mind, he had early given his attention +to the observation of things, their motions, tendencies, and +power of resistance, from which he ascended, step by step, +to the sublime science of astronomy. Being of an honest +and frank, as well as benevolent disposition, he shunned not +to state and defend theories at war with the then received +opinions. All learning was, at that time, in the hands or +under the supervision of the ecclesiastics, who were content +to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy, which, in many +respects, was not unlike that still embraced in our <i>neuter +verb systems</i> of grammar. There was a sworn hostility +against all improvement, or innovation as it was called, in +science as well as in theology. The copernican system, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +to which Gallileo was inclined, if it had not been formally +condemned, had been virtually denounced as false, and its +advocates heretical. Hence Gallileo never dared openly +to defend it, but, piece by piece, under different names, he +brought it forth, which, carried out, would establish the heretical +system. Dwelling as a light in the midst of surrounding +darkness, he cautiously discovered the precious +truths revealed to his mind, lest the flood of light should +distract and destroy the mental vision, break up the elements +of society, let loose the resistless powers of ignorance, +prejudice and bigotry, and envelope himself and friends in +a common ruin. At length having prepared in a very +guarded manner his famous "Dialogues on the Ptolmaic and +Copernican Systems," he obtained permission, and ventured +to publish it to the world, altho an edict had been promulgated +enjoining silence on the subject, and he had been +personally instructed "<i>not to believe or teach the motion of +the earth in any manner</i>."</p> + +<p>By the false representation of his enemies, suspicions were +aroused and busily circulated prejudicial to Gallileo. Pope +Urban himself, his former friend, became exasperated towards +him, and a sentence against him and his books was +fulminated by the Cardinals, prohibiting the "sale and vending +of the latter, and condemning him to the formal prison +of the Holy Office for a period determined at their pleasure." +The sentence of the Inquisition was in part couched in these +words—"We pronounce, judge, and declare, that you, the +said Gallileo, by reason of these things, which have been detailed +in the course of this investigation, and which, as above, +you have confessed, have rendered yourself vehemently suspected +by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, that +you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +Holy and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the center +of the world, and that it does not <i>move</i> from east to west, +and that the earth does <i>move</i>, and is not the center of the +world; also, that an opinion <i>can be held</i> and <i>supported</i> as +<i>probable</i>, <i>after it has been</i> declared, and finally decreed contrary +to the Holy Scriptures"—by the Holy See!! "From +which," they continue, "it is <i>our</i> pleasure that you be absolved, +provided that, first, with a <i>sincere</i> heart, and <i>unfeigned +faith</i>, in our presence, you <i>abjure</i>, <i>curse</i>, and <i>detest</i> +the said errors and heresies, and every other error and +heresy contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Church of +Rome, in the form now shown to you."</p> + +<p>After suffering under this anathema some time, Gallileo, +by the advice of his friends, consented to make a public +abjuration of his former heresies on the laws of motion. +Kneeling before the "Most Eminent and Most Reverend +Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal Christian +republic, against <i>heretical depravity</i>, having before his +eyes the Holy Gospels," he swears that he always "<i>believed</i>, +and now <i>believes</i>, and with the help of God, <i>will in +future believe</i>, every article which the Holy Catholic Church +of Rome holds, teaches, and preaches"—that he does altogether +"abandon the false opinion which maintains that the +'sun is the center of the world, and that the earth is <i>not</i> the +center and <i>movable</i>,' that with a sincere heart and unfeigned +faith, he abjures, curses, and detests the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and sect contrary to the +said Holy Church, and that he will never more in future, +say or assert any thing verbally, or in writing, which may +give rise to similar suspicion." As he arose from his knees, +it is said, he whispered to a friend standing near him, "<i>E +pur si muove</i>"—<span class="smcap">it does move, tho</span>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +In our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of +the Inquisition; but prejudice, if not as strong in power to +execute, has the ability to blind as truly as in other ages, +and keep us from the knowledge and adoption of practical +improvements. And it is the same philosophy now, which +<i>asks</i> if <i>inanimate matter can act</i>, which <i>demanded</i> of Gallileo +if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand miles in a +minute, and no body feel the motion; and with Deacon +Homespun, in the dialogue, "why, if this world turned upside +down, the water did not spill from the mill ponds, and +all the people fall headlong to the bottomless pit?"</p> + +<p>If there are any such peripatetics in these days of light +and science, who still cling to the false and degrading systems +of neutrality, because they are honorable for age, or +sustained by learned and good men, and who will oppose +all improvement, reject without examination, or, what is +still worse, refuse to adopt, after being convinced of the +truth of it, any system, because it is novel, an innovation +upon established forms, I can only say of them, in the language +of Micanzio, the Venetian friend of Gallileo—"The +efforts of such enemies to get these principles prohibited, +will occasion no loss either to your reputation, or to the intelligent +part of the world. As to posterity, this is just one +of the surest ways to hand them down to them. But what +a wretched set this must be, to whom every good thing, and +<i>all that is found in nature</i>, necessarily appears hostile and +odious."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_X" id="LECTURE_X"></a>LECTURE X.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>A philosophical +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks .">axiom.</ins> +— Manner of expressing action. — Things +taken for granted. — Simple facts must be known. — Must never +deviate from the truth. — Every <i>cause</i> will have an <i>effect</i>. — An +example of an intransitive verb. — Objects expressed or implied. — All +language eliptical. — Intransitive verbs examined. — I run. — I +walk. — To step. — Birds fly. — It rains. — The fire burns. — The +sun shines. — To smile. — Eat and drink. — Miscellaneous examples. — Evils +of false teaching. — A change is demanded. — These +principles apply universally. — Their importance.</p></div> + + +<p>We have made some general remarks on the power, +cause, and means, necessary in the production of action. +We now approach nearer to the application of these principles +as observed in the immediate <i>agency</i> and <i>effects</i> which +precede and follow action, and as connected with the verb.</p> + +<p>It is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted, +that every <i>effect</i> is the product of a prior <i>cause</i>, and +that every <i>cause</i> will necessarily produce a corresponding +<i>effect</i>. This fact has always existed and will forever remain +unchanged. It applies universally in physical, mental, +and moral science; to God or man; to angels or to +atoms; in time or thro eternity. No language can be constructed +which does not accord with it, for no ideas can be +gained but by an observance of its manifestations in the +material or spiritual universe. The manner of <i>expressing</i> +this cause and effect may differ in different nations or by +people of the same nation, but the fact remains unaltered, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +and so far as understood the idea is the same. In the case +of the horse mentioned in a former +lecture,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> the idea was +the same, but the manner of expressing it different. Let +that horse <i>walk</i>, <i>lay</i> down, <i>roll</i> over, <i>rise</i> up, <i>shake</i> himself, +<i>rear</i>, or <i>stand</i> still, all present will observe the same attitude +of the horse, and will form the same ideas of his positions. +Some will doubtless inquire more minutely into the <i>cause</i> +and <i>means</i> by which these various actions are produced, +what muscles are employed, what supports are rendered by +the bones; and the whole regulated by the will of the +horse, and their conclusions may be quite opposite. But +this has nothing to do with the obvious fact expressed by +the words above; or, more properly, it is not necessary to +enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations, +these secret springs of motion, in order to relate the actions +of the horse. For were we to do this we should be required +to go back, step by step, and find the causes still +more numerous, latent, and perplexing. The pursuit of +causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the +horse, his muscular energy, and voluntary action; for +gravitation has no small service to perform in the accomplishment +of these results; as well as other principles. Let +gravitation be removed, and how could the horse <i>lay</i> down? +He could <i>roll</i> over as well in the air as upon the ground. +But the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in +the construction of language to express the actions of the +horse; for he stands as the obvious <i>agent</i> of the whole, and +the <i>effects</i> are seen to follow—the <i>horse</i> is laid down, <i>his +body</i> is rolled over, <i>the fore part</i> of it is <i>reared up</i>, <i>himself</i> is +shaken, and the whole <i>feat</i> is produced by the direction of +his master.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +Allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former +lecture. I said no action as such could be known distinct +from the thing which acts; that action as such is not perceptible, +and that all things act, according to the ability +they possess. To illustrate this idea: Take a magnet and +lower it down over a piece of iron, till it attracts it to itself +and holds it suspended there. If you are not in possession +of a magnet you can make one at your pleasure, by +the following process. Lay your knife blade on a flat iron, +or any hard, smooth surface; let another take the old tongs +or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length +of time, and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more. +A magnetic power will be conveyed from the tongs to the +blade sufficient to take up a common needle. The tongs +themselves may be manufactured into a most perfect magnet. +Now as the knife <i>holds</i> the needle suspended beneath +it you perceive there must be an action, a power, and +cause exerted beyond our comprehension. Let the magnetic +power be extracted from the blade, and the needle will +drop to the floor. A common unmagnetized blade will not +<i>raise</i> and <i>hold</i> a needle as this does. How those tongs +come in possession of such astonishing power; by what +process it is there retained; the power and means of transmission +of a part of it to the knife blade, and the reason of +the phenomena you now behold—an inanimate blade drawing +to itself and there holding this needle suspended—will +probably long remain unknown to mortals. But that such +are the facts, incontestibly true, none will deny, for the evidence +is before us. Now fix your attention on that needle. +There is an active and <i>acting</i> principle in that as well as in +the magnetized blade; for the blade will not attract a splinter +of wood, of whalebone, or piece of glass, tho equal in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +size and weight. It will have no operation on them. Then +it is by a sort of mutual affinity, a reciprocity of attachment, +between the blade and needle, that this phenomena is +produced.</p> + +<p>To apply this illustration you have only to reverse the +case—turn the knife and needle over—and see all things +attracted to the earth by the law of gravitation, a principle +abiding in all matter. All that renders the exhibition of the +magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an uncommon condition +of things, an apparent counteraction of the regular +laws of nature. But we should know that the same sublime +principle is constantly operating thro out universal nature. +Let that be suspended, cease its active operations +for a moment, and our own earth will be decomposed into +particles; the sun, moon and stars will dissolve and mingle +with the common dust; all creation will crumble into +atoms, and one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill +the immensity of space.</p> + +<p>Are you then prepared to deny the principles for which +we are contending? I think you will not; but accede the +ground, that such being the fact, true in nature, language, +correctly explained, is only the medium by which the ideas +of these great truths, may be conveyed from one mind to +another, and must correspond therewith. If language is the +sign of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things, it +follows of necessity, that no language can be employed unless +it corresponds with these natural laws, or first principles. +The untutored child cannot talk of these things, nor +comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to it. But +some people act as tho they thought children must first +acquire a knowledge of words, and then begin to learn what +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +such words mean. This is putting the "cart before the +horse."</p> + +<p>Much, in this world, is to be taken for granted. We +can not enter into the minutiæ of all we would express, or +have understood. We go upon the ground that other people +know something as well as we, and that they will exercise +that knowledge while listening to our relation of some +new and important facts. Hence it is said that "brevity is +the soul of wit." But suppose you should talk of surds, +simple and quadratic equations, diophantine problems, and +logarithms, to a person who knows nothing of proportion +or relation, addition or subtraction. What would they know +about your words? You might as well give them a description +in Arabic or Esquimaux. They must first learn +the simple rules on which the whole science of mathematics +depends, before they can comprehend a dissertation on the +more abstruse principles or distant results. So children +must learn to observe things as they are, in their simplest +manifestations, in order to understand the more secret and +sublime operations of nature. And our +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'languge'">language</ins> should always +be adapted to their capacities; that is, it should agree +with their advancement. You may talk to a zealot in politics +of religion, the qualities of forbearance, candor, and +veracity; to the enthusiast of science and philosophy; to +the bigot of liberality and improvement; to the miser of +benevolence and suffering; to the profligate of industry +and frugality; to the misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism; +to the degraded sinner of virtue, truth, and heaven; +but what do they know of your meaning? How are +they the wiser for your instruction? You have touched a +cord which does not vibrate thro their hearts, or, phrenologically, +addressed an organ they do not possess, except in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +a very moderate degree, at least. Food must be seasoned +to the palates of those who use it. Milk is for babes and +strong meat for men. Our instruction must be suited to the +capacities of those we would benefit, always elevated just +far enough above them to attract them along the upward +course of improvement.</p> + +<p>But it should be remembered that evils will only result +from a deviation from truth, and that we can never be justified +in doing wrong because others have, or for the sake +of meeting them half way. And yet this very course is +adopted in teaching, and children are learned to adopt certain +technical rules in grammar, not because they are <i>true</i>, +but because they are <i>convenient</i>! In fact, it is said by +some, that language is an arbitrary affair altogether, and is +only to be taught and learned mechanically! But who would +teach children that <i>seven times seven</i> are <i>fifty</i>, and <i>nine +times nine</i> a <i>hundred</i>, and assign as a reason for so doing, +that <i>fifty</i> and a <i>hundred</i> are more easily remembered than +<i>forty-nine</i> and <i>eighty-one</i>? Yet there would be as much +propriety in adopting such a principle in mathematics, as in +teaching for a rule of grammar that when an objective case +comes after a verb, it is active; but when there is none +expressed, it is intransitive or neuter.</p> + +<p>The great fault is, grammarians do not allow themselves +to <i>think</i> on the subject of language, or if they do, they only +think intransitively, that is, produce no <i>thoughts</i> by their +cogitations.</p> + +<p>This brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject +before us. All admit the correctness of the axiom that +every effect must have a cause, and that every cause will +have an effect. It is equally true that "<i>like causes will +produce like effects</i>," a rule from which nature itself, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +thought, and language, can never deviate. It is as plain as +that two things mutually equal to each other, are equal to +a third. On this immutable principle we base our theory +of the activity of all verbs, and contend that they must have +an object after them, either expressed or <i>necessarily understood</i>. +We can not yield this position till it is proved that +<i>causes</i> can operate without producing effects, which can +never be till the order of creation is reversed! There never +was, to our knowledge, such a thing as an intransitive +action, with the solitary exception of the burning +bush.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In +that case the laws of nature were suspended, and no effects +were produced; for the <i>bush burned</i>, but there was nothing +burnt; no consequences followed to the bush; it was not +consumed. The records of the past present no instance of +like character, where effects have failed to follow, direct or +more distantly, every cause which has been set in operation.</p> + +<p>It makes no difference whether the object of the action +is expressed or not. It is the same in either case. But +where it is not necessarily implied from the nature and fitness +of things, it must be expressed, and but for such object +or effect the action could not be understood. For example, +<i>I run</i>; but if there is no effect produced, <i>nothing</i> run, how +can it be known whether I run or not. If I write, it is necessarily +understood that I write <i>something</i>—a <i>letter</i>, a <i>book</i>, +a <i>piece</i> of poetry, a <i>communication</i>, or some other <i>writing</i>. +When such object is not liable to be mistaken, it would be +superfluous to express it—it would be a redundancy which +should be avoided by all good writers and speakers. All languages +are, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which constitutes +no small share of their beauty, power, and elegance.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +This elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the +objects of verbs, but in the omission of many nouns after +adjectives, which thus assume the character of nouns; as, +the Almighty, the Eternal, the Allwise, applied to God, understood. +So we say the wise, the learned, the good, the +faithful, the wicked, the vile, the base, to which, if nouns, it +would sound rather harsh to apply plurals. So we say, +take your hat off ( ); put your gloves on ( ); lay your +coat off ( ); and pull your boots on ( ); presuming the +person so addressed knows enough to fill the elipsis, and +not take his hat off his back, pull his gloves on his feet, or +his boots on his head.</p> + +<p>In pursuing this subject farther, let us examine the sample +words which are called <i>intransitive</i> verbs, because frequently +used without the object expressed after them; such +as run, walk, step, fly, rain, snow, burn, roll, shine, smiles, +&c.</p> + +<p>"<i>I run.</i>"</p> + +<p>That here is an action of the first kind, none will deny. +But it is contended by the old systems that there is no object +on which the action terminates. If that be true then +there is <i>nothing</i> run, no effect produced, and the first law of +nature is outraged, in the very onset; for there is a <i>cause</i>, +but no <i>effect</i>; an <i>action</i>, but no <i>object</i>. How is the fact? +Have you run nothing? conveyed nothing, moved nothing +from one place to another? no change, no effect, nothing +moved? Look at it and decide. It is said that a neuter or +intransitive verb may be known from the fact that it takes +after it a preposition. Try it by this rule. "A man run +<i>against</i> a post in a dark night, and broke his neck;" that +is, he run nothing against a post—no object to run—and +yet he broke his neck. Unfortunate man!</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +The fact in relation to this verb is briefly this: It is used +to express the action which more usually terminates on the +actor, than on any other object. This circumstance being +generally known, it would be superfluous to mention the +object, except in cases where such is not the fact. But +whenever we desire to be definite, or when there is the least +liability to mistake the object, it is invariably expressed. +Instances of this kind are numerous. "They <i>ran</i> the <i>boat</i> +ashore." "The captain <i>ran</i> his <i>men</i> to rescue them from +the enemy." "They <i>ran</i> the <i>gauntlet</i>." "They <i>run</i> a +<i>stage</i> to Boston." "He <i>ran himself</i> into discredit." "One +bank <i>runs</i> another." "The man had a hard <i>run</i> of it." +"<i>Run</i> the <i>account</i> over, and see if it is right." "They <i>run +forty looms</i> and two thousand spindles." "He <i>runs</i> his <i>mill</i> +evenings." Such expressions are common and correct, +because they convey ideas, and are understood.</p> + +<p>Two men were engaged in argument. The believer in +intransitive verbs set out to <i>run his opponent</i> into an evident +absurdity, and, contrary to his expectation, he <i>ran himself</i> +into one. Leave out the objects of this verb, run, and the +sense is totally changed. He set out to <i>run</i> into an <i>evident +absurdity</i>, and he ran into one; that is, he did the very absurd +thing which he intended to +do.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>"<i>I walk.</i>"</p> + +<p>The action expressed by this verb is very similar in +character to the former, but rather <i>slower</i> in performance. +Writers on health tell us that <i>to walk</i> is a very healthy exercise, +and that it would be well for men of sedentary habits +<i>to walk</i> several miles every day. But if there is no +action in walk, or if it has no <i>object</i> necessarily <i>walked</i>, it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +would be difficult to understand what good could result from +it.</p> + +<p>"Did you have a pleasant <i>walk</i> this morning?" says a +teacher to his grammar class.</p> + +<p>"We did have a very pleasant one. The flowers were +<i>blooming</i> on each side of the <i>walk</i>, and <i>sent</i> forth their +sweetest aroma, <i>perfuming</i> the soft breezes of the morning. +Birds were <i>flitting from</i> spray to spray, <i>carolling</i> their +hymns of praise to Deity. The tranquil waters of the lake +lay <i>slumbering</i> in silence, and <i>reflected</i> the bright <i>rays</i> of +the sun, <i>giving</i> a sweet but solemn <i>aspect</i> to the whole +scene. <i>To go</i> thro the grove, down by the lake, and up +thro the meadow, is the most delightful <i>walk</i> a person can +take."</p> + +<p>"How did you get your <i>walk</i>?"</p> + +<p>"We walked it, to be sure; how did you think we got +it?"</p> + +<p>"Oh, I did not know. <i>Walk</i>, your books tell you, is an +intransitive verb, terminating on no object; so I supposed, +if you followed them, you obtained it some other way; by +<i>riding</i>, <i>running</i>, <i>sailing</i>, or, may be, <i>bought</i> it, as you could +not have <i>walked it</i>! Were you tired on your return?"</p> + +<p>"We were exceedingly fatigued, for you know it is a +very long <i>walk</i>, and we <i>walked it</i> in an hour."</p> + +<p>"But <i>what</i> tired you? If there are no effects produced +by walking, I can not conceive why <i>you</i> should be fatigued +by such exercise."</p> + +<p>Who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar +rules are committed every day, and every hour, and +in almost every sentence that is framed to express our +knowledge of facts.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +<i>To step.</i></p> + +<p>This verb is the same in character with the two just noticed. +It expresses the act of <i>raising</i> each foot alternately, +and usually implies that the body is, by that means, conveyed +from one place to another. But as people <i>step</i> their +<i>feet</i> and not their hands, or any thing else, it is entirely useless +to mention the object; for generally, that can not be +mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves, boots, and +hat. But it would be bad philosophy to teach children that +there is no objective word after it, because it is not written +out and placed before their eyes. They will find such teaching +contradicted at every <i>step</i> they take. Let a believer in +intransitive verbs <i>step</i> on a red hot iron; he will soon find +to his sorrow, that he was mistaken when he thought that +he could <i>step</i> without stepping any thing. It would be +well for grammar, as well as many other things, to have +more practice and less theory. The thief was detected by +his steps. Step softly; put your feet down carefully.</p> + +<p><i>Birds fly.</i></p> + +<p>We learned from our primers, that</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The eagle's <i>flight</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0">Is out of sight,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>How did the eagle succeed in producing a <i>flight</i>? I suppose +he <i>flew</i> it. And if birds ever fly, they must produce a flight. +Such being the fact, it is needless to supply the object. But +the action does not terminate solely on the flight produced, +for that is only the name given to the action itself. The +expression conveys to the mind the obvious fact, that, by +strong muscular energy, by the aid of feathers, and the atmosphere, +the bird carries itself thro the air, and changes +its being from one place to another. As birds rarely fly a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +race, or any thing but <i>themselves</i> and a <i>flight</i>, it is not necessary +to suffix the object.</p> + +<p><i>It rains.</i></p> + +<p>This verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive +action; with what propriety, we will now inquire. It +will serve as a clear elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive +verbs.</p> + +<p>What does the expression signify? It simply declares +the fact, that <i>water is shed</i> down from the clouds. But is +there no object after <i>rains</i>? There is none expressed. Is +there nothing rained? no effect produced? If not, there can +be no water fallen, and our cisterns would be as empty, our +streams as low, and fields as parched, after a rain as before +it! But who that has common sense, and has never been +blinded by the false rules of grammar, does not know that +when <i>it rains</i>, it never fails to <i>rain rain</i>, <i>water</i>, or <i>rain-water</i>, +unless you have one of the paddy's dry rains? When it +hails, it hails <i>hail</i>, <i>hail-stones</i>, or frozen <i>rain</i>. When it +snows, it <i>snows snow</i>, sometimes two feet of it, sometimes +less. I should think teachers in our northern countries +would find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers +that snow is an intransitive verb—that it snows <i>nothing</i>. +And yet so it is; people will remain wedded to their old +systems, and refuse to open their eyes and behold the evidences +every where around them. Teachers themselves, +the guides of the young—and I blush to say it, for I was +long among the number—have, with their scholars, labored +all the morning, breaking roads, <i>shovelling snow</i>, and clearing +paths, to get to the school-house, and then set down and +taught them that <i>to snow</i> is an <i>in</i>transitive verb. What +nonsense; nay, worse, what falsehoods have been instilled +into the youthful mind in the name of grammar! Can we +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +be surprised that people have not understood grammar? +that it is a dry, cold, and lifeless business?</p> + +<p>I once lectured in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In a conversation +with Miss B., a distinguished scholar, who had taught +a popular female school for twenty years; was remarking +upon the subject of intransitive verbs, and the apparent inconsistency +of the new system, that all verbs must have an +object after them, expressed or understood; she said, "there +was the verb <i>rain</i>, (it happened to be a rainy day,) the +whole action is confined to the agent; it does not pass on +to another object; it is purely intransitive." Her aged +mother, who had never looked into a grammar book, heard +the conversation, and very bluntly remarked, "Why, you +fool you, I want to know if you have studied grammar these +thirty years, and taught it more than twenty, and have +never <i>larned</i> that when it rains it <i>always</i> rains <i>rain</i>? If it +didn't, do you s'pose you'd need an umbrella to go out now +into the storm? I should think you'd know better. I always +told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing, +I didn't b'lieve." "Amen," said I, to the good sense +of the old lady, "you are right, and have reason to be +thankful that you have never been initiated into the intricate +windings, nor been perplexed with the false and contradictory +rules, which have blasted many bright geniuses in their +earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime +principles of language, on which depends so much of the +happiness of human life." The good matron's remark was +a poser to the daughter, but it served as a means of her +entire deliverance from the thraldom of neuter verbs, and the +adoption of the new principles of the exposition of language.</p> + +<p>The anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind +will observe facts, and employ words as correctly, if not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +more so, than those schooled in the high pretensions of science, +falsely taught. Who does not know from the commonest +experience, that the direct object of <i>raining</i> must +follow as the necessary sequence? that it can never fail? +And yet our philologists tell us that such is not always the +case; and that the exception is to be marked on the singular +ground, whether the word is written out or omitted! +What a narrow view of the sublime laws of motion! What +a limited knowledge of things! or else, what a <i>mistake</i>!</p> + +<p>"Then the Lord said unto Moses, behold, I will <i>rain</i> +bread for you from heaven."</p> + +<p>"Then the <i>Lord rained</i> down, upon Sodom and Gomorrah, +<i>brimstone</i> and <i>fire</i>, from the Lord out of heaven."—<i>Bible.</i></p> + +<p><i>The fire burns.</i></p> + +<p>The fire <i>burns</i> the wood, the coal, or the peat. The +great fire in New-York <i>burned</i> the buildings which covered +fifty-two acres of ground. Mr. Experiment <i>burns</i> coal in +preference to wood. His new grate <i>burns it</i> very finely. +Red ash coal <i>burns</i> the best; it <i>makes</i> the fewest <i>ashes</i>, and +hence <i>is</i> the most convenient. The cook <i>burns</i> too much +fuel. The house took fire and <i>burned</i> up. <i>Burned what</i> +up? Burn is an intransitive verb. It would not trouble +the unfortunate tenant to know that there must be an <i>object +burned</i>, or what <i>it</i> was. He would find it far more difficult +to rebuild his <i>house</i>. Do you suppose fires never burn any +thing belonging to neuter verb folks? Then they never +need pay away insurance money. With the solitary exception +I have mentioned—the burning bush—this verb can +not be intransitive.</p> + +<p><i>The sun shines.</i></p> + +<p>This is an intransitive verb if there ever was one, because +the object is not often expressed after it. But if the sun +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +<i>emits</i> no <i>rays</i> of light, how shall it be known whether it +shines or not? "The <i>radiance</i> of the sun's bright beaming" +is produced by the <i>exhibition</i> of <i>itself</i>, when it <i>brightens</i> +the objects exposed to its <i>rays</i> or <i>radiance</i>. We talk of +<i>sun shine</i> and moon shine, but if these bodies never produce +<i>effects</i> how shall it be known whether such things are real? +<i>Sun shine</i> is the direct effect of the sun's <i>shining</i>. But +clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending +to the earth; but <i>then</i> we do not say "the sun <i>shines</i>." +You see at once, that all we know or can know of the fact +we state as truth, is derived from a knowledge of the very +<i>effects</i> which our grammars tell us do not exist. Strange +logic indeed! It is a mark of a wiser man, and a better +scholar, not to know the popular grammars, than it is to +profess any degree of proficiency in them!</p> + +<p><i>To smile.</i></p> + +<p>The <i>smiles</i> of the morning, the <i>smiles</i> of affection, a <i>smile</i> +of kindness, are only produced by the appearance of something +that <i>smiles</i> upon us. <i>Smiles</i> are the direct consequence +of <i>smiling</i>. If a person should <i>smile</i> ever so <i>sweetly</i> +and yet present no <i>smiles</i>, they might, for aught we could +know to the contrary, be <i>sour</i> as vinegar.</p> + +<p>But this verb frequently has another object after it; as, +"to <i>smile</i> the <i>wrinkles</i> from the brow of age," or "<i>smile</i> +dull <i>cares</i> away." "A sensible wife would soon <i>reason</i> and +<i>smile him</i> into good nature."</p> + +<p>But I need not multiply examples. When such men as +Johnson, Walker, Webster, Murray, Lowthe, and a host of +other wise and renowned men, gravely tell us that <i>eat</i> and +<i>drink</i>, which they define, "to <i>take food</i>; <i>to feed</i>; <i>to take a +meal</i>; <i>to go to meals</i>; to be maintained in food; <i>to swallow +liquors</i>; <i>to quench thirst</i>; to take any liquid;" are +<i>intrans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>itive</i> +or <i>neuter</i> verbs, having no objects after them, we must +think them insincere, egregiously mistaken, or else possessed +of a means of subsistence different from people generally! +Did they <i>eat</i> and <i>drink</i>, "take food and swallow +liquors," <i>in</i>transitively; that is, without <i>eating</i> or <i>drinking</i> +any thing? Is it possible in the nature of things? Who +does not see the absurdity? And yet they were <i>great</i> men, +and nobody has a right to question such <i>high</i> authority. +And the "<i>simplifiers</i>" who have come after, making books +and teaching grammar to <i>earn</i> their <i>bread</i>, have followed +close in their footsteps, and, I suppose, <i>eaten</i> nothing, and +thrown their bread away! Was I a believer in neuter +verbs and desired to get money, my first step would be to +set up a boarding house for all believers in, and <i>practisers</i> +of, intransitive verbs. I would board cheap and give good +fare. I could afford it, for no provisions would be consumed.</p> + +<p>Some over cautious minds, who are always second, if not +last, in a good cause, ask us why these principles, if so true +and clear, were not found out before? Why have not the +learned who have studied for many centuries, never seen +and adopted them? It is a sufficient answer to such a +question, to ask why the copernican system of astronomy +was not sooner adopted, why the principles of chemistry, +the circulation of the blood, the power and application of +steam, nay, why all improvement was not known before. +When grammar and dictionary makers, those wise expounders +of the principles of speech, have so far forgotten +facts as to teach that <i>eat</i> and <i>drink</i>, "express neither action +nor passion," or are "confined to the agents;" that when +a man eats, he eats nothing, or when he drinks, he drinks +nothing, we need not stop long to decide why these things +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +were unknown before. The wisest may sometimes mistake; +and the proud aspirant for success, frequently passes +over, unobserved, the humble means on which all true success +depends.</p> + +<p>Allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which +will serve to show more clearly the importance of supplying +the elipses, in order to comprehend the meaning of the +writers, or profit by their remarks. You will supply the +objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where +they are not expressed.</p> + +<p>"Ask ( ) and ye shall receive ( ); seek ( ) and ye +shall find ( ); knock ( ) and <i>it</i> shall be opened unto +you."</p> + +<p>Ask <i>what</i>? Seek <i>what</i>? Knock <i>what</i>? That <i>it</i> may +be opened? Our "Grammars Made Easy" would teach +us to <i>ask</i> and <i>seek</i> nothing! no objectives after them. +What then could we reasonably expect to <i>receive</i> or <i>find</i>? +The <i>thing</i> we <i>asked</i> for, of course, and that was nothing! +Well might the language apply to such, "Ye ask ( ) and +<i>receive not</i> (naught) because ye ask ( ) amiss." False +teaching is as pernicious to religion and morals as to science.</p> + +<p>"Charge them that are rich in this world—that they <i>do +good</i>, that they be rich in good works, ready to <i>distribute</i> +( ), willing to <i>communicate</i> ( )."—<i>Paul to Timothy.</i></p> + +<p>The hearer is to observe that there is no object after these +words—<i>nothing</i> distributed, or communicated! There is too +much such charity in the world.</p> + +<p>"He spoke ( ), and <i>it</i> was done; he commanded ( ), +and <i>it</i> stood fast."</p> + +<p>"<i>Bless</i> ( ), and <i>curse</i> ( ) not."—<i>Bible.</i></p> + +<p>"<i>Strike</i> ( ) while the iron is hot."—<i>Proverb.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +"I <i>came</i> ( ), I <i>saw</i> ( ), +I <i>conquered</i> ( )."—<i>Cæsar's +Letter.</i></p> + +<p>He lives ( ) contented and happy.</p> + +<p>"The <i>life</i> that I now <i>live</i>, in the flesh, I <i>live</i> by the faith +of the son of God."—<i>Paul.</i></p> + +<p>"Let me <i>die</i> the <i>death</i> of the righteous, and let my last +<i>end be</i> like his."—<i>Numbers.</i></p> + +<p>As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites +( ) to sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against great disorders, +it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic exercises +may be established for all ages and for all classes. +The Jews were ordered to <i>take a walk</i> out of the city on +the Sabbath day; and here rich and poor, young and old, +master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent +mirth or in the pleasures of friendly intercourse.—<i>Spurzheim +on Education.</i></p> + +<p>"Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; +fight ( ) for it; die ( ) for it; any thing but live ( ) +for it."—<i>Lacon.</i></p> + +<p><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">"I</ins> +have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and +some may accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in +presuming ( ) to inscribe a book to so small a minority. +But a volume addressed to those that think ( ) is in fact +addressed to all the world; for altho the proportion of those +who <i>do</i> ( ) think ( ) be extremely small, yet every individual +<i>flatters himself</i> that he is one of the number."—<i>Idem.</i></p> + +<p>What is the difference whether a man <i>thinks</i> or not, if he +produces no <i>thoughts</i>?</p> + +<p>"He that <i>thinks himself</i> the happiest man, really is so; +but he that <i>thinks himself</i> the wisest, is generally the greatest +fool."—<i>Idem.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +"A man <i>has</i> many <i>workmen employed</i>; some to plough +( ) and sow ( ), others to chop ( ) and split ( ); +some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to score ( ) and +hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory +he has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool +( ), warp ( ), and weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver +( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and pay ( ). They +eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and +as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they +lay ( ) down, sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; +they rise ( ) up early to go ( ) to work ( ) +again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress +( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) +to read ( ), write ( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or +intransitive verbs!!</p> + +<p>"The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on +Tuesday evening in the circus. He will leap ( ) over +four bars, separately, in imitation of the english hunter. +He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at the +<i>word of command</i>. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, +rear ( ) and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will +sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a cushion. To conclude +( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over two +horses."—<i>Cardell's Grammar.</i></p> + +<p>The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no +legerdemain upon the public. He will stretch a line across +the room, several feet from the floor, over which he will +leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will stand ( ) on +his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from +side to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; +spring ( ) upon his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; +dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out touching his hands. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) +like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) +and cry ( ), as if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp +( ) like a bird. To conclude ( ): He will do all this +to an audience of neuter grammarians, without either "<i>action</i> +or <i>passion</i>," all the while having a "<i>state of being</i>," +motionless, in the center of the room!!</p> + +<p>What a lie! say you. <i>A lie?</i> I hope you do not accuse +<i>me</i> of lying. If there is any thing false in this matter +it all <i>lies</i> in the quotation, at the conclusion, from the standard +grammar. If that is false, whose fault is it? Not mine, +certainly. But what if I should <i>lie</i> ( ), intransitively? I +should tell no falsehoods.</p> + +<p>But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or +inconsistent, any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the +subject, it should be remembered that it has been long taught, +not only in common schools, but in our academies and colleges, +as serious, practical truth; as the only means of acquiring +a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves +for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile +at such trash, and well you may; but you must bear in +mind that grammar is not the only thing in which we may +turn round and <i>laugh</i> ( ) at past follies.</p> + +<p>But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious +consequence than to deserve our <i>laughter</i>. When I see the +rising generation spend months and years of the best and most +important part of their lives, which should be devoted to the +acquisition of that which is true and useful, studying the +dark and false theory of language as usually taught, I am +far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which imposes +such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly +the years that have just gone by. I have seen too many +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +blighted hopes, too many wearisome hours, too many sad +countenances, too many broken resolutions; to say nothing +of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter that +children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, +because sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an +important change, a radical change, in this department of +education, is imperiously demanded, and teachers must obey +the call, and effect the change. There is a spirit abroad in +the land which will not bow tamely and without complaint, +to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and contradictory +rules, merely from respect to age. It demands +reason, consistency and plainness; and yields assent only +where they are found. And teachers, if they will not lead +in the reformation, must be satisfied to follow after; for a +reformation is loudly called for, and will be had. None are +satisfied with existing grammars, which, in principle, are +nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and +simplify Murray, have only acted <i>intransitively</i>, and accomplished +very little, if any good, save the employment given +to printers, paper makers, and booksellers.</p> + +<p>But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder +at the errors and mistakes of grammar makers, when +our lexicographers tell us for sober truth, that <span class="smcap">to act</span>, <i>to be +in action</i>, <i>not to rest</i>, to be in <i>motion</i>, to <i>move</i>, is <i>v. n.</i> a verb +neuter, signifying <i>no action</i>!! or <i>v. i.</i> verb intransitive, +producing <i>no effects</i>; and that a "<i>neuter verb</i> <span class="smcap">expresses</span> +(active transitive verb) <i>a state of being</i>!! There are few +minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing +therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. +Truth is rarely elicted from error, beauty from deformity, +or order from confusion. While, therefore, we allow the +neuter systems to sink into forgetfulness, as they usually do +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +as soon as we leave school and shut our books, let us throw +the mantle of charity over those who have thoughtlessly +(without <i>thinking thoughts</i>) and innocently lead us many +months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error +and contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and +usefulness. But let us resolve to save ourselves and future +generations from following the same unpleasant and unprofitable +course, and endeavor to <i>reflect</i> the <i>light</i> which may +<i>shine</i> upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding darkness, +and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who +shall come after us.</p> + +<p>Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language +by the aid of foreign tongues. Because there are +genitive cases, different kinds of verbs, six tenses, etc. in +the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions should exist in +our grammars. But this argument will not apply, admitting +that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition +we have adopted, which we very seriously question, +tho we have not time to go into that investigation. We +believe that the principles we have adopted are capable of +universal application; that what is action in England would +be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; +that "<i>like causes will produce like effects</i>" all the world over. +It matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, +and all who gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears +to them, let them speak what language they may. +But if they have no ideas to express, they need no language +to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, can +speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because +they have nothing to say.</p> + +<p>Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a +promiscuous multitude. They would all attempt a +descrip<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>tion +of it, so far as they were able to gain a knowledge of +its construction, each in his own language. Some might be +unable to trace the <i>cause</i>, the moving <i>power</i>, thro all the +curiously arranged <i>means</i>, to the <i>agent</i> who acted as prime +mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their +conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would +find a <i>first cause</i> short of the Creator, the great original +of all things and actions; and thus violate the soundest principles +of philosophy. Heaven has never left a vacuum +where a new and <i>self</i> sustaining power may be set in operation +independent of his ever-present supervision; and +hence the long talked of <i>perpetual motion</i> is the vainest chimera +which ever occupied the human brain. It may well +appear as the opposite extreme of neuter verbs; for, while +one would give no action to matter according to the physical +laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter +act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to +take a more rational and consistent stand; to view all things +and beings as occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite +Wisdom, <i>acting</i> according to their several abilities, and subject +to the regulation of the all-pervading laws which guide, +preserve, and harmonize the whole.</p> + +<p>If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy +the existence of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an +all-wise and ever-present God, it is found in the order and +harmony of all things, produced by the regulation of Divine +laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the world is most +clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt +language to the communication of ideas in free and social +converse, or in the transmission of thought, drawn from an +observation and knowledge of things as presented to his +understanding.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +There is no science so directly important to the growth +of intellect and the future happiness of the child, as the +knowledge of language. Without it, what is life? Wherein +would man be elevated above the brute? And what is +language without ideas? A sound without harmony—a +shadow without a substance.</p> + +<p>Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, +as a science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, +a mere art, and you will no longer hear the complaint +of a "<i>dry</i>, <i>cold</i>, uninteresting study." Its rules will be +simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the child will +increase in the knowledge of more than <i>words</i>, in an acquaintance +with principles of natural and moral science. +And if there is any thing that will carry the mind of the +child above the low and grovelling things of earth, and fill +the soul with reverence and devotion to the Holy Being +who fills immensity with his presence, it is when, from observing +the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe +the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends +to the Intellectual Source of <i>light</i>, <i>life</i>, and <i>being</i>, and contemplates +the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from +the presence of Deity; soul mingling with soul, love absorbed +in love, and God all in all.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_XI" id="LECTURE_XI"></a>LECTURE XI.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>The verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>. — +Compounded of different radical words. — <span class="smcap">Am</span>. — Defined. — The +name of Deity. — <i>Ei</i>. — <span class="smcap">Is</span>. +— <span class="smcap">Are</span>. — <span class="smcap">Were</span>, +<span class="smcap">was</span>. — <span class="smcap">Be</span>. — A +dialogue. — Examples. — Passive Verbs examined. — Cannot +be in the present tense. — The past participle is an adjective.</p></div> + + +<p>We have gone through the examination of <i>neuter</i> and +<i>intransitive</i> verbs, with the exception of the verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>, +which we propose to notice in this place. Much more +might be said on the subjects I have discussed, and many +more examples given to illustrate the nature and operation +of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to +the <i>objects</i> of action; but I trust the hints I have given will +be satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your +minds to <i>think</i> correct <i>thoughts</i>, and not <i>suffer</i> them <i>to be</i> +misled by erroneous teaching, you will arrive at the same +conclusion that I have, viz. that all verbs depend on a <i>common +principle</i> for their explanation; that they are alike active, +and necessarily take an object after them, either expressed +or understood, in accordance with the immutable +law of nature, which teaches that like causes will produce +like effects.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>The verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid +of six different words, in its various modes and tenses; <i>am</i>, +<i>is</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>was</i>, <i>were</i>, <i>be</i>. <i>Am</i> is unchanged, always in the +in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>dicative +mood, present tense, agreeing with the <i>first</i> person +singular. <i>Is</i> is also unchanged, in the same mood and +tense, agreeing with the <i>third</i> person singular. <i>Art</i>, in the +singular, is the same as <i>are</i> in the plural. <i>Was</i> and <i>wast</i>, +are the same as <i>were</i> and <i>wert</i> in meaning, being derived +from the same etymon. <i>Be</i>, <i>being</i>, and <i>been</i>, are changes +of the same word. <i>Be</i> was formerly extensively used in +the indicative present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete. +<i>Were</i> was also used in the singular as well as +plural, especially when coming before the agent; as, "were +I to go, I would do your business." But it is now more +common to have <i>was</i> correctly used in that case. But, as +one extreme often follows another, people have laid <i>were</i> +quite too much aside, and often crowd <i>was</i> into its place in +common conversation; as "we <i>was</i> (were) there yesterday." +"There <i>was</i> (were) five or six men engaged in the business." +This error appears to be gaining ground, and should +be checked before it goes farther.</p> + +<p>The combination of these different words was produced +by habit, to avoid the monotony which the frequent recurrence +of one word, so necessary in the expression of thought, +would occasion: the same as the past tense of <i>go</i> is made +by the substitution of another word radically different, <i>went</i>, +the past tense of <i>wend</i> or <i>wind</i>. "O'er hills and dales they +<i>wend</i> their way." "The lowing herd <i>wind</i> slowly o'er the +lea." <i>Go</i> and <i>wend</i> convey to our minds nearly the same +ideas. The latter is a little more poetical, because less +used. But originally their signification was quite different. +So with the parts of the verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>. They were consolidated +as a matter of convenience, and now appear in their +respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or existence.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. +I will now attempt to prove it. I should like to go +into a labored and critical examination of the words, and +trace their changes thro various languages, was it in accordance +with the design of these lectures. But as it is not, +I shall content myself with general observations.</p> + +<p><i>I am.</i></p> + +<p>This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only +said to be "<i>the first person of to be</i>." We must look for its +meaning some where else. It is a compound of two ancient +words, <i>ah</i>, <i>breath</i>, to <i>breathe</i>, life, to <i>live</i>, <i>light</i>, to <i>light</i>; and +<i>ma</i>, the <i>hand</i>, or to <i>hand</i>. It signifies to <i>vivify</i>, <i>sustain</i>, or +<i>support</i> one's self in being or existence. In process of time, +like other things in this mutable world, its form was changed, +but the meaning retained. But as one person could not +<i>vivify</i> or <i>live</i> another, <i>inflate</i> another's lungs, or breathe +another's breath, it became restricted to the first person. It +means, I <i>breathe breath</i>, <i>vivify myself</i>, <i>live life</i>, or <i>exercise</i> +the power of <i>being</i> or <i>living</i>. It conveys this fact in every +instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say <i>I am</i>. +Let any person pronounce the word <i>ah-ma</i>, and they will +at once perceive the appropriateness of the meaning here +given. It is very similar to the letter <i>h</i>, and the pronoun, +(originally <i>noun</i>,) <i>he</i>, or the "<i>rough breathing</i>" in the Greek +language. <i>Ma</i> is compounded with many words which +express action done by the hand; as, <i>ma</i>nufacture, <i>ma</i>numit. +It denoted any action or work done by the hand as +the instrument; but, like other words, it gradually changed +its import, so as to express any <i>effective</i> operation. Hence +the union of the words was natural and easy, and <i>ahma</i> denoted +<i>breathing</i>, <i>to live</i> or sustain life. <i>H</i> is a precarious +letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation of it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +by many who speak the English language, will prove. It +was long ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last <i>a</i>, so +that we now have the plain word <i>am</i>.</p> + +<p>It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as +such may be found in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses +said unto God, Behold when I come unto the children of +Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers +sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his +<i>name</i>? what shall I say unto them? And God said unto +Moses, I <span class="smcap">am</span> the I AM; and he said, Thus shalt thou say +unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you." +Chap. 6: 3.—"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and +unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my +name <span class="smcap">Jehovah</span> (I AM) was I not known unto them." The +word <i>Jehovah</i> is the same as <i>am</i>. It is the name of the +<i>self-existent</i>, <i>self-sustaining</i> <span class="smcap">Being</span>, who has not only power +to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime +action of <i>upholding</i> or <i>sustaining himself</i>. This is the highest +possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation +will be a wreck. He is the <i>ever-living</i>, <i>uncontrolled</i>, <i>unfailing</i>, +<i>unassisted</i>, and <i>never-changing</i> God, the Creator, +Preserver, Alpha and Omega, the Beginning and End of +all things. He is the <i>First Cause</i> of all causes, the <i>Agent</i>, +original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, which set in +motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and governs +them without "variableness or the shadow of turning."</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"I AM the first, and I, the last,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thro endless years the same;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I AM is my memorial still,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And my eternal name."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Watts' Hymn.</i></p></div> + +<p>Ask the Jews the meaning of this <i>neuter verb</i> in their +language. They hold it in the most profound and +supersti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>tious +reverence. After the captivity of their nation they +never dared pronounce the name except once a year when +the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence the +true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare +not attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in +characters untranslated. When their Messiah comes they +expect he will restore the pronunciation, and by it they +shall be able to accomplish all +things.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, +<span class="smcap">thou art</span>, engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, +which is the second person of <span class="smcap">Eimi</span>, +<i>I am</i>.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to +whom it was given as the name of the God of Jacob. The +same name you may see engraven on monuments, on pictures +of the bible, on masonic implements, and in various +places, untranslated.</p> + +<p>Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," +when the very person incapable of it can not utter it, and no +one else can speak it for him? It denotes the highest conceivable +action applied to Deity or to man, and it is +ques<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>tionable +philosophy which dares contradict this fact. The +action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not +terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is +self-action.</p> + +<p><i>He is.</i></p> + +<p>This word is constructed from an old verb signifying <i>to +stand forth</i>, <i>to appear</i>, <i>to show one's self</i>, and may be traced, +I think, to the latin <i>eo</i>, <i>to go</i>, and <i>exist</i>, to <i>exeo</i>, <i>to go from</i>; +that is, our <i>being</i> or <i>existence</i>, <i>came</i> or <i>stood forth</i> from God. +It is certainly a contraction from the old english <i>to exist</i>. +<i>Ist</i> is the spelling still retained in the german and some +other languages. It denotes self-action. One man does +not <i>exist</i> another, but himself. He <i>keeps himself</i> in existence.</p> + +<p><i>We are</i>, <i>thou are-est</i>, <i>arst</i>, or <i>art</i>.</p> + +<p>Be not <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'surprized'">surprised</ins> +when I tell you this is the same word as +<i>air</i>, for such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to <i>air +ourselves</i>, or <i>breathe air</i>. "God <i>breathed</i> into man the +<i>breath of life</i>, and man became a <i>living soul</i>." The new +born infant <i>inhales air</i>, <i>inflates its lungs</i> with <i>air</i>, and begins +to live. We all know how essential <i>air</i> is to the preservation +of life. No animal can live an instant without it. +Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all <i>air</i> has been +extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die +where there is no air. <i>Light</i> is also indispensable to <i>life</i> and +<i>health</i>. <i>Air</i> is <i>inhaled</i> and <i>exhaled</i>, and from it life receives +support. The fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed +by the careless, as tho it was more rare. But did +you never see the man dying of a consumption, when the +pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? +How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows +thrown open. At length he <i>suffocates</i> and dies. Most +per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>sons +struggle hard for <i>breath</i> in the hour of dissolving nature. +The heaving bosom, the hollow gasp for <i>air</i>, tells +us that the lamp of life is soon to be extinguished, that the +hour of their departure has come.</p> + +<p>When a person faints, we carry them into the <i>air</i>, or blow +<i>air</i> upon them, that nature may be restored to its regular +course. In certain cases physicians find it necessary to +force air into the lungs of infants; they can after that <i>air</i>, +themselves, <i>imbibe</i> or <i>drink in air</i>, or <i>inspirit</i> themselves +with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever has been deprived +of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or unwholesome +air, can appreciate what we mean.</p> + +<p><i>We were</i>; <i>he was</i>.</p> + +<p>I have said before that these words are the same, and are +used in certain cases irrespective of number. I have good +authority for this opinion, altho some etymologists give them +different derivations.</p> + +<p><i>Were</i>, <i>wert</i>; <i>worth</i>, <i>werth</i>; <i>word</i> and <i>werde</i>, are derived +from the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. +They signify <i>spirit</i>, <i>life</i>, <i>energy</i>. "In the beginning was +the <i>word</i>, and the <i>word</i> was with God." "By the <i>word</i> of +his grace."</p> + +<p>"<i>They were</i>," they <i>inspirited</i> themselves, <i>possessed</i> the +life, vitality, or <i>spirit</i>, the Creator gave them, and having +that spirit, life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due +degree, they were <i>worthy</i> of the esteem, regard, sympathy, +and good <i>word</i> of others.</p> + +<p><i>To be.</i></p> + +<p>This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, +and to it all others are referred for a definition. +Dictionaries give no definition to <i>am</i>, <i>is</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>was</i>, and <i>were</i>, +all of them as truly principal verbs as <i>be</i>, and possessed of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +as distinct a meaning. It can hardly be possible that they +should form so important a part of our language, and yet be +incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the most significant +words in our language, and those most frequently +used, are undefined in the books.</p> + +<p>Mr. Webster says <span class="smcap">to be</span> signifies, "to exist, to <i>have</i> a +real <i>state</i> or <i>existence</i>," and so say Walker and Johnson. +Now if it is possible to "<span class="smcap">have</span> <i>a state of being</i> without action +or passion," then may this word express neutrality. But +the very definition requires activity, and an object expressed. +It denotes the <i>act of being</i>, or living; to <i>exercise</i> the powers +of life, to <i>maintain</i> a position or rank in the scale of existent +things.</p> + +<p>The name of the action is <i>being</i>, and applies to the Almighty +BEING who <i>exists</i> unchanged as the source of all +inferior <i>beings</i> and things, whose name is <i>Jehovah</i>, I AM, +the Being of beings, the Fountain of <i>light</i>, <i>life</i>, and <i>wisdom</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Be</i> is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, +by every body who employs language. "<i>Be</i> here in +ten minutes." "<i>Be it</i> far from thee." "I will <i>be</i> in Boston +before noon." If there is any action in going from Providence +to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or before +noon, it is all expressed by the verb <i>be</i>, which we are told +expresses <i>no action</i>.</p> + +<p>The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I +want you <i>to be</i> in your seats in five minutes." What would +they understand him to mean? that they should stand still? +or that they should <i>change their state of being</i> from play in +the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There is no +word to denote such change, except the word <i>to be</i>. <i>Be</i> off, +<i>be</i> gone, <i>be</i> here, <i>be</i> there, are commands frequently given +and correctly understood.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +The master says to a bright little lad, who has well +learned his grammar, "<i>Be</i> here in a minute."</p> + +<p>"Yes, sir, I will <i>be</i> there;" but he does not move.</p> + +<p>"<i>Be</i> here immediately."</p> + +<p>"Yes, yes, I will <i>be</i> there."</p> + +<p>"Don't you understand me? I say, <i>be</i> here instantly."</p> + +<p>"Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey."</p> + +<p>The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, +"do you mean to disobey my orders and insult me?"</p> + +<p>"Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies +the honest boy.</p> + +<p>"Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it."</p> + +<p>"No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have +obeyed you as well as I know how, to the very letter and +spirit of your command."</p> + +<p>"Didn't I tell you <i>to be</i> here in a minute, and have not +you <i>remained</i> where you were? and didn't you say you +would <i>be</i> here?"</p> + +<p>"Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?"</p> + +<p>"Why, no, you blockhead; I told you <i>to be</i> here."</p> + +<p>"Well, I told you I would <i>be</i> there."</p> + +<p>"You <i>was</i> not here."</p> + +<p>"Nor did you expect I would <i>be</i>, if you have taught me +to <i>speak</i>, <i>write</i>, and understand correctly."</p> + +<p>"What do you mean, you saucy boy?"</p> + +<p>"I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to."</p> + +<p>"Why didn't you do so then?"</p> + +<p>"I did."</p> + +<p>"You didn't."</p> + +<p>"I did."</p> + +<p>"You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy +fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will punish you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +severely." And in a passion he starts for his ferrule, takes +the boys hand, and bruises him badly; the honest little +fellow all the while pleading innocence of any intended +wrong.</p> + +<p>In a short time they commence <i>parsing</i> this sentence: +"It is necessary <i>to be</i> very particular in ascertaining the +meaning of words before we use them." The master puts +<i>to be</i> to the same boy. He says it is an <i>active verb</i>, infinitive +mood.</p> + +<p>"How is that? an <i>active</i> verb?"</p> + +<p>"Yes, sir."</p> + +<p>"No, it is not. It is a <i>neuter</i> verb."</p> + +<p>"Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active."</p> + +<p>"Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent +fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will inform +your parents of your conduct."</p> + +<p>"What have I done that is wrong?"</p> + +<p>"You say <i>to be</i> is an <i>active</i> verb, when <i>I</i> tell you, and +the <i>grammar</i> and <i>dictionary</i> tell you, it is <i>neuter</i>!"</p> + +<p>"What is a <i>neuter</i> verb, master?"</p> + +<p>"It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a +state of being.' Have you forgotten it?"</p> + +<p>"No, sir, I <i>thought</i> that was the case."</p> + +<p>"What did you ask me for then?"</p> + +<p>"Because I supposed you had found another meaning for +it."</p> + +<p>"To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? +I'll not bear your insults much longer."</p> + +<p>"For what did you punish me so severely just now?"</p> + +<p>"For disobeying my orders."</p> + +<p>"What did you order me to do?"</p> + +<p>"<i>To be</i> here in a minute."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +"Well, did not I do what you told me?"</p> + +<p>"No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me."</p> + +<p>"Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that +<i>to be</i> is a <i>neuter</i> verb, expressing no <i>action</i>, but <i>being</i>. I +had a <i>state</i> of <i>being</i>, and promised to keep it, and did keep +it, and you punished me for doing the very thing you told +me to do!!"</p> + +<p>The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to +say that grammar is a "<i>dry</i>, <i>cold</i>, and <i>useless</i>" study, hardly +worth the trouble of learning it.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>"<i>I am</i> Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, +saith the Lord, who <i>is</i>, and who <i>was</i>, and who <i>is</i> to come, +the Almighty."—<i>Rev. 1: 8.</i></p> + +<p>If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by +which all things were created and are upheld, it is expressed +in the verbs <i>am</i>, <i>is</i>, and <i>was</i>.</p> + +<p>God said, "Let there <i>be</i> light, and there <i>was</i> light;" or +more properly rendered, "Light <span class="smcap">be</span>, and light <span class="smcap">was</span>."</p> + +<p>Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in +the firmament, and in causing them to <i>send</i> forth the rays +of light to <i>dispel</i> the surrounding darkness? If there was, +<i>be</i> and <i>was</i> denote that action.</p> + +<p>"You are commanded <span class="smcap">to be</span> and <i>appear</i> before the court +of common pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon +those who fail to comply with this citation—for neglecting +to do what is expressed by the <i>neuter verb</i> to <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p>Such cases might be multiplied without number, where +this verb is correctly used by all who employ language, +and correctly understood by all who are capable of knowing +the meaning of words. But I think you must all be +convinced of the truth of our proposition, that all verbs +ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>press +action, either <i>real</i> or <i>relative</i>; and in all cases have +an object, expressed or necessarily implied, which stands as +the <i>effect</i>, and an agent, as the cause of action: and hence +that language, as a means for the communication of thought, +does not deviate from the soundest principles of philosophy, +but in all cases, rightly explained, serves to illustrate them, +in the plainest manner.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>A few remarks on the "Passive Verb," and I will conclude +this part of our subject, which has already occupied +much more of our attention than I expected at the outset.</p> + +<p>"<i>A verb passive</i> expresses a passion or a suffering, or +the receiving of an action; and necessarily implies an object +acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon; +as, to be loved; Penelope is loved by me."</p> + +<p>In the explanation of this verb, grammarians further tell +us that a passive verb is formed by adding the verb <i>to be</i>, +which is thus made auxiliary, to a past participle; as, Portia +<i>was loved</i>. Pompey <i>was conquered</i>.</p> + +<p>It is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are +about observing their own rules. Take an instance in Mr. +Walker's octavo dictionary. Look for the word <i>simeter</i>, a +small sword. You will find it spelled <i>scimitar</i>. Then turn +over, and you will find it <i>s</i>im<i>i</i>t<i>a</i>r, with the same definition, +and the remark, "more properly <i>c</i>im<i>e</i>t<i>a</i>r." Then turn +back, and find the correct word as he spells it, and there +you will find it cimet<i>e</i>r.</p> + +<p>Unsettled as to the true spelling, go to our own honored +Webster. Look for "scimiter." He says, see cimit<i>a</i>r. +Then look for "cimitar;" see cim<i>e</i>t<i>e</i>r. Then hunt up the +true word, be it <i>ar</i> or <i>er</i>, and you will find it still another +way, cim<i>i</i>t<i>e</i>r. Here the scholar has seven different ways +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +to spell this word, and neither of his authorities have followed +their own examples. I cite this as one of a thousand +instances, where our savans have laid down rules for others, +and disregarded them themselves.</p> + +<p>Portia <i>is loved</i> and <i>happy</i>. She is <i>respectable</i>, <i>virtuous</i>, +<i>talented</i>, and <i>respected</i> by all who know her. She <i>is seated +by the door</i>. Does the <i>door</i> seat her? What agent, then, +causes her <i>passion</i> or <i>suffering</i>?</p> + +<p>The book is printed. Will you parse <i>is printed</i>? It is +a passive verb, indicative mood, <i>present tense</i>. Who <i>is</i> +printing it? causing it, in the present tense, to <i>suffer</i> or <i>receive</i> +the action? The act of printing <i>was performed</i> a +hundred years ago. How can it be present time?</p> + +<p>Penelope <i>is loved</i> by me. The blow <i>is received</i> by me. +It <i>is given</i> by me. Penelope <i>is seated</i> by me. The earthquake +<i>is felt</i> by her. The evils <i>are suffered</i> by her. The +thunder <i>is heard</i> by her. Does this mean that she is the +agent, and the earthquake, evils, and thunder, are the objects +which receive the <i>effects</i> which she produces? That +would be singular philosophy, indeed. But <i>to feel</i>, <i>to suffer</i>, +and <i>to hear</i>, are active, and are constructed into passive +verbs. Why is it not as correct to say she <i>is suffering</i> by +another's wrongs, <i>is raging</i> by the operation of passion, or +<i>is travelling</i> by rail-road, are passive verbs? The fact is, +our language can not <i>be explained</i> by set rules or forms of +speech. We must regard the sense. The past participle, +as it is called, becomes an adjective by use, and describes +her as some way affected by a previous action. She is +<i>learned</i>, <i>handsome</i>, <i>modest</i>, and, of course, <i>beloved</i> by all +who know her.</p> + +<p>To say "she <i>is placed</i> by the water's edge," is a passive +verb, and that the water's edge, as the agent, causes her +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +"passion, suffering, or receiving of the action," is false and +ridiculous, for she <i>placed</i> herself there.</p> + +<p>"We <i>are seated</i> on our seats by the stove." What power +is <i>now</i> operating on us to make us suffer or receive the +action of being seated on our seats? Does the stove perform +this action? This is a passive verb, <i>present tense</i>, +which requires an "object acted upon, and an <i>agent</i> by +which it is acted upon." But we came in and <i>seated ourselves</i> +here an hour ago.</p> + +<p>The man <i>is acquitted</i>. He <i>stands acquitted</i> before the +public. He <i>is learned</i>, wise, and happy, very much <i>improved</i> +within a few years. He <i>is</i> always active, studious, +and <i>engaged</i> in his own affairs. He <i>is renowned</i>, and <i>valorous</i>. +She <i>is respected</i>. She <i>lives respected</i>.</p> + +<p>If there is such a thing as a passive verb, it can never +be used in the present tense, for the action expressed by the +principal verb which is produced by the agent operating +upon the object, is always <i>past</i> tense, and the auxiliary, or +helping verb <i>to be</i>, is always present. Let this verb be analyzed, +and the true meaning of each word understood, little +difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation.</p> + +<p>I will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this +attempted distinction. It depends solely on a verbal form, +but can never <i>be explained</i> so as <i>to be understood</i> by any +scholar. Most grammarians have seen the fallacy of attempting +to give the meaning of this verb. They can show +its <i>form</i>, but <i>are</i> frequently <i>compelled</i>, as in the cases +above, to sort out the "<i>passed</i> participles" from a host of +adjectives, and it will <i>be found</i> exceeding troublesome to +make scholars perceive any difference in the use of the +words, or in the construction of a sentence. But it may be +they have never thought that duty belonged to them; that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +they have nothing to do but to show them what the book +says. Suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same +principles, and learn the scholars to set down 144 as the +product of 12 times 12. Let them look at the form of the +figures, observe just how they appear, and make some more +like them, and thus go thro the book. What would the +child know of arithmetic? Just as much as they do of +grammar, and no more. They would understand nothing +of the science of numbers, of proportion, or addition. They +would exercise the power of imitation, and make one figure +look like another. Beyond that, all would be a <i>terra incognita</i>, +a land unknown. So in the science of language; +children may learn that the verb <i>to be</i>, joined with the past +participle of an active verb, makes <i>a passive verb</i>; but +what that passive verb is when made, or how to apply it, +especially in the present tense, they have no means of +knowing. Their knowledge is all taken on trust, and when +thrown upon their own resources, they have none on which +to rely.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_XII" id="LECTURE_XII"></a>LECTURE XII.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p><span class="smcap">Mood</span>. — Indicative. +— Imperative. — Infinitive. — Former distinctions. — Subjunctive +mood. — <span class="smcap">Time</span>. — Past. — Present. — Future. — The +future explained. — How formed. — Mr. Murray's distinction +of time. — Imperfect. — Pluperfect. — Second future. — How many +tenses. — <span class="smcap">Auxiliary Verbs</span>. — Will. +— Shall. — May. — Must. — Can. — Do. — Have.</p></div> + + +<p>We are now come to consider the different relations of +action in reference to <i>manner</i> and <i>time</i>. We shall endeavor +to be as brief as possible upon this subject, keeping in view +meanwhile that candor and perspicuity which are indispensable +in all our attempts to explain new views.</p> + +<p><i>Mood</i> signifies <i>manner</i>. Applied to verbs it explains +<i>how</i>, in <i>what manner</i>, by what means, under what circumstances, +actions are performed.</p> + +<p>There are <i>three</i> moods, the <i>indicative</i> or declarative, the +<i>imperative</i> or commanding, and the <i>infinitive</i> or unlimited.</p> + +<p>The indicative mood declares an action to be <i>done</i> or <i>doing</i>, +<i>not done</i>, or <i>not doing</i>. It is always in the past or +present tense; as, David <i>killed</i> Goliath; scholars <i>learn</i> +knowledge; I <i>spoke not</i> a word; they <i>sing not</i>.</p> + +<p>The imperative mood denotes a command given from the +first <i>person</i> to the <i>second</i>, <i>to do</i> or <i>not do</i> an action. It expresses +the wish or desire of the first person to have a certain +action performed which depends on the agency of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +second. The command is <i>present</i>, but the action signified +by the word is <i>future</i> to the giving of the command. The +second person cannot comply with the will of the first till +such will is made known; as, bring me a book; go to the +door.</p> + +<p>The <i>infinitive</i> mood has no direct personal agent, but +is produced as a necessary consequence, growing out of a +certain condition of things. It is always <i>future</i> to such +condition; that is, some prior arrangement must be had +before such consequences will follow. It is always <i>future</i>; +as, they are collecting a force <i>to besiege</i> the city. We +study grammar <i>to acquire</i> a knowledge of language. Windows +are made <i>to admit</i> light. The act of besieging the +city depends on the previous circumstance, the collection of +a force <i>to do</i> it. Were there no windows, the light would +not be admitted to the room.</p> + +<p>These distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to +every hearer. You all are aware of the fact that action +necessarily implies an actor, as every effect must have an +efficient cause; and such action clearly or distinctly <i>indicated</i>, +must have such an agent to produce it. 2d. You +are acquainted with the fact that one person can express +his will to the second, directing him to do or avoid some +thing. 3d. From an established condition of things, it is +easy to deduce a consequence which will follow, in the nature +of things, as an unavoidable result of such a combination +of power, cause, and means.</p> + +<p>With these principles you are all familiar, whether you +have studied grammar or not. They are clearly marked, +abundantly simple, and must be obvious to all. They form +the only necessary, because the only real, distinction, in the +formation and use of the verb to express action. Any +mi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>nor +distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass +the learner.</p> + +<p>But some grammarians have passed these natural barriers, +and built to themselves schemes to accord with their own +vain fancies. The remarks of Mr. Murray upon this point +are very appropos. He says:</p> + +<p>"Some writers have given our moods a much greater +extent than we have assigned to them. They assert that +the english language may be said, without any great impropriety, +to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs; +and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound +expression which they help to form, point out those +various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages, +are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the +moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the +conjugation or variation of verbs, in the english language, +is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. +We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; +and do that by their assistance, which has been +done in the learned languages (a few instances to the contrary +excepted) in another manner, namely, by varying the +form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary +to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion +obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and +perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a separate mood +for every auxiliary verb, and introducing moods <i>interrogative</i>, +<i>optative</i>, <i>promissive</i>, <i>hortative</i>, <i>precative</i>, &c., we have +exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which, +whilst they are calculated to unfold and display the subject +intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, and not +more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which +moods were introduced.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +"From grammarians who form their ideas, and make +their decisions, respecting this part of english grammar, on +the principles and constructions of languages which, in these +points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ +considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical +schemes that are not very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, +and which will tend more to perplex than to inform +the learner."</p> + +<p>Had he followed this rule, he would have saved weeks +and months to every student in grammar in the community. +But his remarks were aimed at Mr. Harris, who was by far +the most popular writer on language in England at that time. +He has adopted the very rules of Mr. Murray, and carried +them out. By a careful observance of the different forms +and changes of the verb and its auxiliaries, he makes out +quite evidently to his own mind, <i>fourteen</i> moods, which I +forbear to name.</p> + +<p>Most grammarians contend for <i>five</i> moods, two of which, +the <i>potential</i> or powerful, and the <i>subjunctive</i>, are predicated +on the same principles as Mr. Harris' optative, interrogative, +etc., which they condemn. It is impossible to explain +the character of these moods so as to be understood. +<i>If</i>, it is said, is the sign of the subjunctive, and <i>may</i> and <i>can</i> +of the potential; and yet they are often found together; as, +"I will go <i>if I can</i>." No scholar can determine in what +mood to put this last verb. It of right belongs to both the +potential and subjunctive. <i>If</i> I <i>may</i> be allowed to speak +my mind, I <i>should</i> say that such distinctions were false.</p> + +<p>I will not go into an exposure of these useless and false +distinctions, which are adopted to help carry out erroneous +principles. The only pretence for a subjunctive mood is +founded on the fact that <i>be</i> and <i>were</i> were formerly used in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +a character different from what they are at present. <i>Be</i> +was used in the indicative mood, present tense, when doubt +or supposition was implied; as, If I <i>be</i> there; if they <i>be</i> +wise. <i>Be</i> I a man, and <i>receive</i> such treatment? <i>Were</i> +was also used instead of <i>was</i> in the past tense; as, "<i>Were</i> +I an American I would fight for liberty. If I <i>were</i> to admit +the fact." In this character these words are rapidly +becoming obsolete. We now say, "If I <i>am</i> there; am I +a man, and <i>receive</i> such abuses? <i>was</i> I an American; if I +was to admit," etc.</p> + +<p>All the round about, perplexing, and tedious affair of +conjugating verbs thro the different modes and tenses will +appear in its true character, when we come to give you a +few brief examples, according to truth and plain sense. +But before doing that it will be necessary to make some remarks +on time.</p> + +<p><i>Tense</i> means <i>time</i>. We distinguish time according to +certain events which are generally observed. In the use +of the verb we express action in reference to periods of +time when it is performed.</p> + +<p>There are three tenses, or divisions of time; <i>past</i>, <i>present</i>, +and <i>future</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Past tense</i> applies to actions which are accomplished; +as, I <i>wrote</i> a book; he <i>recited</i> his lesson.</p> + +<p><i>Present tense</i> denotes actions commenced, but not finished, +and now in operation; as, he <i>reads</i> his book; we <i>sit</i> +on our seats and <i>hear</i> the lecture.</p> + +<p><i>Future tense</i> refers to actions, which are <i>to take</i> place +hereafter; as, I am <i>to go</i> from the Institute; we desire <i>to +learn</i> grammar correctly.</p> + +<p>Every body can mark three plain distinctions of time, +past, present, and future. With the past we have been +ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>quainted. +It has ceased to be. Its works are ended. The +present is a mere line—, nothing as it were—which is constantly +passing unchecked from the past to the future. It +is a mere division of the past and future. The Hebrew, +which is strictly a philosophic language, admits no present; +only a <i>past</i> and <i>future</i>. We speak of the present as denoting +an action begun and not finished. In the summer, +we say the trees grow, and bear fruit. But when the fruit +is fallen, and the leaves seared by the frost, we change the +expression, and say, it <i>grew</i> and <i>bore</i> fruit.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>future</i> we can know nothing definitely. Heaven +has hung before all human eyes an impenetrable veil which +obscures all future events. No man without prophetic vision +bestowed by Him who "sees the end from the beginning," +can know what is <i>to be</i>, and no expression can be +made, no words employed which will positively declare a +future action. We may see a present condition of things, +and from it argue what is <i>to be</i>, or take place hereafter; +but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and deduced +from a review of the present relation and tendencies of +things.</p> + +<p>I hold the paper near the fire and you say it <i>will</i> burn, +and you say truly, for it has a <i>will</i>, or what is the same, an +inherent tendency <i>to burn</i>. It is made of combustible matter, +like paper which we have seen burn, and hence we argue +this has the same tendency to be consumed. But how +does your mind arrive at that fact? If you had never seen +a substance like it burn, why should you conclude this <i>will</i>? +Does the child know it <i>will</i> burn? No; for it has not yet +learned the quality of the paper. It is not till the child has +been burned that it dreads the fire. Suppose I take some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +asbestus, of the kind called amianthus, which is a mineral, +and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax; and in +eastern countries, especially in Savoy and Corsica, is manufactured +into cloth, paper, and lamp wicks. It was used +in making winding sheets for the dead, in which the bodies +were burned, and the ashes, retained in the incombustible +sheet, were gathered into an urn, and revered as the manes +of the dead. Suppose I take some of this incombustible +paper or cloth, and present to you. You say it <i>will</i> burn. +Why do you say thus? Because you have seen other materials +which appear like this, consume to ashes. Let us +put it into the fire. It <i>will not</i> burn. It has no <i>tendency</i> +to burn; no quality which will consume. But this is a new +idea to you and hence your mistake. You did not know +it <i>would</i> burn, nor could you <i>indicate</i> such a fact. You only +told your opinion derived from the present appearance of +things, and hence you made an assertion in the <i>indicative</i> +mood, present tense, and added to it an <i>infinitive</i> mood, in +order to deduce the consequence of this future action—it +<i>wills</i>, or has a <i>tendency</i> to burn. But you were mistaken, +because ignorant of the <i>nature</i> of things. This amianthus +looks like flax, and to a person unacquainted with it, appears +to be as truly combustible; but the mineralogist, and +all who know its properties, know very well that it <i>will</i> not—wills +nothing, has no inclination, or tendency, to burn.</p> + +<p>Take another example. Here is a steel needle. I hold +it before you. You say, "if I let go of it, it <i>will</i> fall," and +you say correctly, for it has such a tendency. But suppose +a magnet, as great as that which is said to have drawn the +iron coffin of Mohammed to the roof of the temple at Mecca, +should be placed in the room above us. The needle, +instead of falling to the floor, would be drawn in the nearest +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +direction to that magnet. The <i>will</i> or <i>tendency</i> of the +needle, as generally understood, would be overcome, the +natural law of gravitation would lose its influence, by the +counteracting power of the loadstone.</p> + +<p>I say, "I will go home in an hour." But does that expression +<i>indicate</i> the act of <i>going</i>? It is placed in the indicative +mood in our grammars; and <i>go</i> is the principal, and +<i>will</i> the auxiliary verb. May be I shall fall and die before +I reach my home. But the expression is correct; <i>will</i> is +<i>present</i>, go <i>future</i>. I <i>will</i>, I now <i>resolve</i>, am now inclined +<i>to go</i> home.</p> + +<p>You see the correctness of our position, that we can not +positively assert a future active in the indicative mood. +Try and form to yourselves a phrase by which it can be +done. Should you succeed, you would violate a law of nature. +You would penetrate the dark curtain of the future, +and claim to yourself what you do not possess, a power to +declare future actions. Prophets, by the help of the Almighty, +had this power conferred upon them. But in the +revelation of the sublime truths they were instructed to +make known, they were compelled to adopt human language, +and make it agree with our manner of speech.</p> + +<p>The only method by which we express a future event, is +to make an assertion in the indicative mood, present tense, +and to that append the natural consequence in the infinitive +or unlimited; as, I <i>am to go</i> to Boston. He is preparing <i>to +visit</i> New-York. The infinitive mood is always future to +the circumstance on which it depends.</p> + +<p>Mr. Murray says, that "tense, being the distinction of +time, might seem to admit of only the present, past, and future; +but to mark it more <i>accurately</i>, it is made to consist +of six variations, viz.: the present, imperfect, perfect, +plu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>perfect, +first and second future tenses." This <i>more accurate +mark</i>, only serves to expose the author's folly, and distract +the learner's mind. Before, all was plain. The past, present, +and future are distinct, natural divisions, easily understood +by all. But what idea can a person form of an <i>imperfect</i> +tense in action. If there was ever such an action in +the world, it was when <i>grammarians</i> <span class="smcap">made</span> their grammars, +which is, if I mistake not, according to their own authority, +in the <i>im-perfect</i> tense! I <i>wrote</i> a letter. He <i>read</i> his +piece well. The scholar learn<i>ed</i> and recit<i>ed</i> his lesson +<i>perfectly</i>; and yet <i>learned</i>, tho made <i>perfect</i> by +the <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'qualifification'">qualification</ins> +of an <i>adverb</i>, is an <i>imperfect</i> action!</p> + +<p>But this explains the whole mystery in the business of +grammar. We can here discover the cause of all the +troubles and difficulties we have encountered in the whole +affair. When authors <i>made</i> their books, they <i>did</i> it <i>imperfectly</i>; +when teachers <i>taught</i> them, it was <i>imperfectly</i>; and +when scholars <i>learned</i> them, it was <i>imperfectly</i>!! So at +last, we have found the origin of this whole difficulty, in the +grammars themselves; it was all imperfectly done.</p> + +<p>But here, again, <i>mirabile dictu!</i> wonderful to tell, we are +presented with a <i>plu-perfect</i> tense; that is,—<i>plus</i> means +<i>more</i>,—a <i>more</i> than perfect tense! What must that be? If +a thing is perfect, we can not easily conceive any thing beyond. +That is a <i>ne plus ultra</i> to all advancement—there +can be no more beyond. If any change is introduced, it +must be by falling from <i>perfect</i> back to <i>imperfect</i>.</p> + +<p>I <i>have said</i>, "many of the distinctions in the grammar +books <i>have proved</i> mischievous; that they are as false as +frivolous;" and this is said <i>perfectly</i>, in the perfect tense. +If I should say, "they <i>had been</i> of some benefit," that would +be <i>more</i> than <i>perfect</i>—plu-perfect. But when I say, "they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +<i>exhibited</i> great depth of research, and <i>conveyed</i> some light +on the subject of which they <i>treated</i>," it would all be <i>im</i>-perfect.</p> + +<p>Next, we are presented with a <i>second future</i> tense, which +attempts a division of time unbounded and unknown. In +the greek, they have what is called a "<i>paulo post future</i>," +which in plain english, means a "<i>little after the future</i>;" +that is, I suppose, when futurity has come to an end, this +tense will commence! At that time we may expect to +meet a "<i>præter plus quam perfectum</i>"—a more than perfect +tense! But till that period shall arrive, we see little need +of making such false and unphilosophic distinctions.</p> + +<p>A teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions +of time to his scholars from the clock dial which stood in +the school room. Suppose <i>twelve</i> o'clock represents the +<i>present</i> tense; <i>nine</i> would signify the <i>perfect</i>; any thing +between nine and twelve would be <i>imperfect</i>; any thing +beyond, <i>pluperfect</i>. On the other hand, any act, forward of +twelve, would be <i>future</i>; and at <i>three</i> the <i>second future</i> +would commence. I remarked that I thought this a wonderful +improvement, especially to those who were able to +have clocks by which to teach grammar, but that I could +not discover why he did not have <i>three future</i>, as well as +<i>three past</i> tenses. Why, he said, there were no such tenses +marked in the books, and hence there was no occasion to +explain them. I asked him why he did not have a tense +for every hour, and so he could distinguish with Mr. Webster, +<i>twelve</i> tenses, without any trouble whatever; and, by +going three times round the dial, he could easily prove the +correctness of Dr. Beattie's division; for he says, in his +grammar, there are <i>thirty-six</i> tenses, and thinks there can +not be less without "introducing confusion in the +grammat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>ical +<i>art</i>." But he thought such a course would serve rather +to perplex than enlighten; and so thought I. But he was +the teacher of a popular school in the city of ——, and +had published a duodecimo grammar of over 300 pages, +entitled "Murray's Grammar, <i>improved</i>, by ——." I +will not give his name; it would be libellous!</p> + +<p>Mr. Murray thinks because certain things which he asserts, +but does not prove, are found in greek and latin, "we +may doubtless apply them to the english verb; and extend +the principle <i>as far as convenience</i>, and the idiom of our +language require." He found it to his "convenience" to +note <i>six</i> principal, and as many <i>indefinite</i> tenses. Mr. Webster +does the same. Dr. Beattie found it "convenient" to +have <i>thirty-six</i>. In the greek they have <i>nine</i>. Mr. Bauzee +distinguishes in the french <i>twenty</i> tenses; and the royal +academy of Spain present a very learned and elaborate +treatise on <i>seven future tenses</i> in that language. The clock +dial of my friend would be found quite "<i>convenient</i>" in aiding +the "convenience" of such distinctions.</p> + +<p>The fact is, there are only three real divisions of time in +any language, because there are only three in nature, and +the ideas of all nations must agree in this respect. In framing +language it was found impossible to mark any other +distinctions, without introducing other words than those which +express simple action. These words became compounded +in process of time, till they are now used as changes of the +same verb. I would here enter into an examination of the +formation of the tenses of greek, latin, french, spanish, and +german verbs, did I conceive it necessary, and show you +how, by compounding two words, they form the various +tenses found in the grammars. But it will be more edifying +to you to confine my remarks to our own language. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +Here it will be found impossible to distinguish more than +three tenses, or find the verb in any different form, except +by the aid of other words, wholly foreign from those that +express the action under consideration.</p> + +<p>It is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect, pluperfect, +or future tenses are formed. But when it is shown +you that these are principal verbs, and like many other +words, are used before the infinitive mood without the word +<i>to</i> prefixed to them, you will perceive the consistency of +the plan we propose. That such is the fact we have abundant +evidence to show, and with your consent we will introduce +it in this place. I repeat, all the words long considered +auxiliaries, are <i>principal</i> verbs, declarative of positive +action, and as such are in extensive use in our language. +We can hardly agree that the words <i>will</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>must</i>, +<i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, <i>should</i>, etc. have no meaning, as our +grammars and dictionaries would teach us; for you may +look in vain for a definition of them, as principal verbs, +with a few exceptions.</p> + +<p>The reason these words are not found in the same relation +to other words, with a <i>to</i> after them, is because they +are so often used that we are accustomed to drop that word. +The same may be said of all small words in frequent use; +as, <i>bid</i>, <i>do</i>, <i>dare</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>hear</i>, +<i>have</i>, <i>let</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>see</i>, and sometimes +<i>needs</i>, <i>tell</i>, and a few others. Bid him go. I <i>dare +say</i> so. I <i>feel</i> it <i>move</i>. We <i>hear</i> him <i>sing</i>. <i>Let</i> us <i>go</i>. +<i>Make</i> him <i>do</i> it. He <i>must go</i> thro Samaria. <i>Tell</i> him <i>do</i> +it immediately.</p> + +<p>It is a singular fact, but in keeping with neuter verb systems, +that all the <i>neuter</i> verbs as well as the active, take +these auxiliary or <i>helping</i> verbs, which, according to their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +showing <i>help them do nothing</i>—"express neither +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'actionn'">action</ins> or +passion." A wonderful <i>help</i> indeed!</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p><span class="smcap">Will.</span> This verb signifies to <i>wish</i>, to <i>resolve</i>, to <i>exercise +volition</i>, in reference to a certain thing or action. "I will +go." I <i>now resolve</i> to perform the act of going. When +applied to inanimate things incapable of volition, it signifies +what is analogous to it, <i>inherent tendency</i>; as, paper <i>will</i> +burn; iron <i>will</i> sink; water <i>will</i> run. All these things +have an inherent or active tendency to change. Water is +composed of minute particles of a round form, piled together. +While on a level they do not move; but let a descent +be made, and these particles, under the influence of gravitation, +<i>will</i> change position, and roll one over another with +a rapidity equalled to the condition in which they are +placed. The same may be observed in a quantity of shot +opened at one side which <i>will</i> run thro the aperture; but +the particles being larger, they will not find a level like +water. Grain, sand, and any thing composed of small particles, +<i>will</i> exhibit the same tendency. Iron, lead, or any +mineral, in a state of igneous solution, <i>will</i> run, has the +same <i>inclination</i> to run as water, or any other liquid. In +oil, tallow, and lard, when expanded by heat, the same tendency +is observed; but severely chilled with the cold, it congeals, +and <i>will</i> not, has no such <i>tendency</i>, to run.</p> + +<p>You have doubtless observed a cask filled with water +and nearly tight, (if it is possible, make it quite so,) and +when an aperture is made in the side, it <i>will</i> run but a trifle +before it will stop. Open a vent upon the top of the cask +and it <i>will</i> run freely. This <i>will</i> or tendency was counteracted +by other means which I will not stop here to explain.</p> + +<p>This is a most important word in science, physical and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +moral, and may be traced thro various languages where it +exerts the same influence in the expression of thought.</p> + +<p>"To avoid multiplying of words, I would crave leave +here, under the word <i>action</i>, to comprehend the <i>forbearance</i> +too of any action proposed; <i>sitting still</i>, or <i>holding one's +peace</i>, when <i>walking</i> or <i>speaking</i> are proposed, tho mere +forbearances, requiring as much the determination of the +<i>will</i>, and being as often weighty in their consequences as +the <i>contrary actions</i>, may, on that consideration, well enough +pass for actions too. For he that shall turn his thoughts +inwards upon what passes in his mind when he <i>wills</i>, shall +see that the <i>will</i> or power of volition is conversant about +nothing."—<i>Locke's Essay</i>, b. II. c. 21. § 30.</p> + +<p>It is correctly applied by writers to <i>matter</i> as well as +mind, as may be seen by consulting their works.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Meanwhile as nature <i>wills</i>, night bids us rest."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Milton.</i></p></div> + +<p>The <i>lupulis</i>, or common hop, <i>feels</i> for some elevated object +which will assist it in its high aspirations, and <i>will</i> +climb it by winding from left to right, and <i>will</i> not be +obliged to go in an opposite direction; while the <i>phaseolus</i>, +or kidney bean, takes the opposite direction. Neither <i>will</i> +be compelled to change its course. They <i>will</i> have their +own way, and grow as they please, or they <i>will</i> die in the +contest for liberty.</p> + +<p>Arsenic has a <i>tendency</i> in itself, a latent power, which +only requires an opportunity suited to its objects, when it +<i>will act</i> in the most efficacious manner. It <i>will</i> destroy the +life of the Emperor, who has <i>voluntarily</i> slain his thousand +and tens of thousands. This secret power does not reside +in the flour of wheat, for that <i>will not</i>, has no tendency, to +produce such disastrous consequences.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +This word is applied in a similar manner to individuals +and nations. The man <i>will</i> fall, not of intention, but of accident. +He <i>will</i> kill himself. The man <i>will</i> drown, and +the boat <i>will</i> swim. The water <i>will</i> hold up the boat, but +it <i>will</i> allow the man to sink. The Russians <i>will</i> conquer +the Turks. If conquest depended solely on the <i>will</i>, the +Turks would as soon conquer as the Russians. But I have +not time to pursue this topic farther. You can follow out +these hints at your leisure.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shall</span> signifies to be <i>bound</i>, <i>obligated</i>, or <i>required</i>, from +external necessity. Its etymology may be traced back +thro various languages. It is derived direct from the saxon +<i>scaelan</i> or <i>scylan</i>, and is found as a principal verb in that +language, as well as in ours. In the church homily they +say, "To Him alone we <i>schall us</i> to devote ourselves;" we +<i>bind</i> or <i>obligate</i> ourselves. Chaucer, an early english poet, +says.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The faith we <i>shall</i> to God."</p></div> + +<p>Great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, and frequent essays have been written, to +give arbitrary rules for their use. If the words were well +understood, there could be no difficulty in employing them +correctly. <i>Will</i> signifies <i>inherent tendency</i>, <i>aptitude</i>, or +<i>disposition</i>, and <i>volition</i> in beings capable of using it. <i>Shall</i> +implies <i>external necessity</i>, or foreign obligation. The parent +says, "You <i>will</i> suffer misery if you do evil," for it is in +accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce +misery. "You <i>shall</i> regard my wishes," for you are under +<i>obligation</i>, from the relation in which you stand to me, to +do so. Let these words be clearly explained, and there +will be no difficulty in using them correctly.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">May</span>, past tense <i>might</i>. This verb expresses <i>power</i>, +<i>strength</i>, or <i>ability</i> to perform an action. It is a mistake +that it means permission or liberty only. It implies more +than that, the delegation of a power to perform the contemplated +action. Suppose the scholar should faint, would the +teacher say to him you <i>may</i> go into the open air? He has +no <i>power</i>, <i>might</i>, or <i>strength</i>, communicated by such liberty, +and must receive the <i>might</i> or strength of others to carry +him out. But to the scholar in health he says you <i>may</i> go +out, thereby giving to him a power and liberty sufficient to +perform the action. This is done on the same principle +that one man gives another a "<i>power</i> of attorney" to transact +his business; and that <i>power</i> constitutes his <i>liberty</i> of +action.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Must</span> signifies to be <i>confined</i>, <i>limited</i>, <i>bound</i>, or <i>restrained</i>. +I <i>must</i>, or am bound, to obey; certain obligations require +me to obey. The adjective of this word is in common use. +The air in the cask is <i>musty</i>. It has long been <i>bound</i> or +<i>confined</i> there, and prevented from partaking of the purifying +qualities of the atmosphere, and hence has become +<i>musty</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Can.</span> This word is found as a principal verb and as a +noun in our language, especially in the Scotch dialect. "I +<i>ken</i> nae where he'd gone." Beyond the <i>ken</i> of mortals. +Far from all human <i>ken</i>. It signifies to <i>know</i>, to perceive, +to understand. I knew not where he had gone. Beyond +the knowledge of mortals. Far from all human reach. +To <i>con</i> or <i>cun</i> is a different spelling of the same word. +<i>Cunning</i> is that quick <i>perception</i> of things, which enables a +person to use his knowledge adroitly. The child <i>can</i> +read; <i>knows</i> how to read. It <i>can</i> walk. Here it seems +to imply <i>power</i>; but power, in this case, as in most others, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +is gained only by knowledge, for <span class="smcap">knowledge is power</span>. +Many children have strength sufficient to walk, long before +they do. The reason why they <i>can not</i> walk, is, they do +not <i>know how</i>; they have not learned to balance themselves +in an erect position, so as to move forward without +falling.</p> + +<p>A vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge. +There is not a being in creation so entirely incapable +of self-support, as the new-born infant; and yet, by the +help of knowledge, he becomes the lord of this lower world. +Bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child, and yet +by dint of <i>can</i>, <i>ken</i>, <i>cunning</i>, or knowledge, he made all +Europe tremble. But his knowledge was limited. He became +blind to danger, bewildered by success, and he <i>could</i> +no longer follow the prudent course of wisdom, but fell a +sacrifice to his own unbridled ambition, and blinded folly. +An enlightened people <i>can</i> govern themselves; but <i>power</i> +of government is gained by a knowledge of the principles +of equality, and mutual help and dependency; and whenever +the people become ignorant of that fact, they <i>will</i> fall, +the degraded victims of their own folly, and the wily influence +of some more knowing aspirant for power.</p> + +<p>This is a most important topic; but I dare not pursue it +farther, lest I weary your patience. A few examples <i>must</i> +suffice.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Jason, she cried, for aught I <i>see</i> or <i>can</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">This deed," &c.<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i14">A famous man,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of every <i>witte</i> somewhat he <i>can</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Out take</i> that him lacketh rule,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His own estate to guide and rule.<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Gower.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Do</span> has been called a <i>helping</i> verb; but it needs little observation +to discover that it is no more so than a hundred +other words. "<i>Do</i> thy diligence to come before winter." +"<i>Do</i> the work of an evangelist."—<i>Paul to Timothy.</i> I <i>do</i> +all in my power <i>to expose</i> the error and wickedness of false +teaching. <i>Do</i> afford relief. <i>Do</i> something to afford relief.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the +"helping verb grammars," which has no other duty to +perform than help conjugate other verbs thro some of their +moods and tenses. It is a word in very common use, and +of course must possess a very important character, which +should be carefully examined and distinctly known by all +who desire a knowledge of the construction of our language.</p> + +<p>The principal difficulty in the explanation of this word, +is the peculiar meaning which some have attached to it. It +has been defined to denote <i>possession</i> merely. But when +we say, a man <i>has</i> much <i>property destroyed</i> by fire, we do +not mean that he <i>gains</i> or <i>possesses</i> much property by the +fire; nor can we make <i>has</i> auxiliary to <i>destroyed</i>, for in +that case it would stand thus: a man <i>has destroyed</i> much +property by fire, which would be false, for the destruction +was produced by an incendiary, or some other means wholly +unknown to him.</p> + +<p>You at once perceive that <i>to possess</i> is not the only meaning +which attaches to <i>have</i>. It assumes a more important +rank. It can be traced, with little change in form, back +thro many generations. It is the same word as <i>heave</i>, +originally, and retains nearly the same meaning. Saxon +<i>habban</i>, Gothic <i>haban</i>, German <i>haben</i>, Latin <i>habeo</i>, French +<i>avoir</i>, are all the same word, varied in spelling more than +in sound; for <i>b</i> in many languages is sounded very much +like <i>v</i>, or <i>bv</i>. It may mean to <i>hold</i>, <i>possess</i>, <i>retain</i>, <i>sway</i>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +<i>control</i>, <i>dispose of</i>, either as a direct or <i>relative</i> action; for +a man sustains relations to his actors, duties, family, friends, +enemies, and all the world, as well as to his possessions. +He <i>has</i> a hard task to perform. He <i>has</i> much pain <i>to suffer</i>. +He <i>has</i> suffered much unhappiness.</p> + +<p>I <i>have written</i> a letter. I <i>have</i> a written letter. I <i>have</i> +a letter <i>written</i>. These expressions differ very little in +meaning, but the verb <i>have</i> is the same in each case. By +the first expression, I signify that I have <i>caused</i> the letter to +be <i>written</i>; by the second that I have a letter on which +such action has been performed; and by the third, that such +written letter stands in such relation to myself.</p> + +<p>I <i>have written</i> a letter and sent it away. <i>Written</i> is the +past participle from <i>write</i>; as an adjective it describes the +letter in the condition I placed it; so that it will be defined, +wherever it is found, as my letter; that is, some way <i>related</i> +to me.</p> + +<p>We can here account for the old <i>perfect tense</i>, which is +said, "not only to refer to what is <i>past</i>, but also <i>to convey +an allusion to the present time</i>." The verb is in the <i>present</i> +tense, the participle is in the <i>past</i>, and hence the reason of +this allusion. I <i>have</i> no <i>space allowed</i> me to go into a full +investigation of this word, in its application to the expression +of ideas. But it is necessary to <i>have</i> it well <i>understood</i>, as +it <i>has</i> an important <i>service entrusted</i> to it; and I hope you +will <i>have</i> clear <i>views presented</i> to your minds, strong enough +to <i>have</i> former <i>errors eradicated</i> therefrom.</p> + +<p>If you <i>have</i> leisure <i>granted</i>, and patience and disposition +equal-<i>ed</i> to the task, you have my consent to go back and +read this sentence over again. You will find it <i>has</i> in it +embodied much important information in relation to the use +of <i>have</i> and the perfect tense.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_XIII" id="LECTURE_XIII"></a>LECTURE XIII.</h2> + +<h3>ON VERBS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>Person and number in the agent, not in the action. — Similarity of +agents, actions, and objects. — Verbs made from nouns. — Irregular +verbs. — Some examples. — Regular Verbs. — <i>Ed</i>. — <i>Ing</i>. — Conjugation +of verbs. — To love. — To have. — To be. — The indicative +mood varied. — A whole sentence may be agent or object. — Imperative +mood. — Infinitive mood. — Is always future.</p></div> + + +<p>I have said before that action can never be known separate +from the actor; that the verb applies to the agent in +an <i>acting</i> condition, as that term has been defined and should +be understood. Hence Person and Number can never attach +to the verb, but to the agent with which, of course, the +action must, in every respect, agree; as, "<i>I write</i>." In +this case the action corresponds with myself. But to say +that <i>write</i> is in the "first person, singular number," would +be wrong, for no such number or person belongs to the +verb, but is confined to myself as the agent of the action.</p> + +<p>The form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the +second or third person singular; more on account of habit, +I apprehend, than from any reason, or propriety as to a +change of meaning in the word. We say, when using the +regular <i>second</i> person singular, "<i>thou writest</i>," a form rarely +observed except in addresses to Deity, or on solemn occasions. +In the <i>third</i> person, an <i>s</i> is added to the regular +form; as, "<i>he writes</i>." The old form, which was in +gen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>eral +use at the time the common version of the Bible was +published, was still different, ending in <i>eth</i>; as, <i>he thinketh</i>, +<i>he writeth</i>. This style, altho considerably used in the last +century, is nearly obsolete. When the verb agrees with +the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees +with the first person; as, "<i>We write</i>, <i>you write</i>, <i>they write</i>." +There are few exceptions to these rules.</p> + +<p>Some people have been very tenacious about retaining +the old forms of words, and our books were long printed +without alteration; but change will break thro every barrier, +and book-makers must keep pace with the times, and +put on the dress that is catered for them by the public taste; +bearing in mind, meanwhile, that great and practical truths +are more essential than the garb in which they appear. +We should be more careful of our health of body and purity +of morals than of the costume we put on. Many genteel +coats wrap up corrupt hearts, and fine hats cover silly +heads. What is the chaff to the wheat?</p> + +<p>Even our good friends, the quakers, who have particularly +labored to retain old forms—"the plain language,"—have +failed in their attempt, and have substituted the <i>object</i> +form of the pronoun for the <i>agent</i>, and say, "<i>thee thinks</i>," +for <i>thou thinkest</i>. Their mistake is even greater than the +substitution of <i>you</i> for <i>thou</i>.</p> + +<p>So far as language depends on the conventional regulation +of those who use it, it will be constantly changing; +new words will be introduced, and the spelling of old ones +altered, so as to agree with modern pronounciation. We +have all lived long enough to witness the truth of this remark. +The only rule we can give in relation to this matter +is, to follow our own judgments, aided by our best writers +and speakers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +The words which express action, are in many cases very +similar to the agents which produce them; and the objects +which are the direct results produced by such action, do +not differ very materially. I will give you a few examples.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Agents, Actions, and Objects"> +<tr><td class="bottom1" align='left'><i>Agent.</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'><i>Verb.</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'><i>Object.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Actors</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Act</td> + <td align='left'>Actions</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Breathers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Breathe</td> + <td align='left'>Breath</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Builders</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Build</td> + <td align='left'>Buildings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Coiners</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Coin</td> + <td align='left'>Coins</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Casters</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Cast</td> + <td align='left'>Casts or castings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Drinkers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Drink</td> + <td align='left'>Drink</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Dreamers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Dream</td> + <td align='left'>Dreams</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Earners</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Earn</td> + <td align='left'>Earnings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Fishers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Fish</td> + <td align='left'>Fishes</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Gainers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Gain</td> + <td align='left'>Gain</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Hewers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Hew</td> + <td align='left'>Hewings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Innkeepers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Keep</td> + <td align='left'>Inns</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Light or lighters</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Light or shed</td> + <td align='left'>Lights</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Miners</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Mine or dig</td> + <td align='left'>Mines</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Pleaders</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Plead or make</td> + <td align='left'>Pleas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Producers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Produce</td> + <td align='left'>Products</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Raisers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Raise</td> + <td align='left'>Raisings or houses</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Runners or racers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Run</td> + <td align='left'>Runs or races</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Sufferers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Suffer</td> + <td align='left'>Sufferings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Speakers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Speak</td> + <td align='left'>Speeches</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Thinkers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Think</td> + <td align='left'>Thoughts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Writers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Write</td> + <td align='left'>Writings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right1" align='left'>Workers</td> + <td class="right1" align='left'>Work</td> + <td align='left'>Works</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>I give you these examples to show you the near alliance +between <i>actors</i>, ( ,) and <i>actions</i>; or agents, <i>actions</i>, and objects. +Such expressions as the above are inelegant, because +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +they are uncommon; but for no other reason, for we, in +numberless cases, employ the same word for agent and +verb; as, <i>painters paint</i> buildings, and <i>artists</i> paint paintings; +<i>bookbinders bind books</i>; <i>printers print</i> books, and other +<i>prints</i>. A little observation will enable you to carry out +these hints, and profit by them. You have observed the +disposition in children, and foreigners, who are partially +acquainted with our language, to make verbs out of almost +every noun, which appears to us very aukward; but was +it common, it would be just as correct as the verbs now +used. There are very few verbs which have not a noun +to correspond with them, for we make verbs, that is, we +use words to express action, which are nearly allied to the +agent with which such action +agrees.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> From botany we +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +have made <i>botanize</i>; from Mr. McAdam, the inventor of a +particular kind of road, <i>macadamize</i>, which means to make +roads as he made them. Words are formed in this way +very frequently. The word <i>church</i> is often used as a noun +to express a building used for public worship; for the services +performed in it; for the whole congregation; for a +portion of believers associated together; for the Episcopal +order, etc. It is also used as a verb. Mr. Webster defines +it, "To perform with any one the office of returning +thanks in the church after any signal deliverance." But +the word has taken quite a different turn of late. <i>To church</i> +a person, instead of receiving him into communion, as that +term would seem to imply, signifies to deal with an offending +member, to excommunicate, or turn him out.</p> + +<p>But I will not pursue this point any farther. The brief +hints I have thrown out, will enable you to discover how the +meaning and forms of words are changed from their original +application to suit the notions and improvements of after +ages. A field is here presented which needs cultivation. +The young should be taught to search for the etymology +of words, to trace their changes and meaning as used at +different times and by different people, keeping their minds +constantly directed to the object signified by such verbal +sign. This is the business of philosophy, under whatever +name it may be taught; for grammar, rhetoric, logic, and +the science of the mind, are intimately blended, and should +always be taught in connexion. We have already seen +that words without meaning are like shadows without realities. +And persons can not employ language "correctly," +or "with propriety," till they have acquainted themselves +with the import of such language—the ideas of things +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +signified by it. Let this course be adopted in the education +of children, and they will not be required to spend +months and years in the study of an "<i>art</i>" which they can +not comprehend, for the simple reason that they can not +apply it in practice. Grammar has been taught as a mere +<i>art</i>, depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned, +rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest +principles of philosophy, which are to be known only as +developed in common practice among men, and in accordance +with the permanent laws which govern human thought.</p> + +<p>Verbs differ in the manner of forming their <i>past</i> tenses, +and participles, or adjectives. Those ending in <i>ed</i> are +called <i>regular</i>; those which take any other termination are +<i>irregular</i>. There are about two hundred of the latter in +our language, which differ in various ways. Some of them +have the <i>past</i> tense and the past participle the same; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Verb Forms"> +<tr><td align='left'>Bid</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Bid</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Bid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Knit</td> + <td align='left'>Knit</td> + <td align='left'>Knit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shut</td> + <td align='left'>Shut</td> + <td align='left'>Shut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Let</td> + <td align='left'>Let</td> + <td align='left'>Let</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spread</td> + <td align='left'>Spread</td> + <td align='left'>Spread, etc.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Others have the past tense and participle alike, but different +from the present; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Verb Forms"> +<tr><td align='left'>Lend</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Lent</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Lent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Send</td> + <td align='left'>Sent</td> + <td align='left'>Sent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bend</td> + <td align='left'>Bent</td> + <td align='left'>Bent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wend</td> + <td align='left'>Went</td> + <td align='left'>Went</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Build</td> + <td align='left'>Built or builded</td> + <td align='left'>Built</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Think</td> + <td align='left'>Thought</td> + <td align='left'>Thought, etc.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +Some have the present and past tense and participle different; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Verb Forms"> +<tr><td align='left'>Blow</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Blew</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Blown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grow</td> + <td align='left'>Grew</td> + <td align='left'>Grown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Begin</td> + <td align='left'>Began</td> + <td align='left'>Begun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>See</td> + <td align='left'>Saw</td> + <td align='left'>Seen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Write</td> + <td align='left'>Wrote</td> + <td align='left'>Written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Give</td> + <td align='left'>Gave</td> + <td align='left'>Given</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Speak</td> + <td align='left'>Spoke</td> + <td align='left'>Spoken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rise</td> + <td align='left'>Rose</td> + <td align='left'>Risen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fall</td> + <td align='left'>Fell</td> + <td align='left'>Fallen, etc.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There are a few which are made up of different radicals, +which have been wedded together by habit, to avoid the +frequent and unpleasant recurrence of the same word; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Verb Forms"> +<tr><td align='left'>Am</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Was</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Go (wend)</td> + <td align='left'>Went</td> + <td align='left'>Gone, etc.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Some which were formerly irregular, are now generally +used with the regular termination, in either the past tense +or participle, or both; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Verb Forms"> +<tr><td align='left'>Hang</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Hung or hanged</td> + <td class="verbs" align='left'>Hung or hanged</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dare</td> + <td align='left'>Dared or durst</td> + <td align='left'>Dared</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clothe</td> + <td align='left'>Clad or clothed</td> + <td align='left'>Clad or clothed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Work</td> + <td align='left'>Worked or wrought</td> + <td align='left'>Worked</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shine</td> + <td align='left'>Shined or shone</td> + <td align='left'>Shone or shined</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spill</td> + <td align='left'>Spilled or spilt</td> + <td align='left'>Spilt or spilled, etc.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The syllable <i>ed</i> is a contraction of the past tense of <i>do</i>; +as, I <i>loved</i>, love <i>did</i>, <i>did</i> love, or love-<i>ed</i>. He learn<i>ed</i>, +learn did, did learn, or learned. It signifies action, <i>did</i>, +done, or accomplished. You have all lived long enough to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +have noticed the change in the pronounciation of this syllable. +Old people sound it full and distinct; and so do most +others in reading the scriptures; but not so generally as in +former times. In poetry it was usually abbreviated so as +to avoid the full sound; and hence we may account for the +<i>irregular</i> termination of many words, such as <i>heard</i>, for +<i>heared</i>; <i>past</i>, for <i>passed</i>; <i>learnt</i>, for <i>learned</i>; <i>built</i>, for +<i>builded</i>. In modern poetry, however, the <i>e</i> is retained, tho +sounded no more than formerly.</p> + +<p><i>Ing</i> is derived from the verb to <i>be</i>, and signifies <i>being</i>, +<i>existing</i>; and, attached to a verb, is used as a noun, or adjective, +retaining so much of its former character as to +have an object after it which is affected by it; as, "I am +<i>writing</i> a lecture." Here <i>writing</i>, the present participle of +<i>write</i>, describes myself in my present employment, and yet +retains its action as a verb, and terminates on <i>lecture</i> as the +thing written. "The man was taken in the act of <i>stealing</i> +some money." In this case <i>stealing</i> names the action which +the man was performing when detected, which action thus +named, has <i>money</i> for the object on which it terminates.</p> + +<p>I barely allude to this subject in this place to give you +an idea of the method we adopt to explain the meaning and +use of participles. It deserves more attention, perhaps, to +make it plain to your minds; but as it is not an essential +feature in the new system, I shall leave it for consideration +in a future work. Whoever is acquainted with the formation +of the present participle in other languages, can carry +out the suggestions I have made, and fully comprehend my +meaning.</p> + +<p>I will present you with an example of the conjugations +of a few verbs which you are requested to compare with +the "<i>might could would should have been loved</i>" systems, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +which you were required to learn in former times. You +will find the verb in every <i>form</i> or position in which it ever +occurs in our language, written or spoken.</p> + +<p>Conjugation of the regular verb <span class="smcap">to love</span>.</p> + + +<h4>INDICATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Conjugation of To Love"> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'><i>Singular</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>love</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>love</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'>Present tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>lovest</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>love</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'>He, she, or it <i>loves</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'>They <i>love</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>loved</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>loved</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'>Past tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>lovedst</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>loved</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>He, she, or it <i>loved</i></td> + <td align='left'>They <i>loved</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Love.</i></p> + + +<h4>INFINITIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>To love.</i></p> + +<h5>PARTICIPLES.</h5> + +<p class="center">Present, <i>Loving</i><br /> +Past, <i>Loved</i></p> + +<p>The irregular verb <span class="smcap">to have</span>, is thus conjugated.</p> + + +<h4>INDICATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Conjugation of To Have"> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>have</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>have</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'>Present tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>hast</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>have</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'>He <i>has</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'>They <i>have</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>had</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>had</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'>Past tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>hadst</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>had</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>He <i>had</i></td> + <td align='left'>They <i>had</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Have.</i></p> + + +<h4>INFINITIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>To have.</i></p> + +<h5>PARTICIPLES.</h5> + +<p class="center">Present, <i>Having</i><br /> +Past, <i>Had</i></p> + +<p>The irregular verb <span class="smcap">to be</span>, stands thus:</p> + + +<h4>INDICATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Conjugation of To Be"> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>am</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>are</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Present tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>art</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>are</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'>He <i>is</i></td> + <td class="bottom1" align='left'>They <i>are</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I <i>was</i></td> + <td align='left'>We <i>were</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'>Past tense</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Thou <i>wast</i></td> + <td align='left'>You <i>were</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>He <i>was</i></td> + <td align='left'>They <i>were</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>IMPERATIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Be.</i></p> + + +<h4>INFINITIVE MOOD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>To be.</i></p> + +<h5>PARTICIPLES.</h5> + +<p class="center">Present, <i>Being</i><br /> +Past, <i>Been</i></p> + +<p>These examples will suffice to give you an idea of the +ease and simplicity of the construction of verbs, and by a +comparison with old systems, you can, for yourselves, determine +the superiority of the principles we advocate. The +above tabular views present every form which the verb assumes, +and every position in which it is found. In use, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +these words are frequently compounded +together;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> but with +a knowledge of the above principles, and the <i>meaning</i> of +the words—a most essential consideration—you will always +be able to analyze any sentence, and parse it correctly. I +have not time to enlarge on this point, to show how words +are connected together. Nor do I think it necessary to +enable you to understand my views. To children such a +work would be indispensable, and shall be attended to if we +are able to publish a grammar containing the simple principles +of language.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p>The indicative mood is varied four ways. 1st, affirmatively, +<i>he writes</i>; 2d, negatively, <i>he writes not</i>; 3d, interrogatively, +<i>does</i> he write? or <i>writes</i> he? 4th, suppositively, +if <i>he writes</i>, <i>suppose he writes</i>, allow <i>he writes</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>first</i> is a simple affirmation of a fact, and is easily +understood. The <i>second</i> is formed by annexing a term to +express negation. <i>Not</i> is a contraction from <i>nought</i> or +<i>naught</i>, which is a compound of <i>ne</i>, negative, and ought or +aught, <i>ne-aught</i>, meaning <i>no-thing</i>. <i>He writes not</i>; he +writes nothing. He does <i>not</i> write; he does <i>nothing</i> to +write. <i>Neither</i> is a compound of <i>ne</i> and <i>either</i>, <i>not either</i>. +He <i>can not</i> read; he <i>can</i>, <i>kens</i>, <i>knows nothing</i>, has no +ability <i>to read</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +The third is constructed into a question by placing the +verb before the agent, or by prefixing another word before +the agent, and then placing the former verb as an infinitive +after it; as, <i>Does</i> he write? or <i>writes</i> he? When another +verb is prefixed, one is always chosen which will best decide +the query. Does he <i>any thing</i> to write? Does he +make any motions or show any indications to write? When +the <i>will</i> or disposition of a person is concerned, we choose +a word accordingly. <i>Will</i> he write? Has he the <i>will</i> or +disposition to write? <i>Can</i> he write? Is he able—<i>knows</i> +he how to write? A little observation will enable you to +understand my meaning.</p> + +<p>In the fourth place, a supposition is made in the imperative +mood, in accordance with which the action is performed. +"<i>If</i> ye <i>love</i> me, keep my commandments." <i>Give</i>, <i>grant</i>, +<i>allow</i>, <i>suppose</i> this fact—you <i>love</i> me, keep my commandments. +I will go if I can. I <i>resolve</i>, <i>will</i>, or <i>determine</i> to +go; <i>if</i>, <i>gif</i>, <i>give</i>, grant, allow this fact, I <i>can</i>, <i>ken</i>, <i>know</i> +how, or <i>am</i> able <i>to go</i>. But more on this point when we +come to the consideration of contractions.</p> + +<p>In this mood the verb must have an agent and object, +expressed or implied; as, "<i>farmers</i> cultivate the <i>soil</i>." +But a whole sentence, that is, an idea written out, may perform +this duty; as, "The study of grammar, on false principles, +is productive of no good." What is productive of no +good? What is the agent of <i>is</i>? "The <i>study</i>," our books +and teachers tell us. But does such a construction give +the true meaning of the sentence? I think not, for <i>study</i> is +indispensable to knowledge and usefulness, and <i>the study</i> +of grammar, properly directed, is a most useful branch of +literature, which should never be dispensed with. It is the +study of grammar <i>on false principles</i>, which <i>is productive +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +of no good</i>. You discover my meaning, and will not question +its correctness. You must also see how erroneous it +would be to teach children that "<i>to study</i> is productive of +no good." The force of the sentence rests on the "false +principles" taught. Hence the whole statement is truly the +agent of the verb.</p> + +<p>The object on which the action terminates is frequently +expressed in a similar manner; as, "He wrote to me, that +he will adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure +some books to give his scholars to learn." Will you +parse <i>wrote</i>? Most grammarians will call it an <i>intransitive</i> +verb, and make out that "he wrote" <i>nothing</i> to me, because +there is no regular objective word after it. Will you parse +<i>that</i>? It is a "conjunction <i>copulative</i>." What does it connect? +"<i>He wrote</i>" to the following sentence, according to +Rule 18 of Mr. Murray; "conjunctions connect the <i>same</i> +moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns." +Unluckily you have two different tenses connected +in this case. Will you parse <i>if</i>? It is a <i>copulative</i> conjunction, +connecting the two members of the sentence—<i>he +will adopt</i> if <i>he can procure</i>: Rule, as above. How exceeding +unfortunate! You have <i>two</i> different moods, and +too different tenses, connected by a <i>copulative</i> conjunction +which the rule says "connects <i>the same</i> moods and tenses! +What nonsense! What a falsehood! What a fine thing +to be a grammarian! And yet, I venture the opinion, and +I judge from what I have seen in myself and others, there +is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn children +to parse as above, and apply the same rule to it. "I <i>will +go</i> if I <i>can</i>." "I <i>do</i> and <i>will</i> contend." "As it <i>was</i> in the +beginning, <i>is</i> now, <i>and</i> ever <i>shall be</i>." "I <i>am</i> here and <i>must</i> +remain." "He <i>will do</i> your business <i>if</i> he <i>has</i> time." "I +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +<i>am</i> resolved <i>to expose</i> the errors of grammar, <i>and will do</i> it +thoroly <i>if</i> I <i>can</i>."</p> + +<p>In these examples you have different moods and tenses, +indiscriminately, yet correctly coupled together, despite the +rules of syntax which teach us to explain language "with +propriety."</p> + +<p><i>That</i>, in the sentence before us, is an adjective, referring +to the following sentence, which is the <i>object</i> of <i>wrote</i>, or is +the thing written. "He wrote to me <i>that</i>" fact, sentiment, +opinion, determination, or resolution, that writing, letter, or +word—"he will adopt the new system of grammar, if he +can procure some books."</p> + +<p>This subject properly belongs to that department of language +called syntax; but as I shall not be able to treat of +that in this course of lectures, I throw in here these brief +remarks to give you some general ideas of the arrangement +of words into sentences, according to their true meaning, as +obtained from a knowledge of their etymology. You cannot +fail to observe this method of constructing language if +you will pay a little attention to it when reading; keeping +all the time in view the fact that words are only the signs +of ideas, derived from an observation of things. You all +know that it is not merely the steam that propels the boat, +but that it is steam <i>applied to machinery</i>. Steam is the +more latent cause; and the engine with its complicated +parts is the direct means. In the absence of either, the boat +would not be propelled. In the formation of language, I +may say correctly, "Solomon <i>built</i> the temple;" for he +stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it would +not have been built without his direction and command. +To accomplish such an action, however, he need not raise +a hammer or a gavel, or draw a line on the trestle board. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +His command made known to his ministers was sufficient to +<i>cause</i> the work to be done. Hence the whole fact is <i>indicated</i> +or declared by the single expression, "Solomon <i>built</i> +the temple."</p> + +<p>The Imperative mood is unchanged in form. I can say +to one man, <i>go</i>, or to a thousand, <i>go</i>. The commander +when drilling <i>one</i> soldier, says, <i>march</i>; and he bids the +whole battalion, <i>march</i>. The agent who is <i>to perform</i> the +action is understood when not expressed; as, <i>go</i>, <i>go thou</i>, +or <i>go you</i>. The agent is generally omitted, because the address +is given direct to the person who is expected to obey +the instruction, request, or command. This verb always +agrees with an agent in the <i>second</i> person. And yet our +"grammars made easy" have given us <i>three persons</i> in this +mood—"<i>Let me love</i>; <i>love</i>, <i>love thou</i>, or <i>do</i> thou <i>love</i>; let +him love." In the name of common sense, I ask, what can +children learn by such instruction? "<i>Let me love</i>," in the +conjugation of the verb <i>to love</i>! To whom is this command +given? To <i>myself</i> of course! I command myself to "<i>let +me love</i>!" What nonsense! "Let <i>him</i> love." I stand +here, you set there, and the <i>third</i> person is in Philadelphia. +I utter these words, "Let <i>him love</i>." What is my +meaning? Why, our books tell us, that the verb to <i>love</i> is +<i>third</i> person. Then I command <i>him</i> to <i>let himself love</i>! +What jargon and falsehood! You all know that we can +address the <i>second</i> person only. You would call me insane +if I should employ language according to the rules of grammar +as laid down in the standard books. In my room +alone, no person near me, I cry out, "<i>let me be quiet</i>"—imperative +mood, first person of <i>to be</i>! Do I command myself +to <i>let</i> myself <i>be</i> quiet? Most certainly, if <i>be</i> is the principal +verb in the first person, and <i>let</i> the auxiliary. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a +classmate who sets near him. He says, "<i>let him have it</i>." +To whom is the command given? It is the imperative +mood, third person of the verb <i>to have</i>. Does he command +the third person, the boy who <i>has</i> not the pencil? Such is +the resolution of the sentence, according to the authority of +standard grammars. But where is there a child five years +old who does not know better. Every body knows that he +addresses the second person, the boy who has the pencil, to +<i>let</i> the other <i>have</i> it.</p> + +<p>Teachers have learned their scholars the <i>first</i> and <i>third</i> +persons of this mood when committing the conjugation of +verbs; but not one in ten thousand ever adopted them in +parsing. "<i>Let me love.</i>" <i>Let</i>, all parse, Mr. Murray not +excepted, in the <i>second</i> person, and <i>love</i> in the infinitive +mood after it, without the sign <i>to</i>; according to the rule, +that "verbs which follow <i>bid</i>, <i>dare</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>hear</i>, <i>let</i>, <i>needs</i>, +<i>speak</i>," etc. are in the infinitive mood. It is strange people +will not eat their own cooking.</p> + +<p>There can be no trouble in understanding this mood, as +we have explained it, always in the future tense, that is, +future to the command or request, agreeing with the <i>second</i> +person, and never varied on account of number.</p> + +<p>The only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission +of <i>to</i> in certain cases, which is considered as a part of the +verb; tho in truth it is no more so than when used in the +character of an old fashioned preposition. In certain cases, +as we have before observed, it is not expressed. This is +when the infinitive verb follows small words in frequent use; +as, shall, will, let, can, must, may, bid, do, have, make, feel, +hear, etc.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +This mood is always in the future tense; that is, it is future +to the circumstances or condition of things upon which +it depends; as, they are making preparations <i>to raise</i> the +building. Here <i>to raise</i> is future to the preparations, for if +they make no preparations, the buildings will not be raised. +The boy studies his book <i>to learn</i> his lesson. If he does +not study, he will not be likely <i>to learn</i> his lesson.</p> + +<p>The allied powers of Europe combined their forces <i>to +defeat</i> Napoleon. In this instance the whole expression is +in the past tense; nevertheless, the action expressed in the +infinitive mood, <i>was future</i> to the circumstance on which it +depended; that is, the <i>defeat</i> was <i>future</i> to the <i>combination</i> +of the forces. Abraham raised the knife <i>to slay</i> his son. +Not that he did <i>slay</i> him, as that sentence must be explained +on the common systems, which teach us that <i>to slay</i> is +in the <i>present tense</i>; but he raised the fatal knife for that +purpose, the fulfilment of which was future; but the angel +staid his hand, and averted the blow. The patriots of Poland +<i>made</i> a noble attempt <i>to gain</i> their liberty. But they +did not <i>gain it</i>, as our grammars would teach us. <i>To gain</i> +was future to the attempt, and failed because the circumstances +<i>indicated</i> by the event, were insufficient to produce +so favorable a result.</p> + +<p>No person of common discernment can fail to observe +the absolute falsehood of existing systems in respect to this +mood. It is used by our authors of grammar in the <i>present</i> +and <i>past</i> tenses, but never in the <i>future</i>. Let us give a +moment to the consideration of this matter. Take the following +example. He <i>will prepare</i> himself next week <i>to go</i> +to Europe. Let the school master parse <i>will prepare</i>. It +is a verb, indicative mood, <i>first future</i> tense. <i>Next week</i> is +the point in futurity when the <i>preparation</i> will be <i>made</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +Now parse <i>to go</i>. It is a verb, infinitive mood, <i>present +tense</i>! Then <i>he</i> is already on his way to Europe, when +he is not <i>to prepare</i> himself till next week! An army is +collected <i>to fight</i> the enemy. Is the fight already commenced? +<i>To fight</i> is present tense, say the books. We shall +study grammar next year, <i>to obtain</i> a knowledge of the +principles and use of language. Is <i>to obtain</i> present tense? +If so there is little need of spending time and money to study +for a knowledge we <i>already possess</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Hope springs eternal in the human breast;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Man never <i>is</i>, but always <span class="smcap">to be</span> blest."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Pope.</i></p></div> + +<p>"Who <i>was</i>, and who <i>is</i>, and who <i>is</i> <span class="smcap">to come</span>."—<i>Bible.</i> It +is not that a man thinks himself already in possession of a +sufficiency, but hopes <span class="smcap">to be</span> qualified, etc.</p> + +<p>I <i>am to go</i> in an hour. He <i>is to go</i> to-morrow. I <i>am</i> +ready <i>to hear</i> you recite your lesson. He <i>has been waiting</i> +a long time <i>to see</i> if some new principles will not be introduced. +He is prepared <i>to appear</i> before you whenever you +shall direct. We <i>are</i> resolved <i>to employ</i> neuter verbs, potential +and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, and +second future tenses, no longer. False grammars <i>are</i> only +fit-<i>ted to be</i> laid aside. We are in duty bound <i>to regard</i> +and <i>adopt</i> truth, and <i>reject</i> error; and we <i>are</i> determined <i>to +do</i> it in grammar, and every thing else.</p> + +<p>We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend +grammar, as usually taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to +make error appear like truth, or false teaching like sound +sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. The hints I +have given must suffice.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +Much more might be said upon the character and use of +verbs; but as these lectures are not designed for <i>a system</i> +of grammar <i>to be taught</i>, but to expose the errors of existing +systems, and prepare the way for a more rational and consistent +exposition of language, I shall leave this department +of our subject, presuming you will be able to comprehend +our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been +somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief +than we should have been, had we not found that we were +claiming too much of the time of the Institute, which is designed +as a means of improvement on general subjects. +Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if you +were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is +so intricate and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from +the fact that the theories by which it is taught are false in +principle, and can not be adopted in practice; and that +something ought to be done to make the study of language +easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here attempted; +but it remains with the public to say whether +these plain philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, +perfected, and adopted in schools, or the old roundabout +course of useless and ineffectual teaching be still +preserved.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_XIV" id="LECTURE_XIV"></a>LECTURE XIV.</h2> + +<h3>ON CONTRACTIONS.</h3> + +<div class="summary"><p>A temporary expedient. — Words not understood. — All words must +have a meaning. — Their formation. — Changes of meaning and +form. — Should be observed. — <span class="smcap">Adverbs</span>. — Ending in +<i>ly</i>. — Examples. — Ago. — Astray. — Awake. +— Asleep. — Then, when. — There, +where, here. — While, till. — Whether, together. — Ever, never, +whenever, etc. — Oft. — Hence. — Perhaps. — Not. +— Or. — Nor. — Than. — As. — So. — +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: Table of Contents lists 'Conjunctions' in place of this topic">Distinctions +false</ins>. — Rule 18. — If. — But. — Tho. — Yet.</p></div> + + +<p>We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions +of words. Things <i>named</i>, <i>defined</i> and <i>described</i>, and +their <i>actions</i>, <i>relations</i>, and <i>tendencies</i>, have been considered +under the classes of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To +these classes all words belong when properly explained; a +fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in all your +attempts to understand and employ language. But there +are many words in our language as well as most others, +which are so altered and disguised that their meaning is not +easily comprehended. Of course they are difficult of explanation. +These words we have classed under the head +of <i>Contractions</i>, a term better calculated than any other we +have seen adopted to express their character. We do not +however lay any stress on the appropriateness of this appellation, +but adopt it as a temporary expedient, till these +words shall be better understood. They will then be ranked +in their proper places among the classes already noticed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +Under this head may be considered the words usually +known as "adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." +That the etymology and meaning of these words +have not been generally understood will be conceded, I presume, +on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only reason +why they have been considered under these different heads, +for in numberless cases there is nothing in their import to +correspond with such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses +some <i>quality</i> or circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, +or other adverb;" why "a conjunction is chiefly +used to connect sentences, so as out of <i>two</i> to make only <i>one</i> +sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words +with one another, and show the relation between them," has +never been explained. They have been <i>passed over</i> with +little difficulty by teachers, having been furnished with lists +of words in each "part of speech," which they require their +pupils to commit to memory, and "for ever after hold +their peace" concerning them. But that these words have +been defined or explained in a way to be understood will +not be pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is +contended that such explanation is not essential to their +proper and elegant use. If such is the fact, we may easily +account for the incorrect use of language, and exonerate +children from the labor of studying etymology.</p> + +<p>But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important +rank in the expression of ideas. They are, generally, +abbreviated, compounded, and so disguised that their +origin and formation are not generally known. Horne +Tooke calls them "the <i>wheels</i> of language, the <i>wings</i> of +Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along +without them, it would be with much difficulty, very heavily +and tediously." But when he undertakes to show that they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +were <i>constructed</i> for this object, he mistakes their true character; +for they were not invented for that purpose, but +were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which +they have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit +this fact when he says,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +"<i>abbreviation</i> and <i>corruption</i> are +always busiest with the words which are most frequently +in use. Letters, like soldiers, being very apt to desert and +drop off in a long march, and especially if their passage +happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country."</p> + +<p>In the original construction of language a set of literary +men did not get together and manufacture a lot of words, +finished thro out and exactly adapted to the expression of +thought. Had that been the case, language would doubtless +have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, and formal +dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty +figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is +the mother of invention. It was not until people had <i>ideas</i> +to communicate, that they sought a medium for the transmission +of thought from one to another; and then such +sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their +purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton +mill, every part completed before it was set in operation. +Single expressions, <i>sign</i>-ificant of things, or <i>ideas</i> of <i>things</i> +and <i>actions</i>, were first employed, in the most simple, plain, +and easy manner.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> +As the human mind advanced in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +knowledge, by observing the character, relations, and differences +of things, words were changed, altered, compounded, +and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; +just as many simple parts of a machine, operating +on perfect and distinct principles, may be combined together +and form a most complicated, curious, and powerful engine, +of astonishing power, and great utility. In the adaptation +of steam to locomotives, the principles on which stationary +engines operated were somewhat modified. Some wheels, +shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different +kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, +and the engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen +traversing the road with immense rapidity. The principles +of the former engine, so far from being unessential, were +indispensable to the construction of the new one, and should +be clearly understood by him who would build or <i>use</i> the +latter. So, in the formation of language, simple <i>first</i> principles +must be observed and traced thro all their ramifications, +by those who would obtain a clear and thoro knowledge +of it, or "read and write it with propriety."</p> + +<p>In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, form the basis on which +that interesting science depends. The modifications of these +rules, according to their various capabilities, will give a +complete knowledge of all that can be known of numbers, +relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may aspire, +tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +are equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as +well understood. But the difficulty under which we labor +in this department of science, is the paucity of <i>means</i> to +trace back to their <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original text reads 'orignal'">original</ins> +form and meaning many words +and phrases in common use among us. Language has been +employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, +and in that long space has undergone many and strange +modifications. At the dispersion from Babel, and the +"confusion of tongues" occasioned thereby, people were +thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick up by +piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a +system, and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, +pestilence, and famine, as well as commerce, enterprize, +literature, and religion, brought the different nations into +intercourse with each other; and changes were thus produced +in the languages of such people. Whoever will take +the trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by +those nations whose affairs, civil, political, and religious, are +most intimately allied, will be convinced of the correctness +of the sentiment now advanced.</p> + +<p>In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their +form, but in a measure their meaning, so as to correspond +with the ideas of those who use them. Some would become +obsolete, and others be adopted in their stead. Many words +are found in the Bible which are not in common use; and +the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have +been changed in that book, since it was translated and first +published in 1610. With these examples you are familiar, +and I shall be spared the necessity of quoting them. I have +already made some extracts from old writers, and may have +occasion to do so again before I close this lecture.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +The words which we class under the head of Contractions, +are so altered and disguised in their appearance, that +their etymology and connexion are not generally understood. +It may appear like pedantry in me to attempt an investigation +into their origin and meaning. But to avoid that +charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my +inability to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation +of all the words which belong to this class. I +will be candid, if I am not successful. But I think most of +the words long considered difficult, may be easily explained; +enough to convince you of the feasibility of the ground we +have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the +subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of +words.</p> + +<p>But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort +left, that I am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, +with few exceptions, has done any thing like justice +to this subject. Our common grammars have not even +attempted an inquiry into the <i>meaning</i> of these words, but +have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like +pens or reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are +thrown, and allowed to rest, only to be named, without being +disturbed. Sometimes, however, they are found in one +enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, I apprehend, +than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain +circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as +"adjectives," and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or +"prepositions;" and not unfrequently the whole go off together, +like the tail of the dragon, drawing other respectable +words along with them, under the sweeping cognomen +of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, +Can you write your lesson? <i>Not yet quite well enough.</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +"<i>But and if</i> that evil +servant,"<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> +etc. Mr. Murray says, +"the same word is occasionally used <i>both as</i> a conjunction +<i>and as</i> an adverb, and sometimes <i>as</i> a preposition.</p> + +<p>Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be +ferreted out from the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; +or have their dismembered parts restored to them, +they will then appear in their true character, and their connexion +with other words will be found regular and easy. Until +such work is accomplished, they may as well be called +contractions, for such they <i>mostly</i> are, as adverbs or any +thing else; for that appellation we regard as more appropriate +than any other.</p> + +<p>In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor +to be guided by sound philosophic principles and the light +of patient investigation; and whatever advances we may +make shall be in strict accordance with the true and practical +use of these words.</p> + +<p>Let us begin with <i>Adverbs</i>.</p> + +<p>I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes +into which grammarians have fallen in their attempts +to explain this "part of speech." Mr. Murray says they +"seem originally to have been <i>contrived</i> to express compendiously +in <i>one word</i>, what must <i>otherwise</i> have required two +or more; as, "he acted <i>wisely</i>." They could have been +"<i>contrived</i>" for no such purpose, for we have already seen +that they are made up of various words combined together, +which are used to express relation, to define or describe +other things. Take the very example Mr. M. has given. +<i>Wisely</i> is made up of two words; <i>wise</i> and <i>like</i>. "He acted +wisely," wise-like. What did he <i>act</i>? <i>Wisely</i>, we are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +taught, expresses the "<i>manner</i> or quality" of the verb <i>act</i>. +But <i>act</i>, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and +<i>wisely</i> expresses the <i>manner of action</i> where there is none! +But he must have <i>acted something</i> which was <i>wise</i> like something +else. What did he act? If he produced no <i>actions</i>, +how can it be known that he <i>acted</i> wisely or unwisely? +<i>Action</i> or <i>acts</i> is the direct object of to <i>act</i>. Hence the sentence +fully stated would stand thus: "He acted <i>acts</i> or <i>actions</i> +like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears +aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We +have modified, improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all +of our expressions, as we have previously observed, to suit +the fashions and customs of the age in which we live; the +same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with the +latest fashions.</p> + +<p>"The bird sings <i>sweetly</i>." The bird sings <i>songs</i>, <i>notes</i>, +or <i>tunes</i>, <i>like sweet notes</i>, <i>tunes,</i> or <i>songs</i>. The comparison +here made, is not in reference to the agent or action, but the +<i>object</i> of the action; and this explains the whole theory of +those <i>adverbs</i>, which are said to "qualify manner" of action. +We have already seen that no <i>action</i>, as such, can +exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the <i>thing</i> +or <i>agent</i> which <i>acts</i>; and such action can only be determined +by the <i>changed</i> or altered condition of something +which is the <i>object</i> of such action. How then, can any +word, in truth, or in thought, be known to <i>qualify</i> the action, +as distinct from the object or agent? And if it does not in +<i>fact</i>, how can we explain words to children, or to our own +minds, so as to understand what is not true?</p> + +<p>Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing +one thing by its relation or likeness to another, and as +such, admit of comparison; as, a likely man, a <i>very</i> likely +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +man, a likelier, and the <i>likeliest</i> man. "He is the <i>most +likely</i> pedlar I ever knew." "He is <i>more liable</i> to be deceived." +"A <i>lively</i> little fellow." "He is worthless." +He is worth less, <i>less worthy</i> of respect and confidence. "He +writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words +<i>like very correct</i> letters. But I need not enlarge. You +have only to bear in mind the fact, that <i>ly</i> is a contraction +of <i>like</i>, which is often retained in many words; as god<i>like</i>, +christian<i>like</i>, etc., and search for a definition accordingly; +and you will find no trouble in disposing of a large portion +of this adverb family.</p> + +<p>It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by +all who still adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs +<i>qualify neuter</i> as well as active verbs, and express the <i>quality</i> +or <i>manner of action</i>, where there is none! Adverbs express +"manner of action" in a neuter verb! When a person +starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest +course is to return back and start again.</p> + +<p>Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying from +<i>eleven</i> to <i>seventy-two</i>, to suit the fancies of those who have +only observed the nice shades of form which these words +have assumed. But a bonnet is a bonnet, let its shape, +form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on as +many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; +it is a bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it +a <i>bonnet</i>, and talk about its <i>appendages</i>. But when it is +constructed into something else, then we will give it a new +name.</p> + +<p>Adjectives, we have said, are <i>derived</i> from either nouns +or verbs, and we now contend that the words formerly regarded +as adverbs are either adjectives, nouns, or verbs. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +In defence of this sentiment we will adduce a few words in +this place for examples.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ago.</span> "Three years <i>ago</i>, we dwelt in the country." +This word is a past participle from the verb <i>ago</i>, meaning +the same as <i>gone</i> or <i>agone</i>, and was so used a few centuries +<i>ago</i>—<i>agone</i>, or <i>gone by</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">God wotte, worldly ioye is soone <i>ago</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"For if it erst was well, tho was it bet<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Ago</i> was euery sorowe and euery fere."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Troylus, boke 3, p. 2.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Of such examples as I finde<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Upon this point of tyme <i>agone</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0">I thinke for to tellen one."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Gower</i>, lib. 5, p. 1.</p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Which is no more than has been done<br /></span> +<span class="i0">By knights for ladies, long <i>agone</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Hudibras.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Twenty years <i>agone</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Tillotson's sermon.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Are all <i>the go</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Knickerbocker.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Astray.</span> "They went astray." <i>Astrayed</i>, wandered +or were scattered, and of course soon became <i>estranged</i> +from each other. Farmers all know what it is for cattle +to <i>stray</i> from home; and many parents have felt the keen +pangs of sorrow when their sons <i>strayed</i> from the paths of +virtue. In that condition they are <i>astray-ed</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"This prest was drank and goth <i>astrayede</i>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Achab to the bottle went.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When Benedad for all his shelde<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Him slough, so that upon the felde<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His people goth aboute <i>astraie</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Gower.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Awake.</span> "He is <i>awake</i>." "Samson <i>awaked</i> out of his +sleep." "That I may <i>awake</i> him out of sleep." "It is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +high time to <i>awake</i>." "As a man that is <i>wakened</i> out of +sleep." The Irish hold <i>a wake</i>—they do not sleep the night +after the loss of friends.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asleep.</span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"When that pyte, which longe <i>on sleep</i> doth tary<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ful sound <i>on sleep</i> did caucht thare rest be kind."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Douglas</i>, b. 9, p. 283.</p></div> + +<p>"In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all +quenchyd and <i>in sleepe</i>."—<i>Fabian.</i></p> + +<p>A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, +which, from their frequent recurrence, are used without +their usual connexion with small words. The letter <i>a</i> is +compounded with many of these words, which may have +been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaning +<i>on</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>in</i>, as it is used in the french and some other languages. +You often hear expressions like these, "he is <i>a</i>-going; +he is <i>a</i>-writing; he began <i>a</i>-new," etc. The old +adverbs which take this letter, you can easily analyze; as, +"The house is <i>a</i>-fire"—on fire; "He fell <i>a</i>-sleep"—he fell +<i>on</i> sleep. "When deep sleep falleth on men."—<i>Job.</i> +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">"He</ins> +stept <i>a</i>-side"—on one side. "He came <i>a</i>-board"—on board. +"They put it <i>a</i>-foot"—on foot. "He went <i>a</i>-way"—a way, +followed some <i>course</i>, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all +the <i>go</i> now <i>a</i>-days," etc.</p> + +<p>The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology +of these words:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And al thare schyppis and navy set <i>in fire</i>."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Douglas</i>, b. 9, p. 274.</p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +<span class="i0">"Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with <i>ane</i> swak,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Now bendis he up his bourdon with <i>ane</i> mynt,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>On side</i> (a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Idem.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"That easter fire and flame aboute<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Both at mouth and at nase<br /></span> +<span class="i0">So that thei setten all <i>on blaze</i>," (ablaze.)<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Gower.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"And tyl a wicked deth him take<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Him had</i> leuer <i>asondre</i> (a-sunder) shake<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And let al his lymmes <i>asondre</i> ryue<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thane leaue his richesse in his lyue."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer.</i></p></div> + +<p>Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite +length. But the above will suffice to give you an idea of +the former use of these words, and also, by comparison with +the present, of the changes which have taken place in the +method of spelling within a few centuries.</p> + +<p>A large portion of adverbs relate to <i>time</i> and <i>place</i>, because +many of our ideas, and much of our language, are +employed in reference to them; as, <i>then</i>, <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>there</i>, +<i>here</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>whence</i>, <i>thence</i>, <i>while</i>, <i>till</i>, <i>whether</i>, etc. These +are compound words considerably disguised in their meaning +and formation. Let us briefly notice some of them.</p> + +<p><i>Per annum</i> is a latin phrase, <i>for the year</i>, a <i>year</i>; and +<i>the annum</i> is <i>the year</i>, <i>round</i> or <i>period</i> of time, from which +it was corrupted gradually into its present shape. <i>Thanne</i>, +tha anne, <i>thane</i>, <i>thenne</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>than</i>, are different forms of the +same word.</p> + +<p>"We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, +face to face. Nowe I know of partye; <i>thanne</i> forsathe +schal know as I am knowen."—1. Cor. 13: 12. +<i>Translation in 1350.</i></p> + +<p>I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which +stands thus: "For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: +but <i>thene</i> face to face: now I know in part: but <i>then</i> shal +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +I know even as I am knowen." Here several words are +spelled differently in the same verse.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Then</span>, <i>the anne</i>, that time. +<span class="smcap">When</span>, <i>wha anne</i>, "<i>wha-icht-anne</i>," +which, or what <i>anne</i>, period of time.</p> + +<p><i>Area</i> means an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or +place. Arena is from the same etymon, altered in application. +<span class="smcap">There</span>, <i>the area</i>, the <i>place</i> or <i>spot</i>. "If we go <i>there</i>," +to that place. <span class="smcap">Where</span>, which, or what ("wha-icht area") +place. <span class="smcap">Here</span>, <i>his</i> (latin word for <i>this</i>,) <i>area</i>, this place. +These words refer to <i>place</i>, <i>state</i>, or <i>condition</i>.</p> + +<p><i>While</i> is another spelling for <i>wheel</i>. "To while away +our time," is to <i>pass</i>, spend, or <i>wheel</i> it away. <i>While</i> applies +to the <i>period</i>, or space of time, in which something +<i>wheels</i>, <i>whirls</i>, <i>turns</i> round, or transpires; as, "You had +better remain here <i>while</i> (during the time) he examines +whether it is prudent for you to go."</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Till</span> is <i>to while</i>, to the <i>period</i> at which something is expected +to follow. "If I will that he tarry <i>till</i> (to the time) +I come what is that to thee?"</p> + +<p>The idea of <i>time</i> and <i>place</i> are often blended together. +It is not uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in +some parts of our country say "down <i>till</i> the bottom, over +<i>till</i> the woods." etc. Altho we do not regard such expressions +correct, yet they serve to explain the meaning of the +word. The only mistake is in applying it to <i>place</i> instead +of <i>time</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whether</span> is <i>which either</i>. "Shew <i>whether</i> of these <i>two</i> +thou hast chosen."—<i>Acts 1: 24.</i> It is more frequently applied +in modern times to circumstance and events <i>than to</i> +persons and things. "I will let you know <i>whether</i> I <i>will</i> +or <i>will not</i> adopt it," one or the other.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Together</span> signifies two or more united. <i>Gethered</i> is the +past participle of <i>gather</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">"As</ins> + Mailie, an' her lambs <i>thegither</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Were ae day nibbling on the tether."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Burns.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ever</span> means <i>time</i>, <i>age</i>, <i>period</i>. It originally and essentially +signified <i>life</i>. <i>For ever</i> is for the age or period. <i>For +ever</i> and <i>ever</i>, to the ages of ages. <i>Ever-lasting</i> is <i>age-lasting</i>. +Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Never</span>, <i>ne-ever</i>, <i>not ever</i>, at no time, age or period.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">When-ever.</span>—At what point or space of <i>time</i> or <i>age</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">What-ever.</span>—What thing, fact, circumstance, or event.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Where-ever.</span>—To, at, or in what place, period, age, or +time.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whither-so-ever</span>, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, +never-the-less, etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning +will appear obvious to all.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oft</span>, <i>often</i>, <i>oft-times</i>, often-<i>times</i>, can be understood by +all, because the noun to which they belong is <i>oft-en</i> retained +in practice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Once</span>, twice, at one time, two times.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hence</span>, <i>thence</i>, <i>whence</i>, from <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, or <i>what</i>, place, +spot, circumstance, post, or starting place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hence-for-ward</span>, <i>hence-forth</i>, in time <i>to come</i>, after this +period.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Here-after</span>, after this <i>era</i>, or present time.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hither</span>, to this spot or place. <i>Thither</i>, to that place. +<i>Hither-to</i>, <i>hither-ward</i>, etc. the same as <i>to you ward</i>, or to +God ward, still retained in our bibles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Per-haps</span>, it may hap. <i>Perchance</i>, <i>peradventure</i>, by +chance, by adventure. The latin <i>per</i> means <i>by</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Not</span>, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound of +<i>ne</i> and <i>ought</i> or <i>a</i>ught.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Or</span> is a contraction from other, and <i>nor</i> from <i>ne-or</i>, no-or, +no other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">No-wise</span>, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another +way or manner, you must go.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Than</span>, <i>the ane</i>, the one, that one, alluding to a particular +object with which a comparison is made; as, This book is +larger <i>than</i> that bible. That <i>one</i> bible, this book is larger. +It is always used with the comparative degree, to define +particularly the object with which the comparison is made. +Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often bestowed +regardless of merit, talent is better.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> is an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, +that, these, the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first +kind. You practice <i>as</i> you have been taught—<i>the same +duties</i> or <i>principles</i> understood. We use language <i>as</i> we +have learned it; in <i>the same</i> way or manner. It is often +associated with other words to particularly specify the way, +manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. +I can go <i>as well as</i> you. In <i>the same well</i>, easy, convenient +way or manner you can go, I can go in <i>the same</i> way. He +was <i>as</i> learned, <i>as</i> pious, <i>as</i> benevolent, <i>as</i> brave, <i>as</i> faithful, +<i>as</i> ardent. These are purely adjectives, used to denote the +degree of the likeness or similarity between the things compared. +Secondary words are often added to this, to aid the +distinction or definition; as, (<i>the same</i> illustrated,) He is <i>just +as willing</i>. I am <i>quite as well</i> pleased without it. <i>As</i>, like +many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, +in which case it was formerly parsed by Murray +himself <i>as</i> (like, or the same) a relative pronoun; as, "And +indeed it seldom at any period extends to the tip, <i>as happens</i> +in acute diseases."—<i>Dr. Sweetster.</i> "The ground I have +assumed is tenable, <i>as will appear</i>."—<i>Webster.</i> +"Bona<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>parte +had a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris +is France, <i>as has</i> often been observed."—<i>Channing.</i> "The +words are such <i>as seem</i>."—<i>Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">So</span> has nearly the same signification as the word last +noticed, and is frequently used along with it, to define +the other member of the comparison. <i>As</i> far <i>as</i> I can understand, +<i>so</i> far I approve. <i>As</i> he directed, <i>so</i> I obeyed. +It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; as, "In pious +and benevolent offices <i>so</i> simple, <i>so</i> minute, <i>so</i> steady, <i>so</i> +habitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a course +<i>so</i> unvarying."—<i>Channing.</i></p> + +<p>These words are the most important of any small ones in +our vocabulary, because (<i>for this cause</i>, be this the cause, +this is the cause) they are the most frequently used; and +yet there are no words <i>so</i> little understood, or <i>so</i> much +abused by grammarians, <i>as</i> these are.</p> + +<p>We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of +speech. "Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech +void of signification, but so formed as to help signification, +by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant +sentence." Mr. Harris gives about forty "species." +Murray admits of only the <i>dis</i>-junctive and copulative, and +reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But what +is meant by a <i>dis</i>-junctive <i>con</i>-junctive word, is left for you +to determine. It must be in keeping with <i>in</i>definite <i>defining</i> +articles, and <i>post</i>-positive <i>pre</i>-positions. He says, "it joins +words, but disjoins the +sense."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +And what is a <i>word</i> with out +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +<i>sense</i>," pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," +how, in the name of reason, can you give the sign and separate +the sense? You can as well separate the shadow from +the substance, or a quality from matter.</p> + +<p>We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use +of conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. +"As it <i>was</i> in the beginning, <i>is</i> now, <i>and</i> ever <i>shall +be</i>."—<i>Common Prayer.</i> "What I <i>do</i>, <i>have done,</i> or <i>may</i> hereafter +<i>do</i>, <i>has been</i>, and <i>will</i> always <i>be</i> matter of inclination, +the gratifying of which <i>pays</i> itself: and I <i>have</i> no more merit +in employing my time and money in the way I <i>am known</i> +to do, than another has in other occupations."—<i>Howard.</i></p> + +<p>The following examples must suffice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">If.</span> This word is derived from the saxon <i>gifan</i>, and was +formerly written <i>giff</i>, <i>gyff</i>, <i>gif</i>, <i>geve</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>yiff</i>, <i>yef</i>, <i>yeve</i>. It +signifies <i>give</i>, <i>grant</i>, <i>allow</i>, <i>suppose</i>, <i>admit</i>, and is always a +verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence +or idea for its object. "<i>If</i> a pound of sugar cost ten cents, +what will ten pounds cost?" <i>Give</i>, grant, allow, suppose, +(the fact,) <i>one pound cost</i>, etc. In this case the supposition +which stands as a predicate—<i>one pound of sugar cost ten +cents</i>, is the object of <i>if</i>—the thing to be allowed, supposed, +or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost of +<i>ten</i> pounds is to be drawn.</p> + +<p>"He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, +(the fact,) he has the means, he will assist us.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Gif</i> luf be vertew, than is it leful thing;<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Gif</i> it be vice, it is your undoing."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Douglas</i> p. 95.</p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ne I ne wol non reherce, <i>yef</i> that I may."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Chaucer.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"She was so charitable and so pytous<br /></span> +<span class="i0">She wolde wepe <i>yf that</i> she sawe a mous<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Caught in a trappe, <i>if</i> it were deed or bledde."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Prioresse.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +<span class="i0">"O haste and come to my master dear."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Gin</i> ye be Barbara Allen."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Burns.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">But.</span> This word has two opposite significations. It is +derived from two different radicals. <i>But</i>, from the saxon +<i>be</i> and <i>utan</i>, <i>out</i>, means <i>be out</i>, <i>leave out</i>, <i>save</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>omit</i>, as, +"all <i>but</i> one are here." <i>Leave out</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>one</i>, all are here.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Heaven from all creation hides the book of fate<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All <i>but</i> (<i>save</i>, <i>except</i>) the page prescribed our present state."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"When nought <i>but</i> (<i>leave out</i>) the <i>torrent</i> is heard on the hill,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And nought <i>but</i> (<i>save</i>) the nightingale's <i>song</i> in the grove."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>"Nothing <i>but fear</i> restrains him." In these cases the +direct <i>objects</i> of the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed.</p> + +<p><i>But</i> is also derived from <i>botan</i>, which signifies <i>to add</i>, +<i>superadd</i>, <i>join</i> or <i>unite</i>; as, in the old form of a deed, "it +is <i>butted</i> and bounded as follows." Two animals <i>butt</i> their +heads together. The <i>butt</i> of a log is that end which was +<i>joined</i> to the stump. A <i>butt</i>, <i>butment</i> or <i>a-butment</i> is the +joined end, where there is a connexion with something else. +A <i>butt</i> of ridicule is an object to which ridicule is attached.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original lacks "">"Not</ins> +only saw he all that was,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>But</i> (<i>add</i>) <i>much</i> that never came to pass."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>M'Fingal.</i></p></div> + +<p><i>To button</i>, <i>butt-on</i>, is derived from the same word, to join +one side to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly +spelled <i>botan</i>, <i>boote</i>, <i>bote</i>, <i>bot</i>, <i>butte</i>, <i>bute</i>, <i>but</i>. It is still +spelled <i>boot</i> in certain cases as a verb; as,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"What <i>boots it</i> thee to fly from pole to pole,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>If</i> thou, O man, a stranger art at home?"<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Grainger.</i></p></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"If love had <i>booted</i> care or cost."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and +received fifty dollars to <i>boot</i>; <i>to add</i> to his property, and +make the exchange equal.</p> + +<p><i>Let</i> presents the same construction in form and meaning +as <i>but</i>, for it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. +It means sometimes to <i>permit</i> or <i>allow</i>; as, <i>let</i> +me go; <i>let</i> me have it; and to <i>hinder</i> or <i>prevent</i>; as, "I +proposed to come unto you, <i>but</i> (add this fact) I was <i>let</i> +hitherto."—<i>Rom. 1: 13.</i> "He who now <i>letteth</i>, will <i>let</i> +until he be taken out of the way."—<i>2 Thess. 2: 7.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">And</span> is a past participle signifying <i>added</i>, <i>one-ed</i>, <i>joined</i>. +It was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, +David, <i>and</i>, (<i>united to-</i>gether<i>-ed</i>,) go to school." We now +place it <i>before</i> the last word.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tho</span>, <i>altho</i>, <i>yet</i>. "Tho (<i>admit</i>, <i>allow</i>, <i>the fact</i>) he slay +me, yet (<i>get</i>, <i>have</i>, <i>know</i>, <i>the fact</i>) I will trust in him." <i>Yes</i> +is from the same word as <i>yet</i>. It means <i>get</i> or <i>have</i> my +consent to the question asked. <i>Nay</i> is the opposite of <i>yes</i>, +<i>ne</i>-aye, nay, no. The <i>ayes</i> and <i>noes</i> were called for.</p> + +<p>I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned +me have been overrun already. What light may have been +afforded you in relation to these words, will enable you to +discover that they have <i>meaning</i> which must be learned before +they can be explained correctly; that done, all difficulty +is removed.</p> + +<p>Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part +of language, but may be used by beasts and birds as well +as by men. They are indistinct utterances of emotions, +which come not within the range of human speech.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, +revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High +School, as a correct system of teaching practical orthography.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"> +</a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> +Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the +science of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho +the doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false—which +is quite doubtful—or receive extensive modifications, yet the consequences +to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. The +very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of the +mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long deserve +peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the introduction of a +vocabulary, from which may be selected words for the communication +of ideas upon intellectual subjects.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> +Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and +principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the philosophy +of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another meaning. +Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, that +nobody could understand them; and hence, <i>metaphysical</i> is now +applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a +speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. +"How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but +he was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand +him.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> +In this respect, many foreign languages possess a great advantage +over ours. They can augment or diminish the same word to +increase or lessen the meaning. For instance; in the Spanish, we +can say <i>Hombre</i>, a man; <i>Hombron</i>, a <i>large</i> man; <i>Hombrecito</i>, a +<i>young</i> man, or youth; <i>Hombrecillo</i>, a <i>miserable little</i> man; <i>Pagaro</i>, +a bird; <i>Pagarito</i>, a <i>pretty little</i> bird; <i>Perro</i>, a dog; <i>Perrillo</i>, +an <i>ugly little</i> dog; <i>Perrazo</i>, a <i>large</i> dog.</p> + +<p>The Indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way. In +the Delaware dialect, they are formed by the suffix <i>tit</i>, in the class +of animate nouns; but by <i>es</i>, to the inanimate; as, <i>Senno</i>, a man; +<i>Sennotit</i>, a <i>little</i> man; <i>Wikwam</i>, a house; <i>Wikwames</i>, a <i>small</i> +house.—<i>Enc. Amer. Art. Indian Languages, vol. 6, p. 586.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"> +</a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> +Mr. Harris, in his "Hermes," says, "A preposition is a part of +speech, <i>devoid itself of signification</i>; but so formed as to unite two +words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce or unite themselves."</p> + +<p>Mr. Murray says, "Prepositions serve to <i>connect</i> words with one +another, and show the relation between them."</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> +"Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that with a +slender <i>twist</i>, that none can doe with a tough <i>with</i>."</p> + +<p class="cite"><i>Euphues and his England, p. 136.</i></p> + +<p>"They had arms under the straw in the boats, and had cut the +<i>withes</i> that held the oars of the town boats, to prevent any pursuit."</p> + +<p class="cite"><i>Ludlow's Memoirs, p. 435.</i></p> + +<p>"The only furniture belonging to the houses, appears to be an +oblong vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a <i>withe</i>."</p> + +<p class="cite"><i>Cooke's Description of Botany Bay.</i></p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> +See Galatians, chap. 1, verse 15. "When it pleased God, who +<i>separated</i> me," &c.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> +Acts, xvii, 28.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> +St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.—Dr. Hunter's translation, pp. +172-176.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"> +</a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> +It is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees +are now standing in the garden of Gethsemane under which the +Saviour wept and near which he was betrayed. This is rendered +more probable from the fact, that a tax is laid, by the Ottoman +Porte, on all olive trees planted since Palestine passed into the possession +of the Turks, and that several trees standing in Gethsemane +do not pay such tribute, while all others do.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"> +</a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> +We do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and +poets, who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a +soul, like the human body, which is the spirit of Deity himself; but +that by the operation of wise and perfect laws, he exerts a supervision +in the creation and preservation of all things animate and inanimate. +Virgil stated the opinions of his times, in his Æneid, +B. VI. l. 724.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Principio cœlum, ac terras, camposque liquentes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Lucentemque globum, Lunæ, Titaniaque astra<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Know, first, that heaven, and earth's compacted frame,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And flowing waters, and the starry flame,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And both the radiant lights, <i>one common soul</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0">Inspires and feeds—and <i>animates the whole</i>.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">This active mind, infused thro all the space,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Unites and mingles with the mighty mass."<br /></span> +</div> +<p class="poemcite"><i>Dryden</i>, b. <small>VI</small>. l. 980.</p></div> + +<p>This sentiment, he probably borrowed from Pythagoras and Plato, +who argue the same sentiment, and divide this spirit into "<i>intellectus</i>, +<i>intelligentia</i>, et <i>natura</i>"—intellectual, intelligent, and natural. +Whence, "<i>Ex hoc Deo, qui est mundi anima: quasi decerptæ particulæ +sunt vitæ hominum et pecudum.</i>" Or, "Omnia animalia ex +quatuor elementis et <i>divino spiritu</i> constare manifestum est. Trahunt +enim a terra carnem, ab aqua humorem, ab ære anhelitum, ab +igne fervorem, <i>a divino spiritu ingenium</i>."—<i>Timeus, chap. 24, and +Virgil's Geor. b. 4, l. 220, Dryden's trans. l. 322.</i></p> + +<p>Pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"All are but parts of one stupendous whole.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Whose body nature is, and God the soul."<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> + <a href="#Page_41">Page 41</a>.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> +Exodus, iii. 2, 3.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> +Cardell's grammar.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> +The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to +keep it from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm +that by this mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed +the wonders recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name +from the temple and put it into his thigh between the flesh and +skin, and by its power accomplished the miracles attributed to him. +They think if they could pronounce the word correctly, the very +heavens and earth would tremble, and angels be filled with terror.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> +Plutarch says, "This title is not only <i>proper</i> but <i>peculiar to +God</i>, because <span class="smcap">He</span> alone is <i>being</i>; for mortals have no participation +of <i>true being</i>, because that which <i>begins</i> and <i>ends</i>, and is constantly +<i>changing</i>, is never <i>one</i> nor the <i>same</i>, nor in the same state. The +deity on whose temple this word was inscribed was called <span class="smcap">Apollo</span>, +Apollon, from <i>a</i> negative and <i>pollus</i>, <i>many</i>, because God is <span class="smcap">one</span>, +his nature simple, and <i>uncompounded</i>."—<i>Vide, Clark's Com.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> +The same fact may be observed in other languages, for all people +form language alike, in a way to correspond with their ideas. +The following hasty examples will illustrate this point.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Agents, Verbs, and Objects"> +<tr><td></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'><i>Agent.</i></td> + <td class="right2 bottom1" align='left'><i>Verb.</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>Object.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>English</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Singers</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Sing</td> + <td align='left'>Songs</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>French</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Les chanteurs</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Chantent</td> + <td align='left'>Les chansons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Spanish</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Los cantores</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Cantan</td> + <td align='left'>Las cantinelas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Italian</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I cantori</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Cantano</td> + <td align='left'>I canti</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'><i>Latin</i></td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Cantores</td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Canunt</td> + <td class="bottom2" align='left'>Cantus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>English</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Givers</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Give</td> + <td align='left'>Gifts</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>French</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Les donneurs</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Donnent</td> + <td align='left'>Les dons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Spanish</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Los donadores</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Dan o donan</td> + <td align='left'>Los dones</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Italian</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I danatori</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Dano o danano</td> + <td align='left'>I doni</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'><i>Latin</i></td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Datores</td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Donant</td> + <td class="bottom2" align='left'>Dona</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>English</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Fishers</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Fish</td> + <td align='left'>Fishes</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>French</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Les pecheurs</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Pechent</td> + <td align='left'>Les poissons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Spanish</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Los pescadores</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Pescan</td> + <td align='left'>Los peces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Italian</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I pescatori</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Pescan</td> + <td align='left'>I pesci</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'><i>Latin</i></td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Piscatores</td> + <td class="right2 bottom2" align='left'>Piscantur</td> + <td class="bottom2" align='left'>Pisces</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>English</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Students</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Study</td> + <td align='left'>Studies</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>French</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Les etudiens</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Etudient</td> + <td align='left'>Les etudes</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Spanish</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Los estudiantes</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Estudian</td> + <td align='left'>Los estudios</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Italian</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>I studienti</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Studiano</td> + <td align='left'>I studii</td></tr> +<tr><td class="right2" align='left'><i>Latin</i></td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Studiosi</td> + <td class="right2" align='left'>Student</td> + <td align='left'>Studia</td></tr> +</table></div> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +Mr. Murray says, "These compounds," <i>have</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>may</i>, +<i>can</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>had</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, and <i>should</i>, which he uses as +auxiliaries to <i>help</i> conjugate <i>other</i> verbs, "are, however, to be considered +as <i>different forms</i> of the <i>same</i> verb." I should like to know, +if these words have any thing to do with the <i>principal</i> verbs; if they +only alter the <i>form</i> of the verb which follows them. I <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, +<i>must</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, or <i>do love</i>. Are these only different forms of +<i>love</i>? or rather, are they not distinct, important, and original verbs, +pure and perfect <i>in</i> and <i>of</i> themselves? Ask for their etymons and +meaning, and then decide.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Diversions of Purley, vol. 1, p. 77.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> +Dr. Edwards observes, in a communication to the Connecticut +Society of Arts and Sciences, from personal knowledge, that "the +Mohegans (Indians) have <i>no adjectives</i> in all their language. Altho +it may at first seem not only singular and curious, but impossible, +that a language should exist without adjectives, yet it is an +indubitable fact." But it is proved that in later times the Indians +employ adjectives, derived from nouns or verbs, as well as other +nations. Altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious, +yet they suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words +and phrases. They added the ideas of definition and description to +the things themselves, and expressed them in the <i>same</i> word, in a +modified form.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> +Matthew, chap. 24, v. 48.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> +Examples of a <i>dis</i>-junctive conjunction. "They came with her, +<i>but</i> they went without her."—<i>Murray.</i></p> + +<p>Murray is <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'wroug'"><i>wrong</i></ins>, +<i>and</i> Cardell is <i>right</i>. The simplifiers are +wrong, <i>but</i> their standard is so likewise.</p> + +<p>"Me he restored to my office, <i>and</i> him he hanged."—<i>Pharaoh's +Letter.</i></p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lectures on Language, by William S. Balch + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON LANGUAGE *** + +***** This file should be named 17594-h.htm or 17594-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/5/9/17594/ + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Amy Cunningham, Bill Tozier +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lectures on Language + As Particularly Connected with English Grammar. + +Author: William S. Balch + +Release Date: January 24, 2006 [EBook #17594] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Amy Cunningham, Bill Tozier +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + +In this book, as well as using _ to indicate the italic font, the = +symbol has been used to show text printed in smaller capital letters in +the original printed version. Please see the HTML version for a more +accurate reproduction. + +Bracketed words, such as [the?], were present in the original text. They +were not added by the transcriber. + +Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed at the +end of the text. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it +appears in the original book. In particular, many mismatched quotation +marks have not been changed. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE, + +AS PARTICULARLY CONNECTED WITH + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR. + + +DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND ADVANCED LEARNERS. + + +BY WM. S. BALCH. + + +Silence is better than unmeaning words.--_Pythagoras._ + + +PROVIDENCE: +B. CRANSTON & CO. +1838. + + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, + +BY B. CRANSTON & CO. + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode-Island. + + + + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 24, 1838. + +TO WM. S. BALCH, + +SIR--The undersigned, in behalf of the Young People's Institute, hasten +to present to you the following _Resolutions_, together with their +personal thanks, for the Lectures you have delivered before them, on the +Philosophy of Language. The uncommon degree of interest, pleasure and +profit, with which you have been listened to, is conclusive evidence, +that whoever possesses taste and talents to comprehend and appreciate +the philosophy of language, which you have so successfully cultivated, +cannot fail to attain a powerful influence over the minds of his +audience. The Committee respectfully request you to favor them with a +copy of your Lectures for the Press. + + Very respectfully, + Your most obedient servants, + C. T. JAMES, + E. F. MILLER, + H. L. WEBSTER. + + * * * * * + +_Resolved_, That we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed +by the Lectures of our President, on the subject of Language; that we +consider the principles he has advocated, immutably true, exceedingly +important, and capable of an easy adoption in the study of that +important branch of human knowledge. + +_Resolved_, That we have long regretted the want of a system to explain +the grammar of our vernacular tongue, on plain, rational, and consistent +principles, in accordance with philosophy and truth, and in a way to be +understood and practised by children and adults. + +_Resolved_, That in our opinion, the manifold attempts which have been +made, though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions, to +simplify and make easy existing systems, have failed entirely of their +object, and tended only to perplex, rather than enlighten learners. + +_Resolved_, That in our belief, the publication of these Lectures would +meet the wants of the community, and throw a flood of light upon this +hitherto dark, and intricate, and yet exceedingly interesting department +of a common education, and thus prove of immense service to the present +and future generations. + +_Resolved_, That Messrs. Charles T. James, Edward F. Miller, and Henry +L. Webster, be a Committee to wait on Rev. William S. Balch, and request +the publication of his very interesting Course of Lectures before this +Institute. + + * * * * * + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 25, 1838. + +MESSRS. C. T. JAMES, E. F. MILLER, AND H. L. WEBSTER: + +GENTLEMEN--Your letter, together with the Resolutions accompanying it, +was duly and gratefully received. It gives me no ordinary degree of +pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been, and still is, felt +by the members of our Institute, as well as the public generally, on +this important subject; for it is one which concerns the happiness and +welfare of our whole community; but especially the rising generation. + +The only recommendation of these Lectures is the subject of which they +treat. They were written in the space of a few weeks, and in the midst +of an accumulation of engagements which almost forbade the attempt. But +presuming you will make all due allowances for whatever errors you may +discover in the style of composition, and regard the _matter_ more than +the _manner_, I consent to their publication, hoping they will be of +some service in the great cause of human improvement. + + I am, gentlemen, + Very respectfully yours, + WM. S. BALCH. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no subject so deeply interesting and important to rational +beings as the knowledge of language, or one which presents a more direct +and powerful claim upon all classes in the community; for there is no +other so closely interwoven with all the affairs of human life, social, +moral, political and religious. It forms a basis on which depends a vast +portion of the happiness of mankind, and deserves the first attention of +every philanthropist. + +Great difficulty has been experienced in the common method of explaining +language, and grammar has long been considered a dry, uninteresting, and +tedious study, by nearly all the teachers and scholars in the land. But +it is to be presumed that the fault in this case, if there is any, is to +be sought for in the manner of teaching, rather than in the science +itself; for it would be unreasonable to suppose that a subject which +occupies the earliest attention of the parent, which is acquired at +great expense of money, time, and thought, and is employed from the +cradle to the grave, in all our waking hours, can possibly be dull or +unimportant, if rightly explained. + +Children have been required to learn verbal forms and changes, to look +at the mere signs of ideas, instead of the things represented by them. +The consequence has been that the whole subject has become uninteresting +to all who do not possess a retentive verbal memory. The philosophy of +language, the sublime principles on which it depends for its existence +and use, have not been sufficiently regarded to render it delightful and +profitable. + +The humble attempt here made is designed to open the way for an +exposition of language on truly philosophical principles, which, when +correctly explained, are abundantly simple and extensively useful. With +what success this point has been labored the reader will determine. + +The author claims not the honor of entire originality. The principles +here advanced have been advocated, believed, and successfully practised. +William S. Cardell, Esq., a bright star in the firmament of American +literature, reduced these principles to a system, which was taught with +triumphant success by Daniel H. Barnes, formerly of the New-York High +School, one of the most distinguished teachers who ever officiated in +that high and responsible capacity in our country. Both of these +gentlemen, so eminently calculated to elevate the standard of education, +were summoned from the career of the most active usefulness, from the +scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the aid of their +transcendant intellects, to unseen realities in the world of spirits; +where mind communes with mind, and soul mingles with soul, disenthraled +from error, and embosomed in the light and love of the Great Parent +Intellect. + +The author does not pretend to give a system of exposition in this work +suited to the capacities of small children. It is designed for advanced +scholars, and is introductory to a system of grammar which he has in +preparation, which it is humbly hoped will be of some service in +rendering easy and correct the study of our vernacular language. But +this book, it is thought, may be successfully employed in the +instruction of the higher classes in our schools, and will be found an +efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime principles of which +it treats. + +These Lectures, as now presented to the public, it is believed, will be +found to contain some important information by which all may profit. The +reader will bear in mind that they were written for, and delivered +before a popular audience, and published with very little time for +modification. This will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes which +may occur, and for whatever may have the appearance of severity, irony, +or pleasantry, in the composition. + +On the subject of Contractions much more might be said. But verbal +criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common audience; and hence the +consideration of that matter was made more brief than was at first +intended. It will however be resumed and carried out at length in +another work. The hints given will enable the student to form a +tolerable correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases, +which have long been passed over with little knowledge of their meaning +or importance. + +The author is aware that the principles he has advocated are new and +opposed to established systems and the common method of inculcation. But +the difficulties acknowledged on all hands to exist, is a sufficient +justification of this humble attempt. He will not be condemned for his +good intentions. All he asks is a patient and candid examination, a +frank and honest approval of what is true, and as honest a rejection of +what is false. But he hopes the reader will avoid a rash and precipitate +conclusion, either for or against, lest he is compelled to do as the +author himself once did, approve what he had previously condemned. + +With these remarks he enters the arena, and bares himself to receive the +sentence of the public voice. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + +Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors +in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old +systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its +advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.--Syntax.-- +Prosody. + + +LECTURE II. + +THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + +General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are +Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities of +things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- +Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts +admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An +example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things +signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + +Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most important +branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea of a thing.--How +expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An anecdote.--Ideas expressed +by actions.--Principles of spoken and written Language.--Apply +universally.--Two examples.--English language.--Foreign words.--Words in +science.--New words.--How formed. + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + +Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual +beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.--Negation. +--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic names.--Proper nouns +may become common. + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + +Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How +formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender.--No +neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.--Agents.-- +Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive word.--Pronouns.-- +One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically applied. + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How +understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the +noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from +adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to +be understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from +verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- +In.--Out.--Of. + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper nouns. +--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.--Articles.--_A_ +comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of _a_ and _the_.-- +Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun adjectives."--_Mon_, +_ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary adjectives.--Prepositions admit +of comparison. + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.--Actor +and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--Neutrality +degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind of +verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the +truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter verbs +examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. W.--Anecdote. + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + +Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can be +known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known by +their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things signified.-- +Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--All +things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained.--First +Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.--These +principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of Gallileo. + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + +A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken for +granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from the +truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an +intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language +eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To step.-- +Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To smile.--Eat +and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false teaching.--A change +is demanded.--These principles apply universally.--Their importance. + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + +The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. +--Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, +=was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.--Cannot +be in the present tense.--The past participle is an adjective. + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + +=Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions.-- +Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future +explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.--Imperfect.-- +Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.--=Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will. +--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of +agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular +verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation of +verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood varied.--A whole +sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is +always future. + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + +A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a +meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be +observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray.--Awake. +--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, +together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence.--Perhaps.--Not. +--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Conjunctions.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho. +--Yet. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE. + + + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + + Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors + in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old + systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its + advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.-- + Syntax.--Prosody. + + +LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, + +It is proposed to commence, this evening, a course of Lectures on the +Grammar of the English Language. I am aware of the difficulties +attending this subject, occasioned not so much by any fault in itself, +as by the thousand and one methods adopted to teach it, the multiplicity +of books pretending to "simplify" it, and the vast contrariety of +opinion entertained by those who profess to be its masters. By many it +has been considered a needless affair, an unnecessary appendage to a +common education; by others, altogether beyond the reach of common +capacities; and by all, cold, lifeless, and uninteresting, full of +doubts and perplexities, where the wisest have differed, and the firmest +often changed opinions. + +All this difficulty originates, I apprehend, in the wrong view that is +taken of the subject. The most beautiful landscape may appear at great +disadvantage, if viewed from an unfavorable position. I would be slow to +believe that the means on which depends the whole business of the +community, the study of the sciences, all improvement upon the past, the +history of all nations in all ages of the world, social intercourse, +oral or written, and, in a great measure, the knowledge of God, and the +hopes of immortality, can be either unworthy of study, or, if rightly +explained, uninteresting in the acquisition. In fact, on the principles +I am about to advocate, I have seen the deepest interest manifested, +from the small child to the grey-headed sire, from the mere novice to +the statesman and philosopher, and all alike seemed to be edified and +improved by the attention bestowed upon the subject. + +I confess, however, that with the mention of _grammar_, an association +of ideas are called up by no means agreeable. The mind involuntarily +reverts to the days of childhood, when we were compelled, at the risk of +our bodily safety, to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules, which +we could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language. +Formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended on any higher +authority than the books put into our hands. And learners were not only +dissuaded, but strictly forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in +the etymological and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they were +referred. If a query ever arose in their minds, and they modestly +proposed a plain question as to the _why_ and _wherefore_ things were +thus, instead of giving an answer according to common sense, in a way to +be understood, the authorities were pondered over, till some rule or +remark could be found which would apply, and this settled the matter +with "proof as strong as holy writ." In this way an end may be put to +the inquiry; but the thinking mind will hardly be satisfied with the +mere opinion of another, who has no evidence to afford, save the +undisputed dignity of his station, or the authority of books. This +course is easily accounted for. Rather than expose his own ignorance, +the teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others, thinking, no doubt, +that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed, than fresh +from his own responsibility. Or else on the more common score, that +"misery loves company." + +Teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in an unenviable +position by the honest inquiries of some thinking urchin, who has +demanded why "_one noun governs_ another in the possessive case," as +"master's slave;" why there are more tenses than _three_; what is meant +by a _neuter_ verb, which "signifies neither action nor passion;" or an +"intransitive verb," which expresses the highest possible action, but +terminates on no object; a cause without an effect; why _that_ is +sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and not unfrequently a +conjunction, &c. &c. They may have succeeded, by dint of official +authority, in silencing such inquiries, but they have failed to give a +satisfactory answer to the questions proposed. + +Long received opinions may, in some cases, become law, pleading no other +reason than antiquity. But this is an age of investigation, which +demands the most lucid and unequivocal proof of the point assumed. The +dogmatism of the schoolmen will no longer satisfy. The dark ages of +mental servility are passing away. The day light of science has long +since dawned upon the world, and the noon day of truth, reason, and +virtue, will ere long be established on a firm and immutable basis. The +human mind, left free to investigate, will gradually advance onward in +the course of knowledge and goodness marked out by the Creator, till it +attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest glory, its +truest bliss. + +You will perceive, at once, that our inquiries thro out these lectures +will not be bounded by what has been said or written on the subject. We +take a wider range. We adopt no sentiment because it is ancient or +popular. We refer to no authority but what proves itself to be correct. +And we ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they agree with +the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of matter and thought, and +apply in common practice among men. + +Have we not a right to expect, in return, that you will be equally +honest to yourselves and the subject before us? So far as the errors of +existing systems shall be exposed, will you not reject them, and adopt +whatever appears conclusively true and practically useful? Will you, can +you, be satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others, systems +of grammar, for no other reason than because they are old, and claim the +support of the learned and honorable? + +Such a course, generally adopted, would give the ever-lasting quietus to +all improvement. It would be a practical adoption of the philosophy of +the Dutchman, who was content to carry his grist in one end of the sack +and a stone to balance it in the other, assigning for a reason, that his +honored father had always done so before him. Who would be content to +adopt the astrology of the ancients, in preferance to astronomy as now +taught, because the latter is more modern? Who would spend three years +in transcribing a copy of the Bible, when a better could be obtained +for one dollar, because manuscripts were thus procured in former times? +What lady would prefer to take her cards, wheel, and loom, and spend a +month or two in manufacturing for herself a dress, when a better could +be earned in half the time, merely because her respected grandmother did +so before her? Who would go back a thousand years to find a model for +society, rejecting all improvements in the arts and sciences, because +they are innovations, encroachments upon the opinions and practices of +learned and honorable men? + +I can not believe there is a person in this respected audience whose +mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce the adoption of such a +course. I see before me minds which sparkle in every look, and thoughts +which are ever active, to acquire what is true, and adopt what is +useful. And I flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of +the science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable. + +I feel the greater confidence from the consideration that your minds are +yet untrammeled; not but what many, probably most of you, have already +studied the popular systems of grammar, and understood them; if such a +thing is possible; but because you have shown a disposition to learn, by +becoming members of this Institute, the object of which is the +improvement of its members. + +Let us therefore make an humble attempt, with all due candor and +discretion, to enter upon the inquiry before us with an unflinching +determination to push our investigations beyond all reasonable doubt, +and never rest satisfied till we have conquered all conquerable +obstacles, and come into the possession of the light and liberty of +truth. + +The attempt here made will not be considered unimportant, by those who +have known the difficulties attending the study of language. If any +course can be marked out to shorten the time tediously spent in the +acquisition of what is rarely attained--a thoro knowledge of language--a +great benefit will result to the community; children will save months +and years to engage in other useful attainments, and the high +aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge will not be curbed in +its first efforts to improve by a set of technical and arbitrary rules. +They will acquire a habit of thinking, of deep reflection; and never +adopt, for fact, what appears unreasonable or inconsistent, merely +because great or good men have said it is so. They will feel an +independence of their own, and adopt a course of investigation which +cannot fail of the most important consequences. It is not the saving of +time, however, for which we propose a change in the system of teaching +language. In this respect, it is the study of one's life. New facts are +constantly developing themselves, new combinations of ideas and words +are discovered, and new beauties presented at every advancing step. It +is to acquire a knowledge of correct principles, to induce a habit of +correct thinking, a freedom of investigation, and at that age when the +character and language of life are forming. It is, in short, to exhibit +before you truth of the greatest practical importance, not only to you, +but to generations yet unborn, in the most essential affairs of human +life, that I have broached the hated subject of grammar, and undertaken +to reflect light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject. + +With a brief sketch of the outlines of language, as based on the fixed +laws of nature, and the agreement of those who employ it, I shall +conclude the present lecture. + +We shall consider all language as governed by the invariable laws of +nature, and as depending on the conventional regulations of men. + +Words are the signs of ideas. Ideas are the impressions of things. +Hence, in all our attempts to investigate the important principles of +language, we shall employ the sign as the means of coming at the thing +signified. + +Language has usually been considered under four divisions, viz.: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + +Orthography is _right spelling_; the combination of certain letters into +words in such a manner as to agree with the spoken words used to denote +an idea. We shall not labor this point, altho we conceive a great +improvement might be effected in this department of learning. My only +wish is to select from all the forms of spelling, the most simple and +consistent. Constant changes are taking place in the method of making +words, and we would not refuse to cast in our mite to make the standard +more correct and easy. We would prune off by degrees all unnecessary +appendages, as unsounded or italic letters, and write out words so as to +be capable of a distinct pronunciation. But this change must be +_gradually_ effected. From the spelling adopted two centuries ago, a +wonderful improvement has taken place. And we have not yet gone beyond +the possibility of improvement. Let us not be too sensitive on this +point, nor too tenacious of old forms. Most of our dictionaries differ +in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography, and our +true course is to adopt every improvement which is offered. Thro out +this work we shall spell some words different from what is customary, +but intend not, thereby, to incur the ignominy of bad spellers. Let +small improvements be adopted, and our language may soon be redeemed +from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners in their first +attempts to convey ideas by written words.[1] + +In that department of language denominated Etymology, we shall contend +that all words are reducible to two general classes, nouns and verbs; +or, _things_ and _actions_. We shall, however, admit of subdivisions, +and treat of pronouns, adjectives, and contractions. We shall contend +for only two cases of nouns, one kind of pronouns, one kind of verbs, +that all are active; three modes, and as many tenses; that articles, +adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, have no +distinctive character, no existence, in fact, to warrant a "local +habitation or a name." + +In the composition of sentences, a few general rules of Syntax may be +given; but the principal object to be obtained, is the possession of +correct ideas derived from a knowledge of things, and the most approved +words to express them; the combination of words in a sentence will +readily enough follow. + +Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, rules of accent and +pronunciation, and the arrangement of syllables and words so as to +produce harmony. It applies specially to versification. As our object is +not to make poets, who, it is said, "are born, and not made," but to +teach the true principles of language, we shall give no attention to +this finishing stroke of composition. + +In our next we shall lay before you the principles upon which all +language depends, and the process by which its use is to be acquired. + + + + +LECTURE II. + +FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + + General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are + Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities + of things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- + Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts + admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An + example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things + signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +All language depends on two general principles. + +_First._ The fixed and unvarying laws of nature which regulate matter +and mind. + +_Second._ The agreement of those who use it. + +In accordance with these principles all language must be explained. It +is not only needless but impossible for us to deviate from them. They +remain the same in all ages and in all countries. It should be the +object of the grammarian, and of all who employ language in the +expression of ideas, to become intimately acquainted with their use. + +It is the business of grammar to explain, not only verbal language, but +also the sublime principles upon which all written or spoken language +depends. It forms an important part of physical and mental science, +which, correctly explained, is abundantly simple and extensively useful +in its application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of +human enjoyment. + +It will not be contended that we are assuming a position beyond the +capacities of learners, that the course here adopted is too philosophic. +Such is not the fact. Children are philosophers by nature. All their +ideas are derived from things as presented to their observations. No +mother learns her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being, +but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar, and which are +most constantly before it; such as father, mother, brother, sister. + +She constantly points to the object named, that a distinct impression +may be made upon its mind, and the thing signified, the idea of the +thing, and the name which represents it, are all inseparably associated +together. If the father is absent, the child may _think_ of him from the +idea or impression which his person and affection has produced in the +mind. If the mother pronounces his _name_ with which it has become +familiar, the child will start, look about for the object, or thing +signified by the _name_, father, and not being able to discover him, +will settle down contented with the _idea_ of him deeply impressed on +the mind, and as distinctly understood as if the father was present in +person. So with every thing else. + +Again, after the child has become familiar with the name of the being +called father; the name, idea and object itself being intimately +associated the mother will next begin to teach it another lesson; +following most undeviatingly the course which nature and true philosophy +mark out. The father comes and goes, is present or absent. She says on +his return, father _come_, and the little one looks round to see the +thing signified by the word father, the idea of which is distinctly +impressed on the mind, and which it now sees present before it. But this +loved object has not always been here. It had looked round and called +for the father. But the mother had told it _he was gone_. Father gone, +father come, is her language, and here the child begins to learn ideas +of actions. Of this it had, at first, no notion whatever, and never +thought of the father except when his person was present before it, for +no impressions had been distinctly made upon the mind which could be +called up by a sound of which it could have no conceptions whatever. Now +that it has advanced so far, the idea of the father is retained, even +tho he is himself absent, and the child begins to associate the notion +of coming and going with his presence or absence. Following out this +course the mind becomes acquainted with things and actions, or the +changes which things undergo. + +Next, the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction and +qualities of things. When the little sister comes to it in innocent +playfulness the mother says, "_good_ sister," and with the descriptive +word _good_ it soon begins to associate the quality expressed by the +affectionate regard, of its sister. But when that sister strikes the +child, or pesters it in any way, the mother says "_naughty_ sister," +"bad sister." It soon comprehends the descriptive words, _good_ and +_bad_, and along with them carries the association of ideas which such +conduct produces. In the same way it learns to distinguish the +difference between _great_ and _small_, _cold_ and _hot_, hard and soft. + +In this manner the child becomes acquainted with the use of language. It +first becomes acquainted with things, the idea of which is left upon the +mind, or, more properly, the _impression of which_, left on the mind, +_constitutes the idea_; and a vocabulary of words are learned, which +represent these ideas, from which it may select those best calculated +to express its meaning whenever a conversation is had with another. + +You will readily perceive the correctness of our first proposition, that +all language depends on the fixed and unerring laws of nature. Things +exist. A knowledge of them produces ideas in the mind, and sounds or +signs are adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to another. + +It would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any person, however +great, or learned, or wise, could employ language correctly without a +knowledge of the things expressed by that language. No matter how chaste +his words, how lofty his phrases, how sweet the intonations, or mellow +the accents. It would avail him nothing if _ideas_ were not represented +thereby. It would all be an unknown tongue to the hearer or reader. It +would not be like the loud rolling thunder, for that tells the wondrous +power of God. It would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening, the +radiance of the sun, the twinkling of the stars; for they speak the +intelligible language of sublimity itself, and tell of the kindness and +protection of our Father who is in heaven. It would not be like the +sweet notes of the choral songsters of the grove, for they warble hymns +of gratitude to God; not like the boding of the distant owl, for that +tells the profound solemnity of night; not like the hungry lion roaring +for his prey, for that tells of death and plunder; not like the distant +notes of the clarion, for that tells of blood and carnage, of tears and +anguish, of widowhood and orphanage. It can be compared to nothing but a +Babel of confusion in which their own folly is worse confounded. And +yet, I am sorry to say it, the languages of all ages and nations have +been too frequently perverted, and compiled into a heterogeneous mass +of abstruse, metaphysical volumes, whose only recommendation is the +elegant bindings in which they are enclosed. + +And grammars themselves, whose pretended object is to teach the rules of +speaking and writing correctly, form but a miserable exception to this +sweeping remark. I defy any grammarian, author, or teacher of the +numberless systems, which come, like the frogs of Egypt, all of one +genus, to cover the land, to give a reasonable explanation of even the +terms they employ to define their meaning, if indeed, meaning they have. +What is meant by an "_in_-definite article," a _dis_-junctive +_con_-junction, an _ad_-verb which qualifies an _adjective_, and +"sometimes another _ad_-verb?" Such "parts of speech" have no existence +in fact, and their adoption in rules of grammar, have been found +exceedingly mischievous and perplexing. "Adverbs and conjunctions," and +"_adverbial_ phrases," and "conjunctive expressions," may serve as +common sewers for a large and most useful class of words, which the +teachers of grammar and lexicographers have been unable to explain; but +learners will gain little information by being told that such is an +_adverbial phrase_, and such, a _conjunctive expression_. This is an +easy method, I confess, a sort of wholesale traffic, in parsing +(_passing_) language, and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the +teachers and makers of grammars. But it will reflect little light on the +principles of language, or prove very efficient helps to "speak or write +with propriety." Those who _think_, will demand the _meaning_ of these +words, and the reason of their use. When that is ascertained, little +difficulty will be found in giving them a place in the company of +respectable words. But I am digressing. More shall be said upon this +point in a future lecture, and in its proper place. + +I was endeavoring to establish the position that all language depends +upon permanent principles; that words are the signs of ideas, and ideas +are the impressions of things communicated to the mind thro the medium +of some one of the five senses. I think I have succeeded so far as +simple material things are concerned, to the satisfaction of all who +have heard me. It may, perhaps, be more difficult for me to explain the +words employed to express complex ideas, and things of immateriality, +such as mind, and its attributes. But the rules previously adopted will, +I apprehend, apply with equal ease and correctness in this case; and we +shall have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon which +the whole superstructure of language is based. + +In pursuing this investigation I shall endeavor to avoid all abstruse +and metaphysical reasoning, present no wild conjectures, or vain +hypotheses; but confine myself to plain, common place matter of fact. We +have reason to rejoice that a wonderful improvement in the science and +cultivation of the mind has taken place in these last days; that we are +no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms, the wild speculations which +occupied the giant minds of a Descartes, a Malebranch, a Locke, a Reid, +a Stewart, and hosts of others, whose shining talents would have +qualified them for the brightest ornaments of literature, real +benefactors of mankind, had not their education lead them into dark and +metaphysical reasonings, a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries, in +which they became entangled, till, at length, they were entirely lost in +the labyrinth of their own conjectures. + +The occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt to +investigate the faculties of the mind without any means of getting at +it. They did not content themselves with an adoption of the principles +which lay at the foundation of all true philosophy, viz., that the +facts to be accounted for, _do exist_; that truth is eternal, and we are +to become acquainted with it by the means employed for its development. +They quitted the world of materiality they inhabited, refused to examine +the development of mind as the effect of an existing cause; and at one +bold push, entered the world of thought, and made the unhallowed attempt +to reason, a priori, concerning things which can only be known by their +manifestations. But they soon found themselves in a strange land, +confused with sights and sounds unknown, in the _explanation_ of which +they, of course, choose terms as unintelligible to their readers, as the +_ideal realities_ were to them. This course, adopted by Aristotle, has +been too closely followed by those who have come after him.[2] But a new +era has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind, and a corresponding +change in the method of inculcating the principles of language must +follow.[3] + +In all our investigations we must take things as we find them, and +account for them as far as we can. It would be a thankless task to +attempt a change of principles in any thing. That would be an +encroachment of the Creator's rights. It belongs to mortals to use the +things they have as not abusing them; and to Deity to regulate the laws +by which those things are governed. And that man is the wisest, the +truest philosopher, and brightest Christian, who acquaints himself with +those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter and mind, in the +promotion of physical and moral enjoyment, and endeavors to conform to +them in all his thoughts and actions. + +From this apparent digression you will at once discover our object. We +must not endeavor to change the principles of language, but to +understand and explain them; to ascertain, as far as possible, the +actions of the mind in obtaining ideas, and the use of language in +expressing them. We may not be able to make our sentiments understood; +but if they are not, the fault will originate in no obscurity in the +facts themselves, but in our inability either to understand them or the +words employed in their expression. Having been in the habit of using +words with either no meaning or a wrong one, it may be difficult to +comprehend the subject of which they treat. A man may have a quantity of +sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, but it is not until he learns their +properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder. Let us then +adopt a careful and independent course of reasoning, resolved to meddle +with nothing we do not understand, and to use no words until we know +their meaning. + +A complex idea is a combination of several simple ones, as a tree is +made up of roots, a trunk, branches, twigs, and leaves. And these again +may be divided into the wood, the bark, the sap, &c. Or we may employ +the botanical terms, and enumerate its external and internal parts and +qualities; the whole anatomy and physiology, as well as variety and +history of trees of that species, and show its characteristic +distinctions; for the mind receives a different impression on looking at +a maple, a birch, a poplar, a tamarisk, a sycamore, or hemlock. In this +way complex ideas are formed, distinct in their parts, but blended in a +common whole; and, in conformity with the law regulating language, +words, sounds or signs, are employed to express the complex whole, or +each distinctive part. The same may be said of all things of like +character. But this idea I will illustrate more at large before the +close of this lecture. + +First impressions are produced by a view of material things, as we have +already seen; and the notion of action is obtained from a knowledge of +the changes these things undergo. The idea of quality and definition is +produced by contrast and comparison. Children soon learn the difference +between a sweet apple and a sour one, a white rose and a red one, a hard +seat and a soft one, harmonious sounds and those that are discordant, a +pleasant smell and one that is disagreeable. As the mind advances, the +application is varied, and they speak of a sweet rose, changing from +_taste_ and _sight_ to smell, of a sweet song, of a hard apple, &c. +According to the qualities thus learned, you may talk to them +intelligibly of the _sweetness_ of an apple, the _color_ of a rose, the +_hardness_ of iron, the _harmony_ of sounds, the _smell_ or scent of +things which possess that quality. As these agree or disagree with their +comfort, they will call them _good_ or _bad_, and speak of the qualities +of goodness and badness, as if possessed by the thing itself. + +In this apparently indiscriminate use of words, the ideas remain +distinct; and each sign or object calls them up separately and +associates them together, till, at length, in the single object is +associated all the ideas entertained of its size, qualities, relations, +and affinities. + +In this manner, after long, persevering toil, principles of thought are +fixed, and a foundation laid for the whole course of future thinking and +speaking. The ideas become less simple and distinct. Just as fast as the +mind advances in the knowledge of things, language keeps pace with the +ideas, and even goes beyond them, so that in process of time a single +term will not unfrequently represent a complexity of ideas, one of which +will signify a whole combination of things. + +On the other hand, there are many instances where the single declaration +of a fact may convey to the untutored mind, a single thought or nearly +so, when the better cultivated will take into the account the whole +process by which it is effected. To illustrate: _a man killed a deer_. +Here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet fully able to +comprehend. He will see the obvious fact that the man levels his musket, +the gun goes off with a loud report, and the deer falls and dies. How +this is all produced he does not understand, but knowing the fact he +asserts the single truth--the man killed the deer. As the child +advances, he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more than +he at first perceived. He now understands how it was accomplished. The +man had a gun. Then he must go back to the gunsmith and see how it was +made, thence back to the iron taken from its bed, and wrought into bars; +all the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun, the +tools and machinery employed; the wood for the stock, its quality and +production; the size, form and color of the lock, the principle upon +which it moves; the flint, the effect produced by a collision with the +steel, or a percussion cap, and its composition; till he finds a single +gun in the hands of a man. The man is present with this gun. The motives +which brought him here; the movements of his limbs, regulated by the +determinations of the mind, and a thousand other such thoughts, might be +taken into the account. Then the deer, his size, form, color, manner of +living, next may claim a passing thought. But I need not enlarge. Here +they both stand. The man has just seen the deer. As quick as thought his +eye passes over the ground, sees the prey is within proper distance, +takes aim, pulls the trigger, that loosens a spring, which forces the +flint against the steel; this produces a spark, which ignites the +charcoal, and the sulphur and nitre combined, explode and force the wad, +which forces the ball from the gun, and is borne thro the air till it +reaches the deer, enters his body by displacing the skin and flesh, +deranges the animal functions, and death ensues. The whole and much more +is expressed in the single phrase, "a man killed a deer." + +It would be needless for me to stop here, and examine all the operations +of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge. That is not the object +of the present work. Such a duty belongs to another treatise, which may +some day be undertaken, on logic and the science of the mind. The hint +here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands, and how +language keeps pace with every advancing step, and, also, how +combinations are made from simple things, as a house is made of timber, +boards, shingles, nails, and paints; or of bricks, stone, and mortar; as +the case may be, and when completed, a single term may express the +idea, and you speak of a wood, or a brick house. Following this +suggestion, by tracing the operations of the mind in the young child, or +your own, very minutely, in the acquisition of any knowledge before +wholly unknown to you, as a new language, or a new science; botany, +mineralogy, chemistry, or phrenology; you will readily discover how the +mind receives new impressions of things, and a new vocabulary is adopted +to express the ideas formed of plants, minerals, chemical properties, +and the development of the capacities of the mind as depending on +material organs; how these things are changed and combined; and how +their existence and qualities, changes and combinations, are expressed +by words, to be retained, or conveyed to other minds. + +But suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted with these things, +will he understand you? Talk to him of stamens, pistils, calyxes; of +monandria, diandria, triandria; of gypsum, talc, calcareous spar, +quartz, topaz, mica, garnet, pyrites, hornblende, augite, actynolite; of +hexahedral, prismatic, rhomboidal, dodecahedral; of acids and alkalies; +of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon; of the configuration of the +brain, and its relative powers; do all this, and what will he know of +your meaning? So of all science. Words are to be understood from the +things they are employed to represent. You may as well talk to a man in +the hebrew, chinese, or choctaw languages, as in our own, if he does not +know what is signified by the words selected as the medium of thought. + +Your language may be most pure, perfect, full of meaning, but you cannot +make yourself understood till your hearers can look thro your signs to +the things signified. You may as well present before them a picture of +_nothing_. + +The great fault in the popular system of education is easily accounted +for, particularly in reference to language. Children are taught to study +signs without looking at the thing signified. In this way they are mere +copyists, and the mind can never expand so as to make them independent, +original thinkers. In fact, they can, in this way, never learn to reason +well or employ language correctly; no more than a painter can be +successful in his art, by merely looking at the pictures of others +without having ever seen the originals. A good artist is a close +observer of nature. So children should be left free to examine and +reflect, and the signs will then serve their proper use--the means of +acquiring the knowledge of things. In vain you may give a scholar a +knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, learn him to translate with +rapidity or speak our own language fluently. If he has not thereby +learned the knowledge of things signified by such language, he is, in +principle, advanced no farther than the parrot which says "pretty poll, +pretty poll." + +I am happy, however, in the consideration that a valuable change is +taking place in this respect. Geography is no longer taught on the old +systems, but maps are given to represent more vividly land and water, +rivers, islands, and mountains. The study of arithmetic, chemistry, and +nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within a few +years. Grammar alone remains in quiet possession of its unquestioned +authority. Its nine "parts of speech," its three genders, its three +cases, its half dozen kinds of pronouns, and as many moods and tenses, +have rarely been disquieted. A host of book makers have fondled around +them, but few have dared molest them, finding them so snugly ensconced +under the sanctity of age, and the venerated opinions of learned and +good men. Of the numberless attempts to simplify grammar, what has been +the success? Wherein do modern "simplifiers" differ from Murray? and he +was only a _compiler_! They have all discovered his errors. But who has +corrected them? They have all deviated somewhat from his manner. But +what is that but saying, that with all his grammatical knowledge, he +could not explain his own meaning? + +All the trouble originates in this; the rules of grammar have not been +sought for where they are only to be found, in the laws that govern +matter and thought. Arbitrary rules have been adopted which will never +apply in practice, except in special cases, and the attempt to bind +language down to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought, or +stop the waters of Niagara with a straw. Language will go on, and keep +pace with the mind, and grammar should explain it so as to be correctly +understood. + +I wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all thro my +remarks, that you may challenge every position I assume till proved to +be correct--till you distinctly understand it and definite impressions +are made upon your minds. In this way you will discover a beauty and +perfection in language before unknown; its rules will be found few and +simple, holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime principles +upon which they depend; and you will have reason to admire the works and +adore the character of the great Parent Intellect, whose presence and +protection pervade all his works and regulate the laws of matter and +mind. You will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with sentiments of +gratitude for the gift of mind, its affections, powers, and means of +operation and communication, and resolved more than ever to employ these +faculties in human improvement and the advancement of general happiness. + + + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + + Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most + important branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea + of a thing.--How expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An + anecdote.--Ideas expressed by actions.--Principles of spoken and + written Language.--Apply universally.--Two examples.--English + language.--Foreign words.--Words in science.--New words.--How + formed. + + +We now come to take a nearer view of language as generally understood by +grammar. But we shall have no occasion to depart from the principles +already advanced, for there is existing in practice nothing which may +not be accounted for in theory; as there can be no effect without an +efficient cause to produce it. + +We may, however, long remain ignorant of the true explanation of the +principles involved; but the fault is ours, and not in the things +themselves. The earth moved with as much grandeur and precision around +its axis and in its orbit before the days of Gallileo Gallilei, when +philosophers believed it flat and stationary, as it has done since. So +the great principles on which depends the existence and use of all +language are permanent, and may be correctly employed by those who have +never examined them; but this does not prove that to be ignorant is +better than to be wise. We may have taken food all our days without +knowing much of the process by which it is converted into nourishment +and incorporated into our bodies, without ever having heard of +delutition chymification, chylification, or even digestion, as a whole; +but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge of these things is +unimportant, or that ignorance of them is not the cause of much disease +and suffering among mankind. And it is, or should be, the business of +the physiologist to explain these things, and show the great practical +benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them. So the grammarian +should act as a sort of physiologist of language. He should analyze all +its parts and show how it is framed together to constitute a perfect +whole. + +Instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of technical +expressions, and arbitrary rules, I most urgently exhort you to +continue, with unremitting assiduity, your inquiries into the reason and +propriety of the positions which may be taken. It is the business of +philosophy, not to meddle with things to direct how they should be, but +to account for them and their properties and relations as they are. So +it is the business of grammar to explain language as it exists in use, +and exhibit the reason why it is used thus, and what principles must be +observed to employ it correctly in speaking and writing. This method is +adopted to carry out the principles already established, and show their +adaptation to the wants of the community, and how they may be correctly +and successfully employed. Grammar considered in this light forms a +department in the science of the mind by no means unimportant. And it +can not fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in the +business, social, literary, moral, or religious concerns of life. Those +who have thoughts to communicate, or desire an acquaintance with the +minds of others, can not be indifferent to the means on which such +intercourse depends. I am convinced, therefore, that you will give me +your most profound attention as I pursue the subject of the present +lecture somewhat in detail. And I hope you will not consider me tedious +or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks. + +I will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes of spoken and +written language, altho that topic of itself, in the different sounds +and signs employed in different ages and by different nations to express +the same idea, would form a most interesting theme for several lectures. +But that work must be reserved for a future occasion. You are all +acquainted with the signs, written and spoken, which are employed in our +language as vehicles (some of them like omnibusses) of thought to carry +ideas from one mind to another. Some of you doubtless are acquainted +with the application of this fact in other languages. In other words, +you know how to sound the name of a thing, how to describe its +properties as far as you understand them, and its attitudes or changes. +This you can do by vocal sounds, or written, or printed signs. + +On the other hand, you can receive a similar impression by hearing the +description of another, or by seeing it written or printed. But here you +will bear in mind the fact that the word, spoken or written, is but the +sign of the idea derived from the thing signified. For example: Here is +an apple. I do not now speak of its composition, the skin, the pulp, +&c.; nor of its qualities, whether sour, or sweet, or bitter, good or +bad, great or small, long or short, round or flat, red, or white, or +yellow. I speak of a single thing--an apple. Here it is, present before +you. Look at it. It is now removed. You do not see it. Your minds are +occupied with something else, in looking at that organ, or this +representation of Solomon's temple, or, perhaps, lingering in melancholy +review of your old systems of grammar thro which you plodded at a +tedious rate, goaded on by the stimulus of the ferule, or the fear of +being called ignorant. From that unhappy reverie I recal your minds, by +saying _apple_. An apple? where? There is none in sight. No; but you +have distinct recollections of a single object I just now held before +you. You see it, mentally, and were you painters you might paint its +likeness. What has brought this object so vividly before you? The single +sound _apple_. This sound has called up the idea produced in your mind +on looking at this object which I now again present before you. Here is +the thing represented--the apple. Again I lay it aside, and commence a +conversation with you on the varieties of apples, the form, color, +flavor, manner of production, their difference from other fruit, where +found, when, and by whom. Here! look again. What do you see? +A-P-P-L-E--_Apple_. What is that? The representation of the idea +produced in the mind by a certain object you saw a little while ago. +Here then you have the spoken and written signs of this single object I +now again present to your vision. This idea may also be called up by the +sense of feeling, smelling, or tasting, under certain restrictions. Here +you would be no more liable to be mistaken than by seeing. We can indeed +imagine things which would feel, and smell, and taste, and look some +like an apple, but it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to +make their suppositions, and then account for them--to imagine things, +and then treat of them as realities. We are content with the knowledge +of things as they do exist, and think there is little danger of +mistaking a potato for an apple, or a squash for a pear. Tho in the dark +we may lay hold of the Frenchman's _pomme de terre_--apple of the earth, +the first bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too +metaphysical. + +The same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture of the apple +presented to your sight. On this ground the picture writing of the +ancients may be accounted for; and after that, the hieroglyphics of +Egypt and other countries, which was but a step from picture writing +towards the use of the alphabet. But these signs or vehicles for the +conveyance or transmission of their thoughts, compared with the present +perfect state of language, were as aukward and uncomly as the carriages +employed for the conveyance of their bodies were compared with those now +in use. They were like ox carts drawn by mules, compared with the most +splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys. + +A similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted with +alphabetical writing. It was so with the merchant who could not write. +He sold his neighbor a grindstone, on trust. Lest he should forget +it--lest the _idea_ of it should be obliterated from the mind--he, in +the absence of his clerk, took his book and a pen and drew out a _round +picture_ to represent it. Some months after, he dunned his neighbor for +his pay for a cheese. "I have bought no cheese of you," was the reply. +Yes, you have, for I have it charged. "You must be mistaken, for I never +bought a cheese. We always make our own." How then should I have one +charged to you? "I cannot tell. I have never had any thing here on +credit except a grindstone." Ah! that's it, that's it, only I forgot to +make a hole through it!" + +Ideas may also be exchanged by actions. This is the first and strongest +language of nature. It may be employed, when words have failed, in the +most effectual manner. The angry man, choked with rage, unable to speak, +tells the violent passions, burning in his bosom, in a language which +can not be mistaken. The actions of a friend are a surer test of +friendship than all the honied words he may utter. Actions speak louder +than words. The first impressions of maternal affection are produced in +the infant mind by the soothing attentions of the mother. In the same +way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb. Certain motions +express certain ideas. These being duly arranged and conformed to our +alphabetic signs, and well understood, the pupil may become acquainted +with book knowledge as well as we. They go by sight and not by sound. A +different method is adopted with the blind. Letters with them are so +arranged that they can _feel_ them. The signs thus felt correspond with +the sounds they hear. Here they must stop. They cannot see to describe. +Those who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf, can have but a +faint knowledge of language, or the ideas of others. + +On similar principles we may explain the pantomime plays sometimes +performed, where the most entertaining scenes of love and murder are +represented, but not a word spoken. + +Three things are always to be born in mind in the use and study of all +language: 1st, the thing signified; 2d, the idea of the thing; and 3d, +the word or sign chosen to represent it. + +_Things_ exist. + +Thinking beings conceive _ideas of things_. + +Those who employ language adopt _sounds or signs to convey those ideas_ +to others. + +On these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure of all +language, spoken or written. Objects are presented to the mind, +impressions are there made, which, retained, constitute the idea, and, +by agreement, certain words are employed as the future signs or +representations of those ideas. If we saw an object in early life and +knew its _name_, the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea +which had long lain dormant in the memory, (if I may so speak,) and we +can converse about it as correctly as when we first saw it. + +These principles, I have said, hold good in all languages. Proof of this +may not improperly be offered here, provided it be not too prolix. I +will endeavor to be brief. + +In an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated a delegation +from every language under heaven. All are so arranged as to face a +common center. A white horse is led into that spot and all look at the +living animal which stands before them. The same impression must be made +on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned. But as the whole is +made up of parts, so their minds will soon diverge from a single idea, +and one will think of his size, compared with other horses; another of +his form; another of his color. Some will think of his noble appearance, +others of his ability to travel, or (in jockey phrase) his _speed_. The +farrier will look for his blemishes, to see if he is _sound_, and the +jockey at his teeth, to _guess_ at his _age_. The anatomist will, in +thought, dissect him into parts and see every bone, sinew, cartilage, +blood vessel, his stomach, lungs, liver, heart, entrails; every part +will be laid open; and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single +object--a white horse--others will, at a single glance, read volumes of +instruction. Oh! the importance of knowledge! how little is it +regarded! What funds of instruction might be gathered from the lessons +every where presented to the mind! + +One impression would be made on all minds in reference to the single +tangible object before them; no matter how learned or ignorant. There +stands an animal obvious to all. Let him be removed out of sight, and a +very exact picture of him suspended in his place. All again agree. Here +then is the proof of our first general principle, viz. all language +depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature. + +Let the picture be removed and a man step forth and pronounce the word, +_ippos_. The Greek starts up and says, "Yes, it is so." The rest do not +comprehend him. He then writes out distinctly, [Greek: IPPOS]. They are +in the dark as to the meaning. They know not whether a horse, a man, or +a goose is named. All the Greeks, however, understand the meaning the +same as when the horse or picture was before them, for they had _agreed_ +that _ippos_ should represent the _idea_ of that animal. + +Forth steps another, and pronounces the word _cheval_. Every Frenchman +is aroused: Oui, monsieur? Yes, sir. Comprenez vous? Do you understand? +he says to the rest. But they are dumb. He then writes C-H-E-V-A-L. All +are as ignorant as before, save the Frenchmen who had agreed that +_cheval_ should be the name for horse. + +Next go yourself, thinking all will understand you, and say, _horse_; +but, lo! none unacquainted with your language are the wiser for the +sound you utter, or the sign you suspended before them; save, perhaps, a +little old Saxon, who, at first looks deceived by the similarity of +sound, but, seeing the sign, is as demure as ever, for he omits the _e_, +and pronounces it shorter than we do, more like a yorkshire man. But +why are you not understood? Because others have not entered into an +_agreement_ with you that _h-o-r-s-e_, spoken or written, shall +represent that animal. + +Take another example. Place the living animal called man before them. +Less trouble will be found in this case than in the former, for there is +a nearer agreement than before in regard to the signs which shall be +employed to express the idea. This word occurs with very little +variation in the modern languages, derived undoubtedly from the +Teutonic, with a little change in the spelling, as Saxon _mann_ or +_mon_, Gothic _manna_, German, Danish, Dutch, Swedish and Icelandic +like ours. In the south of Europe, however, this word varies as well as +others. + +Our language is derived more directly from the old Saxon than from any +other, but has a great similarity to the French and Latin, and a kind of +cousin-german to all the languages of Europe, ancient and modern. Ours, +indeed, is a compound from most other languages, retaining some of their +beauties and many of their defects. We can boast little distinctive +character of our own. As England was possessed by different nations at +different periods, so different dialects were introduced, and we can +trace our language to as many sources, German, Danish, Saxon, French, +and Roman, which were the different nations amalgamated into the British +empire. We retain little of the real old english--few words which may +not be traced to a foreign extraction. Different people settling in a +country would of course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them; +and from the whole compound a general agreement would, in process of +time, take place, and a uniform language be established. Such is the +origin and condition of our language, as well as every other modern +tongue of which we have any knowledge. + +There is one practice of which our savans are guilty, at which I do most +seriously demur--the extravagant introduction of exotic words into our +vocabulary, apparently for no other object than to swell the size of a +dictionary, and boast of having found out and defined thousands of words +more than any body else. A mania seems to have seized our +lexicographers, so that they have forsaken the good old style of +"plainness of speech," and are flourishing and brandishing about in a +cloud of verbiage as though the whole end of instruction was to teach +loquacity. And some of our popular writers and speakers have caught the +infection, and flourish in borrowed garments, prizing themselves most +highly when they use words and phrases which no body can understand. + +I will not contend that in the advancement of the arts and sciences it +may not be proper to introduce foreign terms as the mean of conveying a +knowledge of those improvements to others. It is better than to coin new +words, inasmuch as they are generally adopted by all modern nations. In +this way all languages are approximating together; and when the light of +truth, science, and religion, has fully shone on all the nations, we may +hope one language will be spoken, and the promise be fulfilled, that God +has "turned unto the people a pure language, that they may call upon the +name of the Lord, to serve him with one consent." + +New ideas are formed like new inventions. Established principles are +employed in a new combination, so as to produce a new manifestation. +Words are chosen as nearly allied to former ideas as possible, to +express or represent this new combination. Thus, Fulton applied steam +power to navigation. A new idea was produced. A boat was seen passing +along the waters without the aid of wind or tide. Instead of coining a +new word to express the whole, a word which nobody would understand, two +old ones were combined, and "_steamboat_" became the sign to represent +the idea of the thing beheld. So with rail-road, cotton-mill, and +gun-powder. In the same way we may account for most words employed in +science, although in that case we are more dependant on foreign +languages, in as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived +from them. But we may account for them on the same principle as above. +_Phrenology_ is a compound of two greek words, and means the science or +knowledge of the mind. So of geology, mineralogy, &c. But when +improvements are made by those who speak the english, words in our own +language are employed and used not only by ourselves, but also by those +nations who profit by our investigations. + +I trust I have now said enough on the general principles of language as +applied to things. In the next lecture I will come down to a sort of +bird's eye view of grammar. But my soul abhors arbitrary rules so +devoutly, I can make no promises how long I will continue in close +communion with set forms of speech. I love to wander too well to remain +confined to one spot, narrowed up in the limits fixed by others. Freedom +is the empire of the mind; it abjures all fetters, all slavery. It +kneels at the altar of virtue and worships at the shrine of truth. No +obstacles should be thrown in the way of its progress. No limits should +be set to it but those of the Almighty. + + + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + + Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual + beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.-- + Negation.--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic + names.--Proper nouns may become common. + + +Your attention is, this evening, invited to the first divisions of +words, called _Nouns_. This is a most important class, and as such +deserves our particular notice. + + _Nouns are the names of things._ + +The word _noun_ is derived from the Latin _nomen_, French _nom_. It +means _name_. Hence the definition above given. + +In grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of words which name +things, or stand as signs or representatives of things. + +We use the word _thing_ in its broadest sense, including every possible +entity; every being, or thing, animate or inanimate, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, physical, moral, or intellectual. It is +the noun of the Saxon _thincan_ or _thingian_, to think; and is used to +express every conceivable object of thought, in whatever form or manner +presented to the human mind. + +Every word employed to designate things, or name them, is to be ranked +in the class called _nouns_, or names. You have only to determine +whether a word is used thus, to learn whether it belongs to this or +some other class of words. Here let me repeat: + + 1. Things exist. + 2. We conceive ideas of things. + 3. We use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others. + 4. We denominate the class of words thus used, _nouns_. + +Perhaps I ought to stop here, or pass to another topic. But as these +lectures are intended to be so plain that all can understand my meaning, +I must indulge in a few more remarks before advancing farther. + +In addition to individual, tangible objects, we conceive ideas of the +_qualities_ of things, and give _names_ to such qualities, which become +_nouns_. Thus, the _hardness_ of iron, the _heat_ of fire, the _color_ +of a rose, the _bitterness_ of gall, the _error_ of grammars. The +following may serve to make my views more plain. Take two tumblers, the +one half filled with water, the other with milk; mix them together. You +can now talk of the milk in the water, or the water in the milk. Your +ideas are distinct, tho the objects are so intimately blended, that they +can not be separated. So with the qualities of things. + +We also speak of mind, intellect, soul; but to them we can give no form, +and of them paint no likeness. Yet we have ideas of them, and employ +words to express them, which become _nouns_. + +This accounts for the reason why the great Parent Intellect has strictly +forbidden, in the decalogue, that a likeness of him should be +constructed. His being and attributes are discoverable only thro the +medium of his works and word. No man can see him and live. It would be +the height of folly--it would be more--it would be blasphemy--to +attempt to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills +immensity--whose center is every where, and whose circumference is no +where. The name of this Spirit or Being was held in the most profound +reverence by the Jews, as we shall have occasion to mention when we come +to treat of the verb =to be=. + +We talk of angels, and have seen the unhallowed attempt to describe +their likeness in the form of pictures, which display the fancy of the +artist very finely, but give a miserable idea of those pure spirits who +minister at the altar of God, and chant his praises in notes of the most +unspeakable delight. + +We have also seen _death_ and the pale horse, the firy dragon, the +mystery of Babylon, and such like things, represented on canvass; but +they betoken more of human talent to depict the marvellous, than a +strict regard for truth. Beelzebub, imps, and all Pandemonium, may be +vividly imagined and finely arranged in fiction, and we can name them. +Wizzards, witches, and fairies, may play their sportive tricks in the +human brain, and receive names as tho they were real. + +We also think and speak of the qualities and affections of the mind as +well as matter, as wisdom, knowledge, virtue, vice, love, hatred, anger. +Our conceptions in this case may be less distinct, but we have ideas, +and use words to express them. There is, we confess, a greater liability +to mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its qualities, +than of matter. The reason is evident, people know less of it. Its +operations are less distinct and more varying. + +The child first sees material objects. It is taught to name them. It +next learns the qualities of things; as the sweetness of sugar, the +darkness of night, the beauty of flowers. From this it ascends by +gradation to the higher attainments of knowledge as revealed in the +empire of mind, as well as matter. Great care should be taken that this +advancement be easy, natural, and thoro. It should be constantly +impressed with the importance of obtaining clear and definite ideas of +things, and never employ words till it has ideas to express; never name +a thing of which it has no knowledge. This is ignorance. + +It would be well, perhaps, to extend this remark to those older than +children, in years, but less in real practical knowledge. The remark is +of such general application, that no specification need be made, except +to the case before us; to those affected proficients in grammar, whose +only knowledge is the memory of words, which to them have no meanings, +if, indeed, the writers themselves had any to express by them; a fact we +regard as questionable, at best. There is hardly a teacher of grammar, +whose self-esteem is not enormous, who will not confess himself ignorant +on many of the important principles of language; that he has never +understood, and could never explain them. He finds no difficulty in +repeating what the books say, but if called upon to express an opinion +of his own, he has none to give. He has learned and used words without +knowing their meaning. + +Children should be taught language as they are taught music. They should +learn the simple tones on which the whole science depends. Distinct +impressions of sounds should be made on their minds, and the characters +which represent them should be inseparably associated with them. They +will then learn tunes from the compositions of those sounds, as +represented by notes. By dint of application, they will soon become +familiar with these principles, if possessed of a talent for song, and +may soon pass the acme with ease, accuracy, and rapidity. But there are +those who may sing very prettily, and tolerably correct, who have never +studied the first rudiments of music. But such can never become adepts +in the science. + +So there are those who use language correctly, who never saw the inside +of a grammar book, and who never examined the principles on which it +depends. But this, by no means, proves that it is better to sing by +rote, than "with the understanding." These rudiments, however, should +form the business of the nursery, rather than the grammar school. Every +mother should labor to give distinct and forcible impressions of such +things as she learns her children to _name_. She should carefully +prevent them from employing words which have no meaning, and still more +strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong meaning to +those they do use. In this way, the foundation for future knowledge and +eminence, would be laid broad and deep. But I wander. + +We attach names to imaginary things; as ghosts, genii, imps. + +To this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients, who were +frequently represented by emblems significant of the characters attached +to them. We employ words to name these imaginary things, so that we read +and converse about them understandingly, tho our ideas may be +exceedingly various. + +Nouns are also used to express negation, of which no idea can be formed. +In this case, the mind rests on what exists, and employs a word to +express what does not. We speak of _a hole_ in the paper. But we can +form no idea of _a hole_, separated from the surrounding substances. +Remove the parts of the paper till nothing is left, and then you may +look in vain for the hole. It is not there. It never was. In the same +way we use the words nothing, nobody, nonentity, vacuum, absence, space, +blank, annihilation, and oblivion. These are relative terms, to be +understood in reference to things which are known to exist. We must know +of _some_thing before we can talk of _no_thing, of an entity before we +can think of nonentity. + +In a similar way we employ words to name actions, which are produced by +the changes of objects. We speak of a race, of a flight, of a sitting or +session, of a journey, of a ride, of a walk, of a residence, etc. In all +these cases, the mind is fixed on the persons who performed these +things. Take for example, a race. Of that, we can conceive no idea +separate from the agent or object which _ran_ the _race_. Without some +other word to inform us we could not decide whether a _horse_ race, a +_foot_ race, a boat race, the race of a mill, or some other race, was +the object of remark. The same may be said of flight, for we read of the +flight of birds, the flight of Mahommed, the flight of armies, and the +flight of intellect. + +We also give names to actions as tho they were taking place in the +present tense. "The _reading_ of the report was deferred;" steamboat +_racing_ is dangerous to public safety; _stealing_ is a crime; false +_teaching_ deserves the reprobation of all. + +The hints I have given will assist you in acquiring a knowledge of nouns +as used to express ideas in vocal or written language. This subject +might be pursued further with profit, if time would permit. As the time +allotted to this lecture is nearly exhausted, I forbear. I shall +hereafter have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be used to name +an idea, and as such stand as the agent or object of a verb. + +Some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects, and +distinguish them from the class to which they usually belong. In this +way they assume a distinctive character, and are usually denominated +=proper nouns=. They apply to persons, places and things; as, John +Smith, Boston, Hylax. _Boy_ is applied in common to all young males of +the human species, and as such is a _common noun_ or name. _John Smith_ +designates a particular boy from the rest. + +Proper names may be also applied to animals and things. The stable +keeper and stageman has a name for every horse he owns, to distinguish +it from other horses; the dairyman for his cows, the boy for his dog, +and the girl for her doll. Any word, in fact, may become a proper name +by being specifically used; as the ship Fair Trader, the brig Success, +sloop Delight in Peace, the race horse Eclipse, Black Hawk, Round Nose, +and Red Jacket. + +Proper names were formerly used in reference to certain traits of +character or circumstances connected with the place or thing. _Abram_ +was changed to _Abraham_, the former signifying _an elevated father_, +the latter, _the father of a multitude_. _Isaac_ signified _laughter_, +and was given because his mother laughed at the message of the angel. +_Jacob_ signified _a supplanter_, because he was to obtain the +birthright of his elder brother. + +A ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to express scripture +sentiments in the names of their children, as may be seen by consulting +the records of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies. + +This practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day, for we hear of +the names of Hope, Mercy, Patience, Comfort, Experience, Temperance, +Faith, Deliverance, Return, and such like, applied usually to females, +(being more in character probably,) and sometimes to males. We have also +the names of White, Black, Green, Red, Gray, Brown, Olive, Whitefield, +Blackwood, Redfield, Woodhouse, Stonehouse, Waterhouse, Woodbridge, +Swiftwater, Lowater, Drinkwater, Spring, Brooks, Rivers, Pond, Lake, +Fairweather, Merryweather, Weatherhead, Rice, Wheat, Straw, Greatrakes, +Bird, Fowle, Crow, Hawks, Eagle, Partridge, Wren, Goslings, Fox, Camel, +Zebra, Bear, Wolf, Hogg, Rain, Snow, Haile, Frost, Fogg, Mudd, Clay, +Sands, Hills, Valley, Field, Stone, Flint, Silver, Gould, and Diamond. + +Proper nouns may also become common when used as words of general +import; as, _dunces_, corrupted from Duns Scotus, a distinguished +theologian, born at Dunstane, Northumberland, an opposer of the +doctrines of Thomas Aquinus. He is a real _solomon_, jack tars, judases, +antichrist, and so on. + +Nouns may also be considered in respect to person, number, gender, and +positive, or case. There are _three_ persons, _two_ numbers, _two_ +genders, and _two_ cases. But the further consideration of these things +will be deferred, which, together with Pronouns, will form the subject +of our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + + Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How + formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender. + --No neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.-- + Agents.--Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive + word.--Pronouns.--One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically + applied. + + +We resume the consideration of nouns this evening, in relation to +person, number, gender, and position or case. + +In the use of language there is a speaker, person spoken to, and things +spoken of. Those who speak are the _first_ persons, those who hear the +_second_, and those who are the subject of conversation the _third_. + +The first and second persons are generally used in reference to human +beings capable of speech and understanding. But we sometimes condesend +to hold converse with animals and inanimate matter. The bird trainer +talks to his parrots, the coachman to his horses, the sailor to the +winds, and the poet to his landscapes, towers, and wild imaginings, to +which he gives a "local habitation and a name." + +By metaphor, language is put into the mouths of animals, particularly in +fables. By a still further license, places and things, flowers, trees, +forests, brooks, lakes, mountains, towers, castles, stars, &c. are made +to speak the most eloquent language, in the first person, in addresses +the most pathetic. The propriety of such a use of words I will not stop +to question, but simply remark that such figures should never be +employed in the instruction of children. As the mind expands, no longer +content to grovel amidst mundane things, we mount the pegasus of +imagination and soar thro the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and +fiction, and study a language before unknown. But it would be an +unrighteous demand upon others, to require them to understand us; and +quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance because they do not. + +Most nouns are in the third person. More things are talked about than +talk themselves, or are talked to by others. Hence there is little +necessity for teaching children to specify except in the first or second +person, which is very easily done. + +In English there are two _numbers_, singular and plural. The singular is +confined to one, the plural is extended to any indefinite number. The +Greeks, adopted a dual number which they used to express two objects +united in pairs, or couples; as, a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a +brace of pistols, a pair of shoes. We express the same idea with more +words, using the singular to represent the union of the two. We also +extend this use of words and employ what are called _nouns of +multitude_; as, a people, an army, a host, a nation. These and similar +words are used in the singular referring to many combined in a united +whole, or in the plural comprehending a diversity; as, "the armies met," +"the nations are at peace." _People_ admits no change on account of +number. We say "_many_ people are collected together and form _a_ +numerous people." + +The plural is not always to be understood as expressing an increase of +number, but of qualities or sorts of things, as the merchant has a +variety of _sugars_, _wines_, _teas_, _drugs_, _medicines_, _paints_ and +_dye-woods_. We also speak of _hopes_, _fears_, _loves_, _anxieties_. + +Some nouns admit of no plural, in fact, or in use; as, chaos, universe, +fitness, immortality, immensity, eternity. Others admit of no singular; +as, scissors, tongs, vitals, molasses. These words probably once had +singulars, but having no use for them they became obsolete. We have long +been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together, so that +in speaking of one whole, we say shears, and of apart, half of a shears. +But of some words originally, and in fact plural, we have formed a +singular; as, "one twin died, and, tho the other one survived its +dangerous illness, the mother wept bitterly for her twins." _Twin_ is +composed of _two_ and _one_. It is found in old books, spelled _twane_, +two-one, or twin. Thus, the _twi_-light is formed by the mingling of two +lights, or the division of the rays of light by the approaching or +receding darkness. They _twain_ shall be one flesh. Sheep and deer are +singular or plural. + +Most plurals are formed by adding _s_ to the singular, or, when euphony +requires it, _es_; as, tree, trees; sun, suns; dish, dishes; box, boxes. +Some retain the old plural form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; chick, +chicken; kit, kitten. But habit has burst the barrier of old rules, and +we now talk of chicks and chickens, kits and kittens. _Oxen_ alone +stands as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon plurals. + +Some nouns form irregular plurals. Those ending in _f_ change that +letter to _v_ and then add _es_; as, half, halves; leaf, leaves; wolf, +wolves. Those ending in _y_ change that to _i_ and add the _es_; as, +cherry, cherries; berry, berries; except when the _y_ is preceded by a +vowel, in which case it only adds the _s_; as, day, days; money, moneys +(not _ies_); attorney, attorneys. All this is to make the sound more +easy and harmonious. _F_ and _v_ were formerly used indiscriminately, in +singulars as well as plurals, and, in fact, in the composition of all +words where they occurred. The same may be said of _i_ and _y_. + + "The Fader (Father) Almychty of the heven abuf (above) + In the mene tyme, unto Juno his _luf_ (love) + Thus spak; and sayd." + _Douglas, booke 12, pag. 441._ + + "They lyued in ioye and in felycite + For eche of hem had other lefe and dere." + _Chaucer, Monks Tale, fol. 81, p. 1._ + + "When straite twane beefes he tooke + And an the aultar layde." + +The reason why _y_ is changed into _i_ in the formation of plurals, and +in certain other cases, is, I apprehend, accounted for from the fact +that words which now end in _y_ formerly ended in _ie_, as may be seen +in all old books. The regular plural was then formed by adding _s_. + +"And upon those members of the _bodie_, which _wee_ thinke most +unhonest, put _wee_ more honestie on." "It rejoyceth not in +iniquitie--diversitie of gifts--all thinges edifie not." See old bible, +1 Cor., chap. 13 and 14. + +Other words form their plurals still more differently, for which no +other rule than habit can be given; as, man, men; foot, feet; tooth, +teeth; die, dice; mouse, mice; penny, pence, and sometimes pennies, when +applied to distinct pieces of money, and not to value. + +Many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the nations from +whom we have borrowed them; as, cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; +radius, radii; memorandum, memoranda; datum, data, &c. We should be +pleased to have such words carried home, or, if they are ours by virtue +of possession, let them be adopted into our family, and put on the +garments of naturalized citizens, and no longer appear as lonely +strangers among us. There is great aukwardness in adding the english to +the hebrew plural of cherub, as the translators of the common version of +the bible have done. They use _cherub_ in the singular and cherub_ims_ +in the plural. The _s_ should be omitted and the Hebrew plural retained, +or the preferable course adopted, and the final _s_ be added, making +cherubs, seraphs, &c. The same might be said of all foreign nouns. It +would add much to the regularity, dignity, and beauty, of our vernacular +tongue. + +Proper nouns admit of the plural number; as, there are sixty-four John +Smiths in New-York, twenty Arnolds in Providence, and fifteen Davises in +Boston. As we are not accustomed to form the plurals of proper names +there is not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we have +found in those with which we are more familiar; especially those we have +rarely heard pronounced. Habit surmounts the greatest obstacles and +makes things the most harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable. + +Gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes. There are +two--masculine and feminine. The former is applied to males, the latter +to females. Those words which belong to neither gender, have been called +_neuter_, that is, _no gender_. But it is hardly necessary to perplex +the minds of learners with _negatives_. Let them distinguish between +masculine and feminine genders, and little need be said to them about a +_neuter_. + +There are some nouns of both genders, as student, writer, pupil, +person, citizen, resident. _Poet_, _author_, editor, and some other +words, have of late been applied to females, instead of poet_ess_, +author_ess_, edit_ress_. Fashion will soon preclude the necessity of +this former distinction. + +Some languages determine their genders by the form of the endings of +their nouns, and what is thus made masculine in Rome, may be feminine in +France. It is owing, no doubt, to this practice, in other nations, that +we have attached the idea of gender to inanimate things; as, "the sun, +_he_ shines majestically;" while of the moon, it is said, "_she_ sheds a +milder radiance." But we can not coincide with the reason assigned by +Mr. Murray, for this distinction. His notion is not valid. It does not +correspond with facts. While in the south of Europe the sun is called +masculine and the moon feminine, the northern nations invariably reverse +the distinction, particularly the dialects of the Scandinavian. It was +so in our own language in the time of Shakspeare. He calls the sun a +"_fair wench_." + +By figures of rhetoric, genders may be attached to inanimate matter. +Where things are personified, we usually speak of them as masculine and +feminine; but this practice depends on fancy, and not on any fixed +rules. There is, in truth, but two genders, and those confined to +animals. When we break these rules, and follow the undirected wanderings +of fancy, we can form no rules to regulate our words. We may have as +many fanciful ones as we please, but they will not apply in common +practice. For example: poets and artists have usually attached female +loveliness to angels, and placed them in the feminine gender. But they +are invariably used in the masculine thro out the scriptures. + +There is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship General Williams, +_she_ is beautiful; or, of the steamboat Benjamin Franklin, _she_ is out +of date. It were far better to use no gender in such cases. But if +people will continue the practice of making distinctions where there are +none, they must do it from habit and whim, and not from any reason or +propriety. + +There are three ways in which we usually distinguish the forms of words +in reference to gender. 1st. By words which are different; as boy, girl; +uncle, aunt; father, mother. 2d. By a different termination of the same +word; as instructor, instructress; lion, lioness; poet, poetess. _Ess_ +is a contraction from the hebrew _essa_, a female. 3d. By prefixing +another word; as, a male child, a female child; a man servant, a maid +servant; a he-goat, a she-goat. + +The last consideration that attaches to nouns, is the _position_ they +occupy in written or spoken language, in relation to other words, as +being _agents_, or _objects_ of action. This is termed _position_. + +There are two positions in which nouns stand in reference to their +meaning and use. First, as _agents_ of action, as _David_ killed +Goliath. Second, as _objects_ on which action terminates; as, _Richard_ +conquered _Henry_. These two distinctions should be observed in the use +of all nouns. But the propriety of this division will be more evident +when we come to treat of verbs, their agents and objects. + +It will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of the "_possessive +case_," a distinction which has been insisted on in our grammars; and +also changed the names of the other two. As we would adopt nothing that +is new without first being convinced that something is needed which the +thing proposed will supply; so we would reject nothing that is old, +till we have found it useless and cumbersome. It will be admitted on all +hands that the fewer and simpler the rules of grammar, the more readily +will they be understood, and the more correctly applied. We should +guard, on the one hand, against having so many as to perplex, and on the +other, retain enough to apply in the correct use of language. It is on +this ground that we have proposed an improvement in the names and number +of cases, or positions. + +The word noun signifies name, and _nominative_ is the adjective derived +from noun, and partakes of the same meaning. Hence the _nominative_ or +_naming_ case may apply as correctly to the object as the agent. "_John_ +strikes _Thomas_, and _Thomas_ strikes _John_." John and Thomas name the +boys who strike, but in the first case John is the actor or agent and +Thomas the object. In the latter it is changed. To use a _nominative +name_ is a redundancy which should be avoided. You will understand my +meaning and see the propriety of the change proposed, as the mind of the +learner should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases. + +But our main objection lies against the "possessive case." We regard it +as a false and unnecessary distinction. What is the possessive case? +Murray defines it as "expressing the relation of property or possession; +as, my father's house." His rule of syntax is, "one substantive governs +another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive +case; as, my father's house." I desire you to understand the definition +and use as here given. Read it over again, and be careful that you know +the meaning of _property_, _possession_, and _government_. Now let a +scholar parse correctly the example given. "_Father's_" is a common +noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, and _governed_ by +house:" Rule, "One noun _governs_ another," &c. Then my father does not +govern his own house, but his house him! What must be the conduct and +condition of the family, if they have usurped the government of their +head? "John Jones, hatter, keeps constantly for sale all kinds of _boy's +hats_. Parse boy's. It is a noun, possessive case, _governed_ by hats." +What is the possessive case? It "signifies the _relation of property or +possession_." Do the hats belong to the boys? Oh no. Are they the +_property_ or in the _possession_ of the boys? Certainly not. Then what +relation is there of property or possession? None at all. They belong to +John Jones, were made by him, are his property, and by him are +advertised for sale. He has used the word _boy's_ to distinguish their +size, quality, and fitness for boy's use. + +"The master's slave." Master's is in the possessive case, and _governed_ +by slave! If grammars are true there can be no need of abolition +societies, unless it is to look after the master and see that he is not +abused. The rider's horse; the captain's ship; the general's army; the +governor's cat; the king's subject. How false it would be to teach +scholars the idea of _property_ and _government_ in such cases. The +_teacher's scholars_ should never learn that by virtue of their +grammars, or the _apostrophe_ and letter _s_, they have a right to +_govern_ their teachers; nor the mother's son, to govern his mother. Our +merchants would dislike exceedingly to have the _ladies_ understand them +to signify by their advertisements that the "ladies' merino shawls, the +ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils, the ladies' gloves and elegant +Thibet, silk and challa dresses, were the _property_ of the ladies; for +in that case they might claim or _possess_ themselves of their +_property_, and no longer trouble the merchant with the care of it. + +"Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." "_His_ physician said that +_his_ disease would require _his_ utmost skill to defeat _its_ progress +in _his_ limbs." Phrases like these are constantly occurring, which can +not be explained intelligibly by the existing grammars. In fact, the +words said to be nouns in the possessive case, have changed their +character, by use, from nouns to adjectives, or definitive words, and +should thus be classed. Russia iron, Holland gin, China ware, American +people, the Washington tavern, Lafayette house, Astor house, Hudson +river, (formerly Hudson's,) Baffin's bay, Van Dieman's land, John +street, Harper's ferry, Hill's bridge, a paper book, a bound book, a red +book, John's book--one which John is known to use, it may be a borrowed +one, but generally known as some way connected with him,--Rev. Mr. +Smith's church, St. John's church, Grace church, Murray's grammar; not +the property nor in the possession of Lindley Murray, neither does it +_govern him_; for he has gone to speak a purer language than he taught +on earth. It is mine. I bought it, have possessed it these ten years; +but, thank fortune, am little _governed_ by it. But more on this point +when we come to the proper place. What I have said, will serve as a +hint, which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the +"possessive case." + +It may be said that more cases are employed in other languages. That is +a poor reason why we should break the barriers of natural language. +Beside, I know not how we should decide by that rule, for none of them +have a _case_ that will compare with the English possessive. The +genitive of the French, Latin, or Greek, will apply in only a few +respects. The former has _three_, the latter five, and the Latin six +cases, neither of which correspond with the possessive, as explained by +Murray and his satellites. We should be slow to adopt into our language +an idiom which does not belong to it, and compel learners to make +distinctions where none exist. It is an easy matter to tell children +that the apostrophe and letter _s_ marks the possessive case; but when +they ask the difference in the meaning between the use of the noun and +those which all admit are adjectives, it will be no indifferent task to +satisfy them. What is the difference in the construction of language or +the sense conveyed, between Hudson'_s_ river, and _Hudson_ river? +Davis's straits, or Bass straits? St. John's church, or Episcopal +church? the sun's beams, or sun shine? In all cases these words are used +to define the succeeding noun. They regard "property or possession," +only when attending circumstances, altogether foreign from any quality +in the form or meaning of the word itself, are so combined as to give it +that import. And in such cases, we retain these words as adjectives, +long after the property has passed from the hands of the persons who +gave it a name. _Field's_ point, _Fuller's_ rocks, _Fisher's_ island, +_Fulton's_ invention, will long be retained after those whose names were +given to distinguish these things, have slept with their fathers and +been forgotten. Blannerhassett's Island, long since ceased to be his +property or tranquil possession, by confiscation; but it will retain its +specific name, till the inundations of the Ohio's waters shall have +washed it away and left not a wreck behind. + +The distinctions I have made in the positions of nouns, will be clearly +understood when we come to the verbs. A few remarks upon pronouns will +close the present lecture. + + +PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns are such as the word indicates. _Pro_ is the latin word _for_; +pro-nomen, _for nouns_. They are words, originally nouns, used +specifically _for_ other nouns, to avoid the too frequent repetition of +the same words; as, Washington was the father of his country; _he_ was a +valiant officer. _We_ ought to respect _him_. The word _we_, stands for +the speaker and all present, and saves the trouble of naming them; _he_ +and _him_, stand for Washington, to avoid the monotony which would be +produced by a recurrence of his name. + +Pronouns are all of one kind, and few in number. I will give you a list +of them in their respective positions. + + _Agents._ _Objects._ + { 1st person, I, me, + { 2d " thou, thee, +_Singular_ { 3d " mas. { he, him, + { " fem. { she, her, + { it, it. + + { 1st person, we, us, + _Plural_ { 2d " ye, or you, you, + { 3d " they, them, + who, whom. + +The two last may be used in either person, number, or gender. + +The frequent use of these words render them very important, in the +elegant and rapid use of language. They are so short, and their sound so +soft and easy, that the frequency of their recurrence does not mar the +beauty of a sentence, but saves us from the redundancy of other words. +They are substituted only when there is little danger of mistaking the +nouns for which they stand. They are, however, sometimes used in a very +broad sense; as, "_they say_ it is so;" meaning no particular persons, +but the general sentiment. _It_ frequently takes the lead of a sentence, +and the thing represented by it comes after; as, "It is currently +reported, that things were thus and so." Here _it_ represents the single +idea which is afterward stated at length. "_It_ is so." "_It_ may be +that the nations will be destroyed by wars, earthquakes, and famines." +But more of this when we come to speak of the composition of sentences. + +The words now classed as pronouns were originally _names_ of things, but +in this character they have long been obsolete. They are now used only +in their secondary character as the representatives of other words. The +word _he_, for instance, signified originally _to breathe_. It was +applied to the living beings who inhaled air. It occurs with little +change in the various languages of Europe, ancient and modern, till at +length it is applied to the male agent which lives and acts. The word +_her_ means _light_, but is specifically applied to females which are +the objects of action. + +Was it in accordance with the design of these lectures, it would give me +pleasure to go into a minute examination of the origin, changes and +meaning of these words till they came to be applied as specific words of +exceeding limited character. Most of them might be traced thro all the +languages of Europe; the Arabic, Persic, Arminian, Chaldean, Hebrew, +and, for ought I know, all the languages of Asia. But as they are now +admitted a peculiar position in the expression of thought from which +they never vary; and as we are contending about philosophic principles +rather than verbal criticisms, I shall forbear a further consideration +of these words. + +In the proper place I shall consider those words formerly called +"Adjective Pronouns," "Pronoun Adjectives," or "Pronominal Adjectives," +to suit the varying whims of those grammar makers, who desired to show +off a speck of improvement in their "simplifying" works without ever +having a new idea to express. It is a query in some minds whether the +seventy-two "simplifiers" and "improvers" of Murray's grammar ever had +any distinct notions in their heads which they did not obtain from the +very man, who, it would seem by their conduct, was unable to explain his +own meaning. + + + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How + understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the + noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from + adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to be + understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from + verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- + In.--Out.--Of. + + +The most important sub-division of words is the class called Adjectives, +which we propose to notice this evening. _Adjective_ signifies _added_ +or _joined to_. We employ the term in grammar to designate that class of +words which are _added to nouns to define or describe them_. In doing +this, we strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced, and +do not deviate from the laws of nature, as developed in the regulation +of speech. + +In speaking of things, we had occasion to observe that the mind not only +conceived ideas of things, but of their properties; as, the hardness of +flint; the heat of fire; and that we spoke of one thing in reference to +another. We come now to consider this subject more at large. + +In the use of language the mind first rests on the thing which is +present before it, or the word which represents the idea of that thing. +Next it observes the changes and attitudes of these things. Thirdly, it +conceives ideas of their qualities and relations to other things. The +first use of these words is to name things. This we call _nouns_. The +second is to express their actions. This we call _verbs_. The last is to +define or describe things. This we call _adjectives_. There is a great +similarity between the words used to name things and to express their +actions; as, builders build buildings; singers sing songs; writers write +writings; painters paint paintings. In the popular use of language we +vary these words to avoid the monotony and give pleasantness and +variety. We say builders _erect_ houses, barns, and other buildings; +singers perform pieces of music; musicians play tunes; the choir sing +psalm tunes; artists paint pictures. + +From these two classes a third is derived which partakes somewhat of the +nature of both, and yet from its secondary use, it has obtained a +distinctive character, and as such is allowed a separate position among +the classes of words. + +It might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration of +adjectives till we have noticed the character and use of verbs, from +which an important portion of them is derived. But as they are used in +connexion with nouns, and as the character they borrow from the verb +will be readily understood, I have preferred to retain the old +arrangement, and consider them in this place. + +_Adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe them._ They +are derived either, 1st, from nouns; as, _window_ glass, _glass_ window, +a stone house, building stone, maple sugar, sugar cane; or, 2d, from +verbs; as, a _written_ paper, a _printed_ book, a _painted_ house, a +_writing_ desk. In the first case we employ one noun, or the name of one +thing, to define another, thus giving it a secondary use. A _glass_ +window is one made of glass, and not of any thing else. It is neither a +_board_ window, nor a _paper_ window. _Maple_ sugar is not _cane_ +sugar, nor _beet_ sugar, nor _molasses_ sugar; but it may be _brown_ +sugar, if it has been browned, or _white_ if it has been whit_ed_ or +whit_ened_. In this case, you at once perceive the correctness of our +second proposition, in the derivation of adjectives from verbs, by which +we describe a thing in reference to its condition, in some way affected +by the operation of a prior action. A _printed_ book is one on which the +action of printing has been performed. A _written_ book differs from the +former, in as much as its appearance was produced by writing and not by +printing. + +In the definition or description of things, whatever is best understood +is employed as a definitive or descriptive term, and is attached to the +object to make known its properties and relations. Speaking of nations, +if we desire to distinguish some from others, we choose the words +supposed to be best known, and talk of European, African, American, or +Indian nations; northern, southern, eastern, or western nations. These +last words are used in reference to their relative position, and may be +variously understood; for we speak of the northern, eastern, western, +and southern nations of Europe, of Africa, and the world. + +Again, we read of civiliz_ed_, half-civilized, and barbarous nations; +learned, unlearned, ignorant, and enlightened; rich, powerful, +enterprising, respected, ancient or modern, christian, mahomedan or +pagan. In these, and a thousand similar cases, we decide the meaning, +not alone from the word employed as an adjective, but from the subject +of remark; for, were we to attach the same meaning to the same word, +wherever used, we could not receive correct or definite impressions from +the language of others--our inferences would be the most monstrous. A +_great_ mountain and a _great_ pin, a _great_ continent and a _great_ +farm, a _great_ ocean and a _great_ pond, a _great_ grammar and a +_great_ scholar, refer to things of very different dimensions and +character; or, as Mr. Murray would say, "_qualities_." A mountain is +great by comparison with other mountains; and a pin, compared with other +pins, may be very large--exceeding great--and yet fall very far short of +the size of a very small mountain. A _small_ man may be a _great_ +scholar, and a rich neighbor a poor friend. A sweet flower is often very +bitter to the taste. A _good_ horse would make a _bad_ dinner, but +_false_ grammar can never make _true_ philologists. + +All words are to be understood according to their use. Their meaning can +be determined in no other way. Many words change their forms to express +their relations, but fewer in our language than in most others, ancient +or modern. Other words remain the same, or nearly so, in every position; +noun, adjective, or verb, agent or object, past or present. To determine +whether a word is an adjective, first ascertain whether it names a +thing, defines or describes it, or expresses its action, and you will +never be at a loss to know to what class it belongs. + +The business of adjectives is twofold, and they may be distinguished by +the appellations of _defining_ or _describing_ adjectives. This +distinction is in many cases unimportant; in others it is quite +essential. The same word in one case may _define_, in others _describe_ +the object, and occasionally do both, for we often specify things by +their descriptions. The learner has only to ascertain the meaning and +use of the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the +subject of remark. If it is employed to distinguish one thing from the +general mass, or one class from other classes, it has the former +character; but after such thing is pointed out, if it is used to give a +description of its character or properties, its character is different, +and should be so understood and explained. + +_Defining adjectives_ are used to _point out_, specify or distinguish +certain things from others of their kind, or one sort from other sorts, +and answer to the questions _which_, _what_, _how many_, or _how much_. + +_Describing adjectives_ express the character and qualities of things, +and give a more full and distinct knowledge than was before possessed. + +In a case before mentioned, we spoke of the "Indian nations." The word +_Indian_ was chosen to specify or define what nations were alluded to. +But all may not decide alike in this case. Some may think we meant the +aborigines of America; others, that the southern nations of Asia were +referred to. This difficulty originates in a misapprehension of the +definitive word chosen. India was early known as the name of the south +part of Asia, and the people there, were called Indians. When Columbus +discovered the new world, supposing he had reached the country of India, +which had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of Africa, he +named it India, and the people Indians. But when the mistake was +discovered, and the truth fully known, instead of effecting a change in +the name already very generally understood, and in common use, another +word was chosen to distinguish between countries so opposite and _West_ +India became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands; and +as India was little better known in Europe at that time, instead of +retaining their old name unaltered, another word was prefixed, and they +called it _East_ India. When, therefore, we desire to be definite, we +retain these words, and say, East Indians and West Indians. Without this +distinction, we should understand the native people of our own country; +but in Europe, Asia, and Africa, they would think we alluded to those in +Asia. So with all other adjectives which are not understood. _Indian_, +as an adjective, may also be employed to _describe_ the character and +condition of the aborigines. We talk of an indian temper, indian looks, +indian blankets, furs, &c. + +In writing and conversation we should employ words to explain, to define +and describe, which are better understood than those things of which we +speak. The pedantry of some modern writers in this respect is +ridiculous. Not satisfied to use plain terms which every body can +understand, they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega, and not +unfrequently overleap the "king's english," and ransack other languages +to find an unheard of word, or a list of adjectives never before +arranged together, in so nice a manner, so that their ideas are lost to +the common reader, if not to themselves. This fault may be alleged +against too many of our public speakers, as well as the affected gentry +of the land. They are like Shakspeare's Gratiano, "who speaks an +infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice; his reasons +are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek +all day ere you find them; and, when you have found them, they are not +worth the search." Such sentences remind us of the painting of the young +artist who drew the form of an animal, but apprehensive that some might +mistake it, wrote under it, "_This is a horse._" + +In forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective, the mind +should pause to determine the meaning of such word when used as a +distinct name for some object, in order to determine the import of it in +this new capacity. A _tallow_ candle is one made of a substance called +tallow, and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti +candles. The adjective in this case, names the article of which the +candle is made, and is thus a noun, but, as we are not speaking of +tallow, but of candles, we place it in a new relation, and give it a new +grammatical character. But you will perceive the correctness of a former +assertion, that all words may be reduced to two classes, and that +adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs. + +But you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in use which have +no corresponding verb or noun from which they are derived. There are +many words in our language which in certain uses have become obsolete, +but are retained in others. We now use some words as verbs which +originally were known only as nouns, and others as nouns which are +unknown as verbs. We also put a new construction upon words and make +nouns, verbs and adjectives promiscuously and with little regard to rule +or propriety. Words at one time unknown become familiar by use, and +others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable. These facts are +so obvious that I shall be excused from extending my remarks to any +great length. But I will give an example which will serve as a clew to +the whole. Take the word _happy_, long known only as an adjective. +Instead of following this word _back_ to its primitive use and deriving +it directly from its noun, or as a past participle, such as it is in +truth, we have gone _forward_ and made from it the noun _happiness_, +and, in more modern days, are using the verb _happify_, a word, by the +way, in common use, but which has not yet been honored with a place in +our dictionaries; altho Mr. Webster has given us, as he says, the +_unauthorised_ (un-author-ised) word "_happifying_." Perhaps he had +never heard or read some of our greatest savans, who, if not the +authors, employ the word _happify_ very frequently in the pulpit and +halls of legislation, and at the bar, as well as in common parlance. + +_Happy_ is the past participle of the verb _to hap_, or, as afterwards +used, with a nice shade of change in the meaning, _to happen_. It means +_happied_, or made happy by those favorable circumstances which have +_happened_ to us. Whoever will read our old writers no further back than +Shakspeare, will at once see the use and changes of this word. They will +find it in all its forms, simple and compound, as a verb, noun, and +adjective. "It may _hap_ that he will come." It happened as I was going +that I found my lost child, and was thereby made quite happy. The man +desired to _hap_pify himself and family without much labor, so he +engaged in speculation; and _hap_pily he was not so _hap_less in his +pursuit of _hap_piness as often _hap_pens to such _hap_-hazard fellows, +for he soon became very _hap_py with a moderate fortune. + +But to the question. There are many adjectives in our language which are +borrowed from foreign words. Instead of _adjectiving_ our own nouns we +go to our neighbors and _adjective_ and anglicise [english-ise] their +words, and adopt the pampered urchins into our own family and call them +our favorites. It is no wonder that they often appear aukward and +unfamiliar, and that our children are slow in forming an intimate +acquaintance with them. You are here favored with a short list of these +words which will serve as examples, and enable you to comprehend my +meaning and apply it in future use. Some of them are regularly used as +adjectives, with or without change; others are not. + + ENGLISH NOUNS. FOREIGN ADJECTIVES. + + Alone Sole, solitary + Alms Eleemosynary + Age Primeval + Belief Credulous + Blame Culpable + Breast Pectoral + Being Essential + Bosom Graminal, sinuous + Boy, boyish Puerile + Blood, bloody Sanguinary, sanguine + Burden Onerous + Beginning Initial + Boundary Conterminous + Brother Fraternal + Bowels Visceral + Body Corporeal + Birth Natal, native + Calf Vituline + Carcass Cadaverous + Cat Feline + Cow Vaccine + Country Rural, rustic + Church Ecclesiastical + Death Mortal + Dog Canine + Day Diurnal, meridian, ephemeral + Disease Morbid + East Oriental + Egg Oval + Ear Auricular + Eye Ocular + Flesh Carnal, carnivorous + Father Paternal + Field Agrarian + Flock Gregarious + Foe Hostile + Fear Timorous, timid + Finger Digital + Flattery Adulatory + Fire Igneous + Faith Fiducial + Foot Pedal + Groin Inguinal + Guardian Tutelar + Glass Vitreous + Grape Uveous + Grief Dolorous + Gain Lucrative + Help Auxiliary + Heart Cordial, cardiac + Hire Stipendiary + Hurt Noxious + Hatred Odious + Health Salutary, salubrious + Head Capital, chief + Ice Glacial + Island Insular + King Regal, royal + Kitchen Culinary + Life Vital, vivid, vivarious + Lungs Pulmonary + Lip Labial + Leg Crural, isosceles + Light Lucid, luminous + Love Amorous + Lust Libidinous + Law Legal, loyal + Mother Maternal + Money Pecuniary + Mixture Promiscuous, miscellaneous + Moon Lunar, sublunary + Mouth Oral + Marrow Medulary + Mind Mental + Man Virile, male, human, masculine + Milk Lacteal + Meal Ferinaceous + Nose Nasal + Navel Umbilical + Night Nocturnal, equinoctial + Noise Obstreperous + One First + Parish Parochial + People Popular, populous, public, epidemical, endemical + Point Punctual + Pride Superb, haughty + Plenty Copious + Pitch Bituminous + Priest Sacerdotal + Rival Emulous + Root Radical + Ring Annular + Reason Rational + Revenge Vindictive + Rule Regular + Speech Loquacious, garrulous, eloquent + Smell Olfactory + Sight Visual, optic, perspicuous, conspicuous + Side Lateral, collateral + Skin Cutaneous + Spittle Salivial + Shoulder Humeral + Shepherd Pastoral + Sea Marine, maritime + Share Literal + Sun Solar + Star Astral, sideral, stellar + Sunday Dominical + Spring Vernal + Summer Estival + Seed Seminal + Ship Naval, nautical + Shell Testaceous + Sleep Soporiferous + Strength Robust + Sweat Sudorific + Step Gradual + Sole Venal + Two Second + Treaty Federal + Trifle Nugatory + Tax Fiscal + Time Temporal, chronical + Town Oppidan + Thanks Gratuitous + Theft Furtive + Threat Minatory + Treachery Insidious + Thing Real + Throat Jugular, gutteral + Taste Insipid + Thought Pensive + Thigh Femoral + Tooth Dental + Tear Lachrymal + Vessel Vascular + World Mundane + Wood Sylvan, savage + Way Devious, obvious, impervious, trivial + Worm Vermicular + Whale Cutaceous + Wife Uxorious + Word Verbal, verbose + Weak Hebdomadal + Wall Mural + Will Voluntary, spontaneous + Winter Brumal + Wound Vulnerary + West Occidental + War Martial + Women Feminine, female, effeminate + Year Annual, anniversary, perennial, triennial + +Such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language from other +nations. The list will enable you to discover that when we have no +adjective of our own to correspond with the noun, we borrow from our +neighbors an adjective derived from one of their nouns, to which we give +an english termination. For example: + + _English Noun._ _Latin Noun._ _Adjective._ + + Boy Puer Puerile + Grief Dolor Dolorous + Thought Pensa Pensive + Wife Uxor Uxorious + Word Verbum Verbal, verbose + Year Annum Annual + Body Corpus Corporeal + Head Caput Capital + Church Ekklesia (_Greek_) Ecclesiastical + King Roi (_French_) Royal + Law Loi " Loyal + +It is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of many nouns +with which we are familiar, from the fact above stated, that they are +derived from other languages, and not our own. The most thoro scholars +have found this task no easy affair. Most grammarians have let it pass +unobserved; but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation +upon this point, to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological +derivation and meaning of these words. I would here enter farther into +this subject, but I am reminded that I am surpassing the limits set me +for this course of lectures. + +The attention I have bestowed on this part of the present subject, will +not be construed into a mere verbal criticism. It has been adopted to +show you how, in the definition or description of things, the mind +clings to one thing to gain some information concerning another. When we +find a thing unlike any thing else we have ever known, in form, in size, +in color, in every thing; we should find it a difficult task, if not an +impossibility, to describe it to another in a way to give any correct +idea of it. Having never seen its like before, we can say little of its +character. We may give it a _name_, but that would not be understood. We +could say it was as large as--no, it had no size; that it was like--but +no, it had no likeness; that it resembled--no, it had no resemblance. +How could we describe it? What could we say of it? Nothing at all. + +What idea could the Pacha of Egypt form of ice, having never seen any +till the french chemists succeeded in freezing water in his presence? +They told him of ice; that it was _cold_; that it would freeze; that +whole streams were often frozen over, so that men and teams could walk +over them. He believed no such thing--it was a "christian lie." This +idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists, which failed of +success. But when, on the second attempt, they succeeded, he was all in +raptures. A new field was open before him. New ideas were produced in +his mind. New qualities were learned; and he could now form some idea of +the _ice_ bergs of the north; of _frozen_ regions, which he had never +seen; of _icy_ hearts, and storms of _frozen_ rain. + +We often hear it said, such a man is very _stoical_; another is an +_epicurean_; and another is a _bacchanal_, or _bacchanalian_. But what +idea should we form of such persons, if we had never read of the Stoics +and their philosophy; of Epicurus and his notions of happiness and +duty; or of Bacchus, the god of wine and revelry, whose annual feasts, +or Dionysia, were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness +thro out Greece and Rome, till put down by the Senate of the latter. + +You can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge on which we here +insist. The meaning you attach to words is exceedingly diverse; and +hence you are not always able to think alike, or understand each other, +nor derive the same sentiment from the same language. The contradictory +opinions which exist in the world may be accounted for, in a great +measure, in this way. Our knowledge of many things of which we speak, is +limited, either from lack of means, or disposition to employ them. +People always differ and contend most about things of which they know +the least. Did we all attach the same meaning to the same words, our +opinions would all be the same, as true as the forty-fifth problem of +Euclid. How important, then, that children should always be taught the +same meaning of words, and learn to use them correctly. Etymology, +viewed in this light, is a most important branch of science. + +Whenever a word is sufficiently understood, no adjective should be +connected with it. There is a ridiculous practice among many people, of +appending to every noun one or more adjectives, which have no other +effect than to expose their own folly. Some writers are so in the habit +of annexing adjectives to all nouns, that they dare not use one without. +You will not unfrequently see adjectives different in form, added to a +noun of very similar meaning; as, sad melancholy, an ominous sign, this +mundane earth, pensive thoughts. + +When words can be obtained, which not only name the object, but also +describe its properties, it should be preferred to a noun with an +adjective; as _pirate_, for _sea robber_; _savan_, for a _learned_ or +_wise man_.[4] + +In relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs, we will be +brief. They include what have been termed participles, not a distinct +"part of speech," but by some included in the verbs. We use them as +adjectives to describe things as standing in some relation to other +things on the account of the action expressed by the verb from which +they are derived. "The man is respected." _Respected_, in this case, +describes the man in such a relation to those who have become acquainted +with his good qualities, that he now receives their respect. He is +respect_able_, (_able_ to command, or worthy of respect,) and of course, +respected for his respectability. To avoid repetition, we select +different words to assist in the expression of a complex idea. But I +indulge in phrases like the above, to show the nice shades of meaning in +the common use of words, endeavoring to analyze, as far as possible, our +words and thoughts, and show their mutual connexion and dependencies. + +What has been termed the "present participle" is also an adjective, +describing things in their present condition in reference to actions. +"The man is writing." Here, _writing_ describes the man in his present +employment. But the consideration of this matter more properly belongs +to the construction of sentences. + + * * * * * + +There is another class or variety of words properly belonging to this +division of grammar, which may as well be noticed in this place as any +other. I allude to those words generally called "Prepositions." We have +not time now to consider them at large, but will give you a brief view +of our opinion of them, and reserve the remainder of our remarks till we +come to another part of these lectures. + +Most of the words called prepositions, in books of grammar, are +participles, derived from verbs, many of which are still in use, but +some are obsolete. They are used in the true character of adjectives, +_describing one thing by its relation to another_. But their meaning has +not been generally understood. Our dictionaries have afforded no means +by which we can trace their etymology. They have been regarded as a kind +of cement to stick other words together, having no meaning or importance +in themselves.[5] Until their meaning is known, we can not reasonably +expect to draw them from their hiding places, and give them a +respectable standing in the transmission of thought. + +Many words, from the frequency of their use, fail to attract our +attention as much as those less employed; not because they are less +important, but because they are so familiarly known that the operations +of thought are not observed in the choice made of them to express ideas. +If we use words of which little is known, we ponder well before we adopt +them, to determine whether the sense usually attached to them accords +exactly with the notions we desire to convey by them. The same can not +be said of small words which make up a large proportion of our language, +and are, in fact, more necessary than the others, in as much as their +meaning is more generally known. Those who employ carriages to convey +their bodies, observe little of their construction, unless there is +something singular or fine in their appearance. The common parts are +unobserved, yet as important as the small words used in the common +construction of language, the vehicle of thought. As the apostle says of +the body politic, "those members of the body, which seem to be more +feeble, are necessary;" so the words least understood by grammarians are +most necessary in the correct formation of language. + +It is an easy matter to get along with the words called prepositions, +after they are all learned by rote; but when their meaning and use are +inquired into, the best grammarians have little to say of them. + +A list of prepositions, alphabetically arranged, is found in nearly +every grammar, which scholars are required to commit to memory, without +knowing any thing of their meaning or use, only that they are +prepositions when an objective word comes after them, _because the books +say so_; but occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and +adjectives. There is, however, no trouble in "parsing" them, unless the +list is forgotten. In that case, you will see the pupil, instead of +inquiring after the meaning and duty of the word, go to the book and +search for it in the lists of prepositions or conjunctions; or to the +dictionary, to see if there is a "_prep._" appended to it. What will +children ever learn of language in this way? Of what avail is all such +grammar teaching? As soon as they leave school it is all forgotten; and +you will hear them say, at the very time they should be reaping the +harvest of former toil, that they once understood grammar, but it is all +gone from them. Poor souls! their memory is very treacherous, else they +have never learned language as they ought. There is a fault somewhere. +To us it is not difficult to determine where it is. + +That certain words are prepositions, there can be no doubt, because the +books say they are; but _why_ they are so, is quite another matter. All +we desire is to have their meaning understood. Little difficulty will +then be found in determining their use. + +I have said they are derived from verbs, many of which are obsolete. +Some are still in use, both as verbs and nouns. Take for example the +word =with=. This word signifies _joined_ or _united_. It is used to +show that two things are some how joined together so that they are spoke +of in connexion. It frequently occurs in common conversation, as a verb +and noun, but not as frequently in the books as formerly. The farmer +says to his _hired_ man, "Go and get a _withe_ and come and _withe_ up +the fence;" that is, get some pliant twigs of tough wood, twist them +together, and _withe_ or bind them round these posts, so that one may +stand firm _with_, or _withed_ to, the other. A book _with_ a cover, is +one that has a cover _joined_, bound, or attached to it. "A father +_with_ a son, a man _with_ an estate, a nation _with_ a constitution." +In all such cases _with_ expresses the relation between the two things +mentioned, produced by a _union_ or connexion with each other.[6] + +=In= is used in the same way. It is still retained as a noun and is +suspended on the signs of many public houses. "The traveller's _inn_," +is a house where travellers _in_ themselves, or go _in_, for +entertainment. It occurs frequently in Shakspeare and in more modern +writers, as a verb, and is still used in common conversation as an +imperative. "Go, _in_ the crops of grain." "_In_ with you." "_In_ with +it." In describes one thing by its relation to another, which is the +business of adjectives. It admits of the regular degrees of comparison; +as, _in_, _inner_, _innermost_ or _inmost_. It also has its compounds. +_In_step, the _inner_ part of the foot, _in_let, _in_vestment, +_in_heritance. In this capacity it is extensively used under its +different shades of meaning which I cannot stop to notice. + +=Of= signifies _divided_, _separated_, or _parted_. "The ship is _off_ +the coast." "I am bound _off_, and you are bound _out_." "A part _of_ a +pencil," is that part which is _separated_ from the rest, implying that +the act of _separating_, or _offing_, has taken place. "A branch _of_ +the tree." There is the tree; this branch is from it. "Our communication +was broken _off_ several years ago." "Sailors record their _off_ings, +and parents love their _off_spring," or those children which sprung +from them.[7] "We also _are his offspring_;" that is, sprung from +God.[8] In all these, and every other case, you will perceive the +meaning of the word, and its office will soon appear essential in the +expression of thought. Had all the world been a compact whole, nothing +ever separated from it, we could never speak of a part _of_ it, for we +could never have such an idea. But we look at things, as separated, +divided, parted; and speak of one thing as separated from the others. +Hence, when we speak of the part of the earth we inhabit, we, in +imagination, separate it from some other _part_, or the general whole. +We can not use this word in reference to a thing which is indivisible, +because we can conceive no idea of a part _of_ an indivisible thing. We +do not say, a portion _of_ our mind taken as a whole, but as capable of +division. A share _of_ our regards, supposes that the remainder is +reserved for something else. + +=Out=, out_er_ or utter, outer_most_ or utmost, admits of the same +remark as _in_. + + * * * * * + +In this manner, we might explain a long list of words, called adverbs, +conjunctions, and prepositions. But I forbear, for the present, the +further consideration of this subject, and leave it for another lecture. + + + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper + nouns.--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.-- + Articles.--_A_ comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of + _a_ and _the_.--Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun + adjectives."--_Mon_, _ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary + adjectives.--Prepositions admit of comparison. + + +We resume the consideration of Adjectives. The importance of this class +of words in the expression of our thoughts, is my excuse for bestowing +upon it so much labor. Had words always been used according to their +primitive meaning, there would be little danger of being misunderstood. +But the fact long known, "_Verba mutanter_"--words change--has been the +prolific source of much of the diversity of opinion, asperity of +feeling, and apparent misconstruction of other's sentiments, which has +disturbed society, and disgraced mankind. I have, in a former lecture, +alluded to this point, and call it up in this place to prepare your +minds to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of words in +the character of adjectives. + +I have already spoken of adjectives in general, as derived from nouns +and verbs, and was somewhat particular upon the class sometimes called +_prepositions_, which describe one thing by its relation to another, +produced by some action which has placed them in such relation. We will +now pass to examine a little more minutely into the character and use +of certain adjectives, and the manner of their derivation. + +We commence with those derived from nouns, both common and proper, which +are somewhat peculiar in their character. I wish you distinctly to bear +in mind the use of adjectives. They are words _added to nouns to define +or describe them_. + +Many words which name things, are used as adjectives, with out change; +as, _ox_ beef, _beef_ cattle, _paper_ books, _straw_ hats, _bonnet_ +paper. Others admit of change, or addition; as, nation_al_ character, a +merci_ful_ (mercy-_ful_) man, a gloom_y_ prospect, a fam_ous_ horse, a +gold_en_ ball. The syllables which are added, are parts of words, which +are at first compounded with them, till, by frequency of use, they are +incorporated into the same word. "A merci_ful_ man" is one who is full +of mercy. A gold_en_ ball is one made of gold. This word is sometimes +used without change; as, a _gold_ ring. + +A numerous portion of these words take the syllable _ly_, contracted +from _like_, which is still retained in many words; as, Judas-_like_, +lady-_like_, gentleman-_like_. These two last words, are of late, +occasionally used as other words, lady_ly_, gentleman_ly_; but the last +more frequently than the former. She behaved very ladi_ly_, or +lady_like_; and his appearance was quite gentleman_ly_. But to say +ladi_ly_ appearance, does not yet sound quite soft enough; but it is +incorrect only because it is uncommon. God_ly_ and god_like_ are both in +use, and equally correct, with a nice shade of difference in meaning. + +All grammarians have found a difficulty in the word _like_, which they +were unable to unravel. They could never account for its use in +expressing a relation between two objectives. They forgot that to be +like, one thing must be _likened_ to another, and that it was the very +meaning of this word to express such like_ness_. John looks _like_ his +brother. The looks, the countenance, or appearance of John, are +_likened_ to his brother's looks or appearance. "This machine is more +like the pattern than any I have seen." Here the adjective _like_ takes +the comparative degree, as it is called, to show a nearer resemblance +than has been before observed between the things compared. "He has a +statesman-_like_ appearance." I _like_ this apple, because it agrees +with my taste; it has qualities _like_ my notion of what is palateable." +In every situation the word is used to express likeness between two +things. It describes one thing by its likeness to another. + +Many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding an apostrophe and +the letter _s_, except when the word ends in _s_, in which case the +final _s_ is usually omitted for the sake of euphony. This, however, was +not generally adopted by old writers. It is not observed in the earliest +translations of the Bible into the english language. It is now in common +practice. Thus, Montgomery's monument in front of St. Paul's church; +Washington's funeral; Shay's rebelion; England's bitterest foes; +Hamlet's father's ghost; Peter's wife's mother; Todd's, Walker's, +Johnson's dictionary; Winchell's Watts' hymns; Pond's Murray's grammar. +No body would suppose that the "relation of property or possession" was +expressed in these cases, as our grammar books tell us, but that the +terms employed are used to _define_ certain objects, about which we are +speaking. They possess the true character and use of adjectives, and as +such let them be regarded. It must be as false as frivolous to say that +Montgomery, who nobly fell at the siege of Quebec, _owns_ the monument +erected over his remains, which were conveyed to New-York many years +after his death; or that St. Paul _owns_ or _possesses_ the church +beneath which they were deposited; that Hamlet owned his father, and his +father his ghost; that Todd owns Walker, and Walker owns Johnson, and +Johnson his dictionary which may have had a hundred owners, and never +been the property of its author, but printed fifty years after his +death. These words, I repeat, are merely _definitive_ terms, and like +others serve to point out or specify particular objects which may thus +be better known. + +Words, however, in common use form adjectives the same as other words; +as, Russia iron, China ships, India silks, Vermont cheese, Orange county +butter, New-York flour, Carolina potatoes. Morocco leather was first +manufactured in a city of Africa called by that name, but it is now made +in almost every town in our country. The same may be said of Leghorn +hats, Russia binding, French shoes, and China ware. Although made in our +own country we still retain the words, morocco, leghorn, russia, french, +and china, to define the fashion, kind, or quality of articles to which +we allude. Much china ware is made in Liverpool, which, to distinguish +it from the real, is called liverpool china. Many french shoes are made +in Lynn, and many Roxbury russets, Newton pippins, and Rhode-Island +greenings, grow in Vermont. + +It may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived from +pronouns, which retain so much of their character as relates to the +persons who employ them. These are _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, +_our_, _your_, _their_, _whose_. This is _my_ book, that is _your_ pen, +this is _his_ knife, and that is _her_ letter. Some of these, like other +words, vary their ending when standing alone; as, two apples are +your_s_, three her_s_, six their_s_, five our_s_, and the rest mine. +_His_ does not alter in popular use. Hence the reason why you hear it so +often, in common conversation, when standing without the noun expressed, +pronounced as if written _hisen_. The word _other_, and some others, +come under the same remark. When the nouns specified are expressed, they +take the regular termination; as, give me these Baldwin apples, and a +few others--a few other apples. + + * * * * * + +There is a class of small words which from the frequency of their use +have, like pronouns, lost their primitive character, and are now +preserved only as adjectives. Let us examine a few of them by +endeavoring to ferret out their true meaning and application in the +expression of ideas. We will begin with the old articles, _a_, _an_, and +_the_, by testing the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned +to them in our grammars. + +The standard grammar asserts that "an article is a word prefixed to +substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their signification +extends; as, "a garden, an eagle, the woman." Skepticism in grammar is +no crime, so we will not hesitate to call in question the correctness of +this "best of all grammars beyond all comparison." Let us consider the +very examples given. They were doubtless the best that could be found. +Does _a_ "point out" the garden, or "show how far its signification +extends?" It does neither of these things. It may name "_any_" garden, +and it certainly does not define whether it is a _great_ or a _small_ +one. It simply determines that _one_ garden is the subject of remark. +All else is to be determined by the word _garden_. + +We are told there are two articles, the one _in_definite, the other +definite--_a_ is the former, and _the_ the latter. I shall leave it with +you to reconcile the apparent contradiction of an _indefinite_ article +which "is used in a _vague sense, to point out the signification_ of +another word." But I challenge teachers to make their pupils comprehend +such a jargon, if they can do it themselves. But it is as good sense as +we find in many of the popular grammars of the day. + +Again, Murray says "_a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel or silent _h_;" and +so say all his _simplifying_ satellites after him. Is such the fact? Is +he right? He is, I most unqualifiedly admit, with this little +correction, the addition of a single word--he is right _wrong_! Instead +of _a_ becoming _an_, the reverse is the fact. The word is derived +directly from the same word which still stands as our first numeral. It +was a short time since written _ane_, as any one may see by consulting +all old books. By and by it dropped the _e_, and afterwards, for the +sake of euphony, in certain cases, the _n_, so that now it stands a +single letter. You all have lived long enough to have noticed the +changes in the word. Formerly we said _an_ union, _an_ holiday, _an_ +universalist, _an_ unitarian, &c., expressions which are now rarely +heard. We now say _a_ union, &c. This single instance proves that +arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation of +language. Its barriers are of sand, soon removed. It will not be said +that this is an unimportant mistake, for, if an error, it is pernicious, +and if a grammarian knows enough to say that _a_ becomes _an_, he ought +to know that he tells a falsehood, and that _an_ becomes _a_ under +certain circumstances. Mr. Murray gives the following example to +illustrate the use of _a_. "Give me _a_ book; that is, _any_ book." How +can the learner understand such a rule? How will it apply? Let us try +it. "A man has _a_ wife;" that is, _any_ man has _any_ wife. I have a +hat; that is, _any_ hat. A farmer has a farm--_any_ farmer has _any_ +farm. A merchant in Boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth--_any_ +merchant in Boston has any beautiful piece of broadcloth. A certain king +of Europe decreed a protestant to be burned--_any_ king of Europe +decreed _any_ protestant to be burned. How ridiculous are the rules we +have learned and taught to others, to enable them to "speak and write +with propriety." No wonder we never understood grammar, if so at +variance with truth and every day's experience. The rules of grammar as +usually taught can never be observed in practice. Hence it is called a +_dry study_. In every thing else we learn something that we can +understand, which will answer some good purpose in the affairs of life. +But this branch of science is among the things which have been tediously +learned to no purpose. No good account can be given of its advantages. + +_The_, we are told, "is called the definite article, because it +ascertains what _particular_ thing or things are meant." A most +unfortunate definition, and quite as erroneous as the former. Let us try +it. _The_ stars shine, _the_ lion roars, _the_ camel is a beast of +burden, _the_ deer is good for food, _the_ wind blows, _the_ clouds +appear, _the_ Indians are abused. What is there in these examples, which +"ascertain what _particular_ thing or things are meant?" They are +expressions as _in_definite as we can imagine. + +On the other hand, should I say _a_ star shines, _a_ lion roars, _an_ +Indian is abused, _a_ wind blows, _a_ cloud appears, you would +understand me to allude very _definitely_ to _one_ "particular" object, +as separate and distinguished from others of its kind. + +But what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and use of these +two little words that makes them so unlike every thing else, as to +demand a separate "part of speech?" You may be surprised when I tell you +that there are other words in our language derived from the same source +and possessed of the same meaning; but such is the fact, as will soon +appear. Let us ask for the etymology of these important words. _A_ +signifies _one_, never more, never less. In this respect it is always +_definite_. It is sometimes applied to a single thing, sometimes to a +whole class of things, to a [one] man, or to a [one] hundred men. It may +be traced thro other languages, ancient and modern, with little +modification in spelling; Greek _eis_, ein; Latin _unus_; Armoric +_unan_; Spanish and Italian _uno_; Portuguese _hum_; French _un_; German +_ein_; Danish _een_, _en_; Dutch _een_; Swedish _en_; Saxon, _an_, +_aen_, _one_--from which ours is directly derived--old English _ane_; +and more modernly _one_, _an_, _a_. In all languages it defines a thing +to be _one_, a united or congregated whole, and the word _one_ may +always be substituted without affecting the sense. From it is derived +our word _once_, which signifies _oned_, _united_, _joined_, as we shall +see when we come to speak of "contractions." In some languages _a_ is +styled an article, in others it is not. The Latin, for instance, has no +article, and the Greek has no _indefinite_. But all languages have words +which are like ours, pure adjectives, employed to specify certain +things. The argument drawn from the fact that some other languages have +_articles_, and therefore ours should, is fallacious. The Latin, which +was surpassed for beauty of style or power in deliverance by few, if any +others, never suffered from the lack of articles. Nor is there any +reason why we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank to +the exclusion of others quite as worthy. + +_The_ is always used as a definitive word, tho it is the least definite +of the defining adjectives. In fact when we desire to "_ascertain +particularly_ what thing is meant," we select some more definite word. +"Give me _the_ books." Which? "Those with red covers, that in calf, and +this in Russia binding." _The_ nations are at peace. What nations? +_Those_ which were at war. You perceive how we employ words which are +more definite, that is, better understood, to "_point out_" the object +of conversation, especially when there is any doubt in the case. What +occasion, then, is there to give these [the?] words a separate "part of +speech," since in character they do not differ from others in the +language? + +We will notice another frivolous distinction made by Mr. Murray, merely +to show how learned men may be mistaken, and the folly of trusting to +special rules in the general application of words. He says, "Thou art +_a_ man," is a very general and _harmless_ expression; but, thou art +_the_ man, (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of +striking terror and remorse into the heart." The distinction in meaning +here, on which he insists, attaches to the articles _a_ and _the_. It is +a sufficient refutation of this definition to make a counter statement. +Suppose we say, "Murray is _the_ best grammarian in the world; or, he is +_a_ fool, _a_ knave, and _a_ liar." Which, think you, would be +considered the most _harmless_ expression? Suppose it had been said to +Aaron Burr, thou art _a_ traitor, or to General William Hull, thou art +_a_ coward, would they regard the phrase as "_harmless!_" On the other +hand, suppose a beautiful, accomplished, and talented young lady, should +observe to one of her suitors, "I have received offers of marriage from +several gentlemen besides yourself, but thou art =the= man of my +choice;" would it, think you, _strike_ terror and remorse into his +heart? I should pity the young student of Murray whose feelings had +become so stoical from the false teaching of his author as to be filled +with "terror and remorse" under such favorable circumstances, while fair +prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly brightening before him. +I speak as to the wise, judge ye what I say. + +The adjective _that_ has obtained a very extensive application in +language. However, it may seem to vary in its different positions, it +still retains its primitive meaning. It is comprised of _the_ and _it_, +thait, theat, thaet (Saxon,) thata (Gothic,) dat (Dutch.) It is the most +decided definitive in our language. It is by use applied to things in +the singular, or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole. By use, +it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence; as, it was +resolved, _that_. What? Then follows _that fact_ which was resolved. +"Provided _that_, in case he does" so and so. "It was agreed _that_," +_that fact_ was agreed to which is about to be made known. I wish you to +understand, all thro these lectures, _that_ I shall honestly endeavor to +expose error and establish truth. Wish you to understand _what_? _that +fact_, afterwards stated, "I shall endeavor," &c. You can not mistake my +meaning: _that_ would be impossible. What would be impossible? Why, to +mistake my meaning. + +You can not fail to observe the true character of this word called by +our grammarians "adjective pronoun," "relative pronoun," and +"conjunction." They did not think to look for its meaning. Had that +(duty) been done, it would have stood forth in its true character, an +important defining word. + +The only difficulty in the explanation of this word, originates in the +fact, that it was formerly applied to the plural as well as singular +number. It is now applied to the singular only when referring directly +to an object; as, _that man_. And it never should be used otherwise. But +we often see phrases like this; "These are the men _that_ rebeled." It +should be, "these are the men _who_ rebeled." This difficulty can not be +overcome in existing grammars on any other ground. In modern writings, +such instances are rare. _This_ and _that_ are applied to the singular; +_these_ and _those_ to the plural. + + * * * * * + +=What= is a compound of two original words, and often retains the +meaning of both, when employed as a compound relative, "having in itself +both the antecedent and the relative," as our authors tell us. But when +it is dissected, it will readily enough be understood to be an +adjective, defining things under particular relations. + +But I shall weary your patience, I fear, if I stay longer in this place +to examine the etymology of small words. I intended to have shown the +meaning and use of many words included in the list of conjunctions, +which are truly adjectives, such as _both_, _as_, _so_, _neither_, +_and_, etc.; but I let them pass for the present, to be resumed under +the head of contractions. + +From the view we have given of this class of words, we are saved the +tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions made in the books, +where no real distinctions exist. In character these words are like +adjectives; their meaning, like the meaning of all other words, is +peculiar to themselves. Let that be known, and there will be little +difficulty in classing them. We need not confuse the learner with +"adjective pronouns, possessive adjective pronouns, distributive +adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective pronouns, _indefinite_ +adjective pronouns," nor any other adjective pronouns, which can never +be understood nor explained. Children will be slow to apprehend the +propriety of a union of _adjectives_ and _pronouns_, when told that the +former is always used _with_ a noun, and never _for_ one; and the latter +always _for_ a noun, but never _with_ one; and yet, that there is such a +strange combination as a "_distributive or indefinite adjective +pronoun_,"--"confusion worse confounded." + +In the french language, the gender of adjectives is varied so as to +agree with the nouns to which they belong. "Possessive pronouns," as +they are called, come under the same rule, which proves them to be in +character, and formation, adjectives; else the person using them must +change gender. The father says, _ma_ (feminine) _fille_, my daughter; +and the mother, _mon_ (masculine) _fils_, my son; the same as they would +say, _bon pere_, good father; _bonne mere_, good mother; or, in Latin, +_bonus pater_, or _bona mater_; or, in Spanish, _bueno padre_, _buena +madre_. In the two last languages, as well as all others, where the +adjectives vary the termination so as to agree with the noun, the same +fact may be observed in reference to their "pronouns." If it is a fact +that these words are _pronouns_, that is, stand for other _nouns_, then +the father is _feminine_, and the mother is _masculine_; and whoever +uses them in reference to the opposite sex must change gender to do so. + + * * * * * + +Describing adjectives admit of variation to express different degrees of +comparison. The regular degrees have been reckoned three; positive, +comparative, and superlative. These are usually marked by changing the +termination. The _positive_ is determined by a comparison with other +things; as, a great house, a small book, compared with others of their +kind. This is truly a comparative degree. The _comparative_ adds _er_; +as, a great_er_ house, a small_er_ book. The _superlative_, _est_; as, +the great_est_ house, the small_est_ book. + +Several adjectives express a comparison less than the positive, others +increase or diminish the regular degrees; as, whit_ish_ white, _very_ +white, _pure_ white; whit_er_, _considerable_ whiter, _much_ whiter; +whit_est_, the _very_ whitest, _much_ the whitest _beyond all +comparison_, so that there can be none _whiter_, nor _so white_. + +We make an aukward use of the words _great_ and _good_, in the +comparison of things; as, a _good deal_, or _great deal_ whiter; a +_good_ many men, or a _great_ many men. As we never hear of a _small_ +deal, or a _bad_ deal whiter, nor of a _bad many_, nor _little many_, it +would be well to avoid such phrases. + +The words which are added to other adjectives, to increase or diminish +the comparison, or assist in their definition, may properly be called +_secondary adjectives_, for such is their character. They do not refer +to the thing to be _defined_ or _described_, but to the adjective which +is affected, in some way, by them. They are easily distinguished from +the rest by noticing this fact. Take for example: "A _very dark red_ raw +silk lady's dress handkerchief." The resolution of this sentence would +stand thus: + + _A_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _red_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _dark_ red ( ) handkerchief. + A _very_ dark red ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red ( ) _silk_ ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red _raw_ silk ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk ( ) _dress_ handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk _lady's_ dress handkerchief. + +We might also observe that _hand_ is an adjective, compounded by use +with _kerchief_. It is derived from the french word _couvrir_, to cover, +and _chef_, the head. It means a head dress, a cloth to cover, a neck +cloth, a napkin. By habit we apply it to a single article, and speak of +_neck_ handkerchief. + +The nice shade of meaning, and the appropriate use of adjectives, is +more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors than in any thing else, +for the simple reason, that there is nothing in nature so closely +observed. For instance, take the word _green_, derived from _grain_, +because it is grain color, or the color of the fair carpet of nature in +spring and summer. But this hue changes from the _deep grass green_, to +the light olive, and words are chosen to express the thousand varying +tints produced by as many different objects. In the adaptation of +language to the expression of ideas, we do not separate these shades of +color from the things in which such colors are supposed to reside. Hence +we talk of _grass_, _pea_, _olive_, _leek_, _verdigris_, _emerald_, +_sea_, and _bottle_ green; also, of _light_, _dark_, _medium_; _very_ +light, or dark grass, pea, olive, or _invisible_ green. + +_Red_, as a word, means _rayed_. It describes the appearance or +substance produced when _rayed_, reddened, or radiated by the morning +beams of the sun, or any other _radiating_ cause. + +_Wh_ is used for _qu_, in white, which means _quite_, _quited_, +_quitted_, _cleared_, _cleansed_ of all _color_, _spot_, or _stain_. + +_Blue_ is another spelling for _blew_. Applied to color, it describes +something in appearance to the sky, when the clouds and mists are +_blown_ away, and the clear _blue ether_ appears. + +You will be pleased with the following extract from an eloquent writer +of the last century,[9] who, tho somewhat extravagant in some of his +speculations, was, nevertheless, a close observer of nature, which he +studied as it is, without the aid of human theories. The beauty of the +style, and the correctness of the sentiment, will be a sufficient +apology for its length. + +"We shall employ a method, not quite so learned, to convey an idea of +the generation of colors, and the decomposition of the solar ray. +Instead of examining them in a prism of glass, we shall consider them in +the heavens, and there we shall behold the five primordial colours +_unfold themselves_ in the order which we have indicated. + +"In a fine summer's night, when the sky is loaded only with some light +vapours, sufficient to stop and to refract the rays of the sun, walk out +into an open plain, where the first fires of Aurora may be perceptible. +You will first observe the horizon _whiten_ at the spot where she is to +make her appearance; and this radiance, from its colour, has procured +for it, in the French language, the name of _aube_, (the dawn,) from the +Latin word _alba_, white. This whiteness insensibly ascends in the +heavens, _assuming_ a tint of yellow some degrees above the horizon; the +yellow as it rises passes into orange; and this shade of orange rises +upward into the lively vermilion, which extends as far as the zenith. +From that point you will perceive in the heavens behind you the violet +succeeding the vermilion, then the azure, after it the deep blue or +indigo colour, and, last of all, the black, quite to the westward. + +"Though this display of colours presents a multitude of intermediate +shades, which rapidly succeed each other, yet at the moment the sun is +going to exhibit his disk, the dazzling white is visible in the horizon, +the pure yellow at an elevation of forty-five degrees; the fire color in +the zenith; the pure blue forty-five degrees under it, toward the west; +and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering on the +horizon. I think I have remarked this progression between the tropics, +where there is scarcely any horizontal refraction to make the light +prematurely encroach on the darkness, as in our climates. + +"Sometimes the trade-winds, from the north-east or south-east, blow +there, card the clouds through each other, then sweep them to the west, +crossing and recrossing them over one another, like the osiers +interwoven in a transparent basket. They throw over the sides of this +chequered work the clouds which are not employed in the contexture, roll +them up into enormous masses, as white as snow, draw them out along +their extremities in the form of a crupper, and pile them upon each +other, moulding them into the shape of mountains, caverns, and rocks; +afterwards, as evening approaches, they grow somewhat calm, as if afraid +of deranging their own workmanship. When the sun sets behind this +magnificent netting, a multitude of luminous rays are transmitted +through the interstices, which produce such an effect, that the two +sides of the lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance of being +girt with gold, and the other two in the shade seem tinged with _ruddy_ +orange. Four or five divergent streams of light, emanated from the +setting sun up to the zenith, _clothe_ with fringes of gold the +undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier, and strike with the +reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral aerial mountains, +which then appear to consist of _silver_ and _vermilion_. At this moment +of the evening are perceptible, amidst their redoubled ridges, a +multitude of valleys extending into infinity, and distinguishing +themselves at their opening by some shade of flesh or of rose colour. + +"These celestial valleys present in their different contours inimitable +tints of white, melting away into white, or shades lengthening +themselves out without mixing over other shades. You see, here and +there, issuing from the cavernous sides of those mountains, tides of +_light_ precipitating themselves, in ingots of gold and silver, over +rocks of coral. Here it is a gloomy rock, pierced through and through, +disclosing, beyond the aperture, the pure azure of the firmament; there +it is an extensive strand, covered with sands of gold, stretching over +the rich ground of heaven; _poppy-coloured_, _scarlet_, and _green_ as +the emerald. + +"The reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself over the +sea, whose azure billows it _glazes_ with saffron and purple. The +mariners, leaning over the gunwale of the ship, admire in silence those +aerial landscapes. Sometimes this sublime spectacle presents itself to +them at the hour of prayer, and seems to invite them to lift up their +hearts with their voices to the heavens. It changes every instant into +forms as variable as the shades, presenting celestial colors and forms +which no pencil can pretend to imitate, and no language can describe. + +"Travellers who have, at various seasons, ascended to the summits of the +highest mountains on the globe, never could perceive, in the clouds +below them, any thing but a gray and lead-colored surface, similar to +that of a lake. The sun, notwithstanding, illuminated them with his +whole light; and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction +to which our systems of physics have subjected them. Hence not a single +shade of color is employed in vain, through the universe; those +celestial decorations being made for the level of the earth, their +magnificent point of view taken from the habitation of man. + +"These admirable concerts of lights and forms, manifest only in the +lower region of the clouds the least illuminated by the sun, are +produced by laws with which I am totally unacquainted. But the whole are +reducible to five colors: yellow, a generation from white; red, a deeper +shade of yellow; blue, a strong tint of red; and black, the extreme tint +of blue. This progression cannot be doubted, on observing in the morning +the expansion of the light in the heavens. You there see those five +colors, with their intermediate shades, generating each other nearly in +this order: white, sulphur yellow, lemon yellow, yolk of egg yellow, +orange, aurora color, poppy red, full red, carmine red, purple, violet, +azure, indigo, and black. Each color seems to be only a strong tint of +that which precedes it, and a faint tint of that which follows; thus the +whole together appear to be only modulations of a progression, of which +white is the first term, and black the last. + +"Indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage, with the Negroes, +Tartars, Americans, and East-Indians, but through the medium of red +cloths. The testimonies of travellers are unanimous respecting the +preference universally given to this color. I have indicated the +universality of this taste, merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the +philosophic axiom, that tastes are arbitrary, or that there are in +Nature no laws for beauty, and that our tastes are the effects of +prejudice. The direct contrary of this is the truth; prejudice corrupts +our natural tastes, otherwise the same over the whole earth. + +"With red Nature heightens the brilliant parts of the most beautiful +flowers. She has given a complete clothing of it to the rose, the queen +of the garden: and bestowed this tint on the blood, the principle of +life in animals: she invests most of the feathered race, in India, with +a plumage of this color, especially in the season of love; and there are +few birds without some shades, at least, of this rich hue. Some preserve +entirely the gray or brown ground of their plumage, but glazed over with +red, as if they had been rolled in carmine; others are besprinkled with +red, as if you had blown a scarlet powder over them. + +"The red (or _rayed_) color, in the midst of the five primordial colors, +is the harmonic expression of them by way of excellence; and the result +of the union of two contraries, light and darkness. There are, besides, +agreeable tints, compounded of the oppositions of extremes. For example, +of the second and fourth color, that is, of yellow and blue, is formed +green, which constitutes a very beautiful harmony, and ought, perhaps, +to possess the second rank in beauty, among colors, as it possesses the +second in their generation. Nay, green appears to many, if not the most +beautiful tint, at least the most lovely, because it is less dazzling +than red, and more congenial to the eye." + +Many words come under the example previously given to illustrate the +secondary character of adjectives, which should be carefully noticed by +the learner, to distinguish whether they define or describe things, or +are added to increase the distinction made by the adjectives themselves, +for both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition; as, +_old_ English coin, New England rebelion; a mounted whip, and a _gold_ +mounted sword--not a gold sword; a _very fine_ Latin scholar. + +Secondary adjectives, also, admit of comparison in various ways; as, +_dearly_ beloved, a _more_ beloved, the _best_ beloved, the _very_ best +beloved brother. + +Words formerly called "prepositions," admit of comparison, as I have +before observed. "Benhadad fled into an _inner_ chamber." The in_ner_ +temple. The in_most_ recesses of the heart. The _out_ fit of a squadron. +The out_er_ coating of a vessel, or house. The ut_most_ reach of +grammar. The _up_ and _down_ hill side of a field. The up_per_ end of +the lot. The upper_most_ seats. A part _of_ the book. Take it _farther +off_. The _off_ cast. India _beyond_ the Ganges. Far beyond the +boundaries of the nation. I shall go _to_ the city. I am _near to_ the +town. _Near_ does not _qualify the verb_, for it has nothing to do with +it. I can exist in one place as well as another. It is _below_ the +surface; _very far_ below it. It is above the earth--"high above all +height." + +Such expressions frequently occur in the expression of ideas, and are +correctly understood; as difficult as it may have been to describe them +with the theories learned in the books--sometimes calling them one +thing, sometimes another--when their character and meaning was +unchanged, or, according to old systems, had "no meaning at all of their +own!" + +But I fear I have gone _far_ beyond your patience, and, perhaps, entered +_deeper_ into this subject than was necessary, to enable you to discover +my meaning. I desired to make the subject _as_ distinct _as_ possible, +that all might see the important improvement suggested. I am +apprehensive even now, that some will be compelled to _think_ many +_profound thoughts_ before they will see the end of the obscurity under +which they have long been shrouded, in reference to the false rules +which they have been taught. But we have one consolation--those who are +not bewildered by the grammars they have tried in vain to understand, +will not be very likely to make a wrong use of adjectives, especially if +they have ideas to express; for there is no more danger of mistaking an +adjective for a noun, or verb, than there is of mistaking a _horse_ +chestnut for a _chestnut_ horse. + + * * * * * + +In our next we shall commence the consideration of Verbs, the most +important department in the science of language, and particularly so in +the system we are defending. I hope you have not been uninterested thus +far in the prosecution of the subject of language, and I am confident +you will not be in what remains to be said upon it. The science, so long +regarded _dry_ and uninteresting, becomes delightful and easy; new and +valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing step, and we feel to +bless God for the ample means afforded us for obtaining knowledge from, +and communicating it to others, on the most important affairs of time +and eternity. + + + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.-- + Actor and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.-- + Neutrality degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind + of verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the + truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter + verbs examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. + W.--Anecdote. + + +We now come to the consideration of that class of words which in the +formation of language are called _Verbs_. You will allow me to bespeak +your favorable attention, and to insist most strenuously on the +propriety of a free and thoro examination into the nature and use of +these words. I shall be under the necessity of performing the thankless +task of exposing the errors of honest, wise, and good men, in order to +remove difficulties which have long existed in works on language, and +clear the way for a more easy and consistent explanation of this +interesting and essential department of literature. I regret the +necessity for such labors; but no person who wishes the improvement of +mankind, or is willing to aid the growth of the human intellect, in its +high aspirations after truth, knowledge, and goodness, should shrink +from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error, nor refuse his +assistance, feeble tho it may be, in the establishment of correct +principles. + +In former lectures we have confined our remarks to things and a +description of their characters and relations, so that every entity of +which we can conceive a thought, or concerning which we can form an +expression, has been defined and described in the use of nouns and +adjectives. Every thing in creation, of which we think, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, and to which we give a name, to represent +the idea of it, comes under the class of words called nouns. The words +which specify or distinguish one thing from another, or describe its +properties, character, or relations, are designated as adjectives. There +is only one other employment left for words, and that is the expression +of the actions, changes, or inherent tendencies of things. This +important department of knowledge is, in grammar, classed under the head +of =Verbs=. + + * * * * * + +_Verb_ is derived from the Latin _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. By +specific application it is applied to those _words_ only which express +action, correctly understood; the same as Bible, derived from the Greek +"_biblos_" means literally _the book_, but, by way of eminence, is +applied to the sacred scriptures only. + +This interesting class of words does not deviate from the correct +principles which we have hitherto observed in these lectures. It depends +on established laws, exerted in the regulation of matter and thought; +and whoever would learn its sublime use must be a close observer of +things, and the mode of their existence. The important character it +sustains in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies of +things and in the transmission of thought, will be found simple, and +obvious to all. + +Things exist; Nouns name them. + +Things differ; Adjectives define or describe them. + +Things act; Verbs express their actions. + + _All Verbs denote action._ + +By action, we mean not only perceivable motion, but an inherent tendency +to change, or resist action. It matters not whether we speak of animals +possessed of the power of locomotion; of vegetables, which _send_ forth +their branches, leaves, blossoms, and fruits; or of minerals, which +_retain_ their forms, positions, and properties. The same principles are +concerned, the same laws exist, and should be observed in all our +attempts to understand their operations, or employ them in the promotion +of human good. Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses; +from the small particle of sand, which _occupies_ its place upon the sea +shore, up thro the various gradation of being, to the tall archangel, +who _bows_ and _worships_ before the throne of the uncreated Cause of +all things and actions which exist thro out his vast dominions. + +As all actions presuppose an _actor_, so every action must result on +some _object_. No effect can exist without an efficient cause to produce +it; and no cause can exist without a corresponding effect resulting from +it. These mutual relations, helps, and dependencies, are manifest in all +creation. Philosophy, religion, the arts, and all science, serve only to +develope these primary laws of nature, which unite and strengthen, +combine and regulate, preserve and guide the whole. From the Eternal I +AM, the uncreated, self-existent, self-sustaining =Cause= of all things, +down to the minutest particle of dust, evidences may be traced of the +existence and influence of these laws, in themselves irresistible, +exceptionless, and immutable. Every thing has a place and a duty +assigned it; and harmony, peace, and perfection are the results of a +careful and judicious observance of the laws given for its regulation. +Any infringement of these laws will produce disorder, confusion, and +distraction. + +Man is made a little lower than the angels, possessed of a mind capable +of reason, improvement, and happiness; an intellectual soul inhabiting a +mortal body, the connecting link between earth and heaven--the material +and spiritual world. As a physical being, he is subject, in common with +other things, to the laws which regulate matter: as an intellectual +being, he is governed by the laws which regulate mind: as possessed of +both a body and mind, a code of moral laws demand his observance in all +the social relations and duties of life. Obedience to these laws is the +certain source of health of body, and peace of mind. An infringement of +them will as certainly be attended with disease and suffering to the +one, and sorrow and anguish to the other. + +Lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in common with man. In +some they are deficient; in others they are superior. Some animals are +possessed of all but reason, and even in that, the highest of them come +very little short of the lowest of the human species. If they have not +reason, they possess an instinct which nearly approaches it. These +qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various orders and varieties +of animated nature, to the lowest grade of animalculae, a multitude of +which may inhabit a single drop of water; or to the zoophytes and +lythophytes, which form the connecting link between the animal and +vegetable kingdom; as the star-fish, the polypus, and spunges. Then +strike off into another kingdom, and observe the laws vegetable life. +Mark the tall pine which has grown from a small seed which _sent_ forth +its root downwards and its trunk upwards, drawing nourishment from +earth, air, and water, till it now waves its top to the passing breeze, +a hundred feet above this dirty earth: or the oak or olive, which have +_maintained_ their respective positions a dozen centuries despite the +operations of wind and weather, and have shed their foliage and their +seeds to propagate their species and extend their kinds to different +places. While a hundred generations have lived and died, and the country +often changed masters, they resist oppression, scorn misrule, and retain +rights and privileges which are slowly encroached upon by the inroads of +time, which will one day triumph over them, and they fall helpless to +the earth, to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve +their very being and cause them to mingle with the common dust, yielding +their strength to give life and power to other vegetables which shall +occupy their places.[10] Or mark the living principle in the "sensitive +plant," which withers at every touch, and suffers long ere it regains +its former vigor. + +Descend from thence, down thro the various gradations of vegetable life, +till you pass the narrow border and enter the mineral world. Here you +will see displayed the same sublime principle, tho in a modified degree. +Minerals _assume_ different shapes, hues and relations; they increase +and diminish, attach and divide under various circumstances, all the +while _retaining_ their identity and properties, and exerting their +abilities according to the means they possess, till compelled to yield +to a superior power, and learn to submit to the laws which operate in +every department of this mutable world. + +_Every_ thing _acts_ according to the ability God has bestowed upon it; +and man can do no more. He has authority over all things on earth, and +yet he is made to depend upon all. His authority extends no farther than +a privilege, under wholesome restrictions, of making the whole +subservient to his real good. When he goes beyond this, he usurps a +power which belongs not to him, and the destruction of his happiness +pays the forfeit of his imprudence. The injured power rises triumphant +over the aggressor, and the glory of God's government, in the righteous +and immediate execution of his laws, is clearly revealed. So long as man +obeys the laws which regulate health, observes temperance in all things, +uses the things of this world as not abusing them, he is at rest, he is +blessed, he is happy: but no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he +becomes the slave, and the servant assumes the master. But I am +digressing. I would gladly follow this subject further, but I shall go +beyond my limits, and, it may be, your patience. + +I would insist, however, on the facts to which your attention has been +given, for it is impossible, as I have before contended, to use language +correctly without a knowledge of the things and ideas it is employed to +represent. + +Grovelling, indeed, must be the mind which will not trace the sublime +exhibitions of Divine power and skill in all the operations of nature; +and false must be that theory which teaches the young mind to think and +speak of neutrality as attached to things which do exist. As low and +debasing as the speculations of the schoolmen were, they gave to things +which they conceived to be incapable of action, a principle which they +called "_vis inertiae_," or, _power to lie still_. Shall our systems of +instruction descend below them, throw an insurmountable barrier in the +way of human improvement, and teach the false principles that actions +can exist without an effect, or that there is a class of words which +"express neither action or passion." Such a theory is at war with the +first principles of philosophy, and denies that "like causes produce +like effects." + +The ablest minds have never been able to explain the foundation of a +"neuter verb," or to find a single word, with a solitary exception, +which does not, in certain conditions, express a positive action, and +terminate on a definite object; and that exception we shall see refers +to a verb which expresses the highest degree of conceivable action. +Still they have insisted on _three_ and some on _four_ kinds of verbs, +one expressing action, another passion or suffering, and the third +neutrality. We propose to offer a brief review of these distinctions, +which have so long perplexed, not only learners, but teachers +themselves, and been the fruitful source of much dissention among +grammarians. + +It is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as great candor as +you have heretofore manifested, and as fully resolved to take nothing +for granted, because it has been said by good or great men, and to +reject nothing because it appears new or singular. Let truth be our +object and reason our guide to direct us to it. We can not fail of +arriving at safe and correct conclusions. + +Mr. Murray tells us that "verbs are of three kinds, _active_, _passive_, +and _neuter_. In a note he admits of "active _transitive_ and +intransitive verbs," as a subdivision of his first kind. Most of his +"improvers" have adopted this distinction, and regard it as of essential +importance. + +We shall contend, as before expressed, that _all_ verbs are of _one +kind_, that they _express action_, for the simple yet sublime reason, +that every thing acts, at all times, and under every possible condition; +according to the true definition of _action_ as understood and employed +by all writers on grammar, and natural and moral science. Here we are at +issue. Both, contending for principles so opposite, can not be correct. +One or the other, however pure the motives, must be attached to a system +wrong in theory, and of course pernicious in practice. You are to be the +umpires in the case, and, if you are faithful to your trust, you will +not be bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others. If +divested of all former attachments, if free from all prejudice, there +can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your conclusions. But I +am apprehensive I expect too much, if I place the _new_ system of +grammar on a footing equally favorable in your minds with those you have +been taught to respect, as the only true expositions of language, from +your childhood up, and which are recommended to you on the authority of +the learned and good of many generations. I have to combat early +prejudices, and systems long considered as almost sacred. But I have in +my favor the common sense of the world, and a feeling of opposition to +existing systems, which has been produced, not so much by a detection of +their errors, as by a lack of capacity, as the learner verily thought, +to understand their profound mysteries. I am, therefore, willing to risk +the final decision with you, if _you_ will decide. But I am not willing +to have you made the tools of the opposite party, determined, whether +convinced or not, to hold to your old _neuter_ verb systems, right or +wrong, merely because others are doing so. All I ask is _your_ adoption +of what is proved to be undeniably true, and rejection of whatever is +found to be false. + +Here is where the matter must rest, for it will not be pretended that it +is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient and popular, than +truth because it is novel. Teachers, in this respect, stand in a most +responsible relation to their pupils. They should always insist with an +unyielding pertinacity, on the importance of truth, and the evils of +error. Every trifling incident, in the course of education, which will +serve to show the contrast, should be particularly observed. If an error +can be detected in their books, they should be so taught as to be able +to correct it; and they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it. +They should not be skeptics, however, but close observers, original +thinkers, and correct reasoners. It is degrading to the true dignity and +independence of man, to submit blindly to any proposition. Freedom of +thought is the province of all. Children should be made to breathe the +free air of honest inquiry, and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and +charity. They should not study their books as the end of learning, but +as a means of knowing. Books should be regarded as lamps, which are set +by the way side, not as the objects to be looked at, but the aids by +which we may find the object of our search. Knowledge and usefulness +constitute the leading motives in all study, and no occasion should be +lost, no means neglected, which will lead the young mind to their +possession. + +Your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on the +distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs. Let us carefully +examine the meaning of these _three kinds_ and see if there is any +occasion for such a division; if they have any foundation in truth, or +application in the correct use of language. We will follow the +arrangements adopted by the most popular grammars. + +"A _verb active_ expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, +and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love Penelope." A very +excellent definition, indeed! Had grammarians stopped here, their works +would have been understood, and proved of some service in the study of +language. But when they diverge from this bright spot in the +consideration of verbs--this oasis in the midst of a desert--they soon +become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture, and follow each +their own dim light, to hit on a random track, which to follow in the +pursuit of their object. + +We give our most hearty assent to the above definition of a verb. It +expresses action, which necessarily implies an _actor_, and an _object_ +influenced by the action. In our estimation it matters not whether the +object on which the action terminates is expressed or _understood_. If I +_love_, I must love some object; either my neighbor, my enemy, my +family, _myself_, or something else. In either case the _action_ is the +same, tho the objects may be different; and it is regarded, on all +hands, as an active verb. Hence when the object on which the action +terminates is not expressed, it is necessarily understood. All language +is, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which adds much to its +richness and brevity. + +Active verbs, we are told, are divided into _transitive_ and +_intransitive_. Mr. Murray does not exactly approve of this distinction, +but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter together. Others, aware +of the fallacy of attempting to make children conceive any thing like +neutrality in the verbs, _run_, _fly_, _walk_, _live_, &c., have +preferred to mark the distinction and call them _in_transitive; because, +say they, they do not terminate on any object expressed. + +A _transitive verb_ "expresses an action which passes from the agent to +the object; as, Caesar conquered Pompey." To this definition we can not +consent. It attempts a distinction where there is none. It is not true +in principle, and can not be adopted in practice. + +"Caesar conquered Pompey." Did the act of conquering pass _transitively_ +over from _Caesar_ to Pompey? They might not have seen each other during +the whole battle, nor been within many miles of each other. They, each +of them, stood at the head of their armies, and alike gave orders to +their subordinate officers, and they again to their inferiors, and so +down, each man contending valiantly for _victory_, till, at last, the +fate of the day sealed the downfall of Pompey, and placed the crown of +triumph on the head of Caesar. The expression is a correct one, but the +action expressed by the verb "conquered," is not transitive, as that +term is understood. A whole train of causes was put in operation which +finally terminated in the defeat of one, and the conquest of the other. + +"Bonaparte _lost_ the battle of Waterloo." What did _he_ do to _lose_ +the battle? He exerted his utmost skill to _gain_ the battle and escape +defeat. He did not do a single act, he entertained not a single thought, +which lead to such a result; but strove against it with all his power. +If the fault was _his_, it was because he failed to act, and not because +he labored to _lose_ the battle. He had too much at stake to adopt such +a course, and no man but a teacher of grammar, would ever accuse him of +_acting_ to _lose_ the battle. + +"A man was sick; he desired to recover (his health). He took, for +medicine, opium by mistake, and _lost_ his life by it." Was he guilty of +suicide? Certainly, if our grammars are true. But he _lost_ his life in +trying to get well. + +"A man in America _possesses_ property in Europe, and his children +_inherit_ it after his death." What do the children do to _inherit_ this +property, of which they know nothing? + +"The geese, by their gabbling, _saved_ Rome from destruction." How did +the geese save the city? They made a noise, which waked the sentinels, +who roused the soldiers to arms; they fought, slew many Gauls, and +delivered the city. + +"A man in New-York _transacts_ business in Canton." How does he do it? +He has an agent there to whom he sends his orders, and he transacts the +business. But how does he get his letters? The clerk writes them, the +postman carries them on board the ship, the captain commands the +sailors, who work the ropes which unfurl the sails, the wind blows, the +vessel is managed by the pilot, and after a weary voyage of several +months, the letters are delivered to the agent, who does the business +that is required of him. + +The miser _denies_ himself every comfort, and spends his whole life in +hoarding up riches; and yet he dies and _leaves_ his gold to be the +possession of others. + +Christians _suffer_ insults almost every day from the Turks. + +Windows _admit_ light and _exclude_ cold. + +Who can discover any thing like _transitive_ action--a passing from the +agent to the object--in these cases? What transitive action do the +windows perform to _admit the light_; or the christians, to _suffer +insults_; or the miser, to _leave his money_? If there is neutrality any +where, we would look for it here. The fact is, these words express +_relative_ action, as we shall explain when we come to the examination +of the true character of the verb. + +_Neutrality_ signifies (transitive verb!) no action, and _neuter_ verbs +_express a state of being_! A class of words which can not act, which +apply to things in a quiescent state, _perform_ the transitive action of +"_expressing_ a state of being!" + +Who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such distinctions? +And who has not found himself perplexed, if not completely bewildered in +the dark and intricate labyrinths into which he has been led by the +false grammar books! Every attempt he has made to extricate himself, by +the dim light of the "simplifiers," has only tended to bewilder him +still more, till he is utterly confounded, or else abandons the study +altogether. + + * * * * * + +An _intransitive_ verb "denotes action which is confined to the actor, +and does not pass over to another object; as, I sit, he lives, they +sleep." + +"A verb _neuter_ expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a +state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit." + +These verbs are nearly allied in character; but we will examine them +separately and fairly. The examples are the same, with exception of the +verb _to be_, which we will notice by itself, and somewhat at large, in +another place. + +Our first object will be to ascertain the _meaning_ and use of the words +which have been given as samples of neutrality. It is unfortunate for +the neuter systems that they can not define a "neuter verb" without +making it express an action which terminates on some object. + + * * * + +"The man _sits_ in his chair." + +_Sits_, we are told, is a neuter verb. What does it mean? The man +_places_ himself in a sitting posture in his _seat_. He _keeps_ himself +in his chair by muscular energy, assisted by gravitation. The chair +_upholds_ him in that condition. Bring a small child and _sit_ it +(active verb,) in a chair beside him. Can it _sit_? No; it falls upon +the floor and is injured. Why did it fall? It was not able to _keep_ +itself from falling. The lady fainted and _fell_ from her _seat_. If +there is no action in sitting, why did she not remain as she was? A +company of ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college, +entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs; and he asked them to +_sit_ down, or be _seated_. They were neutral. He called them impolite. +But they replied, that _sit_ "expresses neither action nor passion," and +hence he could not expect them to occupy his seats. + +"_Sit_ or _set_ it away; _sit_ near me; _sit_ farther along; _sit_ +still;" are expressions used by every teacher in addressing his +scholars. On the system we are examining, what would they understand by +such inactive expressions? Would he not correct them for disobeying his +orders? But what did he order them to do? Nothing at all, if _sit_ +denotes no action. + + "I _sat_ me down and wept." + + "He _sat him_ down by a pillar's base, + And drew his hand athwart his face." + _Byron._ + + "Then, having shown his wounds, he'd _sit him_ down, + And, all the live long day, discourse of war." + _Tragedy of Douglass._ + + "But wherefore _sits he_ there? + Death on my state! _This act_ convinces me + That this retiredness of the duke and her, + Is plain contempt." + _King Lear._ + + "_Sitting_, the _act of resting_ on a seat. + _Session_, the _act of sitting_." + _Johnson's Dictionary._ + + * * * + +"_I sleep._" + +Is sleep a neuter verb? So we are gravely told by our authors. Can +grammarians follow their own rules? If so, they may spend the "live long +night" and "its waking hours," without resorting to "tired nature's +sweet restorer, balmy sleep;" for there is no process under heaven +whereby they can procure sleep, unless they _sleep_ it. For one, I can +never _sleep_ without sleeping _sleep_--sometimes only a short _nap_. It +matters not whether the object is expressed or not. The action remains +the same. The true object is necessarily understood, and it would be +superfluous to name it. Cases, however, often occur where, both in +speaking and writing, it becomes indispensable to mention the object. +"The stout hearted have _slept_ their sleep." "They shall _sleep_ the +_sleep_ of death." "They shall _sleep_ the perpetual _sleep_, and shall +not awake." "_Sleep_ on now and _take_ your rest." The child was +troublesome and the mother sung it to sleep, and it _slept itself_ +quiet. A lady took opium and _slept herself_ to death. "Many persons +sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity." Rip Van Winkle, +according to the legend, _slept_ away a large portion of a common life. + + "Sleep, sleep to-day, tormenting cares." + + "And _sleep_ dull _cares_ away." + +Was your sleep refreshing last night? How did you procure it? Let a +person who still adheres to his _neuter_ verbs, that sleep expresses no +action, and has no object on which it terminates, put his theory in +practice; he may as well sleep with his eyes open, sitting up, as to +_lie himself_ upon his bed. + +A man lodged in an open chamber, and while he was _sleeping_ (doing +nothing) he _caught_ a severe _cold_ (active transitive verb) and had a +long _run_ of the fever. Who does not see, not only the bad, but also +the false philosophy of such attempted distinctions? How can you make a +child discover any difference in the _act of sleeping_, whether there is +an object after it, or not? Is it not the same? And is not the object +necessarily implied, whether expressed or not? Can a person _sleep_, +without procuring _sleep_? + + * * * + +"_I stand._" + +The man _stands_ firm in his integrity. Another stands in a very +precarious condition, and being unable to retain his hold, _falls_ down +the precipice and is killed. Who is killed? The man, surely. Why did he +fall? Because he could not _stand_. But there is no _action_ in +_standing_, say the books. + +"_Stand_ by thyself, come not near me?" "_Stand_ fast in the liberty +wherewith Christ hath made you free, and _be_ not again entangled in the +yoke of bondage." "Let him that thinketh he _standeth_, take heed lest +he _fall_." If it requires no act to _stand_, there can be no danger of +falling. + +"Two pillars stood together; the rest had fallen to the ground. The one +on the right was quite perfect in all its parts. The other _resembled +it_ very much, except it had _lost_ its capital, and _suffered_ some +other injuries." How could the latter column, while performing no action +in _standing_, act _transitively_, according to our grammars, and do +something to _resemble_ the other? or, what did it do to _lose_ its +capital, and _suffer_ other injury? + + * * * + +"To _lie_, or _lay_." + +It has been admitted that the verbs before considered are often used as +active verbs, and that there is, in truth, action expressed by them. +But when the man has fallen from his seat and _lies_ upon the floor, it +is contended that he no longer acts, and that _lie_ expresses no action. +He has ceased from physical, muscular action regulated by his will, and +is now subject to the common laws which govern matter. + +Let us take a strong example. The book _lies_ or _lays_ on the desk. Now +you ask, does that book perform any action in laying on the desk? I +answer, yes; and I will prove it on the principles of the soundest +philosophy, to the satisfaction of every one present. Nor will I deviate +from existing grammars to do it, so far as real action is concerned. + +The book _lies_ on the desk. The desk _supports_ the book. Will you +parse _supports_? It is, according to every system, an active transitive +verb. It has an objective case after it on which the action terminates. +But what does the desk do to _support_ the book? It barely resists the +action which the book _performs_ in lying on it. The action of the desk +and book is reciprocal. But if the book does not act, neither can the +desk act, for that only repels the force of the book in pressing upon it +in its tendency towards the earth, in obedience to the law of +gravitation. And yet our authors have told us that the desk is _active_ +in resisting no action of the book! No wonder people are unable to +understand grammar. It violates the first principles of natural science, +and frames to itself a code of laws, unequal, false, and exceptionable, +which bear no affinity to the rest of the world, and will not apply in +the expression of ideas. + +I was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of New-York. +Mrs. W., the distinguished teacher of one of the most popular Female +Seminaries in our country, attended. At the close of one lecture she +remarked that the greatest fault she had discovered in the new system, +was the want of a class of words to express neutrality. Children, she +said, conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state, and words should +be taught them by which to communicate such ideas. I asked her for an +example. She gave the rock in the side of the mountain. It had never +moved. It could never act. There it had been from the foundation of the +earth, and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged till time +should be no longer. I remarked, that I would take another small stone +and _lay_ it on the great one which could never act, and now we say the +great rock _upholds_, _sustains_ or _supports_ the small one--all active +transitive verbs with an object expressed. + +She replied, she would give it up, for it had satisfied her of a new +principle which must be observed in the exposition of all language, +which accords with _facts as developed in physical and mental science_. + +I continued, not only does that rock act in resisting the force of the +small one which lays upon it, but, by the attraction of gravitation it +is able to _maintain_ its _position_ in the side of the mountain; by +cohesion it _retains_ its distinct identity and solidity, and repels all +foreign bodies. It is also subject to the laws which govern the earth in +its diurnal and annual revolutions, and moves in common with other +matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an hour! Who shall +teach children, in these days of light and improvement, the grovelling +doctrine of neutrality, this relic of the peripatetic philosophy? Will +parents send their children to school to learn falsehood? And can +teachers be satisfied to remain in ignorance, following with blind +reverence the books they have studied, and refuse to examine new +principles, fearing they shall be compelled to acknowledge former +errors and study new principles? They should remember it is wiser and +more honorable to confess a fault and correct it, than it is to remain +permanent in error. + +Let us take another example of the verb "_to lie_." A country pedagogue +who has followed his authorities most devotedly, and taught his pupils +that _lie_ is a "_neuter verb_, expressing neither action nor passion, +but simply being, or a state of being," goes out, during the +intermission, into a grove near by, to _exercise himself_. In attempting +to roll a log up the hill, he _makes_ a mis-step, and _falls_ +(intransitive verb, _nothing_ falls!) to the ground, and the log _rolls_ +(_nothing_) on to him, and _lies_ across his legs. In this condition he +is observed by his scholars to whom he cries (nothing) for help. "Do +(nothing) come (intransitive) and help me." They obey him and remain +_neuter_, or at least act _intransitively_, and produce no effects. He +cries again for help and his _cries_ are regarded. They _present_ +themselves before him. "Do roll this log off; it will break my legs." +"Oh no, master; how can that be? The log _lies_ on you, does it not?" +"Yes, and it will _press me_ to death." "No, no; that can never be. The +log can not act. =Lies= is a _neuter_ verb, signifying neither _action_ +nor passion, but simply being or a state of being. You have a _state_ of +being, and the log has a state of being. It can not harm you. You must +have forgotten the practical application of the truths you have been +teaching us." It would be difficult to explain neuter verbs in such a +predicament. + + "Now I _lay_ me down _to sleep_." + +"She died and they _laid her_ beside her lover under the spreading +branches of the willow." + +"They _laid it_ away so secure that they could never find it." + +They _laid_ down to _rest themselves_ after the fatigue of a whole day's +journey. + +We have now considered the model verbs of the neuter kind, with the +exception of the verb =to be=, which is left for a distinct +consideration, being the most active of all verbs. It is unnecessary to +spend much time on this point. The errors I have examined have all been +discovered by teachers of language, long ago, but few have ventured to +correct them. An alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in the +adoption of the intransitive verb, which "expresses an action that is +confined to the actor or agent." + +The remarks which have been given in the present lecture will serve as a +hint to the course we shall adopt in treating of them, but the more +particular examination of their character and uses, together with some +general observation on the agents and objects of verbs, will be deferred +to our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + + Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can + be known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known + by their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things + signified.--Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables. + --Minerals.--All things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained. + --First Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.-- + These principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of + Gallileo. + + +We resume the consideration of verbs. We closed our last lecture with +the examination of _neuter verbs_, as they have been called. It appears +to us that evidence strong enough to convince the most skeptical was +adduced to prove that _sit_, _sleep_, _stand_ and _lie_, stand in the +same relation to language as other verbs, that they do not, in any case, +express neutrality, but frequently admit an objective word after them. +These are regarded as the most neutral of all the verbs except _to be_, +which, by the way, expresses the highest degree of action, as we shall +see when we come to inquire into its meaning. + +Grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the books in the use +of a large portion of verbs which have been called neuter. To obviate +the difficulty, some of them have adopted the distinction of +_Intransitive_ verbs, which express action, but terminate on no object; +others still use the term _neuter_, but teach their scholars that when +the _object_ is _expressed_, it is active. This distinction has only +tended to perplex learners, while it afforded only a temporary expedient +to teachers, by which to dodge the question at issue. So far as the +action is concerned, which it is the business of the verb to express, +what is the difference whether "I _run_, or _run_ myself?" "A man +started in haste. He _ran_ so fast that he _ran himself_ to death." I +strike Thomas, Thomas _strikes David_, Thomas _strikes himself_. Where +is the difference in the action? What matters it whether the action +passes over to another object, or is confined within itself? + +"But," says the objector, "you mistake. An intransitive verb is one +where the 'effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass over +to any object.'" + +Very well, I think I understand the objection. When Thomas strikes David +the effects of the blow _passes over_ to him. And when he strikes +himself, it "is confined within the subject," and hence the latter is an +_intransitive_ verb. + +"No, no; there is an object on which the action terminates, in that +case, and so we must call it a _transitive_ verb." + +Will you give me an example of an _intransitive_ verb? + +"I _run_, he _walks_, birds _fly_, it _rains_, the fire _burns_. No +objects are expressed after these words, so the action is confined +within themselves." + +I now get your meaning. When the object is _expressed_ the verb is +transitive, when it is not it is intransitive. This distinction is +generally observed in teaching, however widely it may differ from the +intention of the makers of grammars. And hence children acquire the +habit of limiting their inquiries to what they see placed before them by +others, and do not think for themselves. When the verb has an objective +word after it _expressed_, they are taught to attach action to it; but +tho the action may be even greater, if the object is not expressed, +they consider the action as widely different in its character, and adopt +the false philosophy that a cause can exist without an effect resulting +from it. + +We assume this ground, and we shall labor to maintain it, that every +verb necessarily presupposes an _agent_ or _actor_, an _action_, and an +_object_ acted upon, or affected by the action. + +No action, as such, can be known to exist separate from the thing that +acts. We can conceive no idea of action, only by keeping our minds fixed +on the acting substance, marking its changes, movements, and tendencies. +"The book _moves_." In this case the eye rests on the book, and observes +its positions and attitudes, alternating one way and the other. You can +separate no action from the book, nor conceive any idea of it, as a +separate entity. Let the book be taken away. Where now is the action? +What can you think or say of it? There is the same space just now +occupied by the book, but no action is perceivable. + +The boy _rolls_ his marble upon the floor. All his ideas of the action +performed by it are derived from an observation of the marble. His eye +follows it as it moves along the floor. He sees it in that acting +condition. When he speaks of the action as a whole, he thinks where it +started and where it stopped. It is of no importance, so far as the verb +is concerned, whether the marble received an impulse from his hand, or +whether the floor was sufficiently inclined to allow it to roll by its +own inherent tendency. The action is, in this case, the obvious change +of the marble. + +Our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance of things in a +state of motion, or change, or exerting a tendency to change, or to +counteract an opposing substance. + +This will be admitted so far as material things are concerned. The same +principle holds good in reference to every thing of which we form ideas, +or concerning which we use language. In our definition of nouns we spoke +of immaterial and imaginary things to which we gave _names_ and which we +consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence in the production +of effects, or in resisting actions. It is therefore unimportant whether +the action be real or imaginary. It is still inseparably connected with +the thing that acts; and we employ it thus in the construction of +language to express our thoughts. Thus, lions roar; birds sing; minds +reflect; fairies dance; knowledge increases; fancies err; imagination +wanders. + +This fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to understand or +explain language. The mind should remain fixed to the acting substance, +to observe its changes and relations at different periods, and in +different circumstances. There is no other process by which any +knowledge can be gained of actions. The mind contemplates the acting +thing in a condition of change and determines the precise action by the +_altered condition_ of the thing, and thus learns to judge of actions by +their effects. The only method by which we can know whether a _vegetable +grows_ or not is by comparing its form to-day with what it was some days +ago. We can not decide on the improvement of our children only by +observing the same rule. + +"By their fruits ye shall know them," will apply in physics as well as +in morals; for we judge of causes only by their effects. First +principles can never be known. We observe things as they _are_, and +remember how they _have been_; and from hence deduce our conclusions in +reference to the _cause_ of things we do not fully understand, or those +consequences which will follow a condition of things as now existing. It +is the business of philosophy to mark these effects, and trace them back +to the causes which produced them, by observing all the intermediate +changes, forms, attitudes, and conditions, in which such things have, at +different times, been placed. + +We say, "_trees grow_." But suppose no change had ever been observed in +trees, that they had always been as they now are; in stature as lofty, +in foliage as green and beautiful, in location unaltered. Who would then +say, "trees grow?" + +In this single expression a whole train of facts are taken into the +account, tho not particularly marked. As a single expression we imply +that _trees increase their stature_. But this we all know could never be +effected without the influence of other causes. The soil where it stands +must contain properties suited to the _growth_ of the tree. A due +portion of moisture and heat are also requisite. These facts all exist, +and are indispensable to make good the expression that the "tree grows." +We might also trace the capabilities of the tree itself, its roots, +bark, veins or pores, fibres or grains, its succulent and absorbent +powers. But, as in the case of the "man that killed the deer," noticed +in a former lecture, the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete +whole, which is signified by the single expression, "trees grow." + +Let the following example serve in further illustration of this point. +Take two bricks, the one heated to a high temperature, the other cold. +Put them together, and in a short time you will find them of equal +temperature. One has grown warm, the other cool. One has _imparted_ heat +and _received_ cold, the other has _received_ heat and _imparted_ cold. +Yet all this would remain forever unknown, but for the effects which +must appear obvious to all. From these effects the causes are to be +learned. + +It must, I think, appear plain to all who are willing to see, that +action, as such, can never exist distinct from the thing that acts; that +all our notions of action are derived from an observance of _things_ in +an acting condition; and hence that no words can be framed to express +our ideas of action on any other principle. + +I hope you will bear these principles in mind. They are vastly important +in the construction of language, as will appear when we come to speak of +the _agents_ and _objects_ of action. We still adhere to the fact, that +no rules of language can be successfully employed, which deviate from +the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter and mind; a +fact which can not be too deeply impressed on your minds. + +In the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs, we must observe +that _power_, _cause_, _means_, _agency_, and _effects_, are +indispensable to their existence. Such principles exist _in fact_, and +must be observed in obtaining a complete knowledge of language; for +words, we have already seen, are the expression of ideas, and ideas are +the impression of things. + +In our attempts at improvement, we should strip away the covering, and +come at the reality. Words should be measurably forgotten, while we +search diligently for the things expressed by them. _Signs_ should +always conduct to the things _signified_. The weary traveller, hungry +and faint, would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of the +_sign_ before the inn, marking its form, the picture upon it, the nice +shades of coloring in the painting. He would go in, and search for the +thing signified. + +It has been the fault in teaching language, that learners have been +limited to the mere _forms_ of words, while the important duty of +teaching them to look at the thing signified, has been entirely +disregarded. Hence they have only obtained book knowledge. They know +what the grammars say; but how to _apply_ what they say, or what is in +reality meant by it, they have yet to learn. This explains the reason +why almost every man who has studied grammar will tell you that "he +_used_ to understand it, but it has all gone from him, for he has not +looked into a _book_ these many years." Has he lost a knowledge of +language? Oh, no, he learned that before he saw a grammar, and will +preserve it to the day of his death. What good did his two or three +years study of grammar do him? None at all; he has forgotten all that he +ever knew of it, and that is not much, for he only learned what some +author said, and a few arbitrary rules and technical expressions which +he could never understand nor apply in practice, except in special +cases. But I wander. I throw in this remark to show you the necessity of +bringing your minds to a close observance of things as they do in truth +exist; and from them you can draw the principles of speech, and be able +to use language correctly. For we still insist on our former opinion, +that all language depends on the permanent laws of nature, as exerted in +the regulation of matter and mind. + + * * * + +To return. I have said that all action denotes _power_, _cause_, +_means_, _agency_, and _effects_. + + * * * + +_Power_ depends on _physical energy_, or _mental skill_. I have hinted +at this fact before. Things act according to the power or energy they +possess. Animals walk, birds fly, fishes swim, minerals sink, poisons +kill. Or, according to the adopted theories of naturalists: + +Minerals _grow_. + +Vegetables _grow_ and _live_. + +Animals _grow_, and _live_, and _feel_. + +Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses. Man, possessed +of reason, devises means and produces ends. Beasts change locations, +devour vegetables, and sometimes other beasts. The lowest grade of +animals never change location, but yet eat and live. Vegetables live and +grow, but do not change location. They have the power to reproduce their +species, and some of them to kill off surrounding objects. "The +_carraguata_ of the West Indies, clings round," says Goldsmith, +"whatever tree it happens to approach; there it quickly gains the +ascendant, and, loading the tree with a verdure not its own, keeps away +that nourishment designed to feed the trunk, and at last entirely +destroys its supporter." In our country, many gardens and fields present +convincing proof of the ability of weeds to kill out the vegetables +designed to grow therein. You all have heard of the _Upas_, which has a +power sufficient to destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a +large distance around. Its very exhalations are death to whatever +approaches it. It serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious effects +of all vice, of slander and deceit, the effects of which are to the +moral constitution, what the tree itself is to natural objects, blight +and mildew upon whatever comes within its reach. + +Minerals are possessed of _power_ no less astonishing, which may be +observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call it forth. Active +poisons, able to slay the most powerful men and beasts, lie hid within +their bosoms. They have strong attractive and repelling powers. From the +iron is made the strong cable which _holds_ the vessel fast in her +moorings, _enabling_ it to outride the collected force of the winds and +waves which _threaten_ its destruction. From it also are manufactured +the manacles which bind the strong man, or fasten the lion in his cage. +Gold _possesses_ a power which _charms_ nearly all men to sacrifice +their ease, and too many their moral principles, to pay their blind +devotions at its shrine. + +Who will contend that the power of action is confined to the animal +creation alone, and that inanimate matter can not act? That there is a +superior power possessed by man, endowed with an immaterial spirit in a +corporeal body, none will deny. By the agency of the mind he can +accomplish wonders, which mere physical power without the aid of such +mental skill, could never perform. But with all his boasted superiority, +he is often made the slave of inanimate things. His lofty powers of body +and soul bend beneath the weight of accumulated sorrows, produced by the +secret _operations_ of contagious disease, which _slays_ his wife, +children, and friends, who fall like the ripened harvest before the +gatherers scythe. Nay, he often submits to the controlling power of the +vine, alcohol, or tobacco, which _gain_ a secret influence over his +nobler powers, and _fix_ on him the stamp of disgrace, and _throw_ +around him fetters from which he finds it no easy matter to extricate +himself. By the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed, and +long endures darkness and suffering, till he _regains_ his native +energies, and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth and virtue. + +What is that secret power which lies concealed beyond the reach of +human ken, and is transported from land to land unknown, till exposed in +conditions suited to its operation, will show its active and resistless +force in the destruction of life, and the devastation of whole cities or +nations? You may call it plague, or cholera, or small pox, miasma, +contagion, particles of matter floating in the air surcharged with +disease, or any thing else. It matters not what you call it. It is +sufficient to our present purpose to know that it has the ability to put +forth a prodigious power in the production of consequences, which the +highest skill of man is yet unable to prevent. + +I might pursue this point to an indefinite length, and trace the secret +powers possessed by all created things, as exhibited in the influence +they exert in various ways, both as regards themselves and surrounding +objects. But you will at once perceive my object, and the truth of the +positions I assume. A common power pervades all creation, operating by +pure and perfect laws, regulated by the Great First Cause, the Moving +Principle, which guides, governs, and controls the whole.[11] + +Degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit all action to the +animal frame as an organized body, moved by a living principle. Ours is +a sublimer duty; to trace the operations of the Divine Wisdom which acts +thro out all creation, in the minutest particle of dust which _keeps_ +its _position_ secure, till moved by some superior power; or in the +_needle_ which points with unerring skill to its fixed point, and +_guides_ the vessel, freighted with a hundred lives, safe thro the +midnight storm, to its destined haven; tho rocked by the waves and +driven by the winds, it remains uninfluenced, and tremblingly alive to +the important duties entrusted to its charge, continues its faithful +service, and is watched with the most implicit confidence by all on +board, as the only guide to safety. The same Wisdom is displayed thro +out all creation; in the beauty, order, and harmony of the universe; in +the planets which float in the azure vault of heaven; in the glow worm +that glitters in the dust; in the fish which cuts the liquid element; in +the pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean; in every thing +that lives, moves, or has a being; but more distinctly in man, created +in the moral image of his Maker, possessed of a heart to feel, and a +mind to understand--the third in the rank of intelligent beings. + +I cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that inimitable poem, +Pope's Essay on Man. It is rife with sentiment of the purest and most +exalted character. It is direct to our purpose. You may have heard it a +thousand times; but I am confident you will be pleased to hear it again. + + Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine, + Earth for whose use? Pride answers, "'Tis for mine: + "For me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r, + "Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flow'r; + "Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew + "The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew; + "For me, the mine a thousand treasures brings; + "For me health gushes from a thousand springs; + "Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; + "My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." + + But errs not nature from this gracious end, + From burning suns when livid deaths descend, + When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep + Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep? + "_No_," ('tis replied,) "_the first Almighty Cause + Acts not by partial, but by general laws; + Th' exceptions few; some change since all began: + And what created perfect?_" Why then man? + If the great end be human happiness, + Then nature deviates--and can man do less? + As much that end a constant course requires + Of show'rs and sunshine, as of man's desires; + As much eternal springs and cloudless skies, + As man forever temp'rate, calm, and wise. + If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design. + Why then a Borgia, or a Cataline? + Who knows but He whose hand the lightning forms, + Who heaves old ocean, and who wings the storms; + Pours fierce ambition in a Caesar's mind; + Or turns young Ammon loose to scourge mankind? + From pride, from pride our very reas'ning springs; + Account for moral as for nat'ral things: + Why charge we heaven in those, in these acquit? + In both, to reason right, is to submit. + + Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, + Were there all harmony, all virtue here; + That never air or ocean felt the wind; + That never passion discomposed the mind. + But =all= subsists by elemental strife; + And passions are the elements of life. + The general =order=, since the whole began, + Is kept in nature, and is kept in man. + + * * * * * + + Look round our world, behold the chain of love. + Combining all below and all above; + See plastic nature working to this end, + The single atoms each to other tend; + Attract, attracted to, the next in place + Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace, + See matter next, with various life endued, + Press to one center still the gen'ral good. + See dying vegetables life sustain, + See life dissolving, vegetate again; + All forms that perish, other forms supply, + (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die) + Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, + They rise, they break, and to that sea return, + Nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole; + One all-extending, all-preserving soul + Connects each being greatest with the least; + Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; + All served, all serving; nothing stands alone; + The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. + +But _power_ alone is not sufficient to produce action. There must be a +=cause= to call it forth, to set in operation and exhibit its latent +energies. It will remain hid in its secret chambers till efficient +causes have set in operation the _means_ by which its existence is to be +discovered in the production of change, effects, or results. There is, +it is said, in every created thing a power sufficient to produce its own +destruction, as well as to preserve its being. In the human body, for +instance, there is a constant tendency to decay, to waste; which a +counteracting power resists, and, with proper assistance, keeps alive. + +The same may be said of vegetables which are constantly throwing off, or +exhaling the waste, offensive, or useless matter, and yet a restoring +power, assisted by heat, moisture, and the nourishment of the earth, +resists the tendency to decay and preserves it alive and growing. The +air, the earth, nay, the ocean itself, philosophers assure us, contain +powers sufficient to self-destruction. But I will not enlarge here. Let +the necessary _cause_ be exerted which will give vent to this hidden +power and actions the most astonishing and destructive would be the +effect. These are often witnessed in the tremendous earthquakes which +devastate whole cities, states, and empires; in the tornados which pass, +like the genius of evil, over the land, levelling whatever is found in +its course; or in the waterspouts and maelstroms which prove the grave +of all that comes within their grasp. + +In the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament of +England, by what is usually called the "gunpowder plot," the +arrangements were all made; two hogsheads and thirty-six barrels of +powder, sufficient to blow up the house of lords and the surrounding +buildings, were secreted in a vault beneath it, strown over with +faggots. Guy Fawkes, a spanish officer, employed for the purpose, lay at +the door, on the 5th of November, 1605, with the matches, or _means_, in +his pocket, which should set in operation the prodigious dormant +_power_, which would hurl to destruction James I., the royal family, and +the protestant parliament, give the ascendancy to the Catholics, and +change the whole political condition of the nation. The _project_ was +discovered, the _means_ were removed, the _cause_ taken away, and the +threatened _effects_ were prevented. + +The =cause= of action is the immediate subject which precedes or tends +to produce the action, without which it would not take place. It may +result from volition, inherent tendency, or communicated impulse; and is +known to exist from the effects produced by it, in the altered or new +condition of the thing on which it operates; which change would not have +been effected without it. + +Causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects which are +produced by them. The factory is put in operation, and the cloth is +manufactured. The careless observer would enter the building and see the +spindles, looms, and wheels operated by the hands, and go away satisfied +that he has seen enough, seen all. But the more careful will look +farther. He will trace each band and wheel, each cog and shaft, down by +the balance power, to the water race and floom; or thro the complicated +machinery of the steam engine to the piston, condenser, water, wood, and +fire; marking a new, more secret, and yet more efficient cause at each +advancing step. But all this curiously wrought machinery is not the +product of chance, operated without care. A superior cause must be +sought in human skill, in the deep and active ingenuity of man. Every +contrivance presupposes a contriver. Hence there must have been a power +and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of the water, or +generate and direct the steam. That power is vested in man; and hence, +man stands as the cause, in relation to the whole process operated by +wheels, bands, spindles, and looms. Yet we may say, with propriety, that +the water, or the steam; the water-wheel, or the piston; the shafts, +bands, cogs, pullies, spindles, springs, treddles, harnesses, reeds, +shuttles, an almost endless concatenation of instruments, are alike the +_causes_, which tend to produce the final result; for let one of these +intermediate causes be removed, and the whole power will be diverted, +and all will go wrong--the effect will not be produced. + +There must be a =first cause= to set in operation all inferior ones in +the production of action; and to that _first_ cause all action, nay, the +existence of all other causes, may be traced, directly, or more distant. +The intervening causes, in the consecutive order of things, may be as +diversified as the links in the chain of variant beings. Yet all these +causes are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of the +Almighty Father, the =Uncaused Cause= of all things and beings; who +spoke into existence the universe with all its various and complicated +parts and orders; who set the sun, moon, and stars in the firmament, +gave the earth a place, and fixed the sea a bed; throwing around them +barriers over which they can never pass. From the height of his eternal +throne, his eye pervades all his works; from the tall archangel, that +"adores and burns," down to the very hairs of our heads, which are all +numbered, his wise, benevolent, and powerful supervision may be traced +in legible lines, which may be seen and read of all men. And from +effects, the most diminutive in character, may be traced back, from +cause to cause, upward in the ascending scale of being, to the same +unrivalled Source of all power, splendor, and perfection, the presence +of Him, who spake, and it was done; who commanded, and it _stood still_; +or, as the poet has it: + + "Look thro nature up to nature's God." + +The _means_ of action are those aids which are displayed as the medium +thro which existing causes are to exhibit their hidden powers in +producing changes or effects. The matches in the pocket of Guy Fawkes +were the direct means by which he intended to set in operation a train +of causes which should terminate in the destruction of the house of +lords and all its inmates. Those matches, set on fire, would convey a +spark to the faggots, and thence to the powder, and means after means, +and cause after cause, in the rapid succession of events, would ensue, +tending to a final, inevitable, and melancholy result. + +A ball shot from a cannon, receives its first impulse from the powder; +but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle inherent in +itself, which power is finally overcome by the density of the atmosphere +which impedes its progress, and the law of gravitation finally attracts +it to the earth. These contending principles may be known by observing +the curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth to the +spot where it rests. But if there is no power in the ball, why does not +the ball of cork discharged from the same gun with the same momentum, +travel to the same distance, at the same rate? The action commences in +both cases with the same projectile force, the same exterior _means_ are +employed, but the results are widely different. The cause of this +difference must be sought for in the comparative power of each substance +to _continue its own movements_. + +Every boy who has played at ball has observed these principles. He +throws his ball, which, if not _counteracted_, will continue in a +straight line, _ad infinitum_--without end. But the air impedes its +progress, and gravitation brings it to the ground. When he throws it +against a hard substance, its velocity is not only overcome, but it is +sent back with great force. But if he takes a ball of wax, of snow, or +any strong adhesive substance, it will not bound. How shall we account +to him for this difference? He did the same with both balls. The impetus +given the one was as great as the other, and the resistance of the +intervening substance was as great in one case as the other; and yet, +one bounds and rebounds, while the other sticks fast as a friend, to the +first object it meets. The cause of this difference is to be sought for +in the different capabilities of the respective balls. One possesses a +strong elastic and repelling power; in the other, the attraction of +cohesion is predominant. + +Take another example. Let two substances of equal size and form, the one +made of lead, the other of cork, be put upon the surface of a cistern of +water. The external circumstances are the same, but the effects are +widely different--one sinks, the other floats. We must look for the +cause of this difference, not in the opposite qualities of surrounding +matter, but in the things themselves. If you add to the cork another +quality possessed by the lead, and give it the same form, size, and +_weight_, it will as readily sink to the bottom. But this last property +is possessed in different degrees by the two bodies, and hence, while +the one floats upon the water, the other displaces its particles and +sinks to the bottom. You may take another substance; say the mountain +ebony, which is heavier than water, but lighter than lead, and immerse +it in the water; it will not sink with the rapidity of lead, because its +inherent _power_ is not so strong. + +Take still another case. Let two balls, suspended on strings, be +equally, or, to use the technical term, _positively_ electrified. Bring +them within a certain distance, and they will repel each other. Let the +electric fluid be extracted from one, and the other will attract it. +Before, they were as enemies; now they embrace as friends. The magnet +furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we are laboring +to establish. Let one of sufficient power be let down within the proper +distance, it will overcome the power of gravitation, and _attract_ the +heavy steel to itself. What is the cause of this wonderful fact? Who can +account for it? Who can trace out the hidden cause; the "_primum +mobile_" of the Ptolmaic philosophy--the secret spring of motion? But +who will dare deny that such effects do exist, and that they are +produced by an efficient cause? Or who will descend into the still more +dark and perplexing mazes of neuter verb grammars, and deny that matter +has such a power to act? + +These instances will suffice to show you what we mean when we say, +_every thing acts according to the ability God has given it to act_. I +might go into a more minute examination of the properties of matter, +affinity, hardness, weight, size, color, form, mobility, &c., which even +old grammars will allow it to _possess_; but I shall leave that work +for you to perform at your leisure. + +Whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the abilities of all +things to _produce_, _continue_, or _prevent_ motion, will do well to +consult the prince of philosophers, Sir Isaac Newton, who, after +Gallileo, has treated largely upon the laws of motion. He asserts as a +fact, full in illustration of the principles I am laboring to establish, +that in ascending a hill, the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as +he draws that forward, only the horse overcomes the resistance of the +load, and moves it up the hill. On the old systems, no power would be +requisite to move the load, for it could oppose no resistance to the +horse; and the small child could move it with as much ease as the strong +team. + +Who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to know these things? +I can not believe there is a person present, who does not fully +comprehend my meaning, and discover the correctness of the ground I have +assumed. And it should be borne in mind, that no collection or +arrangement of words can be composed into a sentence, which do not +obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they exist and +operate in the material and intellectual world, and that it is not in +the power of man to frame a sentence, to think or speak, but in +conformity with these general and exceptionless laws. + +This important consideration meets us at every advancing step, as if to +admonish us to abandon the vain project of seeking a knowledge of +language without an acquaintance with the great principles on which it +depends. To look for the leading rules of speech in set forms of +expression, or in the capricious customs of any nation, however learned, +is as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by shutting +ourselves up in a room, and looking at paintings and drawings which may +be furnished by those who know as little of it as we do. How fallacious +would be the attempt, how much worse than time thrown away, for the +parent to shut up his child in a lonely room, and undertake to impress +upon its mind a knowledge of man, beasts, birds, fish, insects, rivers, +mountains, fields, flowers, houses, cities, &c., with no other aid than +a few miserable pictures, unlike the reality, and in many respects +contradictory to each other. And yet that would be adopting a course +very similar to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring a +knowledge of language; limited to a set of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, which the brightest geniuses could never +understand, nor the most erudite employ in the expression of ideas. The +grammars, it was thought, must be studied to acquire the use of +language, and yet they were forgotten before such knowledge was put in +practice. + + * * * * * + +A simple remark on the principles of _relative_ action, and we will pass +to the consideration of _agents_ and _objects_, or the more immediate +_causes_ and _effects_ of action. + +We go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun _sinking_ beneath +the horizon; we mark the varying hues of light as they appear, and +change, and fade away. We see the shades of night _approaching_, with a +gradual pace, till the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing, +the hills and the meadows; the farm house and the cultivated fields, the +grove, the orchard, and the garden; the tranquil lake and the babbling +brook; the dairy returning home, and the lambkins gambolling beside +their dams; all _recede_ from our view, and _appear_ to us no longer. +All this is _relative_ action. But so far as language and ideas are +concerned, it matters not whether the sun actually _sinks_ behind the +hills, or the hills interpose between it and us; whether the landscape +_recedes_ from our view, or the shades of night intercept so as to +obscure our vision. The habit of thought is the same, and the form of +expression must agree with it. We say the sun _rises_ and _sets_, in +reference to the obvious fact, without stopping to inquire whether it +really moves or not. Nor is such an inquiry at all necessary, as to +matter of fact, for all we mean by such expressions, is, that by some +process, immaterial to the case in hand, the sun stands in a new +relation to the earth, its altitude is elevated or depressed, and hence +the action is strictly relative. For we should remember that _rising_ +and _setting_, _up_ and _down_, _above_ and _below_, in reference to the +earth, are only relative terms. + +We speak and read of the _changes_ of the moon, and we correctly +understand each other. But in truth the moon changes no more at one time +than at another. The action is purely relative. One day we observe it +_before_ the sun, and the next _behind_ it, as we understand these +terms. The precise time of the change, when it will appear to us in a +different relation to the sun, is computed by astronomers, and set down +in our almanacs; but it changes no more at that time than at any other, +for like every thing else, it is _always changing_. + +In a case we mentioned in a former lecture, "John _looks_ like or +_resembles_ his brother," we have an example of relative action. So in +the case of two men travelling the same way, starting together, but +advancing at different rates; one, we say, _falls_ behind the other. In +this manner of expression, we follow exactly the principles on which we +started, and suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking. By +the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the eye +inversely, that is, upside down; but they are always seen in a proper +relation to each other, and if there is any thing wrong in the case, it +is overcome by early habit; and so our language accords with things as +they are manifested to our understandings. + +These examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by relative action, +when applied to natural philosophy or the construction of language. + +I had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents and objects +of verbs, to prove, in accordance with the first and closest principles +of philosophy, that every "_cause_ must have an _effect_," or, in other +words, that every action must terminate on some object, either expressed +or necessarily understood; but I am admonished that I have occupied more +than my usual quota of time in this lecture already, and hence I shall +leave this work for our next. + +I will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from the life of +that wonderful man, Gallileo Gallilei, who was many years professor of +mathematics at Padua. Possessed of a strong, reflecting mind, he had +early given his attention to the observation of things, their motions, +tendencies, and power of resistance, from which he ascended, step by +step, to the sublime science of astronomy. Being of an honest and frank, +as well as benevolent disposition, he shunned not to state and defend +theories at war with the then received opinions. All learning was, at +that time, in the hands or under the supervision of the ecclesiastics, +who were content to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy, which, +in many respects, was not unlike that still embraced in our _neuter verb +systems_ of grammar. There was a sworn hostility against all +improvement, or innovation as it was called, in science as well as in +theology. The copernican system, to which Gallileo was inclined, if it +had not been formally condemned, had been virtually denounced as false, +and its advocates heretical. Hence Gallileo never dared openly to defend +it, but, piece by piece, under different names, he brought it forth, +which, carried out, would establish the heretical system. Dwelling as a +light in the midst of surrounding darkness, he cautiously discovered the +precious truths revealed to his mind, lest the flood of light should +distract and destroy the mental vision, break up the elements of +society, let loose the resistless powers of ignorance, prejudice and +bigotry, and envelope himself and friends in a common ruin. At length +having prepared in a very guarded manner his famous "Dialogues on the +Ptolmaic and Copernican Systems," he obtained permission, and ventured +to publish it to the world, altho an edict had been promulgated +enjoining silence on the subject, and he had been personally instructed +"_not to believe or teach the motion of the earth in any manner_." + +By the false representation of his enemies, suspicions were aroused and +busily circulated prejudicial to Gallileo. Pope Urban himself, his +former friend, became exasperated towards him, and a sentence against +him and his books was fulminated by the Cardinals, prohibiting the "sale +and vending of the latter, and condemning him to the formal prison of +the Holy Office for a period determined at their pleasure." The sentence +of the Inquisition was in part couched in these words--"We pronounce, +judge, and declare, that you, the said Gallileo, by reason of these +things, which have been detailed in the course of this investigation, +and which, as above, you have confessed, have rendered yourself +vehemently suspected by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, +that you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy +and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the center of the world, +and that it does not _move_ from east to west, and that the earth does +_move_, and is not the center of the world; also, that an opinion _can +be held_ and _supported_ as _probable_, _after it has been_ declared, +and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scriptures"--by the Holy See!! +"From which," they continue, "it is _our_ pleasure that you be absolved, +provided that, first, with a _sincere_ heart, and _unfeigned faith_, in +our presence, you _abjure_, _curse_, and _detest_ the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and +Apostolic Church of Rome, in the form now shown to you." + +After suffering under this anathema some time, Gallileo, by the advice +of his friends, consented to make a public abjuration of his former +heresies on the laws of motion. Kneeling before the "Most Eminent and +Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal +Christian republic, against _heretical depravity_, having before his +eyes the Holy Gospels," he swears that he always "_believed_, and now +_believes_, and with the help of God, _will in future believe_, every +article which the Holy Catholic Church of Rome holds, teaches, and +preaches"--that he does altogether "abandon the false opinion which +maintains that the 'sun is the center of the world, and that the earth +is _not_ the center and _movable_,' that with a sincere heart and +unfeigned faith, he abjures, curses, and detests the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and sect contrary to the said Holy +Church, and that he will never more in future, say or assert any thing +verbally, or in writing, which may give rise to similar suspicion." As +he arose from his knees, it is said, he whispered to a friend standing +near him, "_E pur si muove_"--=it does move, tho=. + +In our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of the +Inquisition; but prejudice, if not as strong in power to execute, has +the ability to blind as truly as in other ages, and keep us from the +knowledge and adoption of practical improvements. And it is the same +philosophy now, which _asks_ if _inanimate matter can act_, which +_demanded_ of Gallileo if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand +miles in a minute, and no body feel the motion; and with Deacon +Homespun, in the dialogue, "why, if this world turned upside down, the +water did not spill from the mill ponds, and all the people fall +headlong to the bottomless pit?" + +If there are any such peripatetics in these days of light and science, +who still cling to the false and degrading systems of neutrality, +because they are honorable for age, or sustained by learned and good +men, and who will oppose all improvement, reject without examination, +or, what is still worse, refuse to adopt, after being convinced of the +truth of it, any system, because it is novel, an innovation upon +established forms, I can only say of them, in the language of Micanzio, +the Venetian friend of Gallileo--"The efforts of such enemies to get +these principles prohibited, will occasion no loss either to your +reputation, or to the intelligent part of the world. As to posterity, +this is just one of the surest ways to hand them down to them. But what +a wretched set this must be, to whom every good thing, and _all that is +found in nature_, necessarily appears hostile and odious." + + + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + + A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken + for granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from + the truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an + intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language + eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To + step.--Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To + smile.--Eat and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false + teaching.--A change is demanded.--These principles apply + universally.--Their importance. + + +We have made some general remarks on the power, cause, and means, +necessary in the production of action. We now approach nearer to the +application of these principles as observed in the immediate _agency_ +and _effects_ which precede and follow action, and as connected with the +verb. + +It is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted, that every +_effect_ is the product of a prior _cause_, and that every _cause_ will +necessarily produce a corresponding _effect_. This fact has always +existed and will forever remain unchanged. It applies universally in +physical, mental, and moral science; to God or man; to angels or to +atoms; in time or thro eternity. No language can be constructed which +does not accord with it, for no ideas can be gained but by an observance +of its manifestations in the material or spiritual universe. The manner +of _expressing_ this cause and effect may differ in different nations or +by people of the same nation, but the fact remains unaltered, and so +far as understood the idea is the same. In the case of the horse +mentioned in a former lecture,[12] the idea was the same, but the manner +of expressing it different. Let that horse _walk_, _lay_ down, _roll_ +over, _rise_ up, _shake_ himself, _rear_, or _stand_ still, all present +will observe the same attitude of the horse, and will form the same +ideas of his positions. Some will doubtless inquire more minutely into +the _cause_ and _means_ by which these various actions are produced, +what muscles are employed, what supports are rendered by the bones; and +the whole regulated by the will of the horse, and their conclusions may +be quite opposite. But this has nothing to do with the obvious fact +expressed by the words above; or, more properly, it is not necessary to +enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations, these secret +springs of motion, in order to relate the actions of the horse. For were +we to do this we should be required to go back, step by step, and find +the causes still more numerous, latent, and perplexing. The pursuit of +causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the horse, his +muscular energy, and voluntary action; for gravitation has no small +service to perform in the accomplishment of these results; as well as +other principles. Let gravitation be removed, and how could the horse +_lay_ down? He could _roll_ over as well in the air as upon the ground. +But the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in the +construction of language to express the actions of the horse; for he +stands as the obvious _agent_ of the whole, and the _effects_ are seen +to follow--the _horse_ is laid down, _his body_ is rolled over, _the +fore part_ of it is _reared up_, _himself_ is shaken, and the whole +_feat_ is produced by the direction of his master. + +Allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former lecture. I said no +action as such could be known distinct from the thing which acts; that +action as such is not perceptible, and that all things act, according to +the ability they possess. To illustrate this idea: Take a magnet and +lower it down over a piece of iron, till it attracts it to itself and +holds it suspended there. If you are not in possession of a magnet you +can make one at your pleasure, by the following process. Lay your knife +blade on a flat iron, or any hard, smooth surface; let another take the +old tongs or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length +of time, and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more. A magnetic +power will be conveyed from the tongs to the blade sufficient to take up +a common needle. The tongs themselves may be manufactured into a most +perfect magnet. Now as the knife _holds_ the needle suspended beneath it +you perceive there must be an action, a power, and cause exerted beyond +our comprehension. Let the magnetic power be extracted from the blade, +and the needle will drop to the floor. A common unmagnetized blade will +not _raise_ and _hold_ a needle as this does. How those tongs come in +possession of such astonishing power; by what process it is there +retained; the power and means of transmission of a part of it to the +knife blade, and the reason of the phenomena you now behold--an +inanimate blade drawing to itself and there holding this needle +suspended--will probably long remain unknown to mortals. But that such +are the facts, incontestibly true, none will deny, for the evidence is +before us. Now fix your attention on that needle. There is an active and +_acting_ principle in that as well as in the magnetized blade; for the +blade will not attract a splinter of wood, of whalebone, or piece of +glass, tho equal in size and weight. It will have no operation on them. +Then it is by a sort of mutual affinity, a reciprocity of attachment, +between the blade and needle, that this phenomena is produced. + +To apply this illustration you have only to reverse the case--turn the +knife and needle over--and see all things attracted to the earth by the +law of gravitation, a principle abiding in all matter. All that renders +the exhibition of the magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an +uncommon condition of things, an apparent counteraction of the regular +laws of nature. But we should know that the same sublime principle is +constantly operating thro out universal nature. Let that be suspended, +cease its active operations for a moment, and our own earth will be +decomposed into particles; the sun, moon and stars will dissolve and +mingle with the common dust; all creation will crumble into atoms, and +one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill the immensity of space. + +Are you then prepared to deny the principles for which we are +contending? I think you will not; but accede the ground, that such being +the fact, true in nature, language, correctly explained, is only the +medium by which the ideas of these great truths, may be conveyed from +one mind to another, and must correspond therewith. If language is the +sign of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things, it follows of +necessity, that no language can be employed unless it corresponds with +these natural laws, or first principles. The untutored child cannot talk +of these things, nor comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to +it. But some people act as tho they thought children must first acquire +a knowledge of words, and then begin to learn what such words mean. +This is putting the "cart before the horse." + +Much, in this world, is to be taken for granted. We can not enter into +the minutiae of all we would express, or have understood. We go upon the +ground that other people know something as well as we, and that they +will exercise that knowledge while listening to our relation of some new +and important facts. Hence it is said that "brevity is the soul of wit." +But suppose you should talk of surds, simple and quadratic equations, +diophantine problems, and logarithms, to a person who knows nothing of +proportion or relation, addition or subtraction. What would they know +about your words? You might as well give them a description in Arabic or +Esquimaux. They must first learn the simple rules on which the whole +science of mathematics depends, before they can comprehend a +dissertation on the more abstruse principles or distant results. So +children must learn to observe things as they are, in their simplest +manifestations, in order to understand the more secret and sublime +operations of nature. And our language should always be adapted to their +capacities; that is, it should agree with their advancement. You may +talk to a zealot in politics of religion, the qualities of forbearance, +candor, and veracity; to the enthusiast of science and philosophy; to +the bigot of liberality and improvement; to the miser of benevolence and +suffering; to the profligate of industry and frugality; to the +misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism; to the degraded sinner of +virtue, truth, and heaven; but what do they know of your meaning? How +are they the wiser for your instruction? You have touched a cord which +does not vibrate thro their hearts, or, phrenologically, addressed an +organ they do not possess, except in a very moderate degree, at least. +Food must be seasoned to the palates of those who use it. Milk is for +babes and strong meat for men. Our instruction must be suited to the +capacities of those we would benefit, always elevated just far enough +above them to attract them along the upward course of improvement. + +But it should be remembered that evils will only result from a deviation +from truth, and that we can never be justified in doing wrong because +others have, or for the sake of meeting them half way. And yet this very +course is adopted in teaching, and children are learned to adopt certain +technical rules in grammar, not because they are _true_, but because +they are _convenient_! In fact, it is said by some, that language is an +arbitrary affair altogether, and is only to be taught and learned +mechanically! But who would teach children that _seven times seven_ are +_fifty_, and _nine times nine_ a _hundred_, and assign as a reason for +so doing, that _fifty_ and a _hundred_ are more easily remembered than +_forty-nine_ and _eighty-one_? Yet there would be as much propriety in +adopting such a principle in mathematics, as in teaching for a rule of +grammar that when an objective case comes after a verb, it is active; +but when there is none expressed, it is intransitive or neuter. + +The great fault is, grammarians do not allow themselves to _think_ on +the subject of language, or if they do, they only think intransitively, +that is, produce no _thoughts_ by their cogitations. + +This brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject before us. +All admit the correctness of the axiom that every effect must have a +cause, and that every cause will have an effect. It is equally true that +"_like causes will produce like effects_," a rule from which nature +itself, and thought, and language, can never deviate. It is as plain as +that two things mutually equal to each other, are equal to a third. On +this immutable principle we base our theory of the activity of all +verbs, and contend that they must have an object after them, either +expressed or _necessarily understood_. We can not yield this position +till it is proved that _causes_ can operate without producing effects, +which can never be till the order of creation is reversed! There never +was, to our knowledge, such a thing as an intransitive action, with the +solitary exception of the burning bush.[13] In that case the laws of +nature were suspended, and no effects were produced; for the _bush +burned_, but there was nothing burnt; no consequences followed to the +bush; it was not consumed. The records of the past present no instance +of like character, where effects have failed to follow, direct or more +distantly, every cause which has been set in operation. + +It makes no difference whether the object of the action is expressed or +not. It is the same in either case. But where it is not necessarily +implied from the nature and fitness of things, it must be expressed, and +but for such object or effect the action could not be understood. For +example, _I run_; but if there is no effect produced, _nothing_ run, how +can it be known whether I run or not. If I write, it is necessarily +understood that I write _something_--a _letter_, a _book_, a _piece_ of +poetry, a _communication_, or some other _writing_. When such object is +not liable to be mistaken, it would be superfluous to express it--it +would be a redundancy which should be avoided by all good writers and +speakers. All languages are, in this respect, more or less eliptical, +which constitutes no small share of their beauty, power, and elegance. + +This elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the objects of +verbs, but in the omission of many nouns after adjectives, which thus +assume the character of nouns; as, the Almighty, the Eternal, the +Allwise, applied to God, understood. So we say the wise, the learned, +the good, the faithful, the wicked, the vile, the base, to which, if +nouns, it would sound rather harsh to apply plurals. So we say, take +your hat off ( ); put your gloves on ( ); lay your coat off ( ); and +pull your boots on ( ); presuming the person so addressed knows enough +to fill the elipsis, and not take his hat off his back, pull his gloves +on his feet, or his boots on his head. + +In pursuing this subject farther, let us examine the sample words which +are called _intransitive_ verbs, because frequently used without the +object expressed after them; such as run, walk, step, fly, rain, snow, +burn, roll, shine, smiles, &c. + +"_I run._" + +That here is an action of the first kind, none will deny. But it is +contended by the old systems that there is no object on which the action +terminates. If that be true then there is _nothing_ run, no effect +produced, and the first law of nature is outraged, in the very onset; +for there is a _cause_, but no _effect_; an _action_, but no _object_. +How is the fact? Have you run nothing? conveyed nothing, moved nothing +from one place to another? no change, no effect, nothing moved? Look at +it and decide. It is said that a neuter or intransitive verb may be +known from the fact that it takes after it a preposition. Try it by this +rule. "A man run _against_ a post in a dark night, and broke his neck;" +that is, he run nothing against a post--no object to run--and yet he +broke his neck. Unfortunate man! + +The fact in relation to this verb is briefly this: It is used to +express the action which more usually terminates on the actor, than on +any other object. This circumstance being generally known, it would be +superfluous to mention the object, except in cases where such is not the +fact. But whenever we desire to be definite, or when there is the least +liability to mistake the object, it is invariably expressed. Instances +of this kind are numerous. "They _ran_ the _boat_ ashore." "The captain +_ran_ his _men_ to rescue them from the enemy." "They _ran_ the +_gauntlet_." "They _run_ a _stage_ to Boston." "He _ran himself_ into +discredit." "One bank _runs_ another." "The man had a hard _run_ of it." +"_Run_ the _account_ over, and see if it is right." "They _run forty +looms_ and two thousand spindles." "He _runs_ his _mill_ evenings." Such +expressions are common and correct, because they convey ideas, and are +understood. + +Two men were engaged in argument. The believer in intransitive verbs set +out to _run his opponent_ into an evident absurdity, and, contrary to +his expectation, he _ran himself_ into one. Leave out the objects of +this verb, run, and the sense is totally changed. He set out to _run_ +into an _evident absurdity_, and he ran into one; that is, he did the +very absurd thing which he intended to do.[14] + +"_I walk._" + +The action expressed by this verb is very similar in character to the +former, but rather _slower_ in performance. Writers on health tell us +that _to walk_ is a very healthy exercise, and that it would be well for +men of sedentary habits _to walk_ several miles every day. But if there +is no action in walk, or if it has no _object_ necessarily _walked_, it +would be difficult to understand what good could result from it. + +"Did you have a pleasant _walk_ this morning?" says a teacher to his +grammar class. + +"We did have a very pleasant one. The flowers were _blooming_ on each +side of the _walk_, and _sent_ forth their sweetest aroma, _perfuming_ +the soft breezes of the morning. Birds were _flitting from_ spray to +spray, _carolling_ their hymns of praise to Deity. The tranquil waters +of the lake lay _slumbering_ in silence, and _reflected_ the bright +_rays_ of the sun, _giving_ a sweet but solemn _aspect_ to the whole +scene. _To go_ thro the grove, down by the lake, and up thro the meadow, +is the most delightful _walk_ a person can take." + +"How did you get your _walk_?" + +"We walked it, to be sure; how did you think we got it?" + +"Oh, I did not know. _Walk_, your books tell you, is an intransitive +verb, terminating on no object; so I supposed, if you followed them, you +obtained it some other way; by _riding_, _running_, _sailing_, or, may +be, _bought_ it, as you could not have _walked it_! Were you tired on +your return?" + +"We were exceedingly fatigued, for you know it is a very long _walk_, +and we _walked it_ in an hour." + +"But _what_ tired you? If there are no effects produced by walking, I +can not conceive why _you_ should be fatigued by such exercise." + +Who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar rules are +committed every day, and every hour, and in almost every sentence that +is framed to express our knowledge of facts. + +_To step._ + +This verb is the same in character with the two just noticed. It +expresses the act of _raising_ each foot alternately, and usually +implies that the body is, by that means, conveyed from one place to +another. But as people _step_ their _feet_ and not their hands, or any +thing else, it is entirely useless to mention the object; for generally, +that can not be mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves, boots, +and hat. But it would be bad philosophy to teach children that there is +no objective word after it, because it is not written out and placed +before their eyes. They will find such teaching contradicted at every +_step_ they take. Let a believer in intransitive verbs _step_ on a red +hot iron; he will soon find to his sorrow, that he was mistaken when he +thought that he could _step_ without stepping any thing. It would be +well for grammar, as well as many other things, to have more practice +and less theory. The thief was detected by his steps. Step softly; put +your feet down carefully. + +_Birds fly._ + +We learned from our primers, that + + "The eagle's _flight_ + Is out of sight," + +How did the eagle succeed in producing a _flight_? I suppose he _flew_ +it. And if birds ever fly, they must produce a flight. Such being the +fact, it is needless to supply the object. But the action does not +terminate solely on the flight produced, for that is only the name given +to the action itself. The expression conveys to the mind the obvious +fact, that, by strong muscular energy, by the aid of feathers, and the +atmosphere, the bird carries itself thro the air, and changes its being +from one place to another. As birds rarely fly a race, or any thing but +_themselves_ and a _flight_, it is not necessary to suffix the object. + +_It rains._ + +This verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive action; +with what propriety, we will now inquire. It will serve as a clear +elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive verbs. + +What does the expression signify? It simply declares the fact, that +_water is shed_ down from the clouds. But is there no object after +_rains_? There is none expressed. Is there nothing rained? no effect +produced? If not, there can be no water fallen, and our cisterns would +be as empty, our streams as low, and fields as parched, after a rain as +before it! But who that has common sense, and has never been blinded by +the false rules of grammar, does not know that when _it rains_, it never +fails to _rain rain_, _water_, or _rain-water_, unless you have one of +the paddy's dry rains? When it hails, it hails _hail_, _hail-stones_, or +frozen _rain_. When it snows, it _snows snow_, sometimes two feet of it, +sometimes less. I should think teachers in our northern countries would +find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers that snow is an +intransitive verb--that it snows _nothing_. And yet so it is; people +will remain wedded to their old systems, and refuse to open their eyes +and behold the evidences every where around them. Teachers themselves, +the guides of the young--and I blush to say it, for I was long among the +number--have, with their scholars, labored all the morning, breaking +roads, _shovelling snow_, and clearing paths, to get to the +school-house, and then set down and taught them that _to snow_ is an +_in_transitive verb. What nonsense; nay, worse, what falsehoods have +been instilled into the youthful mind in the name of grammar! Can we be +surprised that people have not understood grammar? that it is a dry, +cold, and lifeless business? + +I once lectured in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In a conversation with Miss B., a +distinguished scholar, who had taught a popular female school for twenty +years; was remarking upon the subject of intransitive verbs, and the +apparent inconsistency of the new system, that all verbs must have an +object after them, expressed or understood; she said, "there was the +verb _rain_, (it happened to be a rainy day,) the whole action is +confined to the agent; it does not pass on to another object; it is +purely intransitive." Her aged mother, who had never looked into a +grammar book, heard the conversation, and very bluntly remarked, "Why, +you fool you, I want to know if you have studied grammar these thirty +years, and taught it more than twenty, and have never _larned_ that when +it rains it _always_ rains _rain_? If it didn't, do you s'pose you'd +need an umbrella to go out now into the storm? I should think you'd know +better. I always told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing, I +didn't b'lieve." "Amen," said I, to the good sense of the old lady, "you +are right, and have reason to be thankful that you have never been +initiated into the intricate windings, nor been perplexed with the false +and contradictory rules, which have blasted many bright geniuses in +their earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime +principles of language, on which depends so much of the happiness of +human life." The good matron's remark was a poser to the daughter, but +it served as a means of her entire deliverance from the thraldom of +neuter verbs, and the adoption of the new principles of the exposition +of language. + +The anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind will observe facts, +and employ words as correctly, if not more so, than those schooled in +the high pretensions of science, falsely taught. Who does not know from +the commonest experience, that the direct object of _raining_ must +follow as the necessary sequence? that it can never fail? And yet our +philologists tell us that such is not always the case; and that the +exception is to be marked on the singular ground, whether the word is +written out or omitted! What a narrow view of the sublime laws of +motion! What a limited knowledge of things! or else, what a _mistake_! + +"Then the Lord said unto Moses, behold, I will _rain_ bread for you from +heaven." + +"Then the _Lord rained_ down, upon Sodom and Gomorrah, _brimstone_ and +_fire_, from the Lord out of heaven."--_Bible._ + +_The fire burns._ + +The fire _burns_ the wood, the coal, or the peat. The great fire in +New-York _burned_ the buildings which covered fifty-two acres of ground. +Mr. Experiment _burns_ coal in preference to wood. His new grate _burns +it_ very finely. Red ash coal _burns_ the best; it _makes_ the fewest +_ashes_, and hence _is_ the most convenient. The cook _burns_ too much +fuel. The house took fire and _burned_ up. _Burned what_ up? Burn is an +intransitive verb. It would not trouble the unfortunate tenant to know +that there must be an _object burned_, or what _it_ was. He would find +it far more difficult to rebuild his _house_. Do you suppose fires never +burn any thing belonging to neuter verb folks? Then they never need pay +away insurance money. With the solitary exception I have mentioned--the +burning bush--this verb can not be intransitive. + +_The sun shines._ + +This is an intransitive verb if there ever was one, because the object +is not often expressed after it. But if the sun _emits_ no _rays_ of +light, how shall it be known whether it shines or not? "The _radiance_ +of the sun's bright beaming" is produced by the _exhibition_ of +_itself_, when it _brightens_ the objects exposed to its _rays_ or +_radiance_. We talk of _sun shine_ and moon shine, but if these bodies +never produce _effects_ how shall it be known whether such things are +real? _Sun shine_ is the direct effect of the sun's _shining_. But +clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending to the +earth; but _then_ we do not say "the sun _shines_." You see at once, +that all we know or can know of the fact we state as truth, is derived +from a knowledge of the very _effects_ which our grammars tell us do not +exist. Strange logic indeed! It is a mark of a wiser man, and a better +scholar, not to know the popular grammars, than it is to profess any +degree of proficiency in them! + +_To smile._ + +The _smiles_ of the morning, the _smiles_ of affection, a _smile_ of +kindness, are only produced by the appearance of something that _smiles_ +upon us. _Smiles_ are the direct consequence of _smiling_. If a person +should _smile_ ever so _sweetly_ and yet present no _smiles_, they +might, for aught we could know to the contrary, be _sour_ as vinegar. + +But this verb frequently has another object after it; as, "to _smile_ +the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age," or "_smile_ dull _cares_ away." "A +sensible wife would soon _reason_ and _smile him_ into good nature." + +But I need not multiply examples. When such men as Johnson, Walker, +Webster, Murray, Lowthe, and a host of other wise and renowned men, +gravely tell us that _eat_ and _drink_, which they define, "to _take +food_; _to feed_; _to take a meal_; _to go to meals_; to be maintained +in food; _to swallow liquors_; _to quench thirst_; to take any liquid;" +are _intransitive_ or _neuter_ verbs, having no objects after them, we +must think them insincere, egregiously mistaken, or else possessed of a +means of subsistence different from people generally! Did they _eat_ and +_drink_, "take food and swallow liquors," _in_transitively; that is, +without _eating_ or _drinking_ any thing? Is it possible in the nature +of things? Who does not see the absurdity? And yet they were _great_ +men, and nobody has a right to question such _high_ authority. And the +"_simplifiers_" who have come after, making books and teaching grammar +to _earn_ their _bread_, have followed close in their footsteps, and, I +suppose, _eaten_ nothing, and thrown their bread away! Was I a believer +in neuter verbs and desired to get money, my first step would be to set +up a boarding house for all believers in, and _practisers_ of, +intransitive verbs. I would board cheap and give good fare. I could +afford it, for no provisions would be consumed. + +Some over cautious minds, who are always second, if not last, in a good +cause, ask us why these principles, if so true and clear, were not found +out before? Why have not the learned who have studied for many +centuries, never seen and adopted them? It is a sufficient answer to +such a question, to ask why the copernican system of astronomy was not +sooner adopted, why the principles of chemistry, the circulation of the +blood, the power and application of steam, nay, why all improvement was +not known before. When grammar and dictionary makers, those wise +expounders of the principles of speech, have so far forgotten facts as +to teach that _eat_ and _drink_, "express neither action nor passion," +or are "confined to the agents;" that when a man eats, he eats nothing, +or when he drinks, he drinks nothing, we need not stop long to decide +why these things were unknown before. The wisest may sometimes mistake; +and the proud aspirant for success, frequently passes over, unobserved, +the humble means on which all true success depends. + +Allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which will serve to show +more clearly the importance of supplying the elipses, in order to +comprehend the meaning of the writers, or profit by their remarks. You +will supply the objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where +they are not expressed. + +"Ask ( ) and ye shall receive ( ); seek ( ) and ye shall find ( ); knock +( ) and _it_ shall be opened unto you." + +Ask _what_? Seek _what_? Knock _what_? That _it_ may be opened? Our +"Grammars Made Easy" would teach us to _ask_ and _seek_ nothing! no +objectives after them. What then could we reasonably expect to _receive_ +or _find_? The _thing_ we _asked_ for, of course, and that was nothing! +Well might the language apply to such, "Ye ask ( ) and _receive not_ +(naught) because ye ask ( ) amiss." False teaching is as pernicious to +religion and morals as to science. + +"Charge them that are rich in this world--that they _do good_, that they +be rich in good works, ready to _distribute_ ( ), willing to +_communicate_ ( )."--_Paul to Timothy._ + +The hearer is to observe that there is no object after these +words--_nothing_ distributed, or communicated! There is too much such +charity in the world. + +"He spoke ( ), and _it_ was done; he commanded ( ), and _it_ stood +fast." + +"_Bless_ ( ), and _curse_ ( ) not."--_Bible._ + +"_Strike_ ( ) while the iron is hot."--_Proverb._ + +"I _came_ ( ), I _saw_ ( ), I _conquered_ ( )."--_Caesar's Letter._ + +He lives ( ) contented and happy. + +"The _life_ that I now _live_, in the flesh, I _live_ by the faith of +the son of God."--_Paul._ + +"Let me _die_ the _death_ of the righteous, and let my last _end be_ +like his."--_Numbers._ + +As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites ( ) to +sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against great disorders, it is to be +generally encouraged. Gymnastic exercises may be established for all +ages and for all classes. The Jews were ordered to _take a walk_ out of +the city on the Sabbath day; and here rich and poor, young and old, +master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent mirth or in the +pleasures of friendly intercourse.--_Spurzheim on Education._ + +"Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; fight ( ) for it; +die ( ) for it; any thing but live ( ) for it."--_Lacon._ + +"I have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and some may +accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in presuming ( ) to inscribe +a book to so small a minority. But a volume addressed to those that +think ( ) is in fact addressed to all the world; for altho the +proportion of those who _do_ ( ) think ( ) be extremely small, yet every +individual _flatters himself_ that he is one of the number."--_Idem._ + +What is the difference whether a man _thinks_ or not, if he produces no +_thoughts_? + +"He that _thinks himself_ the happiest man, really is so; but he that +_thinks himself_ the wisest, is generally the greatest fool."--_Idem._ + +"A man _has_ many _workmen employed_; some to plough ( ) and sow ( ), +others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to +score ( ) and hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory he +has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and +weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and +pay ( ). They eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and +as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, +sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; they rise ( ) up early to +go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress +( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) to read ( ), write +( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or intransitive verbs!! + +"The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on Tuesday evening in +the circus. He will leap ( ) over four bars, separately, in imitation of +the english hunter. He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at +the _word of command_. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, rear ( ) +and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a +cushion. To conclude ( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over +two horses."--_Cardell's Grammar._ + +The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no legerdemain upon the +public. He will stretch a line across the room, several feet from the +floor, over which he will leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will +stand ( ) on his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from side +to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; spring ( ) upon +his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out +touching his hands. He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) +like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) and cry ( ), as +if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp ( ) like a bird. To conclude +( ): He will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians, without +either "_action_ or _passion_," all the while having a "_state of +being_," motionless, in the center of the room!! + +What a lie! say you. _A lie?_ I hope you do not accuse _me_ of lying. If +there is any thing false in this matter it all _lies_ in the quotation, +at the conclusion, from the standard grammar. If that is false, whose +fault is it? Not mine, certainly. But what if I should _lie_ ( ), +intransitively? I should tell no falsehoods. + +But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or inconsistent, +any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the subject, it should be +remembered that it has been long taught, not only in common schools, but +in our academies and colleges, as serious, practical truth; as the only +means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves +for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile at such trash, +and well you may; but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only +thing in which we may turn round and _laugh_ ( ) at past follies. + +But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence +than to deserve our _laughter_. When I see the rising generation spend +months and years of the best and most important part of their lives, +which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and +useful, studying the dark and false theory of language as usually +taught, I am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which +imposes such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly the years that +have just gone by. I have seen too many blighted hopes, too many +wearisome hours, too many sad countenances, too many broken resolutions; +to say nothing of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter +that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, because +sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an important change, a +radical change, in this department of education, is imperiously +demanded, and teachers must obey the call, and effect the change. There +is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without +complaint, to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, merely from respect to age. It demands reason, +consistency and plainness; and yields assent only where they are found. +And teachers, if they will not lead in the reformation, must be +satisfied to follow after; for a reformation is loudly called for, and +will be had. None are satisfied with existing grammars, which, in +principle, are nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and +simplify Murray, have only acted _intransitively_, and accomplished very +little, if any good, save the employment given to printers, paper +makers, and booksellers. + +But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder at the errors +and mistakes of grammar makers, when our lexicographers tell us for +sober truth, that =to act=, _to be in action_, _not to rest_, to be in +_motion_, to _move_, is _v. n._ a verb neuter, signifying _no action_!! +or _v. i._ verb intransitive, producing _no effects_; and that a +"_neuter verb_ =expresses= (active transitive verb) _a state of being_!! +There are few minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing +therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. Truth is rarely +elicted from error, beauty from deformity, or order from confusion. +While, therefore, we allow the neuter systems to sink into +forgetfulness, as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut +our books, let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have +thoughtlessly (without _thinking thoughts_) and innocently lead us many +months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error and +contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness. But +let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following +the same unpleasant and unprofitable course, and endeavor to _reflect_ +the _light_ which may _shine_ upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding +darkness, and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall +come after us. + +Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of +foreign tongues. Because there are genitive cases, different kinds of +verbs, six tenses, etc. in the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions +should exist in our grammars. But this argument will not apply, +admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition +we have adopted, which we very seriously question, tho we have not time +to go into that investigation. We believe that the principles we have +adopted are capable of universal application; that what is action in +England would be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; +that "_like causes will produce like effects_" all the world over. It +matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, and all who +gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them, let them +speak what language they may. But if they have no ideas to express, they +need no language to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, +can speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because they +have nothing to say. + +Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous +multitude. They would all attempt a description of it, so far as they +were able to gain a knowledge of its construction, each in his own +language. Some might be unable to trace the _cause_, the moving _power_, +thro all the curiously arranged _means_, to the _agent_ who acted as +prime mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their +conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would find a _first +cause_ short of the Creator, the great original of all things and +actions; and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy. Heaven +has never left a vacuum where a new and _self_ sustaining power may be +set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision; and hence +the long talked of _perpetual motion_ is the vainest chimera which ever +occupied the human brain. It may well appear as the opposite extreme of +neuter verbs; for, while one would give no action to matter according to +the physical laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter +act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to take a more +rational and consistent stand; to view all things and beings as +occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite Wisdom, _acting_ according +to their several abilities, and subject to the regulation of the +all-pervading laws which guide, preserve, and harmonize the whole. + +If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence +of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an all-wise and ever-present +God, it is found in the order and harmony of all things, produced by the +regulation of Divine laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the +world is most clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt +language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse, or +in the transmission of thought, drawn from an observation and knowledge +of things as presented to his understanding. + +There is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect +and the future happiness of the child, as the knowledge of language. +Without it, what is life? Wherein would man be elevated above the brute? +And what is language without ideas? A sound without harmony--a shadow +without a substance. + +Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, as a +science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, a mere art, and +you will no longer hear the complaint of a "_dry_, _cold_, uninteresting +study." Its rules will be simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the +child will increase in the knowledge of more than _words_, in an +acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science. And if there +is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and +grovelling things of earth, and fill the soul with reverence and +devotion to the Holy Being who fills immensity with his presence, it is +when, from observing the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe +the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends to the +Intellectual Source of _light_, _life_, and _being_, and contemplates +the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of Deity; +soul mingling with soul, love absorbed in love, and God all in all. + + + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + + The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. + --Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, + =was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.-- + Cannot be in the present tense.--The past participle is an + adjective. + + +We have gone through the examination of _neuter_ and _intransitive_ +verbs, with the exception of the verb =to be=, which we propose to +notice in this place. Much more might be said on the subjects I have +discussed, and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and +operation of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to the +_objects_ of action; but I trust the hints I have given will be +satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your minds to _think_ +correct _thoughts_, and not _suffer_ them _to be_ misled by erroneous +teaching, you will arrive at the same conclusion that I have, viz. that +all verbs depend on a _common principle_ for their explanation; that +they are alike active, and necessarily take an object after them, either +expressed or understood, in accordance with the immutable law of nature, +which teaches that like causes will produce like effects. + + * * * * * + +The verb =to be=, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid of six +different words, in its various modes and tenses; _am_, _is_, _are_, +_was_, _were_, _be_. _Am_ is unchanged, always in the indicative mood, +present tense, agreeing with the _first_ person singular. _Is_ is also +unchanged, in the same mood and tense, agreeing with the _third_ person +singular. _Art_, in the singular, is the same as _are_ in the plural. +_Was_ and _wast_, are the same as _were_ and _wert_ in meaning, being +derived from the same etymon. _Be_, _being_, and _been_, are changes of +the same word. _Be_ was formerly extensively used in the indicative +present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete. _Were_ was also +used in the singular as well as plural, especially when coming before +the agent; as, "were I to go, I would do your business." But it is now +more common to have _was_ correctly used in that case. But, as one +extreme often follows another, people have laid _were_ quite too much +aside, and often crowd _was_ into its place in common conversation; as +"we _was_ (were) there yesterday." "There _was_ (were) five or six men +engaged in the business." This error appears to be gaining ground, and +should be checked before it goes farther. + +The combination of these different words was produced by habit, to avoid +the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word, so necessary in +the expression of thought, would occasion: the same as the past tense of +_go_ is made by the substitution of another word radically different, +_went_, the past tense of _wend_ or _wind_. "O'er hills and dales they +_wend_ their way." "The lowing herd _wind_ slowly o'er the lea." _Go_ +and _wend_ convey to our minds nearly the same ideas. The latter is a +little more poetical, because less used. But originally their +signification was quite different. So with the parts of the verb =to +be=. They were consolidated as a matter of convenience, and now appear +in their respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or +existence. + +I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. I will +now attempt to prove it. I should like to go into a labored and critical +examination of the words, and trace their changes thro various +languages, was it in accordance with the design of these lectures. But +as it is not, I shall content myself with general observations. + +_I am._ + +This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only said to be +"_the first person of to be_." We must look for its meaning some where +else. It is a compound of two ancient words, _ah_, _breath_, to +_breathe_, life, to _live_, _light_, to _light_; and _ma_, the _hand_, +or to _hand_. It signifies to _vivify_, _sustain_, or _support_ one's +self in being or existence. In process of time, like other things in +this mutable world, its form was changed, but the meaning retained. But +as one person could not _vivify_ or _live_ another, _inflate_ another's +lungs, or breathe another's breath, it became restricted to the first +person. It means, I _breathe breath_, _vivify myself_, _live life_, or +_exercise_ the power of _being_ or _living_. It conveys this fact in +every instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say _I am_. Let +any person pronounce the word _ah-ma_, and they will at once perceive +the appropriateness of the meaning here given. It is very similar to the +letter _h_, and the pronoun, (originally _noun_,) _he_, or the "_rough +breathing_" in the Greek language. _Ma_ is compounded with many words +which express action done by the hand; as, _ma_nufacture, _ma_numit. It +denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument; but, like +other words, it gradually changed its import, so as to express any +_effective_ operation. Hence the union of the words was natural and +easy, and _ahma_ denoted _breathing_, _to live_ or sustain life. _H_ is +a precarious letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation +of it by many who speak the English language, will prove. It was long +ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last _a_, so that we now have +the plain word _am_. + +It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as such may be found +in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses said unto God, Behold when I come unto +the children of Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers +sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his _name_? what +shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I =am= the I AM; and he +said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me +unto you." Chap. 6: 3.--"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto +Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name =Jehovah= (I AM) was +I not known unto them." The word _Jehovah_ is the same as _am_. It is +the name of the _self-existent_, _self-sustaining_ =Being=, who has not +only power to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime +action of _upholding_ or _sustaining himself_. This is the highest +possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation will be a +wreck. He is the _ever-living_, _uncontrolled_, _unfailing_, +_unassisted_, and _never-changing_ God, the Creator, Preserver, Alpha +and Omega, the Beginning and End of all things. He is the _First Cause_ +of all causes, the _Agent_, original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, +which set in motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and +governs them without "variableness or the shadow of turning." + + "I AM the first, and I, the last, + Thro endless years the same; + I AM is my memorial still, + And my eternal name." + _Watts' Hymn._ + +Ask the Jews the meaning of this _neuter verb_ in their language. They +hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence. After the +captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except +once a year when the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence +the true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare not +attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in characters +untranslated. When their Messiah comes they expect he will restore the +pronunciation, and by it they shall be able to accomplish all +things.[15] + +According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, =thou art=, +engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which is the second person +of =Eimi=, _I am_.[16] + +This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to whom it was given as +the name of the God of Jacob. The same name you may see engraven on +monuments, on pictures of the bible, on masonic implements, and in +various places, untranslated. + +Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," when the very +person incapable of it can not utter it, and no one else can speak it +for him? It denotes the highest conceivable action applied to Deity or +to man, and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this +fact. The action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not +terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is self-action. + +_He is._ + +This word is constructed from an old verb signifying _to stand forth_, +_to appear_, _to show one's self_, and may be traced, I think, to the +latin _eo_, _to go_, and _exist_, to _exeo_, _to go from_; that is, our +_being_ or _existence_, _came_ or _stood forth_ from God. It is +certainly a contraction from the old english _to exist_. _Ist_ is the +spelling still retained in the german and some other languages. It +denotes self-action. One man does not _exist_ another, but himself. He +_keeps himself_ in existence. + +_We are_, _thou are-est_, _arst_, or _art_. + +Be not surprised when I tell you this is the same word as _air_, for +such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to _air ourselves_, or +_breathe air_. "God _breathed_ into man the _breath of life_, and man +became a _living soul_." The new born infant _inhales air_, _inflates +its lungs_ with _air_, and begins to live. We all know how essential +_air_ is to the preservation of life. No animal can live an instant +without it. Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all _air_ has +been extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die where +there is no air. _Light_ is also indispensable to _life_ and _health_. +_Air_ is _inhaled_ and _exhaled_, and from it life receives support. The +fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed by the careless, as +tho it was more rare. But did you never see the man dying of a +consumption, when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? +How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows thrown open. At +length he _suffocates_ and dies. Most persons struggle hard for +_breath_ in the hour of dissolving nature. The heaving bosom, the hollow +gasp for _air_, tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be +extinguished, that the hour of their departure has come. + +When a person faints, we carry them into the _air_, or blow _air_ upon +them, that nature may be restored to its regular course. In certain +cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of +infants; they can after that _air_, themselves, _imbibe_ or _drink in +air_, or _inspirit_ themselves with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever +has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or +unwholesome air, can appreciate what we mean. + +_We were_; _he was_. + +I have said before that these words are the same, and are used in +certain cases irrespective of number. I have good authority for this +opinion, altho some etymologists give them different derivations. + +_Were_, _wert_; _worth_, _werth_; _word_ and _werde_, are derived from +the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. They signify +_spirit_, _life_, _energy_. "In the beginning was the _word_, and the +_word_ was with God." "By the _word_ of his grace." + +"_They were_," they _inspirited_ themselves, _possessed_ the life, +vitality, or _spirit_, the Creator gave them, and having that spirit, +life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due degree, they were +_worthy_ of the esteem, regard, sympathy, and good _word_ of others. + +_To be._ + +This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, and to +it all others are referred for a definition. Dictionaries give no +definition to _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, and _were_, all of them as truly +principal verbs as _be_, and possessed of as distinct a meaning. It can +hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our +language, and yet be incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the +most significant words in our language, and those most frequently used, +are undefined in the books. + +Mr. Webster says =to be= signifies, "to exist, to _have_ a real _state_ +or _existence_," and so say Walker and Johnson. Now if it is possible to +"=have= _a state of being_ without action or passion," then may this +word express neutrality. But the very definition requires activity, and +an object expressed. It denotes the _act of being_, or living; to +_exercise_ the powers of life, to _maintain_ a position or rank in the +scale of existent things. + +The name of the action is _being_, and applies to the Almighty BEING who +_exists_ unchanged as the source of all inferior _beings_ and things, +whose name is _Jehovah_, I AM, the Being of beings, the Fountain of +_light_, _life_, and _wisdom_. + +_Be_ is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, by every +body who employs language. "_Be_ here in ten minutes." "_Be it_ far from +thee." "I will _be_ in Boston before noon." If there is any action in +going from Providence to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or +before noon, it is all expressed by the verb _be_, which we are told +expresses _no action_. + +The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I want you _to be_ +in your seats in five minutes." What would they understand him to mean? +that they should stand still? or that they should _change their state of +being_ from play in the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There +is no word to denote such change, except the word _to be_. _Be_ off, +_be_ gone, _be_ here, _be_ there, are commands frequently given and +correctly understood. + +The master says to a bright little lad, who has well learned his +grammar, "_Be_ here in a minute." + +"Yes, sir, I will _be_ there;" but he does not move. + +"_Be_ here immediately." + +"Yes, yes, I will _be_ there." + +"Don't you understand me? I say, _be_ here instantly." + +"Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey." + +The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, "do you mean to +disobey my orders and insult me?" + +"Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies the honest +boy. + +"Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it." + +"No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have obeyed you as +well as I know how, to the very letter and spirit of your command." + +"Didn't I tell you _to be_ here in a minute, and have not you _remained_ +where you were? and didn't you say you would _be_ here?" + +"Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?" + +"Why, no, you blockhead; I told you _to be_ here." + +"Well, I told you I would _be_ there." + +"You _was_ not here." + +"Nor did you expect I would _be_, if you have taught me to _speak_, +_write_, and understand correctly." + +"What do you mean, you saucy boy?" + +"I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to." + +"Why didn't you do so then?" + +"I did." + +"You didn't." + +"I did." + +"You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will punish you severely." And in a passion +he starts for his ferrule, takes the boys hand, and bruises him badly; +the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any +intended wrong. + +In a short time they commence _parsing_ this sentence: "It is necessary +_to be_ very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we +use them." The master puts _to be_ to the same boy. He says it is an +_active verb_, infinitive mood. + +"How is that? an _active_ verb?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"No, it is not. It is a _neuter_ verb." + +"Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active." + +"Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will inform your parents of your conduct." + +"What have I done that is wrong?" + +"You say _to be_ is an _active_ verb, when _I_ tell you, and the +_grammar_ and _dictionary_ tell you, it is _neuter_!" + +"What is a _neuter_ verb, master?" + +"It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a state of +being.' Have you forgotten it?" + +"No, sir, I _thought_ that was the case." + +"What did you ask me for then?" + +"Because I supposed you had found another meaning for it." + +"To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? I'll not bear your +insults much longer." + +"For what did you punish me so severely just now?" + +"For disobeying my orders." + +"What did you order me to do?" + +"_To be_ here in a minute." + +"Well, did not I do what you told me?" + +"No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me." + +"Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that _to be_ is a +_neuter_ verb, expressing no _action_, but _being_. I had a _state_ of +_being_, and promised to keep it, and did keep it, and you punished me +for doing the very thing you told me to do!!" + +The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to say that grammar +is a "_dry_, _cold_, and _useless_" study, hardly worth the trouble of +learning it. + + * * * * * + +"_I am_ Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, +who _is_, and who _was_, and who _is_ to come, the Almighty."--_Rev. 1: +8._ + +If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by which all +things were created and are upheld, it is expressed in the verbs _am_, +_is_, and _was_. + +God said, "Let there _be_ light, and there _was_ light;" or more +properly rendered, "Light =be=, and light =was=." + +Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in the firmament, +and in causing them to _send_ forth the rays of light to _dispel_ the +surrounding darkness? If there was, _be_ and _was_ denote that action. + +"You are commanded =to be= and _appear_ before the court of common +pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply +with this citation--for neglecting to do what is expressed by the +_neuter verb_ to _be_. + +Such cases might be multiplied without number, where this verb is +correctly used by all who employ language, and correctly understood by +all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words. But I think you +must all be convinced of the truth of our proposition, that all verbs +express action, either _real_ or _relative_; and in all cases have an +object, expressed or necessarily implied, which stands as the _effect_, +and an agent, as the cause of action: and hence that language, as a +means for the communication of thought, does not deviate from the +soundest principles of philosophy, but in all cases, rightly explained, +serves to illustrate them, in the plainest manner. + + * * * * * + +A few remarks on the "Passive Verb," and I will conclude this part of +our subject, which has already occupied much more of our attention than +I expected at the outset. + +"_A verb passive_ expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving +of an action; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent +by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved; Penelope is loved by me." + +In the explanation of this verb, grammarians further tell us that a +passive verb is formed by adding the verb _to be_, which is thus made +auxiliary, to a past participle; as, Portia _was loved_. Pompey _was +conquered_. + +It is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are about observing +their own rules. Take an instance in Mr. Walker's octavo dictionary. +Look for the word _simeter_, a small sword. You will find it spelled +_scimitar_. Then turn over, and you will find it _s_im_i_t_a_r, with the +same definition, and the remark, "more properly _c_im_e_t_a_r." Then +turn back, and find the correct word as he spells it, and there you will +find it cimet_e_r. + +Unsettled as to the true spelling, go to our own honored Webster. Look +for "scimiter." He says, see cimit_a_r. Then look for "cimitar;" see +cim_e_t_e_r. Then hunt up the true word, be it _ar_ or _er_, and you +will find it still another way, cim_i_t_e_r. Here the scholar has seven +different ways to spell this word, and neither of his authorities have +followed their own examples. I cite this as one of a thousand instances, +where our savans have laid down rules for others, and disregarded them +themselves. + +Portia _is loved_ and _happy_. She is _respectable_, _virtuous_, +_talented_, and _respected_ by all who know her. She _is seated by the +door_. Does the _door_ seat her? What agent, then, causes her _passion_ +or _suffering_? + +The book is printed. Will you parse _is printed_? It is a passive verb, +indicative mood, _present tense_. Who _is_ printing it? causing it, in +the present tense, to _suffer_ or _receive_ the action? The act of +printing _was performed_ a hundred years ago. How can it be present +time? + +Penelope _is loved_ by me. The blow _is received_ by me. It _is given_ +by me. Penelope _is seated_ by me. The earthquake _is felt_ by her. The +evils _are suffered_ by her. The thunder _is heard_ by her. Does this +mean that she is the agent, and the earthquake, evils, and thunder, are +the objects which receive the _effects_ which she produces? That would +be singular philosophy, indeed. But _to feel_, _to suffer_, and _to +hear_, are active, and are constructed into passive verbs. Why is it not +as correct to say she _is suffering_ by another's wrongs, _is raging_ by +the operation of passion, or _is travelling_ by rail-road, are passive +verbs? The fact is, our language can not _be explained_ by set rules or +forms of speech. We must regard the sense. The past participle, as it is +called, becomes an adjective by use, and describes her as some way +affected by a previous action. She is _learned_, _handsome_, _modest_, +and, of course, _beloved_ by all who know her. + +To say "she _is placed_ by the water's edge," is a passive verb, and +that the water's edge, as the agent, causes her "passion, suffering, or +receiving of the action," is false and ridiculous, for she _placed_ +herself there. + +"We _are seated_ on our seats by the stove." What power is _now_ +operating on us to make us suffer or receive the action of being seated +on our seats? Does the stove perform this action? This is a passive +verb, _present tense_, which requires an "object acted upon, and an +_agent_ by which it is acted upon." But we came in and _seated +ourselves_ here an hour ago. + +The man _is acquitted_. He _stands acquitted_ before the public. He _is +learned_, wise, and happy, very much _improved_ within a few years. He +_is_ always active, studious, and _engaged_ in his own affairs. He _is +renowned_, and _valorous_. She _is respected_. She _lives respected_. + +If there is such a thing as a passive verb, it can never be used in the +present tense, for the action expressed by the principal verb which is +produced by the agent operating upon the object, is always _past_ tense, +and the auxiliary, or helping verb _to be_, is always present. Let this +verb be analyzed, and the true meaning of each word understood, little +difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation. + +I will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this attempted +distinction. It depends solely on a verbal form, but can never _be +explained_ so as _to be understood_ by any scholar. Most grammarians +have seen the fallacy of attempting to give the meaning of this verb. +They can show its _form_, but _are_ frequently _compelled_, as in the +cases above, to sort out the "_passed_ participles" from a host of +adjectives, and it will _be found_ exceeding troublesome to make +scholars perceive any difference in the use of the words, or in the +construction of a sentence. But it may be they have never thought that +duty belonged to them; that they have nothing to do but to show them +what the book says. Suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same +principles, and learn the scholars to set down 144 as the product of 12 +times 12. Let them look at the form of the figures, observe just how +they appear, and make some more like them, and thus go thro the book. +What would the child know of arithmetic? Just as much as they do of +grammar, and no more. They would understand nothing of the science of +numbers, of proportion, or addition. They would exercise the power of +imitation, and make one figure look like another. Beyond that, all would +be a _terra incognita_, a land unknown. So in the science of language; +children may learn that the verb _to be_, joined with the past +participle of an active verb, makes _a passive verb_; but what that +passive verb is when made, or how to apply it, especially in the present +tense, they have no means of knowing. Their knowledge is all taken on +trust, and when thrown upon their own resources, they have none on which +to rely. + + + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + + =Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions. + --Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future + explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.-- + Imperfect.--Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.-- + =Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will.--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +We are now come to consider the different relations of action in +reference to _manner_ and _time_. We shall endeavor to be as brief as +possible upon this subject, keeping in view meanwhile that candor and +perspicuity which are indispensable in all our attempts to explain new +views. + +_Mood_ signifies _manner_. Applied to verbs it explains _how_, in _what +manner_, by what means, under what circumstances, actions are performed. + +There are _three_ moods, the _indicative_ or declarative, the +_imperative_ or commanding, and the _infinitive_ or unlimited. + +The indicative mood declares an action to be _done_ or _doing_, _not +done_, or _not doing_. It is always in the past or present tense; as, +David _killed_ Goliath; scholars _learn_ knowledge; I _spoke not_ a +word; they _sing not_. + +The imperative mood denotes a command given from the first _person_ to +the _second_, _to do_ or _not do_ an action. It expresses the wish or +desire of the first person to have a certain action performed which +depends on the agency of the second. The command is _present_, but the +action signified by the word is _future_ to the giving of the command. +The second person cannot comply with the will of the first till such +will is made known; as, bring me a book; go to the door. + +The _infinitive_ mood has no direct personal agent, but is produced as a +necessary consequence, growing out of a certain condition of things. It +is always _future_ to such condition; that is, some prior arrangement +must be had before such consequences will follow. It is always _future_; +as, they are collecting a force _to besiege_ the city. We study grammar +_to acquire_ a knowledge of language. Windows are made _to admit_ light. +The act of besieging the city depends on the previous circumstance, the +collection of a force _to do_ it. Were there no windows, the light would +not be admitted to the room. + +These distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to every hearer. +You all are aware of the fact that action necessarily implies an actor, +as every effect must have an efficient cause; and such action clearly or +distinctly _indicated_, must have such an agent to produce it. 2d. You +are acquainted with the fact that one person can express his will to the +second, directing him to do or avoid some thing. 3d. From an established +condition of things, it is easy to deduce a consequence which will +follow, in the nature of things, as an unavoidable result of such a +combination of power, cause, and means. + +With these principles you are all familiar, whether you have studied +grammar or not. They are clearly marked, abundantly simple, and must be +obvious to all. They form the only necessary, because the only real, +distinction, in the formation and use of the verb to express action. Any +minor distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass the +learner. + +But some grammarians have passed these natural barriers, and built to +themselves schemes to accord with their own vain fancies. The remarks of +Mr. Murray upon this point are very appropos. He says: + +"Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have +assigned to them. They assert that the english language may be said, +without any great impropriety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary +verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound +expression which they help to form, point out those various dispositions +and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This +would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, +certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the english +language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We +must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; and do that +by their assistance, which has been done in the learned languages (a few +instances to the contrary excepted) in another manner, namely, by +varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary +to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity +and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, +therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and +introducing moods _interrogative_, _optative_, _promissive_, +_hortative_, _precative_, &c., we have exhibited such only as are +obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and +display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, +and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods +were introduced. + +"From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, +respecting this part of english grammar, on the principles and +constructions of languages which, in these points, do not suit the +peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may +naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor +perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than to inform +the learner." + +Had he followed this rule, he would have saved weeks and months to every +student in grammar in the community. But his remarks were aimed at Mr. +Harris, who was by far the most popular writer on language in England at +that time. He has adopted the very rules of Mr. Murray, and carried them +out. By a careful observance of the different forms and changes of the +verb and its auxiliaries, he makes out quite evidently to his own mind, +_fourteen_ moods, which I forbear to name. + +Most grammarians contend for _five_ moods, two of which, the _potential_ +or powerful, and the _subjunctive_, are predicated on the same +principles as Mr. Harris' optative, interrogative, etc., which they +condemn. It is impossible to explain the character of these moods so as +to be understood. _If_, it is said, is the sign of the subjunctive, and +_may_ and _can_ of the potential; and yet they are often found together; +as, "I will go _if I can_." No scholar can determine in what mood to put +this last verb. It of right belongs to both the potential and +subjunctive. _If_ I _may_ be allowed to speak my mind, I _should_ say +that such distinctions were false. + +I will not go into an exposure of these useless and false distinctions, +which are adopted to help carry out erroneous principles. The only +pretence for a subjunctive mood is founded on the fact that _be_ and +_were_ were formerly used in a character different from what they are +at present. _Be_ was used in the indicative mood, present tense, when +doubt or supposition was implied; as, If I _be_ there; if they _be_ +wise. _Be_ I a man, and _receive_ such treatment? _Were_ was also used +instead of _was_ in the past tense; as, "_Were_ I an American I would +fight for liberty. If I _were_ to admit the fact." In this character +these words are rapidly becoming obsolete. We now say, "If I _am_ there; +am I a man, and _receive_ such abuses? _was_ I an American; if I was to +admit," etc. + +All the round about, perplexing, and tedious affair of conjugating verbs +thro the different modes and tenses will appear in its true character, +when we come to give you a few brief examples, according to truth and +plain sense. But before doing that it will be necessary to make some +remarks on time. + +_Tense_ means _time_. We distinguish time according to certain events +which are generally observed. In the use of the verb we express action +in reference to periods of time when it is performed. + +There are three tenses, or divisions of time; _past_, _present_, and +_future_. + +_Past tense_ applies to actions which are accomplished; as, I _wrote_ a +book; he _recited_ his lesson. + +_Present tense_ denotes actions commenced, but not finished, and now in +operation; as, he _reads_ his book; we _sit_ on our seats and _hear_ the +lecture. + +_Future tense_ refers to actions, which are _to take_ place hereafter; +as, I am _to go_ from the Institute; we desire _to learn_ grammar +correctly. + +Every body can mark three plain distinctions of time, past, present, and +future. With the past we have been acquainted. It has ceased to be. Its +works are ended. The present is a mere line--, nothing as it +were--which is constantly passing unchecked from the past to the future. +It is a mere division of the past and future. The Hebrew, which is +strictly a philosophic language, admits no present; only a _past_ and +_future_. We speak of the present as denoting an action begun and not +finished. In the summer, we say the trees grow, and bear fruit. But when +the fruit is fallen, and the leaves seared by the frost, we change the +expression, and say, it _grew_ and _bore_ fruit. + +Of the _future_ we can know nothing definitely. Heaven has hung before +all human eyes an impenetrable veil which obscures all future events. No +man without prophetic vision bestowed by Him who "sees the end from the +beginning," can know what is _to be_, and no expression can be made, no +words employed which will positively declare a future action. We may see +a present condition of things, and from it argue what is _to be_, or +take place hereafter; but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and +deduced from a review of the present relation and tendencies of things. + +I hold the paper near the fire and you say it _will_ burn, and you say +truly, for it has a _will_, or what is the same, an inherent tendency +_to burn_. It is made of combustible matter, like paper which we have +seen burn, and hence we argue this has the same tendency to be consumed. +But how does your mind arrive at that fact? If you had never seen a +substance like it burn, why should you conclude this _will_? Does the +child know it _will_ burn? No; for it has not yet learned the quality of +the paper. It is not till the child has been burned that it dreads the +fire. Suppose I take some asbestus, of the kind called amianthus, which +is a mineral, and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax; and in +eastern countries, especially in Savoy and Corsica, is manufactured into +cloth, paper, and lamp wicks. It was used in making winding sheets for +the dead, in which the bodies were burned, and the ashes, retained in +the incombustible sheet, were gathered into an urn, and revered as the +manes of the dead. Suppose I take some of this incombustible paper or +cloth, and present to you. You say it _will_ burn. Why do you say thus? +Because you have seen other materials which appear like this, consume to +ashes. Let us put it into the fire. It _will not_ burn. It has no +_tendency_ to burn; no quality which will consume. But this is a new +idea to you and hence your mistake. You did not know it _would_ burn, +nor could you _indicate_ such a fact. You only told your opinion derived +from the present appearance of things, and hence you made an assertion +in the _indicative_ mood, present tense, and added to it an _infinitive_ +mood, in order to deduce the consequence of this future action--it +_wills_, or has a _tendency_ to burn. But you were mistaken, because +ignorant of the _nature_ of things. This amianthus looks like flax, and +to a person unacquainted with it, appears to be as truly combustible; +but the mineralogist, and all who know its properties, know very well +that it _will_ not--wills nothing, has no inclination, or tendency, to +burn. + +Take another example. Here is a steel needle. I hold it before you. You +say, "if I let go of it, it _will_ fall," and you say correctly, for it +has such a tendency. But suppose a magnet, as great as that which is +said to have drawn the iron coffin of Mohammed to the roof of the temple +at Mecca, should be placed in the room above us. The needle, instead of +falling to the floor, would be drawn in the nearest direction to that +magnet. The _will_ or _tendency_ of the needle, as generally understood, +would be overcome, the natural law of gravitation would lose its +influence, by the counteracting power of the loadstone. + +I say, "I will go home in an hour." But does that expression _indicate_ +the act of _going_? It is placed in the indicative mood in our grammars; +and _go_ is the principal, and _will_ the auxiliary verb. May be I shall +fall and die before I reach my home. But the expression is correct; +_will_ is _present_, go _future_. I _will_, I now _resolve_, am now +inclined _to go_ home. + +You see the correctness of our position, that we can not positively +assert a future active in the indicative mood. Try and form to +yourselves a phrase by which it can be done. Should you succeed, you +would violate a law of nature. You would penetrate the dark curtain of +the future, and claim to yourself what you do not possess, a power to +declare future actions. Prophets, by the help of the Almighty, had this +power conferred upon them. But in the revelation of the sublime truths +they were instructed to make known, they were compelled to adopt human +language, and make it agree with our manner of speech. + +The only method by which we express a future event, is to make an +assertion in the indicative mood, present tense, and to that append the +natural consequence in the infinitive or unlimited; as, I _am to go_ to +Boston. He is preparing _to visit_ New-York. The infinitive mood is +always future to the circumstance on which it depends. + +Mr. Murray says, that "tense, being the distinction of time, might seem +to admit of only the present, past, and future; but to mark it more +_accurately_, it is made to consist of six variations, viz.: the +present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first and second future +tenses." This _more accurate mark_, only serves to expose the author's +folly, and distract the learner's mind. Before, all was plain. The past, +present, and future are distinct, natural divisions, easily understood +by all. But what idea can a person form of an _imperfect_ tense in +action. If there was ever such an action in the world, it was when +_grammarians_ =made= their grammars, which is, if I mistake not, +according to their own authority, in the _im-perfect_ tense! I _wrote_ a +letter. He _read_ his piece well. The scholar learn_ed_ and recit_ed_ +his lesson _perfectly_; and yet _learned_, tho made _perfect_ by the +qualification of an _adverb_, is an _imperfect_ action! + +But this explains the whole mystery in the business of grammar. We can +here discover the cause of all the troubles and difficulties we have +encountered in the whole affair. When authors _made_ their books, they +_did_ it _imperfectly_; when teachers _taught_ them, it was +_imperfectly_; and when scholars _learned_ them, it was _imperfectly_!! +So at last, we have found the origin of this whole difficulty, in the +grammars themselves; it was all imperfectly done. + +But here, again, _mirabile dictu!_ wonderful to tell, we are presented +with a _plu-perfect_ tense; that is,--_plus_ means _more_,--a _more_ +than perfect tense! What must that be? If a thing is perfect, we can not +easily conceive any thing beyond. That is a _ne plus ultra_ to all +advancement--there can be no more beyond. If any change is introduced, +it must be by falling from _perfect_ back to _imperfect_. + +I _have said_, "many of the distinctions in the grammar books _have +proved_ mischievous; that they are as false as frivolous;" and +this is said _perfectly_, in the perfect tense. If I should say, +"they _had been_ of some benefit," that would be _more_ than +_perfect_--plu-perfect. But when I say, "they _exhibited_ great depth +of research, and _conveyed_ some light on the subject of which they +_treated_," it would all be _im_-perfect. + +Next, we are presented with a _second future_ tense, which attempts a +division of time unbounded and unknown. In the greek, they have what is +called a "_paulo post future_," which in plain english, means a "_little +after the future_;" that is, I suppose, when futurity has come to an +end, this tense will commence! At that time we may expect to meet a +"_praeter plus quam perfectum_"--a more than perfect tense! But till that +period shall arrive, we see little need of making such false and +unphilosophic distinctions. + +A teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions of time to his +scholars from the clock dial which stood in the school room. Suppose +_twelve_ o'clock represents the _present_ tense; _nine_ would signify +the _perfect_; any thing between nine and twelve would be _imperfect_; +any thing beyond, _pluperfect_. On the other hand, any act, forward of +twelve, would be _future_; and at _three_ the _second future_ would +commence. I remarked that I thought this a wonderful improvement, +especially to those who were able to have clocks by which to teach +grammar, but that I could not discover why he did not have _three +future_, as well as _three past_ tenses. Why, he said, there were no +such tenses marked in the books, and hence there was no occasion to +explain them. I asked him why he did not have a tense for every hour, +and so he could distinguish with Mr. Webster, _twelve_ tenses, without +any trouble whatever; and, by going three times round the dial, he could +easily prove the correctness of Dr. Beattie's division; for he says, in +his grammar, there are _thirty-six_ tenses, and thinks there can not be +less without "introducing confusion in the grammatical _art_." But he +thought such a course would serve rather to perplex than enlighten; and +so thought I. But he was the teacher of a popular school in the city +of ----, and had published a duodecimo grammar of over 300 pages, +entitled "Murray's Grammar, _improved_, by ----." I will not give his +name; it would be libellous! + +Mr. Murray thinks because certain things which he asserts, but does not +prove, are found in greek and latin, "we may doubtless apply them to the +english verb; and extend the principle _as far as convenience_, and the +idiom of our language require." He found it to his "convenience" to note +_six_ principal, and as many _indefinite_ tenses. Mr. Webster does the +same. Dr. Beattie found it "convenient" to have _thirty-six_. In the +greek they have _nine_. Mr. Bauzee distinguishes in the french _twenty_ +tenses; and the royal academy of Spain present a very learned and +elaborate treatise on _seven future tenses_ in that language. The clock +dial of my friend would be found quite "_convenient_" in aiding the +"convenience" of such distinctions. + +The fact is, there are only three real divisions of time in any +language, because there are only three in nature, and the ideas of all +nations must agree in this respect. In framing language it was found +impossible to mark any other distinctions, without introducing other +words than those which express simple action. These words became +compounded in process of time, till they are now used as changes of the +same verb. I would here enter into an examination of the formation of +the tenses of greek, latin, french, spanish, and german verbs, did I +conceive it necessary, and show you how, by compounding two words, they +form the various tenses found in the grammars. But it will be more +edifying to you to confine my remarks to our own language. Here it will +be found impossible to distinguish more than three tenses, or find the +verb in any different form, except by the aid of other words, wholly +foreign from those that express the action under consideration. + +It is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect, pluperfect, or +future tenses are formed. But when it is shown you that these are +principal verbs, and like many other words, are used before the +infinitive mood without the word _to_ prefixed to them, you will +perceive the consistency of the plan we propose. That such is the fact +we have abundant evidence to show, and with your consent we will +introduce it in this place. I repeat, all the words long considered +auxiliaries, are _principal_ verbs, declarative of positive action, and +as such are in extensive use in our language. We can hardly agree that +the words _will_, _shall_, _may_, _must_, _can_, _could_, _would_, +_should_, etc. have no meaning, as our grammars and dictionaries would +teach us; for you may look in vain for a definition of them, as +principal verbs, with a few exceptions. + +The reason these words are not found in the same relation to other +words, with a _to_ after them, is because they are so often used that we +are accustomed to drop that word. The same may be said of all small +words in frequent use; as, _bid_, _do_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _have_, +_let_, _make_, _see_, and sometimes _needs_, _tell_, and a few others. +Bid him go. I _dare say_ so. I _feel_ it _move_. We _hear_ him _sing_. +_Let_ us _go_. _Make_ him _do_ it. He _must go_ thro Samaria. _Tell_ him +_do_ it immediately. + +It is a singular fact, but in keeping with neuter verb systems, that all +the _neuter_ verbs as well as the active, take these auxiliary or +_helping_ verbs, which, according to their showing _help them do +nothing_--"express neither action or passion." A wonderful _help_ +indeed! + + * * * * * + +=Will.= This verb signifies to _wish_, to _resolve_, to _exercise +volition_, in reference to a certain thing or action. "I will go." I +_now resolve_ to perform the act of going. When applied to inanimate +things incapable of volition, it signifies what is analogous to it, +_inherent tendency_; as, paper _will_ burn; iron _will_ sink; water +_will_ run. All these things have an inherent or active tendency to +change. Water is composed of minute particles of a round form, piled +together. While on a level they do not move; but let a descent be made, +and these particles, under the influence of gravitation, _will_ change +position, and roll one over another with a rapidity equalled to the +condition in which they are placed. The same may be observed in a +quantity of shot opened at one side which _will_ run thro the aperture; +but the particles being larger, they will not find a level like water. +Grain, sand, and any thing composed of small particles, _will_ exhibit +the same tendency. Iron, lead, or any mineral, in a state of igneous +solution, _will_ run, has the same _inclination_ to run as water, or any +other liquid. In oil, tallow, and lard, when expanded by heat, the same +tendency is observed; but severely chilled with the cold, it congeals, +and _will_ not, has no such _tendency_, to run. + +You have doubtless observed a cask filled with water and nearly tight, +(if it is possible, make it quite so,) and when an aperture is made in +the side, it _will_ run but a trifle before it will stop. Open a vent +upon the top of the cask and it _will_ run freely. This _will_ or +tendency was counteracted by other means which I will not stop here to +explain. + +This is a most important word in science, physical and moral, and may +be traced thro various languages where it exerts the same influence in +the expression of thought. + +"To avoid multiplying of words, I would crave leave here, under the word +_action_, to comprehend the _forbearance_ too of any action proposed; +_sitting still_, or _holding one's peace_, when _walking_ or _speaking_ +are proposed, tho mere forbearances, requiring as much the determination +of the _will_, and being as often weighty in their consequences as the +_contrary actions_, may, on that consideration, well enough pass for +actions too. For he that shall turn his thoughts inwards upon what +passes in his mind when he _wills_, shall see that the _will_ or power +of volition is conversant about nothing."--_Locke's Essay_, b. II. c. +21. Sec. 30. + +It is correctly applied by writers to _matter_ as well as mind, as may +be seen by consulting their works. + + "Meanwhile as nature _wills_, night bids us rest." + _Milton._ + +The _lupulis_, or common hop, _feels_ for some elevated object which +will assist it in its high aspirations, and _will_ climb it by winding +from left to right, and _will_ not be obliged to go in an opposite +direction; while the _phaseolus_, or kidney bean, takes the opposite +direction. Neither _will_ be compelled to change its course. They _will_ +have their own way, and grow as they please, or they _will_ die in the +contest for liberty. + +Arsenic has a _tendency_ in itself, a latent power, which only requires +an opportunity suited to its objects, when it _will act_ in the most +efficacious manner. It _will_ destroy the life of the Emperor, who has +_voluntarily_ slain his thousand and tens of thousands. This secret +power does not reside in the flour of wheat, for that _will not_, has no +tendency, to produce such disastrous consequences. + +This word is applied in a similar manner to individuals and nations. +The man _will_ fall, not of intention, but of accident. He _will_ kill +himself. The man _will_ drown, and the boat _will_ swim. The water +_will_ hold up the boat, but it _will_ allow the man to sink. The +Russians _will_ conquer the Turks. If conquest depended solely on the +_will_, the Turks would as soon conquer as the Russians. But I have not +time to pursue this topic farther. You can follow out these hints at +your leisure. + +=Shall= signifies to be _bound_, _obligated_, or _required_, from +external necessity. Its etymology may be traced back thro various +languages. It is derived direct from the saxon _scaelan_ or _scylan_, +and is found as a principal verb in that language, as well as in ours. +In the church homily they say, "To Him alone we _schall us_ to devote +ourselves;" we _bind_ or _obligate_ ourselves. Chaucer, an early english +poet, says. + + "The faith we _shall_ to God." + +Great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between _shall_ and +_will_, and frequent essays have been written, to give arbitrary rules +for their use. If the words were well understood, there could be no +difficulty in employing them correctly. _Will_ signifies _inherent +tendency_, _aptitude_, or _disposition_, and _volition_ in beings +capable of using it. _Shall_ implies _external necessity_, or foreign +obligation. The parent says, "You _will_ suffer misery if you do evil," +for it is in accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce +misery. "You _shall_ regard my wishes," for you are under _obligation_, +from the relation in which you stand to me, to do so. Let these words be +clearly explained, and there will be no difficulty in using them +correctly. + +=May=, past tense _might_. This verb expresses _power_, _strength_, or +_ability_ to perform an action. It is a mistake that it means permission +or liberty only. It implies more than that, the delegation of a power to +perform the contemplated action. Suppose the scholar should faint, would +the teacher say to him you _may_ go into the open air? He has no +_power_, _might_, or _strength_, communicated by such liberty, and must +receive the _might_ or strength of others to carry him out. But to the +scholar in health he says you _may_ go out, thereby giving to him a +power and liberty sufficient to perform the action. This is done on the +same principle that one man gives another a "_power_ of attorney" to +transact his business; and that _power_ constitutes his _liberty_ of +action. + +=Must= signifies to be _confined_, _limited_, _bound_, or _restrained_. +I _must_, or am bound, to obey; certain obligations require me to obey. +The adjective of this word is in common use. The air in the cask is +_musty_. It has long been _bound_ or _confined_ there, and prevented +from partaking of the purifying qualities of the atmosphere, and hence +has become _musty_. + +=Can.= This word is found as a principal verb and as a noun in our +language, especially in the Scotch dialect. "I _ken_ nae where he'd +gone." Beyond the _ken_ of mortals. Far from all human _ken_. It +signifies to _know_, to perceive, to understand. I knew not where he had +gone. Beyond the knowledge of mortals. Far from all human reach. To +_con_ or _cun_ is a different spelling of the same word. _Cunning_ is +that quick _perception_ of things, which enables a person to use his +knowledge adroitly. The child _can_ read; _knows_ how to read. It _can_ +walk. Here it seems to imply _power_; but power, in this case, as in +most others, is gained only by knowledge, for =knowledge is power=. +Many children have strength sufficient to walk, long before they do. The +reason why they _can not_ walk, is, they do not _know how_; they have +not learned to balance themselves in an erect position, so as to move +forward without falling. + +A vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge. There is +not a being in creation so entirely incapable of self-support, as the +new-born infant; and yet, by the help of knowledge, he becomes the lord +of this lower world. Bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child, +and yet by dint of _can_, _ken_, _cunning_, or knowledge, he made all +Europe tremble. But his knowledge was limited. He became blind to +danger, bewildered by success, and he _could_ no longer follow the +prudent course of wisdom, but fell a sacrifice to his own unbridled +ambition, and blinded folly. An enlightened people _can_ govern +themselves; but _power_ of government is gained by a knowledge of the +principles of equality, and mutual help and dependency; and whenever the +people become ignorant of that fact, they _will_ fall, the degraded +victims of their own folly, and the wily influence of some more knowing +aspirant for power. + +This is a most important topic; but I dare not pursue it farther, lest I +weary your patience. A few examples _must_ suffice. + + "Jason, she cried, for aught I _see_ or _can_, + This deed," &c. + _Chaucer._ + + A famous man, + Of every _witte_ somewhat he _can_, + _Out take_ that him lacketh rule, + His own estate to guide and rule. + _Gower._ + +=Do= has been called a _helping_ verb; but it needs little observation +to discover that it is no more so than a hundred other words. "_Do_ +thy diligence to come before winter." "_Do_ the work of an +evangelist."--_Paul to Timothy._ I _do_ all in my power _to expose_ the +error and wickedness of false teaching. _Do_ afford relief. _Do_ +something to afford relief. + +=Have= has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the "helping verb +grammars," which has no other duty to perform than help conjugate other +verbs thro some of their moods and tenses. It is a word in very common +use, and of course must possess a very important character, which should +be carefully examined and distinctly known by all who desire a knowledge +of the construction of our language. + +The principal difficulty in the explanation of this word, is the +peculiar meaning which some have attached to it. It has been defined to +denote _possession_ merely. But when we say, a man _has_ much _property +destroyed_ by fire, we do not mean that he _gains_ or _possesses_ much +property by the fire; nor can we make _has_ auxiliary to _destroyed_, +for in that case it would stand thus: a man _has destroyed_ much +property by fire, which would be false, for the destruction was produced +by an incendiary, or some other means wholly unknown to him. + +You at once perceive that _to possess_ is not the only meaning which +attaches to _have_. It assumes a more important rank. It can be traced, +with little change in form, back thro many generations. It is the same +word as _heave_, originally, and retains nearly the same meaning. Saxon +_habban_, Gothic _haban_, German _haben_, Latin _habeo_, French _avoir_, +are all the same word, varied in spelling more than in sound; for _b_ in +many languages is sounded very much like _v_, or _bv_. It may mean to +_hold_, _possess_, _retain_, _sway_, _control_, _dispose of_, either as +a direct or _relative_ action; for a man sustains relations to his +actors, duties, family, friends, enemies, and all the world, as well as +to his possessions. He _has_ a hard task to perform. He _has_ much pain +_to suffer_. He _has_ suffered much unhappiness. + +I _have written_ a letter. I _have_ a written letter. I _have_ a letter +_written_. These expressions differ very little in meaning, but the verb +_have_ is the same in each case. By the first expression, I signify that +I have _caused_ the letter to be _written_; by the second that I have a +letter on which such action has been performed; and by the third, that +such written letter stands in such relation to myself. + +I _have written_ a letter and sent it away. _Written_ is the past +participle from _write_; as an adjective it describes the letter in the +condition I placed it; so that it will be defined, wherever it is found, +as my letter; that is, some way _related_ to me. + +We can here account for the old _perfect tense_, which is said, "not +only to refer to what is _past_, but also _to convey an allusion to the +present time_." The verb is in the _present_ tense, the participle is in +the _past_, and hence the reason of this allusion. I _have_ no _space +allowed_ me to go into a full investigation of this word, in its +application to the expression of ideas. But it is necessary to _have_ it +well _understood_, as it _has_ an important _service entrusted_ to it; +and I hope you will _have_ clear _views presented_ to your minds, strong +enough to _have_ former _errors eradicated_ therefrom. + +If you _have_ leisure _granted_, and patience and disposition equal-_ed_ +to the task, you have my consent to go back and read this sentence over +again. You will find it _has_ in it embodied much important information +in relation to the use of _have_ and the perfect tense. + + + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of + agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular + verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation + of verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood + varied.--A whole sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative + mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is always future. + + +I have said before that action can never be known separate from the +actor; that the verb applies to the agent in an _acting_ condition, as +that term has been defined and should be understood. Hence Person and +Number can never attach to the verb, but to the agent with which, of +course, the action must, in every respect, agree; as, "_I write_." In +this case the action corresponds with myself. But to say that _write_ is +in the "first person, singular number," would be wrong, for no such +number or person belongs to the verb, but is confined to myself as the +agent of the action. + +The form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the second or third +person singular; more on account of habit, I apprehend, than from any +reason, or propriety as to a change of meaning in the word. We say, when +using the regular _second_ person singular, "_thou writest_," a form +rarely observed except in addresses to Deity, or on solemn occasions. In +the _third_ person, an _s_ is added to the regular form; as, "_he +writes_." The old form, which was in general use at the time the common +version of the Bible was published, was still different, ending in +_eth_; as, _he thinketh_, _he writeth_. This style, altho considerably +used in the last century, is nearly obsolete. When the verb agrees with +the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees with the +first person; as, "_We write_, _you write_, _they write_." There are few +exceptions to these rules. + +Some people have been very tenacious about retaining the old forms of +words, and our books were long printed without alteration; but change +will break thro every barrier, and book-makers must keep pace with the +times, and put on the dress that is catered for them by the public +taste; bearing in mind, meanwhile, that great and practical truths are +more essential than the garb in which they appear. We should be more +careful of our health of body and purity of morals than of the costume +we put on. Many genteel coats wrap up corrupt hearts, and fine hats +cover silly heads. What is the chaff to the wheat? + +Even our good friends, the quakers, who have particularly labored to +retain old forms--"the plain language,"--have failed in their attempt, +and have substituted the _object_ form of the pronoun for the _agent_, +and say, "_thee thinks_," for _thou thinkest_. Their mistake is even +greater than the substitution of _you_ for _thou_. + +So far as language depends on the conventional regulation of those who +use it, it will be constantly changing; new words will be introduced, +and the spelling of old ones altered, so as to agree with modern +pronounciation. We have all lived long enough to witness the truth of +this remark. The only rule we can give in relation to this matter is, to +follow our own judgments, aided by our best writers and speakers. + +The words which express action, are in many cases very similar to the +agents which produce them; and the objects which are the direct results +produced by such action, do not differ very materially. I will give you +a few examples. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + Actors Act Actions + Breathers Breathe Breath + Builders Build Buildings + Coiners Coin Coins + Casters Cast Casts or castings + Drinkers Drink Drink + Dreamers Dream Dreams + Earners Earn Earnings + Fishers Fish Fishes + Gainers Gain Gain + Hewers Hew Hewings + Innkeepers Keep Inns + Light or lighters Light or shed Lights + Miners Mine or dig Mines + Pleaders Plead or make Pleas + Producers Produce Products + Raisers Raise Raisings or houses + Runners or racers Run Runs or races + Sufferers Suffer Sufferings + Speakers Speak Speeches + Thinkers Think Thoughts + Writers Write Writings + Workers Work Works + +I give you these examples to show you the near alliance between +_actors_, ( ,) and _actions_; or agents, _actions_, and objects. Such +expressions as the above are inelegant, because they are uncommon; but +for no other reason, for we, in numberless cases, employ the same word +for agent and verb; as, _painters paint_ buildings, and _artists_ paint +paintings; _bookbinders bind books_; _printers print_ books, and other +_prints_. A little observation will enable you to carry out these hints, +and profit by them. You have observed the disposition in children, and +foreigners, who are partially acquainted with our language, to make +verbs out of almost every noun, which appears to us very aukward; but +was it common, it would be just as correct as the verbs now used. There +are very few verbs which have not a noun to correspond with them, for we +make verbs, that is, we use words to express action, which are nearly +allied to the agent with which such action agrees.[17] From botany we +have made _botanize_; from Mr. McAdam, the inventor of a particular +kind of road, _macadamize_, which means to make roads as he made them. +Words are formed in this way very frequently. The word _church_ is often +used as a noun to express a building used for public worship; for the +services performed in it; for the whole congregation; for a portion of +believers associated together; for the Episcopal order, etc. It is also +used as a verb. Mr. Webster defines it, "To perform with any one the +office of returning thanks in the church after any signal deliverance." +But the word has taken quite a different turn of late. _To church_ a +person, instead of receiving him into communion, as that term would seem +to imply, signifies to deal with an offending member, to excommunicate, +or turn him out. + +But I will not pursue this point any farther. The brief hints I have +thrown out, will enable you to discover how the meaning and forms of +words are changed from their original application to suit the notions +and improvements of after ages. A field is here presented which needs +cultivation. The young should be taught to search for the etymology of +words, to trace their changes and meaning as used at different times and +by different people, keeping their minds constantly directed to the +object signified by such verbal sign. This is the business of +philosophy, under whatever name it may be taught; for grammar, rhetoric, +logic, and the science of the mind, are intimately blended, and should +always be taught in connexion. We have already seen that words without +meaning are like shadows without realities. And persons can not employ +language "correctly," or "with propriety," till they have acquainted +themselves with the import of such language--the ideas of things +signified by it. Let this course be adopted in the education of +children, and they will not be required to spend months and years in the +study of an "_art_" which they can not comprehend, for the simple reason +that they can not apply it in practice. Grammar has been taught as a +mere _art_, depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned, +rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest principles of +philosophy, which are to be known only as developed in common practice +among men, and in accordance with the permanent laws which govern human +thought. + +Verbs differ in the manner of forming their _past_ tenses, and +participles, or adjectives. Those ending in _ed_ are called _regular_; +those which take any other termination are _irregular_. There are about +two hundred of the latter in our language, which differ in various ways. +Some of them have the _past_ tense and the past participle the same; as, + + Bid Bid Bid + Knit Knit Knit + Shut Shut Shut + Let Let Let + Spread Spread Spread, etc. + +Others have the past tense and participle alike, but different from the +present; as, + + Lend Lent Lent + Send Sent Sent + Bend Bent Bent + Wend Went Went + Build Built or builded Built + Think Thought Thought, etc. + +Some have the present and past tense and participle different; as, + + Blow Blew Blown + Grow Grew Grown + Begin Began Begun + See Saw Seen + Write Wrote Written + Give Gave Given + Speak Spoke Spoken + Rise Rose Risen + Fall Fell Fallen, etc. + +There are a few which are made up of different radicals, which have been +wedded together by habit, to avoid the frequent and unpleasant +recurrence of the same word; as, + + Am Was Been + Go (wend) Went Gone, etc. + +Some which were formerly irregular, are now generally used with the +regular termination, in either the past tense or participle, or both; +as, + + Hang Hung or hanged Hung or hanged + Dare Dared or durst Dared + Clothe Clad or clothed Clad or clothed + Work Worked or wrought Worked + Shine Shined or shone Shone or shined + Spill Spilled or spilt Spilt or spilled, etc. + +The syllable _ed_ is a contraction of the past tense of _do_; as, I +_loved_, love _did_, _did_ love, or love-_ed_. He learn_ed_, learn did, +did learn, or learned. It signifies action, _did_, done, or +accomplished. You have all lived long enough to have noticed the change +in the pronounciation of this syllable. Old people sound it full and +distinct; and so do most others in reading the scriptures; but not so +generally as in former times. In poetry it was usually abbreviated so as +to avoid the full sound; and hence we may account for the _irregular_ +termination of many words, such as _heard_, for _heared_; _past_, for +_passed_; _learnt_, for _learned_; _built_, for _builded_. In modern +poetry, however, the _e_ is retained, tho sounded no more than formerly. + +_Ing_ is derived from the verb to _be_, and signifies _being_, +_existing_; and, attached to a verb, is used as a noun, or adjective, +retaining so much of its former character as to have an object after it +which is affected by it; as, "I am _writing_ a lecture." Here _writing_, +the present participle of _write_, describes myself in my present +employment, and yet retains its action as a verb, and terminates on +_lecture_ as the thing written. "The man was taken in the act of +_stealing_ some money." In this case _stealing_ names the action which +the man was performing when detected, which action thus named, has +_money_ for the object on which it terminates. + +I barely allude to this subject in this place to give you an idea of the +method we adopt to explain the meaning and use of participles. It +deserves more attention, perhaps, to make it plain to your minds; but as +it is not an essential feature in the new system, I shall leave it for +consideration in a future work. Whoever is acquainted with the formation +of the present participle in other languages, can carry out the +suggestions I have made, and fully comprehend my meaning. + +I will present you with an example of the conjugations of a few verbs +which you are requested to compare with the "_might could would should +have been loved_" systems, which you were required to learn in former +times. You will find the verb in every _form_ or position in which it +ever occurs in our language, written or spoken. + +Conjugation of the regular verb =to love=. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I _love_ We _love_ + Present tense Thou _lovest_ You _love_ + He, she, or it _loves_ They _love_ + + I _loved_ We _loved_ + Past tense Thou _lovedst_ You _loved_ + He, she, or it _loved_ They _loved_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Love._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To love._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Loving_ + Past, _Loved_ + +The irregular verb =to have=, is thus conjugated. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _have_ We _have_ + Present tense Thou _hast_ You _have_ + He _has_ They _have_ + + I _had_ We _had_ + Past tense Thou _hadst_ You _had_ + He _had_ They _had_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Have._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To have._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Having_ + Past, _Had_ + +The irregular verb =to be=, stands thus: + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _am_ We _are_ + Present tense Thou _art_ You _are_ + He _is_ They _are_ + + I _was_ We _were_ + Past tense Thou _wast_ You _were_ + He _was_ They _were_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Be._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To be._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Being_ + Past, _Been_ + +These examples will suffice to give you an idea of the ease and +simplicity of the construction of verbs, and by a comparison with old +systems, you can, for yourselves, determine the superiority of the +principles we advocate. The above tabular views present every form which +the verb assumes, and every position in which it is found. In use, +these words are frequently compounded together;[18] but with a +knowledge of the above principles, and the _meaning_ of the words--a +most essential consideration--you will always be able to analyze any +sentence, and parse it correctly. I have not time to enlarge on this +point, to show how words are connected together. Nor do I think it +necessary to enable you to understand my views. To children such a work +would be indispensable, and shall be attended to if we are able to +publish a grammar containing the simple principles of language. + + * * * * * + +The indicative mood is varied four ways. 1st, affirmatively, _he +writes_; 2d, negatively, _he writes not_; 3d, interrogatively, _does_ he +write? or _writes_ he? 4th, suppositively, if _he writes_, _suppose he +writes_, allow _he writes_. + +The _first_ is a simple affirmation of a fact, and is easily understood. +The _second_ is formed by annexing a term to express negation. _Not_ is +a contraction from _nought_ or _naught_, which is a compound of _ne_, +negative, and ought or aught, _ne-aught_, meaning _no-thing_. _He writes +not_; he writes nothing. He does _not_ write; he does _nothing_ to +write. _Neither_ is a compound of _ne_ and _either_, _not either_. He +_can not_ read; he _can_, _kens_, _knows nothing_, has no ability _to +read_. + +The third is constructed into a question by placing the verb before the +agent, or by prefixing another word before the agent, and then placing +the former verb as an infinitive after it; as, _Does_ he write? or +_writes_ he? When another verb is prefixed, one is always chosen which +will best decide the query. Does he _any thing_ to write? Does he make +any motions or show any indications to write? When the _will_ or +disposition of a person is concerned, we choose a word accordingly. +_Will_ he write? Has he the _will_ or disposition to write? _Can_ he +write? Is he able--_knows_ he how to write? A little observation will +enable you to understand my meaning. + +In the fourth place, a supposition is made in the imperative mood, in +accordance with which the action is performed. "_If_ ye _love_ me, keep +my commandments." _Give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_ this fact--you +_love_ me, keep my commandments. I will go if I can. I _resolve_, +_will_, or _determine_ to go; _if_, _gif_, _give_, grant, allow this +fact, I _can_, _ken_, _know_ how, or _am_ able _to go_. But more on this +point when we come to the consideration of contractions. + +In this mood the verb must have an agent and object, expressed or +implied; as, "_farmers_ cultivate the _soil_." But a whole sentence, +that is, an idea written out, may perform this duty; as, "The study of +grammar, on false principles, is productive of no good." What is +productive of no good? What is the agent of _is_? "The _study_," our +books and teachers tell us. But does such a construction give the true +meaning of the sentence? I think not, for _study_ is indispensable to +knowledge and usefulness, and _the study_ of grammar, properly directed, +is a most useful branch of literature, which should never be dispensed +with. It is the study of grammar _on false principles_, which _is +productive of no good_. You discover my meaning, and will not question +its correctness. You must also see how erroneous it would be to teach +children that "_to study_ is productive of no good." The force of the +sentence rests on the "false principles" taught. Hence the whole +statement is truly the agent of the verb. + +The object on which the action terminates is frequently expressed in a +similar manner; as, "He wrote to me, that he will adopt the new system +of grammar, if he can procure some books to give his scholars to learn." +Will you parse _wrote_? Most grammarians will call it an _intransitive_ +verb, and make out that "he wrote" _nothing_ to me, because there is no +regular objective word after it. Will you parse _that_? It is a +"conjunction _copulative_." What does it connect? "_He wrote_" to the +following sentence, according to Rule 18 of Mr. Murray; "conjunctions +connect the _same_ moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and +pronouns." Unluckily you have two different tenses connected in this +case. Will you parse _if_? It is a _copulative_ conjunction, connecting +the two members of the sentence--_he will adopt_ if _he can procure_: +Rule, as above. How exceeding unfortunate! You have _two_ different +moods, and too different tenses, connected by a _copulative_ conjunction +which the rule says "connects _the same_ moods and tenses! What +nonsense! What a falsehood! What a fine thing to be a grammarian! And +yet, I venture the opinion, and I judge from what I have seen in myself +and others, there is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn +children to parse as above, and apply the same rule to it. "I _will go_ +if I _can_." "I _do_ and _will_ contend." "As it _was_ in the beginning, +_is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_." "I _am_ here and _must_ remain." "He +_will do_ your business _if_ he _has_ time." "I _am_ resolved _to +expose_ the errors of grammar, _and will do_ it thoroly _if_ I _can_." + +In these examples you have different moods and tenses, indiscriminately, +yet correctly coupled together, despite the rules of syntax which teach +us to explain language "with propriety." + +_That_, in the sentence before us, is an adjective, referring to the +following sentence, which is the _object_ of _wrote_, or is the thing +written. "He wrote to me _that_" fact, sentiment, opinion, +determination, or resolution, that writing, letter, or word--"he will +adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure some books." + +This subject properly belongs to that department of language called +syntax; but as I shall not be able to treat of that in this course of +lectures, I throw in here these brief remarks to give you some general +ideas of the arrangement of words into sentences, according to their +true meaning, as obtained from a knowledge of their etymology. You +cannot fail to observe this method of constructing language if you will +pay a little attention to it when reading; keeping all the time in view +the fact that words are only the signs of ideas, derived from an +observation of things. You all know that it is not merely the steam that +propels the boat, but that it is steam _applied to machinery_. Steam is +the more latent cause; and the engine with its complicated parts is the +direct means. In the absence of either, the boat would not be propelled. +In the formation of language, I may say correctly, "Solomon _built_ the +temple;" for he stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it +would not have been built without his direction and command. To +accomplish such an action, however, he need not raise a hammer or a +gavel, or draw a line on the trestle board. His command made known to +his ministers was sufficient to _cause_ the work to be done. Hence the +whole fact is _indicated_ or declared by the single expression, "Solomon +_built_ the temple." + +The Imperative mood is unchanged in form. I can say to one man, _go_, or +to a thousand, _go_. The commander when drilling _one_ soldier, says, +_march_; and he bids the whole battalion, _march_. The agent who is _to +perform_ the action is understood when not expressed; as, _go_, _go +thou_, or _go you_. The agent is generally omitted, because the address +is given direct to the person who is expected to obey the instruction, +request, or command. This verb always agrees with an agent in the +_second_ person. And yet our "grammars made easy" have given us _three +persons_ in this mood--"_Let me love_; _love_, _love thou_, or _do_ thou +_love_; let him love." In the name of common sense, I ask, what can +children learn by such instruction? "_Let me love_," in the conjugation +of the verb _to love_! To whom is this command given? To _myself_ of +course! I command myself to "_let me love_!" What nonsense! "Let _him_ +love." I stand here, you set there, and the _third_ person is in +Philadelphia. I utter these words, "Let _him love_." What is my meaning? +Why, our books tell us, that the verb to _love_ is _third_ person. Then +I command _him_ to _let himself love_! What jargon and falsehood! You +all know that we can address the _second_ person only. You would call me +insane if I should employ language according to the rules of grammar as +laid down in the standard books. In my room alone, no person near me, I +cry out, "_let me be quiet_"--imperative mood, first person of _to be_! +Do I command myself to _let_ myself _be_ quiet? Most certainly, if _be_ +is the principal verb in the first person, and _let_ the auxiliary. The +teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a classmate who +sets near him. He says, "_let him have it_." To whom is the command +given? It is the imperative mood, third person of the verb _to have_. +Does he command the third person, the boy who _has_ not the pencil? Such +is the resolution of the sentence, according to the authority of +standard grammars. But where is there a child five years old who does +not know better. Every body knows that he addresses the second person, +the boy who has the pencil, to _let_ the other _have_ it. + +Teachers have learned their scholars the _first_ and _third_ persons of +this mood when committing the conjugation of verbs; but not one in ten +thousand ever adopted them in parsing. "_Let me love._" _Let_, all +parse, Mr. Murray not excepted, in the _second_ person, and _love_ in +the infinitive mood after it, without the sign _to_; according to the +rule, that "verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, +_needs_, _speak_," etc. are in the infinitive mood. It is strange people +will not eat their own cooking. + +There can be no trouble in understanding this mood, as we have explained +it, always in the future tense, that is, future to the command or +request, agreeing with the _second_ person, and never varied on account +of number. + +The only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission of _to_ in +certain cases, which is considered as a part of the verb; tho in truth +it is no more so than when used in the character of an old fashioned +preposition. In certain cases, as we have before observed, it is not +expressed. This is when the infinitive verb follows small words in +frequent use; as, shall, will, let, can, must, may, bid, do, have, make, +feel, hear, etc. + +This mood is always in the future tense; that is, it is future to the +circumstances or condition of things upon which it depends; as, they are +making preparations _to raise_ the building. Here _to raise_ is future +to the preparations, for if they make no preparations, the buildings +will not be raised. The boy studies his book _to learn_ his lesson. If +he does not study, he will not be likely _to learn_ his lesson. + +The allied powers of Europe combined their forces _to defeat_ Napoleon. +In this instance the whole expression is in the past tense; +nevertheless, the action expressed in the infinitive mood, _was future_ +to the circumstance on which it depended; that is, the _defeat_ was +_future_ to the _combination_ of the forces. Abraham raised the knife +_to slay_ his son. Not that he did _slay_ him, as that sentence must be +explained on the common systems, which teach us that _to slay_ is in the +_present tense_; but he raised the fatal knife for that purpose, the +fulfilment of which was future; but the angel staid his hand, and +averted the blow. The patriots of Poland _made_ a noble attempt _to +gain_ their liberty. But they did not _gain it_, as our grammars would +teach us. _To gain_ was future to the attempt, and failed because the +circumstances _indicated_ by the event, were insufficient to produce so +favorable a result. + +No person of common discernment can fail to observe the absolute +falsehood of existing systems in respect to this mood. It is used by our +authors of grammar in the _present_ and _past_ tenses, but never in the +_future_. Let us give a moment to the consideration of this matter. Take +the following example. He _will prepare_ himself next week _to go_ to +Europe. Let the school master parse _will prepare_. It is a verb, +indicative mood, _first future_ tense. _Next week_ is the point in +futurity when the _preparation_ will be _made_. Now parse _to go_. It +is a verb, infinitive mood, _present tense_! Then _he_ is already on his +way to Europe, when he is not _to prepare_ himself till next week! An +army is collected _to fight_ the enemy. Is the fight already commenced? +_To fight_ is present tense, say the books. We shall study grammar next +year, _to obtain_ a knowledge of the principles and use of language. Is +_to obtain_ present tense? If so there is little need of spending time +and money to study for a knowledge we _already possess_. + + "Hope springs eternal in the human breast; + Man never _is_, but always =to be= blest." + _Pope._ + +"Who _was_, and who _is_, and who _is_ =to come=."--_Bible._ It is not +that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but +hopes =to be= qualified, etc. + +I _am to go_ in an hour. He _is to go_ to-morrow. I _am_ ready _to hear_ +you recite your lesson. He _has been waiting_ a long time _to see_ if +some new principles will not be introduced. He is prepared _to appear_ +before you whenever you shall direct. We _are_ resolved _to employ_ +neuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, +and second future tenses, no longer. False grammars _are_ only fit-_ted +to be_ laid aside. We are in duty bound _to regard_ and _adopt_ truth, +and _reject_ error; and we _are_ determined _to do_ it in grammar, and +every thing else. + +We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually +taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, +or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. +The hints I have given must suffice. + +Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as +these lectures are not designed for _a system_ of grammar _to be +taught_, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the +way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall +leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to +comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been +somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we +should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the +time of the Institute, which is designed as a means of improvement on +general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if +you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate +and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the +theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be +adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the +study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here +attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain +philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and +adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and +ineffectual teaching be still preserved. + + + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + + A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have + a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should + be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray. + --Awake.--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, + till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence. + --Perhaps.--Not.--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Distinctions + false.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho.--Yet. + + +We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words. +Things _named_, _defined_ and _described_, and their _actions_, +_relations_, and _tendencies_, have been considered under the classes of +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these classes all words belong when +properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in +all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many +words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and +disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they +are difficult of explanation. These words we have classed under the head +of _Contractions_, a term better calculated than any other we have seen +adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on +the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary +expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then +be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed. + +Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, +conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and +meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be +conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only +reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in +numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with +such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses some _quality_ or +circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a +conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of _two_ to +make only _one_ sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words +with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been +explained. They have been _passed over_ with little difficulty by +teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of +speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for +ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have +been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be +pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such +explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is +the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and +exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology. + +But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the +expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and +so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known. +Horne Tooke calls them "the _wheels_ of language, the _wings_ of +Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would +be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he +undertakes to show that they were _constructed_ for this object, he +mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that +purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they +have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he +says,[19] "_abbreviation_ and _corruption_ are always busiest with the +words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being +very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their +passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country." + +In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not +get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and +exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, +language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, +and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty +figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of +invention. It was not until people had _ideas_ to communicate, that they +sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and +then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their +purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part +completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions, +_sign_-ificant of things, or _ideas_ of _things_ and _actions_, were +first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20] As the +human mind advanced in knowledge, by observing the character, +relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, +compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; +just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and +distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most +complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and +great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles +on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some +wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different +kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the +engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with +immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being +unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and +should be clearly understood by him who would build or _use_ the latter. +So, in the formation of language, simple _first_ principles must be +observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would +obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with +propriety." + +In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting +science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their +various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be +known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may +aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language are +equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood. +But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, +is the paucity of _means_ to trace back to their original form and +meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been +employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that +long space has undergone many and strange modifications. At the +dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned +thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick +up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, +and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, +as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the +different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were +thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the +trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose +affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, +will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced. + +In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a +measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who +use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their +stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; +and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been +changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in +1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the +necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old +writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this +lecture. + +The words which we class under the head of Contractions, are so altered +and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion +are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to +attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid +that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability +to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the +words which belong to this class. I will be candid, if I am not +successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may +be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the +ground we have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the +subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words. + +But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I +am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few +exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common +grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the _meaning_ of these +words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like pens or +reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed +to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, +they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, +I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain +circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives," +and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not +unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, +drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping +cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can +you write your lesson? _Not yet quite well enough._ "_But and if_ that +evil servant,"[21] etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally +used _both as_ a conjunction _and as_ an adverb, and sometimes _as_ a +preposition. + +Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from +the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered +parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, +and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy. +Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called +contractions, for such they _mostly_ are, as adverbs or any thing else; +for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other. + +In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by +sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and +whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the +true and practical use of these words. + +Let us begin with _Adverbs_. + +I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into +which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of +speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have been _contrived_ +to express compendiously in _one word_, what must _otherwise_ have +required two or more; as, "he acted _wisely_." They could have been +"_contrived_" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they +are made up of various words combined together, which are used to +express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very +example Mr. M. has given. _Wisely_ is made up of two words; _wise_ and +_like_. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did he _act_? _Wisely_, we +are taught, expresses the "_manner_ or quality" of the verb _act_. But +_act_, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and _wisely_ +expresses the _manner of action_ where there is none! But he must have +_acted something_ which was _wise_ like something else. What did he act? +If he produced no _actions_, how can it be known that he _acted_ wisely +or unwisely? _Action_ or _acts_ is the direct object of to _act_. Hence +the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He acted _acts_ or +_actions_ like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears +aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, +improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we +have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in +which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with +the latest fashions. + +"The bird sings _sweetly_." The bird sings _songs_, _notes_, or _tunes_, +_like sweet notes_, _tunes,_ or _songs_. The comparison here made, is +not in reference to the agent or action, but the _object_ of the action; +and this explains the whole theory of those _adverbs_, which are said to +"qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that no _action_, as +such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the +_thing_ or _agent_ which _acts_; and such action can only be determined +by the _changed_ or altered condition of something which is the _object_ +of such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be +known to _qualify_ the action, as distinct from the object or agent? And +if it does not in _fact_, how can we explain words to children, or to +our own minds, so as to understand what is not true? + +Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing +by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of +comparison; as, a likely man, a _very_ likely man, a likelier, and the +_likeliest_ man. "He is the _most likely_ pedlar I ever knew." "He is +_more liable_ to be deceived." "A _lively_ little fellow." "He is +worthless." He is worth less, _less worthy_ of respect and confidence. +"He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words _like very +correct_ letters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind +the fact, that _ly_ is a contraction of _like_, which is often retained +in many words; as god_like_, christian_like_, etc., and search for a +definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a +large portion of this adverb family. + +It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still +adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs _qualify neuter_ as well +as active verbs, and express the _quality_ or _manner of action_, where +there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When +a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest +course is to return back and start again. + +Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying from _eleven_ to +_seventy-two_, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the +nice shades of form which these words have assumed. But a bonnet is a +bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on +as many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a +bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it a _bonnet_, and +talk about its _appendages_. But when it is constructed into something +else, then we will give it a new name. + +Adjectives, we have said, are _derived_ from either nouns or verbs, and +we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either +adjectives, nouns, or verbs. In defence of this sentiment we will +adduce a few words in this place for examples. + +=Ago.= "Three years _ago_, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past +participle from the verb _ago_, meaning the same as _gone_ or _agone_, +and was so used a few centuries _ago_--_agone_, or _gone by_. + + "For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, + God wotte, worldly ioye is soone _ago_." + _Chaucer._ + + "For if it erst was well, tho was it bet + A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require + _Ago_ was euery sorowe and euery fere." + _Troylus, boke 3, p. 2._ + + "Of such examples as I finde + Upon this point of tyme _agone_ + I thinke for to tellen one." + _Gower_, lib. 5, p. 1. + + "Which is no more than has been done + By knights for ladies, long _agone_." + _Hudibras._ + + "Twenty years _agone_." + _Tillotson's sermon._ + + "Are all _the go_." + _Knickerbocker._ + +=Astray.= "They went astray." _Astrayed_, wandered or were scattered, +and of course soon became _estranged_ from each other. Farmers all know +what it is for cattle to _stray_ from home; and many parents have felt +the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons _strayed_ from the paths of +virtue. In that condition they are _astray-ed_. + + "This prest was drank and goth _astrayede_." + + "Achab to the bottle went. + When Benedad for all his shelde + Him slough, so that upon the felde + His people goth aboute _astraie_." + _Gower._ + +=Awake.= "He is _awake_." "Samson _awaked_ out of his sleep." "That I +may _awake_ him out of sleep." "It is high time to _awake_." "As a man +that is _wakened_ out of sleep." The Irish hold _a wake_--they do not +sleep the night after the loss of friends. + +=Asleep.= + + "When that pyte, which longe _on sleep_ doth tary + Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse." + _Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1._ + + "Ful sound _on sleep_ did caucht thare rest be kind." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 283. + +"In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd and _in +sleepe_."--_Fabian._ + +A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, which, from their +frequent recurrence, are used without their usual connexion with small +words. The letter _a_ is compounded with many of these words, which may +have been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaning _on_, +_to_, _at_, _in_, as it is used in the french and some other languages. +You often hear expressions like these, "he is _a_-going; he is +_a_-writing; he began _a_-new," etc. The old adverbs which take this +letter, you can easily analyze; as, "The house is _a_-fire"--on fire; +"He fell _a_-sleep"--he fell _on_ sleep. "When deep sleep falleth on +men."--_Job._ "He stept _a_-side"--on one side. "He came _a_-board"--on +board. "They put it _a_-foot"--on foot. "He went _a_-way"--a way, +followed some _course_, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all the _go_ +now _a_-days," etc. + +The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these +words: + + "Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre, + And al thare schyppis and navy set _in fire_." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 274. + + "Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with _ane_ swak, + Now bendis he up his bourdon with _ane_ mynt, + _On side_ (a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt." + _Idem._ + + "That easter fire and flame aboute + Both at mouth and at nase + So that thei setten all _on blaze_," (ablaze.) + _Gower._ + + "And tyl a wicked deth him take + _Him had_ leuer _asondre_ (a-sunder) shake + And let al his lymmes _asondre_ ryue + Thane leaue his richesse in his lyue." + _Chaucer._ + +Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length. But +the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these +words, and also, by comparison with the present, of the changes which +have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries. + +A large portion of adverbs relate to _time_ and _place_, because many of +our ideas, and much of our language, are employed in reference to them; +as, _then_, _when_, _where_, _there_, _here_, _hence_, _whence_, +_thence_, _while_, _till_, _whether_, etc. These are compound words +considerably disguised in their meaning and formation. Let us briefly +notice some of them. + +_Per annum_ is a latin phrase, _for the year_, a _year_; and _the annum_ +is _the year_, _round_ or _period_ of time, from which it was corrupted +gradually into its present shape. _Thanne_, tha anne, _thane_, _thenne_, +_then_, _than_, are different forms of the same word. + +"We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, face to face. +Nowe I know of partye; _thanne_ forsathe schal know as I am knowen."--1. +Cor. 13: 12. _Translation in 1350._ + +I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which stands thus: +"For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: but _thene_ face to face: now +I know in part: but _then_ shal I know even as I am knowen." Here +several words are spelled differently in the same verse. + +=Then=, _the anne_, that time. =When=, _wha anne_, "_wha-icht-anne_," +which, or what _anne_, period of time. + +_Area_ means an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or place. Arena is +from the same etymon, altered in application. =There=, _the area_, the +_place_ or _spot_. "If we go _there_," to that place. =Where=, which, or +what ("wha-icht area") place. =Here=, _his_ (latin word for _this_,) +_area_, this place. These words refer to _place_, _state_, or +_condition_. + +_While_ is another spelling for _wheel_. "To while away our time," is to +_pass_, spend, or _wheel_ it away. _While_ applies to the _period_, or +space of time, in which something _wheels_, _whirls_, _turns_ round, or +transpires; as, "You had better remain here _while_ (during the time) he +examines whether it is prudent for you to go." + +=Till= is _to while_, to the _period_ at which something is expected to +follow. "If I will that he tarry _till_ (to the time) I come what is +that to thee?" + +The idea of _time_ and _place_ are often blended together. It is not +uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in some parts of our +country say "down _till_ the bottom, over _till_ the woods." etc. Altho +we do not regard such expressions correct, yet they serve to explain the +meaning of the word. The only mistake is in applying it to _place_ +instead of _time_. + +=Whether= is _which either_. "Shew _whether_ of these _two_ thou hast +chosen."--_Acts 1: 24._ It is more frequently applied in modern times to +circumstance and events _than to_ persons and things. "I will let you +know _whether_ I _will_ or _will not_ adopt it," one or the other. + +=Together= signifies two or more united. _Gethered_ is the past +participle of _gather_. + + "As Mailie, an' her lambs _thegither_, + Were ae day nibbling on the tether." + _Burns._ + +=Ever= means _time_, _age_, _period_. It originally and essentially +signified _life_. _For ever_ is for the age or period. _For ever_ and +_ever_, to the ages of ages. _Ever-lasting_ is _age-lasting_. +Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc. + +=Never=, _ne-ever_, _not ever_, at no time, age or period. + +=When-ever.=--At what point or space of _time_ or _age_. + +=What-ever.=--What thing, fact, circumstance, or event. + +=Where-ever.=--To, at, or in what place, period, age, or time. + +=Whither-so-ever=, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, never-the-less, +etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning will appear obvious to +all. + +=Oft=, _often_, _oft-times_, often-_times_, can be understood by all, +because the noun to which they belong is _oft-en_ retained in practice. + +=Once=, twice, at one time, two times. + +=Hence=, _thence_, _whence_, from _this_, _that_, or _what_, place, +spot, circumstance, post, or starting place. + +=Hence-for-ward=, _hence-forth_, in time _to come_, after this period. + +=Here-after=, after this _era_, or present time. + +=Hither=, to this spot or place. _Thither_, to that place. _Hither-to_, +_hither-ward_, etc. the same as _to you ward_, or to God ward, still +retained in our bibles. + +=Per-haps=, it may hap. _Perchance_, _peradventure_, by chance, by +adventure. The latin _per_ means _by_. + +=Not=, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound of _ne_ and _ought_ +or _a_ught. + +=Or= is a contraction from other, and _nor_ from _ne-or_, no-or, no +other. + +=No-wise=, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another way or manner, +you must go. + +=Than=, _the ane_, the one, that one, alluding to a particular object +with which a comparison is made; as, This book is larger _than_ that +bible. That _one_ bible, this book is larger. It is always used with the +comparative degree, to define particularly the object with which the +comparison is made. Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often +bestowed regardless of merit, talent is better. + +=As= is an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, that, these, +the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first kind. You practice +_as_ you have been taught--_the same duties_ or _principles_ understood. +We use language _as_ we have learned it; in _the same_ way or manner. It +is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way, +manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. I can go _as +well as_ you. In _the same well_, easy, convenient way or manner you can +go, I can go in _the same_ way. He was _as_ learned, _as_ pious, _as_ +benevolent, _as_ brave, _as_ faithful, _as_ ardent. These are purely +adjectives, used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity +between the things compared. Secondary words are often added to this, to +aid the distinction or definition; as, (_the same_ illustrated,) He is +_just as willing_. I am _quite as well_ pleased without it. _As_, like +many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, in which +case it was formerly parsed by Murray himself _as_ (like, or the same) a +relative pronoun; as, "And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the +tip, _as happens_ in acute diseases."--_Dr. Sweetster._ "The ground I +have assumed is tenable, _as will appear_."--_Webster._ "Bonaparte had +a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris is France, _as has_ +often been observed."--_Channing._ "The words are such _as +seem_."--_Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro._ + +=So= has nearly the same signification as the word last noticed, and is +frequently used along with it, to define the other member of the +comparison. _As_ far _as_ I can understand, _so_ far I approve. _As_ he +directed, _so_ I obeyed. It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; +as, "In pious and benevolent offices _so_ simple, _so_ minute, _so_ +steady, _so_ habitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a course +_so_ unvarying."--_Channing._ + +These words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary, +because (_for this cause_, be this the cause, this is the cause) they +are the most frequently used; and yet there are no words _so_ little +understood, or _so_ much abused by grammarians, _as_ these are. + +We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech. +"Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech void of +signification, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or +more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." Mr. Harris +gives about forty "species." Murray admits of only the _dis_-junctive +and copulative, and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But +what is meant by a _dis_-junctive _con_-junctive word, is left for you +to determine. It must be in keeping with _in_definite _defining_ +articles, and _post_-positive _pre_-positions. He says, "it joins words, +but disjoins the sense."[22] And what is a _word_ with out _sense_," +pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," how, in the name of +reason, can you give the sign and separate the sense? You can as well +separate the shadow from the substance, or a quality from matter. + +We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use of +conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. "As it +_was_ in the beginning, _is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_."--_Common +Prayer._ "What I _do_, _have done,_ or _may_ hereafter _do_, _has +been_, and _will_ always _be_ matter of inclination, the gratifying of +which _pays_ itself: and I _have_ no more merit in employing my time +and money in the way I _am known_ to do, than another has in other +occupations."--_Howard._ + +The following examples must suffice. + +=If.= This word is derived from the saxon _gifan_, and was formerly +written _giff_, _gyff_, _gif_, _geve_, _give_, _yiff_, _yef_, _yeve_. It +signifies _give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_, _admit_, and is always a +verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence or idea for +its object. "_If_ a pound of sugar cost ten cents, what will ten pounds +cost?" _Give_, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact,) _one pound cost_, etc. +In this case the supposition which stands as a predicate--_one pound of +sugar cost ten cents_, is the object of _if_--the thing to be allowed, +supposed, or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost of +_ten_ pounds is to be drawn. + +"He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, (the fact,) he +has the means, he will assist us. + + "_Gif_ luf be vertew, than is it leful thing; + _Gif_ it be vice, it is your undoing." + _Douglas_ p. 95. + + "Ne I ne wol non reherce, _yef_ that I may." + _Chaucer._ + + "She was so charitable and so pytous + She wolde wepe _yf that_ she sawe a mous + Caught in a trappe, _if_ it were deed or bledde." + _Prioresse._ + + "O haste and come to my master dear." + + "_Gin_ ye be Barbara Allen." + _Burns._ + +=But.= This word has two opposite significations. It is derived from two +different radicals. _But_, from the saxon _be_ and _utan_, _out_, means +_be out_, _leave out_, _save_, _except_, _omit_, as, "all _but_ one are +here." _Leave out_, _except_, _one_, all are here. + + "Heaven from all creation hides the book of fate + All _but_ (_save_, _except_) the page prescribed our present state." + + "When nought _but_ (_leave out_) the _torrent_ is heard on the hill, + And nought _but_ (_save_) the nightingale's _song_ in the grove." + +"Nothing _but fear_ restrains him." In these cases the direct _objects_ +of the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed. + +_But_ is also derived from _botan_, which signifies _to add_, +_superadd_, _join_ or _unite_; as, in the old form of a deed, "it is +_butted_ and bounded as follows." Two animals _butt_ their heads +together. The _butt_ of a log is that end which was _joined_ to the +stump. A _butt_, _butment_ or _a-butment_ is the joined end, where there +is a connexion with something else. A _butt_ of ridicule is an object to +which ridicule is attached. + + "Not only saw he all that was, + _But (add) much_ that never came to pass." + _M'Fingal._ + +_To button_, _butt-on_, is derived from the same word, to join one side +to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly spelled _botan_, +_boote_, _bote_, _bot_, _butte_, _bute_, _but_. It is still spelled +_boot_ in certain cases as a verb; as, + + "What _boots it_ thee to fly from pole to pole, + Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll? + What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam, + _If_ thou, O man, a stranger art at home?" + _Grainger._ + + "If love had _booted_ care or cost." + +A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and received fifty +dollars to _boot_; _to add_ to his property, and make the exchange +equal. + +_Let_ presents the same construction in form and meaning as _but_, for +it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. It means +sometimes to _permit_ or _allow_; as, _let_ me go; _let_ me have it; and +to _hinder_ or _prevent_; as, "I proposed to come unto you, _but_ (add +this fact) I was _let_ hitherto."--_Rom. 1: 13._ "He who now _letteth_, +will _let_ until he be taken out of the way."--_2 Thess. 2: 7._ + +=And= is a past participle signifying _added_, _one-ed_, _joined_. It +was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, David, _and_, +(_united to-_gether_-ed_,) go to school." We now place it _before_ the +last word. + +=Tho=, _altho_, _yet_. "Tho (_admit_, _allow_, _the fact_) he slay me, +yet (_get_, _have_, _know_, _the fact_) I will trust in him." _Yes_ is +from the same word as _yet_. It means _get_ or _have_ my consent to the +question asked. _Nay_ is the opposite of _yes_, _ne_-aye, nay, no. The +_ayes_ and _noes_ were called for. + +I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned me have been +overrun already. What light may have been afforded you in relation to +these words, will enable you to discover that they have _meaning_ which +must be learned before they can be explained correctly; that done, all +difficulty is removed. + +Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part of language, but +may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men. They are indistinct +utterances of emotions, which come not within the range of human speech. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, + revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High School, as a + correct system of teaching practical orthography. + +[2] Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the science + of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho the + doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false--which is + quite doubtful--or receive extensive modifications, yet the + consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. + The very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of + the mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long + deserve peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the + introduction of a vocabulary, from which may be selected words for + the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects. + +[3] Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and + principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the + philosophy of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another + meaning. Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, + that nobody could understand them; and hence, _metaphysical_ is now + applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a + speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. + "How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but he + was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand + him. + +[4] In this respect, many foreign languages possess a great advantage + over ours. They can augment or diminish the same word to increase + or lessen the meaning. For instance; in the Spanish, we can say + _Hombre_, a man; _Hombron_, a _large_ man; _Hombrecito_, a _young_ + man, or youth; _Hombrecillo_, a _miserable little_ man; _Pagaro_, a + bird; _Pagarito_, a _pretty little_ bird; _Perro_, a dog; + _Perrillo_, an _ugly little_ dog; _Perrazo_, a _large_ dog. + + The Indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way. In the + Delaware dialect, they are formed by the suffix _tit_, in the class + of animate nouns; but by _es_, to the inanimate; as, _Senno_, a + man; _Sennotit_, a _little_ man; _Wikwam_, a house; _Wikwames_, a + _small_ house.--_Enc. Amer. Art. Indian Languages, vol. 6, p. 586._ + +[5] Mr. Harris, in his "Hermes," says, "A preposition is a part of + speech, _devoid itself of signification_; but so formed as to unite + two words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce or + unite themselves." + + Mr. Murray says, "Prepositions serve to _connect_ words with one + another, and show the relation between them." + +[6] "Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that with a slender + _twist_, that none can doe with a tough _with_." + _Euphues and his England, p. 136._ + + "They had arms under the straw in the boats, and had cut the + _withes_ that held the oars of the town boats, to prevent any + pursuit." + _Ludlow's Memoirs, p. 435._ + + "The only furniture belonging to the houses, appears to be an + oblong vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a _withe_." + _Cooke's Description of Botany Bay._ + +[7] See Galatians, chap. 1, verse 15. "When it pleased God, who + _separated_ me," &c. + +[8] Acts, xvii, 28. + +[9] St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.--Dr. Hunter's translation, pp. + 172-176. + +[10] It is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees + are now standing in the garden of Gethsemane under which the + Saviour wept and near which he was betrayed. This is rendered more + probable from the fact, that a tax is laid, by the Ottoman Porte, + on all olive trees planted since Palestine passed into the + possession of the Turks, and that several trees standing in + Gethsemane do not pay such tribute, while all others do. + +[11] We do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and poets, + who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a soul, + like the human body, which is the spirit of Deity himself; but that + by the operation of wise and perfect laws, he exerts a supervision + in the creation and preservation of all things animate and + inanimate. Virgil stated the opinions of his times, in his AEneid, + B. VI. l. 724. + + "Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes, + Lucentemque globum, Lunae, Titaniaque astra + Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus + Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet." + + "Know, first, that heaven, and earth's compacted frame, + And flowing waters, and the starry flame, + And both the radiant lights, _one common soul_ + Inspires and feeds--and _animates the whole_. + This active mind, infused thro all the space, + Unites and mingles with the mighty mass." + _Dryden_, b. VI. l. 980. + + This sentiment, he probably borrowed from Pythagoras and Plato, who + argue the same sentiment, and divide this spirit into + "_intellectus_, _intelligentia_, et _natura_"--intellectual, + intelligent, and natural. Whence, "_Ex hoc Deo, qui est mundi + anima: quasi decerptae particulae sunt vitae hominum et pecudum._" Or, + "Omnia animalia ex quatuor elementis et _divino spiritu_ constare + manifestum est. Trahunt enim a terra carnem, ab aqua humorem, ab + aere anhelitum, ab igne fervorem, _a divino spiritu + ingenium_."--_Timeus, chap. 24, and Virgil's Geor. b. 4, l. 220, + Dryden's trans. l. 322._ + + Pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines: + + "All are but parts of one stupendous whole. + Whose body nature is, and God the soul." + +[12] Page 41. + +[13] Exodus, iii. 2, 3. + +[14] Cardell's grammar. + +[15] The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to keep it + from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm that by this + mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed the wonders + recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name from the temple and put + it into his thigh between the flesh and skin, and by its power + accomplished the miracles attributed to him. They think if they + could pronounce the word correctly, the very heavens and earth + would tremble, and angels be filled with terror. + +[16] Plutarch says, "This title is not only _proper_ but _peculiar to + God_, because =He= alone is _being_; for mortals have no + participation of _true being_, because that which _begins_ and + _ends_, and is constantly _changing_, is never _one_ nor the + _same_, nor in the same state. The deity on whose temple this word + was inscribed was called =Apollo=, Apollon, from _a_ negative and + _pollus_, _many_, because God is =one=, his nature simple, and + _uncompounded_."--_Vide, Clark's Com._ + +[17] The same fact may be observed in other languages, for all people + form language alike, in a way to correspond with their ideas. The + following hasty examples will illustrate this point. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + _English_ Singers Sing Songs + _French_ Les chanteurs Chantent Les chansons + _Spanish_ Los cantores Cantan Las cantinelas + _Italian_ I cantori Cantano I canti + _Latin_ Cantores Canunt Cantus + + _English_ Givers Give Gifts + _French_ Les donneurs Donnent Les dons + _Spanish_ Los donadores Dan o donan Los dones + _Italian_ I danatori Dano o danano I doni + _Latin_ Datores Donant Dona + + _English_ Fishers Fish Fishes + _French_ Les pecheurs Pechent Les poissons + _Spanish_ Los pescadores Pescan Los peces + _Italian_ I pescatori Pescan I pesci + _Latin_ Piscatores Piscantur Pisces + + _English_ Students Study Studies + _French_ Les etudiens Etudient Les etudes + _Spanish_ Los estudiantes Estudian Los estudios + _Italian_ I studienti Studiano I studii + _Latin_ Studiosi Student Studia + +[18] Mr. Murray says, "These compounds," _have_, _shall_, _will_, + _may_, _can_, _must_, _had_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and + _should_, which he uses as auxiliaries to _help_ conjugate _other_ + verbs, "are, however, to be considered as _different forms_ of the + _same_ verb." I should like to know, if these words have any thing + to do with the _principal_ verbs; if they only alter the _form_ of + the verb which follows them. I _may_, _can_, _must_, _shall_, + _will_, or _do love_. Are these only different forms of _love_? or + rather, are they not distinct, important, and original verbs, pure + and perfect _in_ and _of_ themselves? Ask for their etymons and + meaning, and then decide. + +[19] Diversions of Purley, vol. 1, p. 77. + +[20] Dr. Edwards observes, in a communication to the Connecticut Society + of Arts and Sciences, from personal knowledge, that "the Mohegans + (Indians) have _no adjectives_ in all their language. Altho it may + at first seem not only singular and curious, but impossible, that a + language should exist without adjectives, yet it is an indubitable + fact." But it is proved that in later times the Indians employ + adjectives, derived from nouns or verbs, as well as other nations. + Altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious, yet they + suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words and + phrases. They added the ideas of definition and description to the + things themselves, and expressed them in the _same_ word, in a + modified form. + +[21] Matthew, chap. 24, v. 48. + +[22] Examples of a _dis_-junctive conjunction. "They came with her, + _but_ they went without her."--_Murray._ + + Murray is _wrong_, _and_ Cardell is _right_. The simplifiers are + wrong, _but_ their standard is so likewise. + + "Me he restored to my office, _and_ him he hanged."--_Pharaoh's + Letter._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE + +The following printer's errors have been corrected in this etext. +Changes are indicated in brackets. + +Contents ON NOUNS AMD [AND] PRONOUNS + +Lecture I process of time as ingle [a single] + will not unfrequenly [unfrequently] represent + +Lecture III German, Danish, Dutch, Sweedish [Swedish] + +Lecture V _David_ killed Goliah [Goliath] + +Lecture VI and cosinder [consider] them in this place + +Lecture VII We are told there are are [are] two articles + the mother is _mascu.line_ [masculine] + dress handkerchief.["] The resolution + +Lecture VIII object will be to ascertion [ascertain] + ["]But wherefore _sits he_ there? + act _transitively_, acording [according] to + +Lecture IX the pocket of Guy Fawks [Fawkes] + For we should rember [remember] + _looks_ like or _resembles_ his brother,["] + +Lecture X A philosophical axiom[.]--Manner + And our languge [language] should + ["]I have addressed this volume + +Lecture XI Be not surprized [surprised] when I tell you + +Lecture XII the qualifification [qualification] of an _adverb_, + --"express neither actionn [action] or passion." + +Lecture XIV trace back to their orignal [original] form + ["]He stept _a_-side" + ["]As Mailie, an' her lambs + ["]Not only saw he all that was, + +Footnote 22 Murray is _wroug_ [wrong] + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lectures on Language, by William S. 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