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diff --git a/17594.txt b/17594.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..86822ed --- /dev/null +++ b/17594.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8251 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lectures on Language, by William S. Balch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lectures on Language + As Particularly Connected with English Grammar. + +Author: William S. Balch + +Release Date: January 24, 2006 [EBook #17594] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Amy Cunningham, Bill Tozier +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + +In this book, as well as using _ to indicate the italic font, the = +symbol has been used to show text printed in smaller capital letters in +the original printed version. Please see the HTML version for a more +accurate reproduction. + +Bracketed words, such as [the?], were present in the original text. They +were not added by the transcriber. + +Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed at the +end of the text. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it +appears in the original book. In particular, many mismatched quotation +marks have not been changed. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE, + +AS PARTICULARLY CONNECTED WITH + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR. + + +DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND ADVANCED LEARNERS. + + +BY WM. S. BALCH. + + +Silence is better than unmeaning words.--_Pythagoras._ + + +PROVIDENCE: +B. CRANSTON & CO. +1838. + + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, + +BY B. CRANSTON & CO. + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode-Island. + + + + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 24, 1838. + +TO WM. S. BALCH, + +SIR--The undersigned, in behalf of the Young People's Institute, hasten +to present to you the following _Resolutions_, together with their +personal thanks, for the Lectures you have delivered before them, on the +Philosophy of Language. The uncommon degree of interest, pleasure and +profit, with which you have been listened to, is conclusive evidence, +that whoever possesses taste and talents to comprehend and appreciate +the philosophy of language, which you have so successfully cultivated, +cannot fail to attain a powerful influence over the minds of his +audience. The Committee respectfully request you to favor them with a +copy of your Lectures for the Press. + + Very respectfully, + Your most obedient servants, + C. T. JAMES, + E. F. MILLER, + H. L. WEBSTER. + + * * * * * + +_Resolved_, That we have been highly entertained and greatly instructed +by the Lectures of our President, on the subject of Language; that we +consider the principles he has advocated, immutably true, exceedingly +important, and capable of an easy adoption in the study of that +important branch of human knowledge. + +_Resolved_, That we have long regretted the want of a system to explain +the grammar of our vernacular tongue, on plain, rational, and consistent +principles, in accordance with philosophy and truth, and in a way to be +understood and practised by children and adults. + +_Resolved_, That in our opinion, the manifold attempts which have been +made, though doubtless undertaken with the purest intentions, to +simplify and make easy existing systems, have failed entirely of their +object, and tended only to perplex, rather than enlighten learners. + +_Resolved_, That in our belief, the publication of these Lectures would +meet the wants of the community, and throw a flood of light upon this +hitherto dark, and intricate, and yet exceedingly interesting department +of a common education, and thus prove of immense service to the present +and future generations. + +_Resolved_, That Messrs. Charles T. James, Edward F. Miller, and Henry +L. Webster, be a Committee to wait on Rev. William S. Balch, and request +the publication of his very interesting Course of Lectures before this +Institute. + + * * * * * + + PROVIDENCE, Feb. 25, 1838. + +MESSRS. C. T. JAMES, E. F. MILLER, AND H. L. WEBSTER: + +GENTLEMEN--Your letter, together with the Resolutions accompanying it, +was duly and gratefully received. It gives me no ordinary degree of +pleasure to know that so deep an interest has been, and still is, felt +by the members of our Institute, as well as the public generally, on +this important subject; for it is one which concerns the happiness and +welfare of our whole community; but especially the rising generation. + +The only recommendation of these Lectures is the subject of which they +treat. They were written in the space of a few weeks, and in the midst +of an accumulation of engagements which almost forbade the attempt. But +presuming you will make all due allowances for whatever errors you may +discover in the style of composition, and regard the _matter_ more than +the _manner_, I consent to their publication, hoping they will be of +some service in the great cause of human improvement. + + I am, gentlemen, + Very respectfully yours, + WM. S. BALCH. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no subject so deeply interesting and important to rational +beings as the knowledge of language, or one which presents a more direct +and powerful claim upon all classes in the community; for there is no +other so closely interwoven with all the affairs of human life, social, +moral, political and religious. It forms a basis on which depends a vast +portion of the happiness of mankind, and deserves the first attention of +every philanthropist. + +Great difficulty has been experienced in the common method of explaining +language, and grammar has long been considered a dry, uninteresting, and +tedious study, by nearly all the teachers and scholars in the land. But +it is to be presumed that the fault in this case, if there is any, is to +be sought for in the manner of teaching, rather than in the science +itself; for it would be unreasonable to suppose that a subject which +occupies the earliest attention of the parent, which is acquired at +great expense of money, time, and thought, and is employed from the +cradle to the grave, in all our waking hours, can possibly be dull or +unimportant, if rightly explained. + +Children have been required to learn verbal forms and changes, to look +at the mere signs of ideas, instead of the things represented by them. +The consequence has been that the whole subject has become uninteresting +to all who do not possess a retentive verbal memory. The philosophy of +language, the sublime principles on which it depends for its existence +and use, have not been sufficiently regarded to render it delightful and +profitable. + +The humble attempt here made is designed to open the way for an +exposition of language on truly philosophical principles, which, when +correctly explained, are abundantly simple and extensively useful. With +what success this point has been labored the reader will determine. + +The author claims not the honor of entire originality. The principles +here advanced have been advocated, believed, and successfully practised. +William S. Cardell, Esq., a bright star in the firmament of American +literature, reduced these principles to a system, which was taught with +triumphant success by Daniel H. Barnes, formerly of the New-York High +School, one of the most distinguished teachers who ever officiated in +that high and responsible capacity in our country. Both of these +gentlemen, so eminently calculated to elevate the standard of education, +were summoned from the career of the most active usefulness, from the +scenes they had labored to brighten and beautify by the aid of their +transcendant intellects, to unseen realities in the world of spirits; +where mind communes with mind, and soul mingles with soul, disenthraled +from error, and embosomed in the light and love of the Great Parent +Intellect. + +The author does not pretend to give a system of exposition in this work +suited to the capacities of small children. It is designed for advanced +scholars, and is introductory to a system of grammar which he has in +preparation, which it is humbly hoped will be of some service in +rendering easy and correct the study of our vernacular language. But +this book, it is thought, may be successfully employed in the +instruction of the higher classes in our schools, and will be found an +efficient aid to teachers in inculcating the sublime principles of which +it treats. + +These Lectures, as now presented to the public, it is believed, will be +found to contain some important information by which all may profit. The +reader will bear in mind that they were written for, and delivered +before a popular audience, and published with very little time for +modification. This will be a sufficient apology for the mistakes which +may occur, and for whatever may have the appearance of severity, irony, +or pleasantry, in the composition. + +On the subject of Contractions much more might be said. But verbal +criticisms are rather uninteresting to a common audience; and hence the +consideration of that matter was made more brief than was at first +intended. It will however be resumed and carried out at length in +another work. The hints given will enable the student to form a +tolerable correct opinion of the use of most of those words and phrases, +which have long been passed over with little knowledge of their meaning +or importance. + +The author is aware that the principles he has advocated are new and +opposed to established systems and the common method of inculcation. But +the difficulties acknowledged on all hands to exist, is a sufficient +justification of this humble attempt. He will not be condemned for his +good intentions. All he asks is a patient and candid examination, a +frank and honest approval of what is true, and as honest a rejection of +what is false. But he hopes the reader will avoid a rash and precipitate +conclusion, either for or against, lest he is compelled to do as the +author himself once did, approve what he had previously condemned. + +With these remarks he enters the arena, and bares himself to receive the +sentence of the public voice. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + +Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors +in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old +systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its +advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.--Syntax.-- +Prosody. + + +LECTURE II. + +THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + +General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are +Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities of +things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- +Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts +admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An +example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things +signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + +Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most important +branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea of a thing.--How +expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An anecdote.--Ideas expressed +by actions.--Principles of spoken and written Language.--Apply +universally.--Two examples.--English language.--Foreign words.--Words in +science.--New words.--How formed. + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + +Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual +beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.--Negation. +--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic names.--Proper nouns +may become common. + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + +Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How +formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender.--No +neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.--Agents.-- +Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive word.--Pronouns.-- +One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically applied. + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How +understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the +noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from +adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to +be understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from +verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- +In.--Out.--Of. + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper nouns. +--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.--Articles.--_A_ +comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of _a_ and _the_.-- +Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun adjectives."--_Mon_, +_ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary adjectives.--Prepositions admit +of comparison. + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.--Actor +and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--Neutrality +degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind of +verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the +truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter verbs +examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. W.--Anecdote. + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + +Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can be +known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known by +their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things signified.-- +Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.--All +things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained.--First +Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.--These +principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of Gallileo. + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + +A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken for +granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from the +truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an +intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language +eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To step.-- +Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To smile.--Eat +and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false teaching.--A change +is demanded.--These principles apply universally.--Their importance. + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + +The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. +--Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, +=was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.--Cannot +be in the present tense.--The past participle is an adjective. + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + +=Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions.-- +Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future +explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.--Imperfect.-- +Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.--=Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will. +--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + +Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of +agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular +verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation of +verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood varied.--A whole +sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is +always future. + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + +A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a +meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be +observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray.--Awake. +--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, +together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence.--Perhaps.--Not. +--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Conjunctions.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho. +--Yet. + + + + +LECTURES ON LANGUAGE. + + + + +LECTURE I. + +GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE. + + Study of Language long considered difficult.--Its importance.--Errors + in teaching.--Not understood by Teachers.--Attachment to old + systems.--Improvement preferable.--The subject important.--Its + advantages.--Principles laid down.--Orthography.--Etymology.-- + Syntax.--Prosody. + + +LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, + +It is proposed to commence, this evening, a course of Lectures on the +Grammar of the English Language. I am aware of the difficulties +attending this subject, occasioned not so much by any fault in itself, +as by the thousand and one methods adopted to teach it, the multiplicity +of books pretending to "simplify" it, and the vast contrariety of +opinion entertained by those who profess to be its masters. By many it +has been considered a needless affair, an unnecessary appendage to a +common education; by others, altogether beyond the reach of common +capacities; and by all, cold, lifeless, and uninteresting, full of +doubts and perplexities, where the wisest have differed, and the firmest +often changed opinions. + +All this difficulty originates, I apprehend, in the wrong view that is +taken of the subject. The most beautiful landscape may appear at great +disadvantage, if viewed from an unfavorable position. I would be slow to +believe that the means on which depends the whole business of the +community, the study of the sciences, all improvement upon the past, the +history of all nations in all ages of the world, social intercourse, +oral or written, and, in a great measure, the knowledge of God, and the +hopes of immortality, can be either unworthy of study, or, if rightly +explained, uninteresting in the acquisition. In fact, on the principles +I am about to advocate, I have seen the deepest interest manifested, +from the small child to the grey-headed sire, from the mere novice to +the statesman and philosopher, and all alike seemed to be edified and +improved by the attention bestowed upon the subject. + +I confess, however, that with the mention of _grammar_, an association +of ideas are called up by no means agreeable. The mind involuntarily +reverts to the days of childhood, when we were compelled, at the risk of +our bodily safety, to commit to memory a set of arbitrary rules, which +we could neither understand nor apply in the correct use of language. +Formerly it was never dreamed that grammar depended on any higher +authority than the books put into our hands. And learners were not only +dissuaded, but strictly forbidden to go beyond the limits set them in +the etymological and syntactical rules of the authors to whom they were +referred. If a query ever arose in their minds, and they modestly +proposed a plain question as to the _why_ and _wherefore_ things were +thus, instead of giving an answer according to common sense, in a way to +be understood, the authorities were pondered over, till some rule or +remark could be found which would apply, and this settled the matter +with "proof as strong as holy writ." In this way an end may be put to +the inquiry; but the thinking mind will hardly be satisfied with the +mere opinion of another, who has no evidence to afford, save the +undisputed dignity of his station, or the authority of books. This +course is easily accounted for. Rather than expose his own ignorance, +the teacher quotes the printed ignorance of others, thinking, no doubt, +that folly and nonsense will appear better second-handed, than fresh +from his own responsibility. Or else on the more common score, that +"misery loves company." + +Teachers have not unfrequently found themselves placed in an unenviable +position by the honest inquiries of some thinking urchin, who has +demanded why "_one noun governs_ another in the possessive case," as +"master's slave;" why there are more tenses than _three_; what is meant +by a _neuter_ verb, which "signifies neither action nor passion;" or an +"intransitive verb," which expresses the highest possible action, but +terminates on no object; a cause without an effect; why _that_ is +sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and not unfrequently a +conjunction, &c. &c. They may have succeeded, by dint of official +authority, in silencing such inquiries, but they have failed to give a +satisfactory answer to the questions proposed. + +Long received opinions may, in some cases, become law, pleading no other +reason than antiquity. But this is an age of investigation, which +demands the most lucid and unequivocal proof of the point assumed. The +dogmatism of the schoolmen will no longer satisfy. The dark ages of +mental servility are passing away. The day light of science has long +since dawned upon the world, and the noon day of truth, reason, and +virtue, will ere long be established on a firm and immutable basis. The +human mind, left free to investigate, will gradually advance onward in +the course of knowledge and goodness marked out by the Creator, till it +attains to that perfection which shall constitute its highest glory, its +truest bliss. + +You will perceive, at once, that our inquiries thro out these lectures +will not be bounded by what has been said or written on the subject. We +take a wider range. We adopt no sentiment because it is ancient or +popular. We refer to no authority but what proves itself to be correct. +And we ask no one to adopt our opinions any farther than they agree with +the fixed laws of nature in the regulation of matter and thought, and +apply in common practice among men. + +Have we not a right to expect, in return, that you will be equally +honest to yourselves and the subject before us? So far as the errors of +existing systems shall be exposed, will you not reject them, and adopt +whatever appears conclusively true and practically useful? Will you, can +you, be satisfied to adopt for yourselves and teach to others, systems +of grammar, for no other reason than because they are old, and claim the +support of the learned and honorable? + +Such a course, generally adopted, would give the ever-lasting quietus to +all improvement. It would be a practical adoption of the philosophy of +the Dutchman, who was content to carry his grist in one end of the sack +and a stone to balance it in the other, assigning for a reason, that his +honored father had always done so before him. Who would be content to +adopt the astrology of the ancients, in preferance to astronomy as now +taught, because the latter is more modern? Who would spend three years +in transcribing a copy of the Bible, when a better could be obtained +for one dollar, because manuscripts were thus procured in former times? +What lady would prefer to take her cards, wheel, and loom, and spend a +month or two in manufacturing for herself a dress, when a better could +be earned in half the time, merely because her respected grandmother did +so before her? Who would go back a thousand years to find a model for +society, rejecting all improvements in the arts and sciences, because +they are innovations, encroachments upon the opinions and practices of +learned and honorable men? + +I can not believe there is a person in this respected audience whose +mind is in such voluntary slavery as to induce the adoption of such a +course. I see before me minds which sparkle in every look, and thoughts +which are ever active, to acquire what is true, and adopt what is +useful. And I flatter myself that the time spent in the investigation of +the science of language will not be unpleasant or unprofitable. + +I feel the greater confidence from the consideration that your minds are +yet untrammeled; not but what many, probably most of you, have already +studied the popular systems of grammar, and understood them; if such a +thing is possible; but because you have shown a disposition to learn, by +becoming members of this Institute, the object of which is the +improvement of its members. + +Let us therefore make an humble attempt, with all due candor and +discretion, to enter upon the inquiry before us with an unflinching +determination to push our investigations beyond all reasonable doubt, +and never rest satisfied till we have conquered all conquerable +obstacles, and come into the possession of the light and liberty of +truth. + +The attempt here made will not be considered unimportant, by those who +have known the difficulties attending the study of language. If any +course can be marked out to shorten the time tediously spent in the +acquisition of what is rarely attained--a thoro knowledge of language--a +great benefit will result to the community; children will save months +and years to engage in other useful attainments, and the high +aspirations of the mind for truth and knowledge will not be curbed in +its first efforts to improve by a set of technical and arbitrary rules. +They will acquire a habit of thinking, of deep reflection; and never +adopt, for fact, what appears unreasonable or inconsistent, merely +because great or good men have said it is so. They will feel an +independence of their own, and adopt a course of investigation which +cannot fail of the most important consequences. It is not the saving of +time, however, for which we propose a change in the system of teaching +language. In this respect, it is the study of one's life. New facts are +constantly developing themselves, new combinations of ideas and words +are discovered, and new beauties presented at every advancing step. It +is to acquire a knowledge of correct principles, to induce a habit of +correct thinking, a freedom of investigation, and at that age when the +character and language of life are forming. It is, in short, to exhibit +before you truth of the greatest practical importance, not only to you, +but to generations yet unborn, in the most essential affairs of human +life, that I have broached the hated subject of grammar, and undertaken +to reflect light upon this hitherto dark and disagreeable subject. + +With a brief sketch of the outlines of language, as based on the fixed +laws of nature, and the agreement of those who employ it, I shall +conclude the present lecture. + +We shall consider all language as governed by the invariable laws of +nature, and as depending on the conventional regulations of men. + +Words are the signs of ideas. Ideas are the impressions of things. +Hence, in all our attempts to investigate the important principles of +language, we shall employ the sign as the means of coming at the thing +signified. + +Language has usually been considered under four divisions, viz.: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + +Orthography is _right spelling_; the combination of certain letters into +words in such a manner as to agree with the spoken words used to denote +an idea. We shall not labor this point, altho we conceive a great +improvement might be effected in this department of learning. My only +wish is to select from all the forms of spelling, the most simple and +consistent. Constant changes are taking place in the method of making +words, and we would not refuse to cast in our mite to make the standard +more correct and easy. We would prune off by degrees all unnecessary +appendages, as unsounded or italic letters, and write out words so as to +be capable of a distinct pronunciation. But this change must be +_gradually_ effected. From the spelling adopted two centuries ago, a +wonderful improvement has taken place. And we have not yet gone beyond +the possibility of improvement. Let us not be too sensitive on this +point, nor too tenacious of old forms. Most of our dictionaries differ +in many respects in regard to the true system of orthography, and our +true course is to adopt every improvement which is offered. Thro out +this work we shall spell some words different from what is customary, +but intend not, thereby, to incur the ignominy of bad spellers. Let +small improvements be adopted, and our language may soon be redeemed +from the difficulties which have perplexed beginners in their first +attempts to convey ideas by written words.[1] + +In that department of language denominated Etymology, we shall contend +that all words are reducible to two general classes, nouns and verbs; +or, _things_ and _actions_. We shall, however, admit of subdivisions, +and treat of pronouns, adjectives, and contractions. We shall contend +for only two cases of nouns, one kind of pronouns, one kind of verbs, +that all are active; three modes, and as many tenses; that articles, +adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, have no +distinctive character, no existence, in fact, to warrant a "local +habitation or a name." + +In the composition of sentences, a few general rules of Syntax may be +given; but the principal object to be obtained, is the possession of +correct ideas derived from a knowledge of things, and the most approved +words to express them; the combination of words in a sentence will +readily enough follow. + +Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, rules of accent and +pronunciation, and the arrangement of syllables and words so as to +produce harmony. It applies specially to versification. As our object is +not to make poets, who, it is said, "are born, and not made," but to +teach the true principles of language, we shall give no attention to +this finishing stroke of composition. + +In our next we shall lay before you the principles upon which all +language depends, and the process by which its use is to be acquired. + + + + +LECTURE II. + +FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. + + General principles of Language.--Business of Grammar.--Children are + Philosophers.--Things, ideas, and words.--Actions.--Qualities + of things.--Words without ideas.--Grammatical terms inappropriate.-- + Principles of Language permanent.--Errors in mental science.--Facts + admit of no change.--Complex ideas.--Ideas of qualities.--An + example.--New ideas.--Unknown words.--Signs without things + signified.--Fixed laws regulate matter and mind. + + +All language depends on two general principles. + +_First._ The fixed and unvarying laws of nature which regulate matter +and mind. + +_Second._ The agreement of those who use it. + +In accordance with these principles all language must be explained. It +is not only needless but impossible for us to deviate from them. They +remain the same in all ages and in all countries. It should be the +object of the grammarian, and of all who employ language in the +expression of ideas, to become intimately acquainted with their use. + +It is the business of grammar to explain, not only verbal language, but +also the sublime principles upon which all written or spoken language +depends. It forms an important part of physical and mental science, +which, correctly explained, is abundantly simple and extensively useful +in its application to the affairs of human life and the promotion of +human enjoyment. + +It will not be contended that we are assuming a position beyond the +capacities of learners, that the course here adopted is too philosophic. +Such is not the fact. Children are philosophers by nature. All their +ideas are derived from things as presented to their observations. No +mother learns her child to lisp the name of a thing which has no being, +but she chooses objects with which it is most familiar, and which are +most constantly before it; such as father, mother, brother, sister. + +She constantly points to the object named, that a distinct impression +may be made upon its mind, and the thing signified, the idea of the +thing, and the name which represents it, are all inseparably associated +together. If the father is absent, the child may _think_ of him from the +idea or impression which his person and affection has produced in the +mind. If the mother pronounces his _name_ with which it has become +familiar, the child will start, look about for the object, or thing +signified by the _name_, father, and not being able to discover him, +will settle down contented with the _idea_ of him deeply impressed on +the mind, and as distinctly understood as if the father was present in +person. So with every thing else. + +Again, after the child has become familiar with the name of the being +called father; the name, idea and object itself being intimately +associated the mother will next begin to teach it another lesson; +following most undeviatingly the course which nature and true philosophy +mark out. The father comes and goes, is present or absent. She says on +his return, father _come_, and the little one looks round to see the +thing signified by the word father, the idea of which is distinctly +impressed on the mind, and which it now sees present before it. But this +loved object has not always been here. It had looked round and called +for the father. But the mother had told it _he was gone_. Father gone, +father come, is her language, and here the child begins to learn ideas +of actions. Of this it had, at first, no notion whatever, and never +thought of the father except when his person was present before it, for +no impressions had been distinctly made upon the mind which could be +called up by a sound of which it could have no conceptions whatever. Now +that it has advanced so far, the idea of the father is retained, even +tho he is himself absent, and the child begins to associate the notion +of coming and going with his presence or absence. Following out this +course the mind becomes acquainted with things and actions, or the +changes which things undergo. + +Next, the mother begins to learn her offspring the distinction and +qualities of things. When the little sister comes to it in innocent +playfulness the mother says, "_good_ sister," and with the descriptive +word _good_ it soon begins to associate the quality expressed by the +affectionate regard, of its sister. But when that sister strikes the +child, or pesters it in any way, the mother says "_naughty_ sister," +"bad sister." It soon comprehends the descriptive words, _good_ and +_bad_, and along with them carries the association of ideas which such +conduct produces. In the same way it learns to distinguish the +difference between _great_ and _small_, _cold_ and _hot_, hard and soft. + +In this manner the child becomes acquainted with the use of language. It +first becomes acquainted with things, the idea of which is left upon the +mind, or, more properly, the _impression of which_, left on the mind, +_constitutes the idea_; and a vocabulary of words are learned, which +represent these ideas, from which it may select those best calculated +to express its meaning whenever a conversation is had with another. + +You will readily perceive the correctness of our first proposition, that +all language depends on the fixed and unerring laws of nature. Things +exist. A knowledge of them produces ideas in the mind, and sounds or +signs are adopted as vehicles to convey these ideas from one to another. + +It would be absurd and ridiculous to suppose that any person, however +great, or learned, or wise, could employ language correctly without a +knowledge of the things expressed by that language. No matter how chaste +his words, how lofty his phrases, how sweet the intonations, or mellow +the accents. It would avail him nothing if _ideas_ were not represented +thereby. It would all be an unknown tongue to the hearer or reader. It +would not be like the loud rolling thunder, for that tells the wondrous +power of God. It would not be like the soft zephyrs of evening, the +radiance of the sun, the twinkling of the stars; for they speak the +intelligible language of sublimity itself, and tell of the kindness and +protection of our Father who is in heaven. It would not be like the +sweet notes of the choral songsters of the grove, for they warble hymns +of gratitude to God; not like the boding of the distant owl, for that +tells the profound solemnity of night; not like the hungry lion roaring +for his prey, for that tells of death and plunder; not like the distant +notes of the clarion, for that tells of blood and carnage, of tears and +anguish, of widowhood and orphanage. It can be compared to nothing but a +Babel of confusion in which their own folly is worse confounded. And +yet, I am sorry to say it, the languages of all ages and nations have +been too frequently perverted, and compiled into a heterogeneous mass +of abstruse, metaphysical volumes, whose only recommendation is the +elegant bindings in which they are enclosed. + +And grammars themselves, whose pretended object is to teach the rules of +speaking and writing correctly, form but a miserable exception to this +sweeping remark. I defy any grammarian, author, or teacher of the +numberless systems, which come, like the frogs of Egypt, all of one +genus, to cover the land, to give a reasonable explanation of even the +terms they employ to define their meaning, if indeed, meaning they have. +What is meant by an "_in_-definite article," a _dis_-junctive +_con_-junction, an _ad_-verb which qualifies an _adjective_, and +"sometimes another _ad_-verb?" Such "parts of speech" have no existence +in fact, and their adoption in rules of grammar, have been found +exceedingly mischievous and perplexing. "Adverbs and conjunctions," and +"_adverbial_ phrases," and "conjunctive expressions," may serve as +common sewers for a large and most useful class of words, which the +teachers of grammar and lexicographers have been unable to explain; but +learners will gain little information by being told that such is an +_adverbial phrase_, and such, a _conjunctive expression_. This is an +easy method, I confess, a sort of wholesale traffic, in parsing +(_passing_) language, and may serve to cloak the ignorance of the +teachers and makers of grammars. But it will reflect little light on the +principles of language, or prove very efficient helps to "speak or write +with propriety." Those who _think_, will demand the _meaning_ of these +words, and the reason of their use. When that is ascertained, little +difficulty will be found in giving them a place in the company of +respectable words. But I am digressing. More shall be said upon this +point in a future lecture, and in its proper place. + +I was endeavoring to establish the position that all language depends +upon permanent principles; that words are the signs of ideas, and ideas +are the impressions of things communicated to the mind thro the medium +of some one of the five senses. I think I have succeeded so far as +simple material things are concerned, to the satisfaction of all who +have heard me. It may, perhaps, be more difficult for me to explain the +words employed to express complex ideas, and things of immateriality, +such as mind, and its attributes. But the rules previously adopted will, +I apprehend, apply with equal ease and correctness in this case; and we +shall have cause to admire the simple yet sublime foundation upon which +the whole superstructure of language is based. + +In pursuing this investigation I shall endeavor to avoid all abstruse +and metaphysical reasoning, present no wild conjectures, or vain +hypotheses; but confine myself to plain, common place matter of fact. We +have reason to rejoice that a wonderful improvement in the science and +cultivation of the mind has taken place in these last days; that we are +no longer puzzled with the strange phantoms, the wild speculations which +occupied the giant minds of a Descartes, a Malebranch, a Locke, a Reid, +a Stewart, and hosts of others, whose shining talents would have +qualified them for the brightest ornaments of literature, real +benefactors of mankind, had not their education lead them into dark and +metaphysical reasonings, a continued tissue of the wildest vagaries, in +which they became entangled, till, at length, they were entirely lost in +the labyrinth of their own conjectures. + +The occasion of all their difficulty originated in an attempt to +investigate the faculties of the mind without any means of getting at +it. They did not content themselves with an adoption of the principles +which lay at the foundation of all true philosophy, viz., that the +facts to be accounted for, _do exist_; that truth is eternal, and we are +to become acquainted with it by the means employed for its development. +They quitted the world of materiality they inhabited, refused to examine +the development of mind as the effect of an existing cause; and at one +bold push, entered the world of thought, and made the unhallowed attempt +to reason, a priori, concerning things which can only be known by their +manifestations. But they soon found themselves in a strange land, +confused with sights and sounds unknown, in the _explanation_ of which +they, of course, choose terms as unintelligible to their readers, as the +_ideal realities_ were to them. This course, adopted by Aristotle, has +been too closely followed by those who have come after him.[2] But a new +era has dawned upon the philosophy of the mind, and a corresponding +change in the method of inculcating the principles of language must +follow.[3] + +In all our investigations we must take things as we find them, and +account for them as far as we can. It would be a thankless task to +attempt a change of principles in any thing. That would be an +encroachment of the Creator's rights. It belongs to mortals to use the +things they have as not abusing them; and to Deity to regulate the laws +by which those things are governed. And that man is the wisest, the +truest philosopher, and brightest Christian, who acquaints himself with +those laws as they do exist in the regulation of matter and mind, in the +promotion of physical and moral enjoyment, and endeavors to conform to +them in all his thoughts and actions. + +From this apparent digression you will at once discover our object. We +must not endeavor to change the principles of language, but to +understand and explain them; to ascertain, as far as possible, the +actions of the mind in obtaining ideas, and the use of language in +expressing them. We may not be able to make our sentiments understood; +but if they are not, the fault will originate in no obscurity in the +facts themselves, but in our inability either to understand them or the +words employed in their expression. Having been in the habit of using +words with either no meaning or a wrong one, it may be difficult to +comprehend the subject of which they treat. A man may have a quantity of +sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, but it is not until he learns their +properties and combinations that he can make gunpowder. Let us then +adopt a careful and independent course of reasoning, resolved to meddle +with nothing we do not understand, and to use no words until we know +their meaning. + +A complex idea is a combination of several simple ones, as a tree is +made up of roots, a trunk, branches, twigs, and leaves. And these again +may be divided into the wood, the bark, the sap, &c. Or we may employ +the botanical terms, and enumerate its external and internal parts and +qualities; the whole anatomy and physiology, as well as variety and +history of trees of that species, and show its characteristic +distinctions; for the mind receives a different impression on looking at +a maple, a birch, a poplar, a tamarisk, a sycamore, or hemlock. In this +way complex ideas are formed, distinct in their parts, but blended in a +common whole; and, in conformity with the law regulating language, +words, sounds or signs, are employed to express the complex whole, or +each distinctive part. The same may be said of all things of like +character. But this idea I will illustrate more at large before the +close of this lecture. + +First impressions are produced by a view of material things, as we have +already seen; and the notion of action is obtained from a knowledge of +the changes these things undergo. The idea of quality and definition is +produced by contrast and comparison. Children soon learn the difference +between a sweet apple and a sour one, a white rose and a red one, a hard +seat and a soft one, harmonious sounds and those that are discordant, a +pleasant smell and one that is disagreeable. As the mind advances, the +application is varied, and they speak of a sweet rose, changing from +_taste_ and _sight_ to smell, of a sweet song, of a hard apple, &c. +According to the qualities thus learned, you may talk to them +intelligibly of the _sweetness_ of an apple, the _color_ of a rose, the +_hardness_ of iron, the _harmony_ of sounds, the _smell_ or scent of +things which possess that quality. As these agree or disagree with their +comfort, they will call them _good_ or _bad_, and speak of the qualities +of goodness and badness, as if possessed by the thing itself. + +In this apparently indiscriminate use of words, the ideas remain +distinct; and each sign or object calls them up separately and +associates them together, till, at length, in the single object is +associated all the ideas entertained of its size, qualities, relations, +and affinities. + +In this manner, after long, persevering toil, principles of thought are +fixed, and a foundation laid for the whole course of future thinking and +speaking. The ideas become less simple and distinct. Just as fast as the +mind advances in the knowledge of things, language keeps pace with the +ideas, and even goes beyond them, so that in process of time a single +term will not unfrequently represent a complexity of ideas, one of which +will signify a whole combination of things. + +On the other hand, there are many instances where the single declaration +of a fact may convey to the untutored mind, a single thought or nearly +so, when the better cultivated will take into the account the whole +process by which it is effected. To illustrate: _a man killed a deer_. +Here the boy would see and imagine more than he is yet fully able to +comprehend. He will see the obvious fact that the man levels his musket, +the gun goes off with a loud report, and the deer falls and dies. How +this is all produced he does not understand, but knowing the fact he +asserts the single truth--the man killed the deer. As the child +advances, he will learn that the sentence conveys to the mind more than +he at first perceived. He now understands how it was accomplished. The +man had a gun. Then he must go back to the gunsmith and see how it was +made, thence back to the iron taken from its bed, and wrought into bars; +all the processes by which it is brought into the shape of a gun, the +tools and machinery employed; the wood for the stock, its quality and +production; the size, form and color of the lock, the principle upon +which it moves; the flint, the effect produced by a collision with the +steel, or a percussion cap, and its composition; till he finds a single +gun in the hands of a man. The man is present with this gun. The motives +which brought him here; the movements of his limbs, regulated by the +determinations of the mind, and a thousand other such thoughts, might be +taken into the account. Then the deer, his size, form, color, manner of +living, next may claim a passing thought. But I need not enlarge. Here +they both stand. The man has just seen the deer. As quick as thought his +eye passes over the ground, sees the prey is within proper distance, +takes aim, pulls the trigger, that loosens a spring, which forces the +flint against the steel; this produces a spark, which ignites the +charcoal, and the sulphur and nitre combined, explode and force the wad, +which forces the ball from the gun, and is borne thro the air till it +reaches the deer, enters his body by displacing the skin and flesh, +deranges the animal functions, and death ensues. The whole and much more +is expressed in the single phrase, "a man killed a deer." + +It would be needless for me to stop here, and examine all the operations +of the mind in coming at this state of knowledge. That is not the object +of the present work. Such a duty belongs to another treatise, which may +some day be undertaken, on logic and the science of the mind. The hint +here given will enable you to perceive how the mind expands, and how +language keeps pace with every advancing step, and, also, how +combinations are made from simple things, as a house is made of timber, +boards, shingles, nails, and paints; or of bricks, stone, and mortar; as +the case may be, and when completed, a single term may express the +idea, and you speak of a wood, or a brick house. Following this +suggestion, by tracing the operations of the mind in the young child, or +your own, very minutely, in the acquisition of any knowledge before +wholly unknown to you, as a new language, or a new science; botany, +mineralogy, chemistry, or phrenology; you will readily discover how the +mind receives new impressions of things, and a new vocabulary is adopted +to express the ideas formed of plants, minerals, chemical properties, +and the development of the capacities of the mind as depending on +material organs; how these things are changed and combined; and how +their existence and qualities, changes and combinations, are expressed +by words, to be retained, or conveyed to other minds. + +But suppose you talk to a person wholly unacquainted with these things, +will he understand you? Talk to him of stamens, pistils, calyxes; of +monandria, diandria, triandria; of gypsum, talc, calcareous spar, +quartz, topaz, mica, garnet, pyrites, hornblende, augite, actynolite; of +hexahedral, prismatic, rhomboidal, dodecahedral; of acids and alkalies; +of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon; of the configuration of the +brain, and its relative powers; do all this, and what will he know of +your meaning? So of all science. Words are to be understood from the +things they are employed to represent. You may as well talk to a man in +the hebrew, chinese, or choctaw languages, as in our own, if he does not +know what is signified by the words selected as the medium of thought. + +Your language may be most pure, perfect, full of meaning, but you cannot +make yourself understood till your hearers can look thro your signs to +the things signified. You may as well present before them a picture of +_nothing_. + +The great fault in the popular system of education is easily accounted +for, particularly in reference to language. Children are taught to study +signs without looking at the thing signified. In this way they are mere +copyists, and the mind can never expand so as to make them independent, +original thinkers. In fact, they can, in this way, never learn to reason +well or employ language correctly; no more than a painter can be +successful in his art, by merely looking at the pictures of others +without having ever seen the originals. A good artist is a close +observer of nature. So children should be left free to examine and +reflect, and the signs will then serve their proper use--the means of +acquiring the knowledge of things. In vain you may give a scholar a +knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, learn him to translate with +rapidity or speak our own language fluently. If he has not thereby +learned the knowledge of things signified by such language, he is, in +principle, advanced no farther than the parrot which says "pretty poll, +pretty poll." + +I am happy, however, in the consideration that a valuable change is +taking place in this respect. Geography is no longer taught on the old +systems, but maps are given to represent more vividly land and water, +rivers, islands, and mountains. The study of arithmetic, chemistry, and +nearly all the sciences have been materially improved within a few +years. Grammar alone remains in quiet possession of its unquestioned +authority. Its nine "parts of speech," its three genders, its three +cases, its half dozen kinds of pronouns, and as many moods and tenses, +have rarely been disquieted. A host of book makers have fondled around +them, but few have dared molest them, finding them so snugly ensconced +under the sanctity of age, and the venerated opinions of learned and +good men. Of the numberless attempts to simplify grammar, what has been +the success? Wherein do modern "simplifiers" differ from Murray? and he +was only a _compiler_! They have all discovered his errors. But who has +corrected them? They have all deviated somewhat from his manner. But +what is that but saying, that with all his grammatical knowledge, he +could not explain his own meaning? + +All the trouble originates in this; the rules of grammar have not been +sought for where they are only to be found, in the laws that govern +matter and thought. Arbitrary rules have been adopted which will never +apply in practice, except in special cases, and the attempt to bind +language down to them is as absurd as to undertake to chain thought, or +stop the waters of Niagara with a straw. Language will go on, and keep +pace with the mind, and grammar should explain it so as to be correctly +understood. + +I wish you to keep these principles distinctly in view all thro my +remarks, that you may challenge every position I assume till proved to +be correct--till you distinctly understand it and definite impressions +are made upon your minds. In this way you will discover a beauty and +perfection in language before unknown; its rules will be found few and +simple, holding with most unyielding tenacity to the sublime principles +upon which they depend; and you will have reason to admire the works and +adore the character of the great Parent Intellect, whose presence and +protection pervade all his works and regulate the laws of matter and +mind. You will feel yourselves involuntarily filled with sentiments of +gratitude for the gift of mind, its affections, powers, and means of +operation and communication, and resolved more than ever to employ these +faculties in human improvement and the advancement of general happiness. + + + + +LECTURE III. + +WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE. + + Principles never alter.--They should be known.--Grammar a most + important branch of science.--Spoken and written Language.--Idea + of a thing.--How expressed.--An example.--Picture writing.--An + anecdote.--Ideas expressed by actions.--Principles of spoken and + written Language.--Apply universally.--Two examples.--English + language.--Foreign words.--Words in science.--New words.--How + formed. + + +We now come to take a nearer view of language as generally understood by +grammar. But we shall have no occasion to depart from the principles +already advanced, for there is existing in practice nothing which may +not be accounted for in theory; as there can be no effect without an +efficient cause to produce it. + +We may, however, long remain ignorant of the true explanation of the +principles involved; but the fault is ours, and not in the things +themselves. The earth moved with as much grandeur and precision around +its axis and in its orbit before the days of Gallileo Gallilei, when +philosophers believed it flat and stationary, as it has done since. So +the great principles on which depends the existence and use of all +language are permanent, and may be correctly employed by those who have +never examined them; but this does not prove that to be ignorant is +better than to be wise. We may have taken food all our days without +knowing much of the process by which it is converted into nourishment +and incorporated into our bodies, without ever having heard of +delutition chymification, chylification, or even digestion, as a whole; +but this is far from convincing me that the knowledge of these things is +unimportant, or that ignorance of them is not the cause of much disease +and suffering among mankind. And it is, or should be, the business of +the physiologist to explain these things, and show the great practical +benefit resulting from a general knowledge of them. So the grammarian +should act as a sort of physiologist of language. He should analyze all +its parts and show how it is framed together to constitute a perfect +whole. + +Instead of exacting of you a blind submission to a set of technical +expressions, and arbitrary rules, I most urgently exhort you to +continue, with unremitting assiduity, your inquiries into the reason and +propriety of the positions which may be taken. It is the business of +philosophy, not to meddle with things to direct how they should be, but +to account for them and their properties and relations as they are. So +it is the business of grammar to explain language as it exists in use, +and exhibit the reason why it is used thus, and what principles must be +observed to employ it correctly in speaking and writing. This method is +adopted to carry out the principles already established, and show their +adaptation to the wants of the community, and how they may be correctly +and successfully employed. Grammar considered in this light forms a +department in the science of the mind by no means unimportant. And it +can not fail to be deeply interesting to all who would employ it in the +business, social, literary, moral, or religious concerns of life. Those +who have thoughts to communicate, or desire an acquaintance with the +minds of others, can not be indifferent to the means on which such +intercourse depends. I am convinced, therefore, that you will give me +your most profound attention as I pursue the subject of the present +lecture somewhat in detail. And I hope you will not consider me tedious +or unnecessarily prolix in my remarks. + +I will not be particular in my remarks upon the changes of spoken and +written language, altho that topic of itself, in the different sounds +and signs employed in different ages and by different nations to express +the same idea, would form a most interesting theme for several lectures. +But that work must be reserved for a future occasion. You are all +acquainted with the signs, written and spoken, which are employed in our +language as vehicles (some of them like omnibusses) of thought to carry +ideas from one mind to another. Some of you doubtless are acquainted +with the application of this fact in other languages. In other words, +you know how to sound the name of a thing, how to describe its +properties as far as you understand them, and its attitudes or changes. +This you can do by vocal sounds, or written, or printed signs. + +On the other hand, you can receive a similar impression by hearing the +description of another, or by seeing it written or printed. But here you +will bear in mind the fact that the word, spoken or written, is but the +sign of the idea derived from the thing signified. For example: Here is +an apple. I do not now speak of its composition, the skin, the pulp, +&c.; nor of its qualities, whether sour, or sweet, or bitter, good or +bad, great or small, long or short, round or flat, red, or white, or +yellow. I speak of a single thing--an apple. Here it is, present before +you. Look at it. It is now removed. You do not see it. Your minds are +occupied with something else, in looking at that organ, or this +representation of Solomon's temple, or, perhaps, lingering in melancholy +review of your old systems of grammar thro which you plodded at a +tedious rate, goaded on by the stimulus of the ferule, or the fear of +being called ignorant. From that unhappy reverie I recal your minds, by +saying _apple_. An apple? where? There is none in sight. No; but you +have distinct recollections of a single object I just now held before +you. You see it, mentally, and were you painters you might paint its +likeness. What has brought this object so vividly before you? The single +sound _apple_. This sound has called up the idea produced in your mind +on looking at this object which I now again present before you. Here is +the thing represented--the apple. Again I lay it aside, and commence a +conversation with you on the varieties of apples, the form, color, +flavor, manner of production, their difference from other fruit, where +found, when, and by whom. Here! look again. What do you see? +A-P-P-L-E--_Apple_. What is that? The representation of the idea +produced in the mind by a certain object you saw a little while ago. +Here then you have the spoken and written signs of this single object I +now again present to your vision. This idea may also be called up by the +sense of feeling, smelling, or tasting, under certain restrictions. Here +you would be no more liable to be mistaken than by seeing. We can indeed +imagine things which would feel, and smell, and taste, and look some +like an apple, but it falls to the lot of more abstruse reasoners to +make their suppositions, and then account for them--to imagine things, +and then treat of them as realities. We are content with the knowledge +of things as they do exist, and think there is little danger of +mistaking a potato for an apple, or a squash for a pear. Tho in the dark +we may lay hold of the Frenchman's _pomme de terre_--apple of the earth, +the first bite will satisfy us of our mistake if we are not too +metaphysical. + +The same idea may be called up in your minds by a picture of the apple +presented to your sight. On this ground the picture writing of the +ancients may be accounted for; and after that, the hieroglyphics of +Egypt and other countries, which was but a step from picture writing +towards the use of the alphabet. But these signs or vehicles for the +conveyance or transmission of their thoughts, compared with the present +perfect state of language, were as aukward and uncomly as the carriages +employed for the conveyance of their bodies were compared with those now +in use. They were like ox carts drawn by mules, compared with the most +splendid barouches drawn by elegant dapple-greys. + +A similar mode would be adopted now by those unacquainted with +alphabetical writing. It was so with the merchant who could not write. +He sold his neighbor a grindstone, on trust. Lest he should forget +it--lest the _idea_ of it should be obliterated from the mind--he, in +the absence of his clerk, took his book and a pen and drew out a _round +picture_ to represent it. Some months after, he dunned his neighbor for +his pay for a cheese. "I have bought no cheese of you," was the reply. +Yes, you have, for I have it charged. "You must be mistaken, for I never +bought a cheese. We always make our own." How then should I have one +charged to you? "I cannot tell. I have never had any thing here on +credit except a grindstone." Ah! that's it, that's it, only I forgot to +make a hole through it!" + +Ideas may also be exchanged by actions. This is the first and strongest +language of nature. It may be employed, when words have failed, in the +most effectual manner. The angry man, choked with rage, unable to speak, +tells the violent passions, burning in his bosom, in a language which +can not be mistaken. The actions of a friend are a surer test of +friendship than all the honied words he may utter. Actions speak louder +than words. The first impressions of maternal affection are produced in +the infant mind by the soothing attentions of the mother. In the same +way we may understand the language of the deaf and dumb. Certain motions +express certain ideas. These being duly arranged and conformed to our +alphabetic signs, and well understood, the pupil may become acquainted +with book knowledge as well as we. They go by sight and not by sound. A +different method is adopted with the blind. Letters with them are so +arranged that they can _feel_ them. The signs thus felt correspond with +the sounds they hear. Here they must stop. They cannot see to describe. +Those who are so unfortunate as to be blind and deaf, can have but a +faint knowledge of language, or the ideas of others. + +On similar principles we may explain the pantomime plays sometimes +performed, where the most entertaining scenes of love and murder are +represented, but not a word spoken. + +Three things are always to be born in mind in the use and study of all +language: 1st, the thing signified; 2d, the idea of the thing; and 3d, +the word or sign chosen to represent it. + +_Things_ exist. + +Thinking beings conceive _ideas of things_. + +Those who employ language adopt _sounds or signs to convey those ideas_ +to others. + +On these obvious principles rest the whole superstructure of all +language, spoken or written. Objects are presented to the mind, +impressions are there made, which, retained, constitute the idea, and, +by agreement, certain words are employed as the future signs or +representations of those ideas. If we saw an object in early life and +knew its _name_, the mention of that name will recal afresh the idea +which had long lain dormant in the memory, (if I may so speak,) and we +can converse about it as correctly as when we first saw it. + +These principles, I have said, hold good in all languages. Proof of this +may not improperly be offered here, provided it be not too prolix. I +will endeavor to be brief. + +In an open area of sufficient dimensions is congregated a delegation +from every language under heaven. All are so arranged as to face a +common center. A white horse is led into that spot and all look at the +living animal which stands before them. The same impression must be made +on all minds so far as a single animal is concerned. But as the whole is +made up of parts, so their minds will soon diverge from a single idea, +and one will think of his size, compared with other horses; another of +his form; another of his color. Some will think of his noble appearance, +others of his ability to travel, or (in jockey phrase) his _speed_. The +farrier will look for his blemishes, to see if he is _sound_, and the +jockey at his teeth, to _guess_ at his _age_. The anatomist will, in +thought, dissect him into parts and see every bone, sinew, cartilage, +blood vessel, his stomach, lungs, liver, heart, entrails; every part +will be laid open; and while the thoughtless urchin sees a single +object--a white horse--others will, at a single glance, read volumes of +instruction. Oh! the importance of knowledge! how little is it +regarded! What funds of instruction might be gathered from the lessons +every where presented to the mind! + +One impression would be made on all minds in reference to the single +tangible object before them; no matter how learned or ignorant. There +stands an animal obvious to all. Let him be removed out of sight, and a +very exact picture of him suspended in his place. All again agree. Here +then is the proof of our first general principle, viz. all language +depends on the fixed and unvarying laws of nature. + +Let the picture be removed and a man step forth and pronounce the word, +_ippos_. The Greek starts up and says, "Yes, it is so." The rest do not +comprehend him. He then writes out distinctly, [Greek: IPPOS]. They are +in the dark as to the meaning. They know not whether a horse, a man, or +a goose is named. All the Greeks, however, understand the meaning the +same as when the horse or picture was before them, for they had _agreed_ +that _ippos_ should represent the _idea_ of that animal. + +Forth steps another, and pronounces the word _cheval_. Every Frenchman +is aroused: Oui, monsieur? Yes, sir. Comprenez vous? Do you understand? +he says to the rest. But they are dumb. He then writes C-H-E-V-A-L. All +are as ignorant as before, save the Frenchmen who had agreed that +_cheval_ should be the name for horse. + +Next go yourself, thinking all will understand you, and say, _horse_; +but, lo! none unacquainted with your language are the wiser for the +sound you utter, or the sign you suspended before them; save, perhaps, a +little old Saxon, who, at first looks deceived by the similarity of +sound, but, seeing the sign, is as demure as ever, for he omits the _e_, +and pronounces it shorter than we do, more like a yorkshire man. But +why are you not understood? Because others have not entered into an +_agreement_ with you that _h-o-r-s-e_, spoken or written, shall +represent that animal. + +Take another example. Place the living animal called man before them. +Less trouble will be found in this case than in the former, for there is +a nearer agreement than before in regard to the signs which shall be +employed to express the idea. This word occurs with very little +variation in the modern languages, derived undoubtedly from the +Teutonic, with a little change in the spelling, as Saxon _mann_ or +_mon_, Gothic _manna_, German, Danish, Dutch, Swedish and Icelandic +like ours. In the south of Europe, however, this word varies as well as +others. + +Our language is derived more directly from the old Saxon than from any +other, but has a great similarity to the French and Latin, and a kind of +cousin-german to all the languages of Europe, ancient and modern. Ours, +indeed, is a compound from most other languages, retaining some of their +beauties and many of their defects. We can boast little distinctive +character of our own. As England was possessed by different nations at +different periods, so different dialects were introduced, and we can +trace our language to as many sources, German, Danish, Saxon, French, +and Roman, which were the different nations amalgamated into the British +empire. We retain little of the real old english--few words which may +not be traced to a foreign extraction. Different people settling in a +country would of course carry their ideas and manner of expressing them; +and from the whole compound a general agreement would, in process of +time, take place, and a uniform language be established. Such is the +origin and condition of our language, as well as every other modern +tongue of which we have any knowledge. + +There is one practice of which our savans are guilty, at which I do most +seriously demur--the extravagant introduction of exotic words into our +vocabulary, apparently for no other object than to swell the size of a +dictionary, and boast of having found out and defined thousands of words +more than any body else. A mania seems to have seized our +lexicographers, so that they have forsaken the good old style of +"plainness of speech," and are flourishing and brandishing about in a +cloud of verbiage as though the whole end of instruction was to teach +loquacity. And some of our popular writers and speakers have caught the +infection, and flourish in borrowed garments, prizing themselves most +highly when they use words and phrases which no body can understand. + +I will not contend that in the advancement of the arts and sciences it +may not be proper to introduce foreign terms as the mean of conveying a +knowledge of those improvements to others. It is better than to coin new +words, inasmuch as they are generally adopted by all modern nations. In +this way all languages are approximating together; and when the light of +truth, science, and religion, has fully shone on all the nations, we may +hope one language will be spoken, and the promise be fulfilled, that God +has "turned unto the people a pure language, that they may call upon the +name of the Lord, to serve him with one consent." + +New ideas are formed like new inventions. Established principles are +employed in a new combination, so as to produce a new manifestation. +Words are chosen as nearly allied to former ideas as possible, to +express or represent this new combination. Thus, Fulton applied steam +power to navigation. A new idea was produced. A boat was seen passing +along the waters without the aid of wind or tide. Instead of coining a +new word to express the whole, a word which nobody would understand, two +old ones were combined, and "_steamboat_" became the sign to represent +the idea of the thing beheld. So with rail-road, cotton-mill, and +gun-powder. In the same way we may account for most words employed in +science, although in that case we are more dependant on foreign +languages, in as much as a large portion of our knowledge is derived +from them. But we may account for them on the same principle as above. +_Phrenology_ is a compound of two greek words, and means the science or +knowledge of the mind. So of geology, mineralogy, &c. But when +improvements are made by those who speak the english, words in our own +language are employed and used not only by ourselves, but also by those +nations who profit by our investigations. + +I trust I have now said enough on the general principles of language as +applied to things. In the next lecture I will come down to a sort of +bird's eye view of grammar. But my soul abhors arbitrary rules so +devoutly, I can make no promises how long I will continue in close +communion with set forms of speech. I love to wander too well to remain +confined to one spot, narrowed up in the limits fixed by others. Freedom +is the empire of the mind; it abjures all fetters, all slavery. It +kneels at the altar of virtue and worships at the shrine of truth. No +obstacles should be thrown in the way of its progress. No limits should +be set to it but those of the Almighty. + + + + +LECTURE IV. + +ON NOUNS. + + Nouns defined.--Things.--Qualities of matter.--Mind.--Spiritual + beings.--Qualities of mind.--How learned.--Imaginary things.-- + Negation.--Names of actions.--Proper nouns.--Characteristic + names.--Proper nouns may become common. + + +Your attention is, this evening, invited to the first divisions of +words, called _Nouns_. This is a most important class, and as such +deserves our particular notice. + + _Nouns are the names of things._ + +The word _noun_ is derived from the Latin _nomen_, French _nom_. It +means _name_. Hence the definition above given. + +In grammar it is employed to distinguish that class of words which name +things, or stand as signs or representatives of things. + +We use the word _thing_ in its broadest sense, including every possible +entity; every being, or thing, animate or inanimate, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, physical, moral, or intellectual. It is +the noun of the Saxon _thincan_ or _thingian_, to think; and is used to +express every conceivable object of thought, in whatever form or manner +presented to the human mind. + +Every word employed to designate things, or name them, is to be ranked +in the class called _nouns_, or names. You have only to determine +whether a word is used thus, to learn whether it belongs to this or +some other class of words. Here let me repeat: + + 1. Things exist. + 2. We conceive ideas of things. + 3. We use sounds or signs to communicate these ideas to others. + 4. We denominate the class of words thus used, _nouns_. + +Perhaps I ought to stop here, or pass to another topic. But as these +lectures are intended to be so plain that all can understand my meaning, +I must indulge in a few more remarks before advancing farther. + +In addition to individual, tangible objects, we conceive ideas of the +_qualities_ of things, and give _names_ to such qualities, which become +_nouns_. Thus, the _hardness_ of iron, the _heat_ of fire, the _color_ +of a rose, the _bitterness_ of gall, the _error_ of grammars. The +following may serve to make my views more plain. Take two tumblers, the +one half filled with water, the other with milk; mix them together. You +can now talk of the milk in the water, or the water in the milk. Your +ideas are distinct, tho the objects are so intimately blended, that they +can not be separated. So with the qualities of things. + +We also speak of mind, intellect, soul; but to them we can give no form, +and of them paint no likeness. Yet we have ideas of them, and employ +words to express them, which become _nouns_. + +This accounts for the reason why the great Parent Intellect has strictly +forbidden, in the decalogue, that a likeness of him should be +constructed. His being and attributes are discoverable only thro the +medium of his works and word. No man can see him and live. It would be +the height of folly--it would be more--it would be blasphemy--to +attempt to paint the likeness of him whose presence fills +immensity--whose center is every where, and whose circumference is no +where. The name of this Spirit or Being was held in the most profound +reverence by the Jews, as we shall have occasion to mention when we come +to treat of the verb =to be=. + +We talk of angels, and have seen the unhallowed attempt to describe +their likeness in the form of pictures, which display the fancy of the +artist very finely, but give a miserable idea of those pure spirits who +minister at the altar of God, and chant his praises in notes of the most +unspeakable delight. + +We have also seen _death_ and the pale horse, the firy dragon, the +mystery of Babylon, and such like things, represented on canvass; but +they betoken more of human talent to depict the marvellous, than a +strict regard for truth. Beelzebub, imps, and all Pandemonium, may be +vividly imagined and finely arranged in fiction, and we can name them. +Wizzards, witches, and fairies, may play their sportive tricks in the +human brain, and receive names as tho they were real. + +We also think and speak of the qualities and affections of the mind as +well as matter, as wisdom, knowledge, virtue, vice, love, hatred, anger. +Our conceptions in this case may be less distinct, but we have ideas, +and use words to express them. There is, we confess, a greater liability +to mistake and misunderstand when treating of mind and its qualities, +than of matter. The reason is evident, people know less of it. Its +operations are less distinct and more varying. + +The child first sees material objects. It is taught to name them. It +next learns the qualities of things; as the sweetness of sugar, the +darkness of night, the beauty of flowers. From this it ascends by +gradation to the higher attainments of knowledge as revealed in the +empire of mind, as well as matter. Great care should be taken that this +advancement be easy, natural, and thoro. It should be constantly +impressed with the importance of obtaining clear and definite ideas of +things, and never employ words till it has ideas to express; never name +a thing of which it has no knowledge. This is ignorance. + +It would be well, perhaps, to extend this remark to those older than +children, in years, but less in real practical knowledge. The remark is +of such general application, that no specification need be made, except +to the case before us; to those affected proficients in grammar, whose +only knowledge is the memory of words, which to them have no meanings, +if, indeed, the writers themselves had any to express by them; a fact we +regard as questionable, at best. There is hardly a teacher of grammar, +whose self-esteem is not enormous, who will not confess himself ignorant +on many of the important principles of language; that he has never +understood, and could never explain them. He finds no difficulty in +repeating what the books say, but if called upon to express an opinion +of his own, he has none to give. He has learned and used words without +knowing their meaning. + +Children should be taught language as they are taught music. They should +learn the simple tones on which the whole science depends. Distinct +impressions of sounds should be made on their minds, and the characters +which represent them should be inseparably associated with them. They +will then learn tunes from the compositions of those sounds, as +represented by notes. By dint of application, they will soon become +familiar with these principles, if possessed of a talent for song, and +may soon pass the acme with ease, accuracy, and rapidity. But there are +those who may sing very prettily, and tolerably correct, who have never +studied the first rudiments of music. But such can never become adepts +in the science. + +So there are those who use language correctly, who never saw the inside +of a grammar book, and who never examined the principles on which it +depends. But this, by no means, proves that it is better to sing by +rote, than "with the understanding." These rudiments, however, should +form the business of the nursery, rather than the grammar school. Every +mother should labor to give distinct and forcible impressions of such +things as she learns her children to _name_. She should carefully +prevent them from employing words which have no meaning, and still more +strictly should she guard them against attaching a wrong meaning to +those they do use. In this way, the foundation for future knowledge and +eminence, would be laid broad and deep. But I wander. + +We attach names to imaginary things; as ghosts, genii, imps. + +To this class belong the thirty thousand gods of the ancients, who were +frequently represented by emblems significant of the characters attached +to them. We employ words to name these imaginary things, so that we read +and converse about them understandingly, tho our ideas may be +exceedingly various. + +Nouns are also used to express negation, of which no idea can be formed. +In this case, the mind rests on what exists, and employs a word to +express what does not. We speak of _a hole_ in the paper. But we can +form no idea of _a hole_, separated from the surrounding substances. +Remove the parts of the paper till nothing is left, and then you may +look in vain for the hole. It is not there. It never was. In the same +way we use the words nothing, nobody, nonentity, vacuum, absence, space, +blank, annihilation, and oblivion. These are relative terms, to be +understood in reference to things which are known to exist. We must know +of _some_thing before we can talk of _no_thing, of an entity before we +can think of nonentity. + +In a similar way we employ words to name actions, which are produced by +the changes of objects. We speak of a race, of a flight, of a sitting or +session, of a journey, of a ride, of a walk, of a residence, etc. In all +these cases, the mind is fixed on the persons who performed these +things. Take for example, a race. Of that, we can conceive no idea +separate from the agent or object which _ran_ the _race_. Without some +other word to inform us we could not decide whether a _horse_ race, a +_foot_ race, a boat race, the race of a mill, or some other race, was +the object of remark. The same may be said of flight, for we read of the +flight of birds, the flight of Mahommed, the flight of armies, and the +flight of intellect. + +We also give names to actions as tho they were taking place in the +present tense. "The _reading_ of the report was deferred;" steamboat +_racing_ is dangerous to public safety; _stealing_ is a crime; false +_teaching_ deserves the reprobation of all. + +The hints I have given will assist you in acquiring a knowledge of nouns +as used to express ideas in vocal or written language. This subject +might be pursued further with profit, if time would permit. As the time +allotted to this lecture is nearly exhausted, I forbear. I shall +hereafter have occasion to show how a whole phrase may be used to name +an idea, and as such stand as the agent or object of a verb. + +Some nouns are specifically used to designate certain objects, and +distinguish them from the class to which they usually belong. In this +way they assume a distinctive character, and are usually denominated +=proper nouns=. They apply to persons, places and things; as, John +Smith, Boston, Hylax. _Boy_ is applied in common to all young males of +the human species, and as such is a _common noun_ or name. _John Smith_ +designates a particular boy from the rest. + +Proper names may be also applied to animals and things. The stable +keeper and stageman has a name for every horse he owns, to distinguish +it from other horses; the dairyman for his cows, the boy for his dog, +and the girl for her doll. Any word, in fact, may become a proper name +by being specifically used; as the ship Fair Trader, the brig Success, +sloop Delight in Peace, the race horse Eclipse, Black Hawk, Round Nose, +and Red Jacket. + +Proper names were formerly used in reference to certain traits of +character or circumstances connected with the place or thing. _Abram_ +was changed to _Abraham_, the former signifying _an elevated father_, +the latter, _the father of a multitude_. _Isaac_ signified _laughter_, +and was given because his mother laughed at the message of the angel. +_Jacob_ signified _a supplanter_, because he was to obtain the +birthright of his elder brother. + +A ridiculous rage obtained with our puritan fathers to express scripture +sentiments in the names of their children, as may be seen by consulting +the records of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies. + +This practice has not wholly gone out of use in our day, for we hear of +the names of Hope, Mercy, Patience, Comfort, Experience, Temperance, +Faith, Deliverance, Return, and such like, applied usually to females, +(being more in character probably,) and sometimes to males. We have also +the names of White, Black, Green, Red, Gray, Brown, Olive, Whitefield, +Blackwood, Redfield, Woodhouse, Stonehouse, Waterhouse, Woodbridge, +Swiftwater, Lowater, Drinkwater, Spring, Brooks, Rivers, Pond, Lake, +Fairweather, Merryweather, Weatherhead, Rice, Wheat, Straw, Greatrakes, +Bird, Fowle, Crow, Hawks, Eagle, Partridge, Wren, Goslings, Fox, Camel, +Zebra, Bear, Wolf, Hogg, Rain, Snow, Haile, Frost, Fogg, Mudd, Clay, +Sands, Hills, Valley, Field, Stone, Flint, Silver, Gould, and Diamond. + +Proper nouns may also become common when used as words of general +import; as, _dunces_, corrupted from Duns Scotus, a distinguished +theologian, born at Dunstane, Northumberland, an opposer of the +doctrines of Thomas Aquinus. He is a real _solomon_, jack tars, judases, +antichrist, and so on. + +Nouns may also be considered in respect to person, number, gender, and +positive, or case. There are _three_ persons, _two_ numbers, _two_ +genders, and _two_ cases. But the further consideration of these things +will be deferred, which, together with Pronouns, will form the subject +of our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE V. + +ON NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + + Nouns in respect to persons.--Number.--Singular.--Plural.--How + formed.--Foreign plurals.--Proper names admit of plurals.--Gender. + --No neuter.--In figurative language.--Errors.--Position or case.-- + Agents.--Objects.--Possessive case considered.--A definitive + word.--Pronouns.--One kind.--Originally nouns.--Specifically + applied. + + +We resume the consideration of nouns this evening, in relation to +person, number, gender, and position or case. + +In the use of language there is a speaker, person spoken to, and things +spoken of. Those who speak are the _first_ persons, those who hear the +_second_, and those who are the subject of conversation the _third_. + +The first and second persons are generally used in reference to human +beings capable of speech and understanding. But we sometimes condesend +to hold converse with animals and inanimate matter. The bird trainer +talks to his parrots, the coachman to his horses, the sailor to the +winds, and the poet to his landscapes, towers, and wild imaginings, to +which he gives a "local habitation and a name." + +By metaphor, language is put into the mouths of animals, particularly in +fables. By a still further license, places and things, flowers, trees, +forests, brooks, lakes, mountains, towers, castles, stars, &c. are made +to speak the most eloquent language, in the first person, in addresses +the most pathetic. The propriety of such a use of words I will not stop +to question, but simply remark that such figures should never be +employed in the instruction of children. As the mind expands, no longer +content to grovel amidst mundane things, we mount the pegasus of +imagination and soar thro the blissful or terrific scenes of fancy and +fiction, and study a language before unknown. But it would be an +unrighteous demand upon others, to require them to understand us; and +quite as unpardonable to brand them with ignorance because they do not. + +Most nouns are in the third person. More things are talked about than +talk themselves, or are talked to by others. Hence there is little +necessity for teaching children to specify except in the first or second +person, which is very easily done. + +In English there are two _numbers_, singular and plural. The singular is +confined to one, the plural is extended to any indefinite number. The +Greeks, adopted a dual number which they used to express two objects +united in pairs, or couples; as, a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a +brace of pistols, a pair of shoes. We express the same idea with more +words, using the singular to represent the union of the two. We also +extend this use of words and employ what are called _nouns of +multitude_; as, a people, an army, a host, a nation. These and similar +words are used in the singular referring to many combined in a united +whole, or in the plural comprehending a diversity; as, "the armies met," +"the nations are at peace." _People_ admits no change on account of +number. We say "_many_ people are collected together and form _a_ +numerous people." + +The plural is not always to be understood as expressing an increase of +number, but of qualities or sorts of things, as the merchant has a +variety of _sugars_, _wines_, _teas_, _drugs_, _medicines_, _paints_ and +_dye-woods_. We also speak of _hopes_, _fears_, _loves_, _anxieties_. + +Some nouns admit of no plural, in fact, or in use; as, chaos, universe, +fitness, immortality, immensity, eternity. Others admit of no singular; +as, scissors, tongs, vitals, molasses. These words probably once had +singulars, but having no use for them they became obsolete. We have long +been accustomed to associate the two halves of shears together, so that +in speaking of one whole, we say shears, and of apart, half of a shears. +But of some words originally, and in fact plural, we have formed a +singular; as, "one twin died, and, tho the other one survived its +dangerous illness, the mother wept bitterly for her twins." _Twin_ is +composed of _two_ and _one_. It is found in old books, spelled _twane_, +two-one, or twin. Thus, the _twi_-light is formed by the mingling of two +lights, or the division of the rays of light by the approaching or +receding darkness. They _twain_ shall be one flesh. Sheep and deer are +singular or plural. + +Most plurals are formed by adding _s_ to the singular, or, when euphony +requires it, _es_; as, tree, trees; sun, suns; dish, dishes; box, boxes. +Some retain the old plural form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; chick, +chicken; kit, kitten. But habit has burst the barrier of old rules, and +we now talk of chicks and chickens, kits and kittens. _Oxen_ alone +stands as a monument raised to the memory of unaltered saxon plurals. + +Some nouns form irregular plurals. Those ending in _f_ change that +letter to _v_ and then add _es_; as, half, halves; leaf, leaves; wolf, +wolves. Those ending in _y_ change that to _i_ and add the _es_; as, +cherry, cherries; berry, berries; except when the _y_ is preceded by a +vowel, in which case it only adds the _s_; as, day, days; money, moneys +(not _ies_); attorney, attorneys. All this is to make the sound more +easy and harmonious. _F_ and _v_ were formerly used indiscriminately, in +singulars as well as plurals, and, in fact, in the composition of all +words where they occurred. The same may be said of _i_ and _y_. + + "The Fader (Father) Almychty of the heven abuf (above) + In the mene tyme, unto Juno his _luf_ (love) + Thus spak; and sayd." + _Douglas, booke 12, pag. 441._ + + "They lyued in ioye and in felycite + For eche of hem had other lefe and dere." + _Chaucer, Monks Tale, fol. 81, p. 1._ + + "When straite twane beefes he tooke + And an the aultar layde." + +The reason why _y_ is changed into _i_ in the formation of plurals, and +in certain other cases, is, I apprehend, accounted for from the fact +that words which now end in _y_ formerly ended in _ie_, as may be seen +in all old books. The regular plural was then formed by adding _s_. + +"And upon those members of the _bodie_, which _wee_ thinke most +unhonest, put _wee_ more honestie on." "It rejoyceth not in +iniquitie--diversitie of gifts--all thinges edifie not." See old bible, +1 Cor., chap. 13 and 14. + +Other words form their plurals still more differently, for which no +other rule than habit can be given; as, man, men; foot, feet; tooth, +teeth; die, dice; mouse, mice; penny, pence, and sometimes pennies, when +applied to distinct pieces of money, and not to value. + +Many foreign nouns retain the plural form as used by the nations from +whom we have borrowed them; as, cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; +radius, radii; memorandum, memoranda; datum, data, &c. We should be +pleased to have such words carried home, or, if they are ours by virtue +of possession, let them be adopted into our family, and put on the +garments of naturalized citizens, and no longer appear as lonely +strangers among us. There is great aukwardness in adding the english to +the hebrew plural of cherub, as the translators of the common version of +the bible have done. They use _cherub_ in the singular and cherub_ims_ +in the plural. The _s_ should be omitted and the Hebrew plural retained, +or the preferable course adopted, and the final _s_ be added, making +cherubs, seraphs, &c. The same might be said of all foreign nouns. It +would add much to the regularity, dignity, and beauty, of our vernacular +tongue. + +Proper nouns admit of the plural number; as, there are sixty-four John +Smiths in New-York, twenty Arnolds in Providence, and fifteen Davises in +Boston. As we are not accustomed to form the plurals of proper names +there is not that ease and harmony in the first use of them that we have +found in those with which we are more familiar; especially those we have +rarely heard pronounced. Habit surmounts the greatest obstacles and +makes things the most harsh and unpleasant appear soft and agreeable. + +Gender is applied to the distinction of the sexes. There are +two--masculine and feminine. The former is applied to males, the latter +to females. Those words which belong to neither gender, have been called +_neuter_, that is, _no gender_. But it is hardly necessary to perplex +the minds of learners with _negatives_. Let them distinguish between +masculine and feminine genders, and little need be said to them about a +_neuter_. + +There are some nouns of both genders, as student, writer, pupil, +person, citizen, resident. _Poet_, _author_, editor, and some other +words, have of late been applied to females, instead of poet_ess_, +author_ess_, edit_ress_. Fashion will soon preclude the necessity of +this former distinction. + +Some languages determine their genders by the form of the endings of +their nouns, and what is thus made masculine in Rome, may be feminine in +France. It is owing, no doubt, to this practice, in other nations, that +we have attached the idea of gender to inanimate things; as, "the sun, +_he_ shines majestically;" while of the moon, it is said, "_she_ sheds a +milder radiance." But we can not coincide with the reason assigned by +Mr. Murray, for this distinction. His notion is not valid. It does not +correspond with facts. While in the south of Europe the sun is called +masculine and the moon feminine, the northern nations invariably reverse +the distinction, particularly the dialects of the Scandinavian. It was +so in our own language in the time of Shakspeare. He calls the sun a +"_fair wench_." + +By figures of rhetoric, genders may be attached to inanimate matter. +Where things are personified, we usually speak of them as masculine and +feminine; but this practice depends on fancy, and not on any fixed +rules. There is, in truth, but two genders, and those confined to +animals. When we break these rules, and follow the undirected wanderings +of fancy, we can form no rules to regulate our words. We may have as +many fanciful ones as we please, but they will not apply in common +practice. For example: poets and artists have usually attached female +loveliness to angels, and placed them in the feminine gender. But they +are invariably used in the masculine thro out the scriptures. + +There is an apparent absurdity in saying of the ship General Williams, +_she_ is beautiful; or, of the steamboat Benjamin Franklin, _she_ is out +of date. It were far better to use no gender in such cases. But if +people will continue the practice of making distinctions where there are +none, they must do it from habit and whim, and not from any reason or +propriety. + +There are three ways in which we usually distinguish the forms of words +in reference to gender. 1st. By words which are different; as boy, girl; +uncle, aunt; father, mother. 2d. By a different termination of the same +word; as instructor, instructress; lion, lioness; poet, poetess. _Ess_ +is a contraction from the hebrew _essa_, a female. 3d. By prefixing +another word; as, a male child, a female child; a man servant, a maid +servant; a he-goat, a she-goat. + +The last consideration that attaches to nouns, is the _position_ they +occupy in written or spoken language, in relation to other words, as +being _agents_, or _objects_ of action. This is termed _position_. + +There are two positions in which nouns stand in reference to their +meaning and use. First, as _agents_ of action, as _David_ killed +Goliath. Second, as _objects_ on which action terminates; as, _Richard_ +conquered _Henry_. These two distinctions should be observed in the use +of all nouns. But the propriety of this division will be more evident +when we come to treat of verbs, their agents and objects. + +It will be perceived that we have abandoned the use of the "_possessive +case_," a distinction which has been insisted on in our grammars; and +also changed the names of the other two. As we would adopt nothing that +is new without first being convinced that something is needed which the +thing proposed will supply; so we would reject nothing that is old, +till we have found it useless and cumbersome. It will be admitted on all +hands that the fewer and simpler the rules of grammar, the more readily +will they be understood, and the more correctly applied. We should +guard, on the one hand, against having so many as to perplex, and on the +other, retain enough to apply in the correct use of language. It is on +this ground that we have proposed an improvement in the names and number +of cases, or positions. + +The word noun signifies name, and _nominative_ is the adjective derived +from noun, and partakes of the same meaning. Hence the _nominative_ or +_naming_ case may apply as correctly to the object as the agent. "_John_ +strikes _Thomas_, and _Thomas_ strikes _John_." John and Thomas name the +boys who strike, but in the first case John is the actor or agent and +Thomas the object. In the latter it is changed. To use a _nominative +name_ is a redundancy which should be avoided. You will understand my +meaning and see the propriety of the change proposed, as the mind of the +learner should not be burthened with needless or irrelevant phrases. + +But our main objection lies against the "possessive case." We regard it +as a false and unnecessary distinction. What is the possessive case? +Murray defines it as "expressing the relation of property or possession; +as, my father's house." His rule of syntax is, "one substantive governs +another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive +case; as, my father's house." I desire you to understand the definition +and use as here given. Read it over again, and be careful that you know +the meaning of _property_, _possession_, and _government_. Now let a +scholar parse correctly the example given. "_Father's_" is a common +noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, and _governed_ by +house:" Rule, "One noun _governs_ another," &c. Then my father does not +govern his own house, but his house him! What must be the conduct and +condition of the family, if they have usurped the government of their +head? "John Jones, hatter, keeps constantly for sale all kinds of _boy's +hats_. Parse boy's. It is a noun, possessive case, _governed_ by hats." +What is the possessive case? It "signifies the _relation of property or +possession_." Do the hats belong to the boys? Oh no. Are they the +_property_ or in the _possession_ of the boys? Certainly not. Then what +relation is there of property or possession? None at all. They belong to +John Jones, were made by him, are his property, and by him are +advertised for sale. He has used the word _boy's_ to distinguish their +size, quality, and fitness for boy's use. + +"The master's slave." Master's is in the possessive case, and _governed_ +by slave! If grammars are true there can be no need of abolition +societies, unless it is to look after the master and see that he is not +abused. The rider's horse; the captain's ship; the general's army; the +governor's cat; the king's subject. How false it would be to teach +scholars the idea of _property_ and _government_ in such cases. The +_teacher's scholars_ should never learn that by virtue of their +grammars, or the _apostrophe_ and letter _s_, they have a right to +_govern_ their teachers; nor the mother's son, to govern his mother. Our +merchants would dislike exceedingly to have the _ladies_ understand them +to signify by their advertisements that the "ladies' merino shawls, the +ladies's bonnets and lace wrought veils, the ladies' gloves and elegant +Thibet, silk and challa dresses, were the _property_ of the ladies; for +in that case they might claim or _possess_ themselves of their +_property_, and no longer trouble the merchant with the care of it. + +"Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever." "_His_ physician said that +_his_ disease would require _his_ utmost skill to defeat _its_ progress +in _his_ limbs." Phrases like these are constantly occurring, which can +not be explained intelligibly by the existing grammars. In fact, the +words said to be nouns in the possessive case, have changed their +character, by use, from nouns to adjectives, or definitive words, and +should thus be classed. Russia iron, Holland gin, China ware, American +people, the Washington tavern, Lafayette house, Astor house, Hudson +river, (formerly Hudson's,) Baffin's bay, Van Dieman's land, John +street, Harper's ferry, Hill's bridge, a paper book, a bound book, a red +book, John's book--one which John is known to use, it may be a borrowed +one, but generally known as some way connected with him,--Rev. Mr. +Smith's church, St. John's church, Grace church, Murray's grammar; not +the property nor in the possession of Lindley Murray, neither does it +_govern him_; for he has gone to speak a purer language than he taught +on earth. It is mine. I bought it, have possessed it these ten years; +but, thank fortune, am little _governed_ by it. But more on this point +when we come to the proper place. What I have said, will serve as a +hint, which will enable you to see the impropriety of adopting the +"possessive case." + +It may be said that more cases are employed in other languages. That is +a poor reason why we should break the barriers of natural language. +Beside, I know not how we should decide by that rule, for none of them +have a _case_ that will compare with the English possessive. The +genitive of the French, Latin, or Greek, will apply in only a few +respects. The former has _three_, the latter five, and the Latin six +cases, neither of which correspond with the possessive, as explained by +Murray and his satellites. We should be slow to adopt into our language +an idiom which does not belong to it, and compel learners to make +distinctions where none exist. It is an easy matter to tell children +that the apostrophe and letter _s_ marks the possessive case; but when +they ask the difference in the meaning between the use of the noun and +those which all admit are adjectives, it will be no indifferent task to +satisfy them. What is the difference in the construction of language or +the sense conveyed, between Hudson'_s_ river, and _Hudson_ river? +Davis's straits, or Bass straits? St. John's church, or Episcopal +church? the sun's beams, or sun shine? In all cases these words are used +to define the succeeding noun. They regard "property or possession," +only when attending circumstances, altogether foreign from any quality +in the form or meaning of the word itself, are so combined as to give it +that import. And in such cases, we retain these words as adjectives, +long after the property has passed from the hands of the persons who +gave it a name. _Field's_ point, _Fuller's_ rocks, _Fisher's_ island, +_Fulton's_ invention, will long be retained after those whose names were +given to distinguish these things, have slept with their fathers and +been forgotten. Blannerhassett's Island, long since ceased to be his +property or tranquil possession, by confiscation; but it will retain its +specific name, till the inundations of the Ohio's waters shall have +washed it away and left not a wreck behind. + +The distinctions I have made in the positions of nouns, will be clearly +understood when we come to the verbs. A few remarks upon pronouns will +close the present lecture. + + +PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns are such as the word indicates. _Pro_ is the latin word _for_; +pro-nomen, _for nouns_. They are words, originally nouns, used +specifically _for_ other nouns, to avoid the too frequent repetition of +the same words; as, Washington was the father of his country; _he_ was a +valiant officer. _We_ ought to respect _him_. The word _we_, stands for +the speaker and all present, and saves the trouble of naming them; _he_ +and _him_, stand for Washington, to avoid the monotony which would be +produced by a recurrence of his name. + +Pronouns are all of one kind, and few in number. I will give you a list +of them in their respective positions. + + _Agents._ _Objects._ + { 1st person, I, me, + { 2d " thou, thee, +_Singular_ { 3d " mas. { he, him, + { " fem. { she, her, + { it, it. + + { 1st person, we, us, + _Plural_ { 2d " ye, or you, you, + { 3d " they, them, + who, whom. + +The two last may be used in either person, number, or gender. + +The frequent use of these words render them very important, in the +elegant and rapid use of language. They are so short, and their sound so +soft and easy, that the frequency of their recurrence does not mar the +beauty of a sentence, but saves us from the redundancy of other words. +They are substituted only when there is little danger of mistaking the +nouns for which they stand. They are, however, sometimes used in a very +broad sense; as, "_they say_ it is so;" meaning no particular persons, +but the general sentiment. _It_ frequently takes the lead of a sentence, +and the thing represented by it comes after; as, "It is currently +reported, that things were thus and so." Here _it_ represents the single +idea which is afterward stated at length. "_It_ is so." "_It_ may be +that the nations will be destroyed by wars, earthquakes, and famines." +But more of this when we come to speak of the composition of sentences. + +The words now classed as pronouns were originally _names_ of things, but +in this character they have long been obsolete. They are now used only +in their secondary character as the representatives of other words. The +word _he_, for instance, signified originally _to breathe_. It was +applied to the living beings who inhaled air. It occurs with little +change in the various languages of Europe, ancient and modern, till at +length it is applied to the male agent which lives and acts. The word +_her_ means _light_, but is specifically applied to females which are +the objects of action. + +Was it in accordance with the design of these lectures, it would give me +pleasure to go into a minute examination of the origin, changes and +meaning of these words till they came to be applied as specific words of +exceeding limited character. Most of them might be traced thro all the +languages of Europe; the Arabic, Persic, Arminian, Chaldean, Hebrew, +and, for ought I know, all the languages of Asia. But as they are now +admitted a peculiar position in the expression of thought from which +they never vary; and as we are contending about philosophic principles +rather than verbal criticisms, I shall forbear a further consideration +of these words. + +In the proper place I shall consider those words formerly called +"Adjective Pronouns," "Pronoun Adjectives," or "Pronominal Adjectives," +to suit the varying whims of those grammar makers, who desired to show +off a speck of improvement in their "simplifying" works without ever +having a new idea to express. It is a query in some minds whether the +seventy-two "simplifiers" and "improvers" of Murray's grammar ever had +any distinct notions in their heads which they did not obtain from the +very man, who, it would seem by their conduct, was unable to explain his +own meaning. + + + + +LECTURE VI. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Definition of adjectives.--General character.--Derivation.--How + understood.--Defining and describing.--Meaning changes to suit the + noun.--Too numerous.--Derived from nouns.--Nouns and verbs made from + adjectives.--Foreign adjectives.--A general list.--Difficult to be + understood.--An example.--Often superfluous.--Derived from + verbs.--Participles.--Some prepositions.--Meaning unknown.--With.-- + In.--Out.--Of. + + +The most important sub-division of words is the class called Adjectives, +which we propose to notice this evening. _Adjective_ signifies _added_ +or _joined to_. We employ the term in grammar to designate that class of +words which are _added to nouns to define or describe them_. In doing +this, we strictly adhere to the principles we have already advanced, and +do not deviate from the laws of nature, as developed in the regulation +of speech. + +In speaking of things, we had occasion to observe that the mind not only +conceived ideas of things, but of their properties; as, the hardness of +flint; the heat of fire; and that we spoke of one thing in reference to +another. We come now to consider this subject more at large. + +In the use of language the mind first rests on the thing which is +present before it, or the word which represents the idea of that thing. +Next it observes the changes and attitudes of these things. Thirdly, it +conceives ideas of their qualities and relations to other things. The +first use of these words is to name things. This we call _nouns_. The +second is to express their actions. This we call _verbs_. The last is to +define or describe things. This we call _adjectives_. There is a great +similarity between the words used to name things and to express their +actions; as, builders build buildings; singers sing songs; writers write +writings; painters paint paintings. In the popular use of language we +vary these words to avoid the monotony and give pleasantness and +variety. We say builders _erect_ houses, barns, and other buildings; +singers perform pieces of music; musicians play tunes; the choir sing +psalm tunes; artists paint pictures. + +From these two classes a third is derived which partakes somewhat of the +nature of both, and yet from its secondary use, it has obtained a +distinctive character, and as such is allowed a separate position among +the classes of words. + +It might perhaps appear more in order to pass the consideration of +adjectives till we have noticed the character and use of verbs, from +which an important portion of them is derived. But as they are used in +connexion with nouns, and as the character they borrow from the verb +will be readily understood, I have preferred to retain the old +arrangement, and consider them in this place. + +_Adjectives are words added to nouns to define or describe them._ They +are derived either, 1st, from nouns; as, _window_ glass, _glass_ window, +a stone house, building stone, maple sugar, sugar cane; or, 2d, from +verbs; as, a _written_ paper, a _printed_ book, a _painted_ house, a +_writing_ desk. In the first case we employ one noun, or the name of one +thing, to define another, thus giving it a secondary use. A _glass_ +window is one made of glass, and not of any thing else. It is neither a +_board_ window, nor a _paper_ window. _Maple_ sugar is not _cane_ +sugar, nor _beet_ sugar, nor _molasses_ sugar; but it may be _brown_ +sugar, if it has been browned, or _white_ if it has been whit_ed_ or +whit_ened_. In this case, you at once perceive the correctness of our +second proposition, in the derivation of adjectives from verbs, by which +we describe a thing in reference to its condition, in some way affected +by the operation of a prior action. A _printed_ book is one on which the +action of printing has been performed. A _written_ book differs from the +former, in as much as its appearance was produced by writing and not by +printing. + +In the definition or description of things, whatever is best understood +is employed as a definitive or descriptive term, and is attached to the +object to make known its properties and relations. Speaking of nations, +if we desire to distinguish some from others, we choose the words +supposed to be best known, and talk of European, African, American, or +Indian nations; northern, southern, eastern, or western nations. These +last words are used in reference to their relative position, and may be +variously understood; for we speak of the northern, eastern, western, +and southern nations of Europe, of Africa, and the world. + +Again, we read of civiliz_ed_, half-civilized, and barbarous nations; +learned, unlearned, ignorant, and enlightened; rich, powerful, +enterprising, respected, ancient or modern, christian, mahomedan or +pagan. In these, and a thousand similar cases, we decide the meaning, +not alone from the word employed as an adjective, but from the subject +of remark; for, were we to attach the same meaning to the same word, +wherever used, we could not receive correct or definite impressions from +the language of others--our inferences would be the most monstrous. A +_great_ mountain and a _great_ pin, a _great_ continent and a _great_ +farm, a _great_ ocean and a _great_ pond, a _great_ grammar and a +_great_ scholar, refer to things of very different dimensions and +character; or, as Mr. Murray would say, "_qualities_." A mountain is +great by comparison with other mountains; and a pin, compared with other +pins, may be very large--exceeding great--and yet fall very far short of +the size of a very small mountain. A _small_ man may be a _great_ +scholar, and a rich neighbor a poor friend. A sweet flower is often very +bitter to the taste. A _good_ horse would make a _bad_ dinner, but +_false_ grammar can never make _true_ philologists. + +All words are to be understood according to their use. Their meaning can +be determined in no other way. Many words change their forms to express +their relations, but fewer in our language than in most others, ancient +or modern. Other words remain the same, or nearly so, in every position; +noun, adjective, or verb, agent or object, past or present. To determine +whether a word is an adjective, first ascertain whether it names a +thing, defines or describes it, or expresses its action, and you will +never be at a loss to know to what class it belongs. + +The business of adjectives is twofold, and they may be distinguished by +the appellations of _defining_ or _describing_ adjectives. This +distinction is in many cases unimportant; in others it is quite +essential. The same word in one case may _define_, in others _describe_ +the object, and occasionally do both, for we often specify things by +their descriptions. The learner has only to ascertain the meaning and +use of the adjective to decide whether it defines or describes the +subject of remark. If it is employed to distinguish one thing from the +general mass, or one class from other classes, it has the former +character; but after such thing is pointed out, if it is used to give a +description of its character or properties, its character is different, +and should be so understood and explained. + +_Defining adjectives_ are used to _point out_, specify or distinguish +certain things from others of their kind, or one sort from other sorts, +and answer to the questions _which_, _what_, _how many_, or _how much_. + +_Describing adjectives_ express the character and qualities of things, +and give a more full and distinct knowledge than was before possessed. + +In a case before mentioned, we spoke of the "Indian nations." The word +_Indian_ was chosen to specify or define what nations were alluded to. +But all may not decide alike in this case. Some may think we meant the +aborigines of America; others, that the southern nations of Asia were +referred to. This difficulty originates in a misapprehension of the +definitive word chosen. India was early known as the name of the south +part of Asia, and the people there, were called Indians. When Columbus +discovered the new world, supposing he had reached the country of India, +which had long been sought by a voyage round the coast of Africa, he +named it India, and the people Indians. But when the mistake was +discovered, and the truth fully known, instead of effecting a change in +the name already very generally understood, and in common use, another +word was chosen to distinguish between countries so opposite and _West_ +India became the word to distinguish the newly discovered islands; and +as India was little better known in Europe at that time, instead of +retaining their old name unaltered, another word was prefixed, and they +called it _East_ India. When, therefore, we desire to be definite, we +retain these words, and say, East Indians and West Indians. Without this +distinction, we should understand the native people of our own country; +but in Europe, Asia, and Africa, they would think we alluded to those in +Asia. So with all other adjectives which are not understood. _Indian_, +as an adjective, may also be employed to _describe_ the character and +condition of the aborigines. We talk of an indian temper, indian looks, +indian blankets, furs, &c. + +In writing and conversation we should employ words to explain, to define +and describe, which are better understood than those things of which we +speak. The pedantry of some modern writers in this respect is +ridiculous. Not satisfied to use plain terms which every body can +understand, they hunt the dictionaries from alpha to omega, and not +unfrequently overleap the "king's english," and ransack other languages +to find an unheard of word, or a list of adjectives never before +arranged together, in so nice a manner, so that their ideas are lost to +the common reader, if not to themselves. This fault may be alleged +against too many of our public speakers, as well as the affected gentry +of the land. They are like Shakspeare's Gratiano, "who speaks an +infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice; his reasons +are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek +all day ere you find them; and, when you have found them, they are not +worth the search." Such sentences remind us of the painting of the young +artist who drew the form of an animal, but apprehensive that some might +mistake it, wrote under it, "_This is a horse._" + +In forming our notions of what is signified by an adjective, the mind +should pause to determine the meaning of such word when used as a +distinct name for some object, in order to determine the import of it in +this new capacity. A _tallow_ candle is one made of a substance called +tallow, and is employed to distinguish it from wax or spermaceti +candles. The adjective in this case, names the article of which the +candle is made, and is thus a noun, but, as we are not speaking of +tallow, but of candles, we place it in a new relation, and give it a new +grammatical character. But you will perceive the correctness of a former +assertion, that all words may be reduced to two classes, and that +adjectives are derived from nouns or verbs. + +But you may inquire if there are not some adjectives in use which have +no corresponding verb or noun from which they are derived. There are +many words in our language which in certain uses have become obsolete, +but are retained in others. We now use some words as verbs which +originally were known only as nouns, and others as nouns which are +unknown as verbs. We also put a new construction upon words and make +nouns, verbs and adjectives promiscuously and with little regard to rule +or propriety. Words at one time unknown become familiar by use, and +others are laid aside for those more new or fashionable. These facts are +so obvious that I shall be excused from extending my remarks to any +great length. But I will give an example which will serve as a clew to +the whole. Take the word _happy_, long known only as an adjective. +Instead of following this word _back_ to its primitive use and deriving +it directly from its noun, or as a past participle, such as it is in +truth, we have gone _forward_ and made from it the noun _happiness_, +and, in more modern days, are using the verb _happify_, a word, by the +way, in common use, but which has not yet been honored with a place in +our dictionaries; altho Mr. Webster has given us, as he says, the +_unauthorised_ (un-author-ised) word "_happifying_." Perhaps he had +never heard or read some of our greatest savans, who, if not the +authors, employ the word _happify_ very frequently in the pulpit and +halls of legislation, and at the bar, as well as in common parlance. + +_Happy_ is the past participle of the verb _to hap_, or, as afterwards +used, with a nice shade of change in the meaning, _to happen_. It means +_happied_, or made happy by those favorable circumstances which have +_happened_ to us. Whoever will read our old writers no further back than +Shakspeare, will at once see the use and changes of this word. They will +find it in all its forms, simple and compound, as a verb, noun, and +adjective. "It may _hap_ that he will come." It happened as I was going +that I found my lost child, and was thereby made quite happy. The man +desired to _hap_pify himself and family without much labor, so he +engaged in speculation; and _hap_pily he was not so _hap_less in his +pursuit of _hap_piness as often _hap_pens to such _hap_-hazard fellows, +for he soon became very _hap_py with a moderate fortune. + +But to the question. There are many adjectives in our language which are +borrowed from foreign words. Instead of _adjectiving_ our own nouns we +go to our neighbors and _adjective_ and anglicise [english-ise] their +words, and adopt the pampered urchins into our own family and call them +our favorites. It is no wonder that they often appear aukward and +unfamiliar, and that our children are slow in forming an intimate +acquaintance with them. You are here favored with a short list of these +words which will serve as examples, and enable you to comprehend my +meaning and apply it in future use. Some of them are regularly used as +adjectives, with or without change; others are not. + + ENGLISH NOUNS. FOREIGN ADJECTIVES. + + Alone Sole, solitary + Alms Eleemosynary + Age Primeval + Belief Credulous + Blame Culpable + Breast Pectoral + Being Essential + Bosom Graminal, sinuous + Boy, boyish Puerile + Blood, bloody Sanguinary, sanguine + Burden Onerous + Beginning Initial + Boundary Conterminous + Brother Fraternal + Bowels Visceral + Body Corporeal + Birth Natal, native + Calf Vituline + Carcass Cadaverous + Cat Feline + Cow Vaccine + Country Rural, rustic + Church Ecclesiastical + Death Mortal + Dog Canine + Day Diurnal, meridian, ephemeral + Disease Morbid + East Oriental + Egg Oval + Ear Auricular + Eye Ocular + Flesh Carnal, carnivorous + Father Paternal + Field Agrarian + Flock Gregarious + Foe Hostile + Fear Timorous, timid + Finger Digital + Flattery Adulatory + Fire Igneous + Faith Fiducial + Foot Pedal + Groin Inguinal + Guardian Tutelar + Glass Vitreous + Grape Uveous + Grief Dolorous + Gain Lucrative + Help Auxiliary + Heart Cordial, cardiac + Hire Stipendiary + Hurt Noxious + Hatred Odious + Health Salutary, salubrious + Head Capital, chief + Ice Glacial + Island Insular + King Regal, royal + Kitchen Culinary + Life Vital, vivid, vivarious + Lungs Pulmonary + Lip Labial + Leg Crural, isosceles + Light Lucid, luminous + Love Amorous + Lust Libidinous + Law Legal, loyal + Mother Maternal + Money Pecuniary + Mixture Promiscuous, miscellaneous + Moon Lunar, sublunary + Mouth Oral + Marrow Medulary + Mind Mental + Man Virile, male, human, masculine + Milk Lacteal + Meal Ferinaceous + Nose Nasal + Navel Umbilical + Night Nocturnal, equinoctial + Noise Obstreperous + One First + Parish Parochial + People Popular, populous, public, epidemical, endemical + Point Punctual + Pride Superb, haughty + Plenty Copious + Pitch Bituminous + Priest Sacerdotal + Rival Emulous + Root Radical + Ring Annular + Reason Rational + Revenge Vindictive + Rule Regular + Speech Loquacious, garrulous, eloquent + Smell Olfactory + Sight Visual, optic, perspicuous, conspicuous + Side Lateral, collateral + Skin Cutaneous + Spittle Salivial + Shoulder Humeral + Shepherd Pastoral + Sea Marine, maritime + Share Literal + Sun Solar + Star Astral, sideral, stellar + Sunday Dominical + Spring Vernal + Summer Estival + Seed Seminal + Ship Naval, nautical + Shell Testaceous + Sleep Soporiferous + Strength Robust + Sweat Sudorific + Step Gradual + Sole Venal + Two Second + Treaty Federal + Trifle Nugatory + Tax Fiscal + Time Temporal, chronical + Town Oppidan + Thanks Gratuitous + Theft Furtive + Threat Minatory + Treachery Insidious + Thing Real + Throat Jugular, gutteral + Taste Insipid + Thought Pensive + Thigh Femoral + Tooth Dental + Tear Lachrymal + Vessel Vascular + World Mundane + Wood Sylvan, savage + Way Devious, obvious, impervious, trivial + Worm Vermicular + Whale Cutaceous + Wife Uxorious + Word Verbal, verbose + Weak Hebdomadal + Wall Mural + Will Voluntary, spontaneous + Winter Brumal + Wound Vulnerary + West Occidental + War Martial + Women Feminine, female, effeminate + Year Annual, anniversary, perennial, triennial + +Such are some of the adjectives introduced into our language from other +nations. The list will enable you to discover that when we have no +adjective of our own to correspond with the noun, we borrow from our +neighbors an adjective derived from one of their nouns, to which we give +an english termination. For example: + + _English Noun._ _Latin Noun._ _Adjective._ + + Boy Puer Puerile + Grief Dolor Dolorous + Thought Pensa Pensive + Wife Uxor Uxorious + Word Verbum Verbal, verbose + Year Annum Annual + Body Corpus Corporeal + Head Caput Capital + Church Ekklesia (_Greek_) Ecclesiastical + King Roi (_French_) Royal + Law Loi " Loyal + +It is exceedingly difficult to understand the adjectives of many nouns +with which we are familiar, from the fact above stated, that they are +derived from other languages, and not our own. The most thoro scholars +have found this task no easy affair. Most grammarians have let it pass +unobserved; but every person has seen the necessity of some explanation +upon this point, to afford a means of ascertaining the etymological +derivation and meaning of these words. I would here enter farther into +this subject, but I am reminded that I am surpassing the limits set me +for this course of lectures. + +The attention I have bestowed on this part of the present subject, will +not be construed into a mere verbal criticism. It has been adopted to +show you how, in the definition or description of things, the mind +clings to one thing to gain some information concerning another. When we +find a thing unlike any thing else we have ever known, in form, in size, +in color, in every thing; we should find it a difficult task, if not an +impossibility, to describe it to another in a way to give any correct +idea of it. Having never seen its like before, we can say little of its +character. We may give it a _name_, but that would not be understood. We +could say it was as large as--no, it had no size; that it was like--but +no, it had no likeness; that it resembled--no, it had no resemblance. +How could we describe it? What could we say of it? Nothing at all. + +What idea could the Pacha of Egypt form of ice, having never seen any +till the french chemists succeeded in freezing water in his presence? +They told him of ice; that it was _cold_; that it would freeze; that +whole streams were often frozen over, so that men and teams could walk +over them. He believed no such thing--it was a "christian lie." This +idea was confirmed on the first trial of the chemists, which failed of +success. But when, on the second attempt, they succeeded, he was all in +raptures. A new field was open before him. New ideas were produced in +his mind. New qualities were learned; and he could now form some idea of +the _ice_ bergs of the north; of _frozen_ regions, which he had never +seen; of _icy_ hearts, and storms of _frozen_ rain. + +We often hear it said, such a man is very _stoical_; another is an +_epicurean_; and another is a _bacchanal_, or _bacchanalian_. But what +idea should we form of such persons, if we had never read of the Stoics +and their philosophy; of Epicurus and his notions of happiness and +duty; or of Bacchus, the god of wine and revelry, whose annual feasts, +or Dionysia, were celebrated with the most extravagant licentiousness +thro out Greece and Rome, till put down by the Senate of the latter. + +You can not fail to see the importance of the knowledge on which we here +insist. The meaning you attach to words is exceedingly diverse; and +hence you are not always able to think alike, or understand each other, +nor derive the same sentiment from the same language. The contradictory +opinions which exist in the world may be accounted for, in a great +measure, in this way. Our knowledge of many things of which we speak, is +limited, either from lack of means, or disposition to employ them. +People always differ and contend most about things of which they know +the least. Did we all attach the same meaning to the same words, our +opinions would all be the same, as true as the forty-fifth problem of +Euclid. How important, then, that children should always be taught the +same meaning of words, and learn to use them correctly. Etymology, +viewed in this light, is a most important branch of science. + +Whenever a word is sufficiently understood, no adjective should be +connected with it. There is a ridiculous practice among many people, of +appending to every noun one or more adjectives, which have no other +effect than to expose their own folly. Some writers are so in the habit +of annexing adjectives to all nouns, that they dare not use one without. +You will not unfrequently see adjectives different in form, added to a +noun of very similar meaning; as, sad melancholy, an ominous sign, this +mundane earth, pensive thoughts. + +When words can be obtained, which not only name the object, but also +describe its properties, it should be preferred to a noun with an +adjective; as _pirate_, for _sea robber_; _savan_, for a _learned_ or +_wise man_.[4] + +In relation to that class of adjectives derived from verbs, we will be +brief. They include what have been termed participles, not a distinct +"part of speech," but by some included in the verbs. We use them as +adjectives to describe things as standing in some relation to other +things on the account of the action expressed by the verb from which +they are derived. "The man is respected." _Respected_, in this case, +describes the man in such a relation to those who have become acquainted +with his good qualities, that he now receives their respect. He is +respect_able_, (_able_ to command, or worthy of respect,) and of course, +respected for his respectability. To avoid repetition, we select +different words to assist in the expression of a complex idea. But I +indulge in phrases like the above, to show the nice shades of meaning in +the common use of words, endeavoring to analyze, as far as possible, our +words and thoughts, and show their mutual connexion and dependencies. + +What has been termed the "present participle" is also an adjective, +describing things in their present condition in reference to actions. +"The man is writing." Here, _writing_ describes the man in his present +employment. But the consideration of this matter more properly belongs +to the construction of sentences. + + * * * * * + +There is another class or variety of words properly belonging to this +division of grammar, which may as well be noticed in this place as any +other. I allude to those words generally called "Prepositions." We have +not time now to consider them at large, but will give you a brief view +of our opinion of them, and reserve the remainder of our remarks till we +come to another part of these lectures. + +Most of the words called prepositions, in books of grammar, are +participles, derived from verbs, many of which are still in use, but +some are obsolete. They are used in the true character of adjectives, +_describing one thing by its relation to another_. But their meaning has +not been generally understood. Our dictionaries have afforded no means +by which we can trace their etymology. They have been regarded as a kind +of cement to stick other words together, having no meaning or importance +in themselves.[5] Until their meaning is known, we can not reasonably +expect to draw them from their hiding places, and give them a +respectable standing in the transmission of thought. + +Many words, from the frequency of their use, fail to attract our +attention as much as those less employed; not because they are less +important, but because they are so familiarly known that the operations +of thought are not observed in the choice made of them to express ideas. +If we use words of which little is known, we ponder well before we adopt +them, to determine whether the sense usually attached to them accords +exactly with the notions we desire to convey by them. The same can not +be said of small words which make up a large proportion of our language, +and are, in fact, more necessary than the others, in as much as their +meaning is more generally known. Those who employ carriages to convey +their bodies, observe little of their construction, unless there is +something singular or fine in their appearance. The common parts are +unobserved, yet as important as the small words used in the common +construction of language, the vehicle of thought. As the apostle says of +the body politic, "those members of the body, which seem to be more +feeble, are necessary;" so the words least understood by grammarians are +most necessary in the correct formation of language. + +It is an easy matter to get along with the words called prepositions, +after they are all learned by rote; but when their meaning and use are +inquired into, the best grammarians have little to say of them. + +A list of prepositions, alphabetically arranged, is found in nearly +every grammar, which scholars are required to commit to memory, without +knowing any thing of their meaning or use, only that they are +prepositions when an objective word comes after them, _because the books +say so_; but occasionally the same words occur as adverbs and +adjectives. There is, however, no trouble in "parsing" them, unless the +list is forgotten. In that case, you will see the pupil, instead of +inquiring after the meaning and duty of the word, go to the book and +search for it in the lists of prepositions or conjunctions; or to the +dictionary, to see if there is a "_prep._" appended to it. What will +children ever learn of language in this way? Of what avail is all such +grammar teaching? As soon as they leave school it is all forgotten; and +you will hear them say, at the very time they should be reaping the +harvest of former toil, that they once understood grammar, but it is all +gone from them. Poor souls! their memory is very treacherous, else they +have never learned language as they ought. There is a fault somewhere. +To us it is not difficult to determine where it is. + +That certain words are prepositions, there can be no doubt, because the +books say they are; but _why_ they are so, is quite another matter. All +we desire is to have their meaning understood. Little difficulty will +then be found in determining their use. + +I have said they are derived from verbs, many of which are obsolete. +Some are still in use, both as verbs and nouns. Take for example the +word =with=. This word signifies _joined_ or _united_. It is used to +show that two things are some how joined together so that they are spoke +of in connexion. It frequently occurs in common conversation, as a verb +and noun, but not as frequently in the books as formerly. The farmer +says to his _hired_ man, "Go and get a _withe_ and come and _withe_ up +the fence;" that is, get some pliant twigs of tough wood, twist them +together, and _withe_ or bind them round these posts, so that one may +stand firm _with_, or _withed_ to, the other. A book _with_ a cover, is +one that has a cover _joined_, bound, or attached to it. "A father +_with_ a son, a man _with_ an estate, a nation _with_ a constitution." +In all such cases _with_ expresses the relation between the two things +mentioned, produced by a _union_ or connexion with each other.[6] + +=In= is used in the same way. It is still retained as a noun and is +suspended on the signs of many public houses. "The traveller's _inn_," +is a house where travellers _in_ themselves, or go _in_, for +entertainment. It occurs frequently in Shakspeare and in more modern +writers, as a verb, and is still used in common conversation as an +imperative. "Go, _in_ the crops of grain." "_In_ with you." "_In_ with +it." In describes one thing by its relation to another, which is the +business of adjectives. It admits of the regular degrees of comparison; +as, _in_, _inner_, _innermost_ or _inmost_. It also has its compounds. +_In_step, the _inner_ part of the foot, _in_let, _in_vestment, +_in_heritance. In this capacity it is extensively used under its +different shades of meaning which I cannot stop to notice. + +=Of= signifies _divided_, _separated_, or _parted_. "The ship is _off_ +the coast." "I am bound _off_, and you are bound _out_." "A part _of_ a +pencil," is that part which is _separated_ from the rest, implying that +the act of _separating_, or _offing_, has taken place. "A branch _of_ +the tree." There is the tree; this branch is from it. "Our communication +was broken _off_ several years ago." "Sailors record their _off_ings, +and parents love their _off_spring," or those children which sprung +from them.[7] "We also _are his offspring_;" that is, sprung from +God.[8] In all these, and every other case, you will perceive the +meaning of the word, and its office will soon appear essential in the +expression of thought. Had all the world been a compact whole, nothing +ever separated from it, we could never speak of a part _of_ it, for we +could never have such an idea. But we look at things, as separated, +divided, parted; and speak of one thing as separated from the others. +Hence, when we speak of the part of the earth we inhabit, we, in +imagination, separate it from some other _part_, or the general whole. +We can not use this word in reference to a thing which is indivisible, +because we can conceive no idea of a part _of_ an indivisible thing. We +do not say, a portion _of_ our mind taken as a whole, but as capable of +division. A share _of_ our regards, supposes that the remainder is +reserved for something else. + +=Out=, out_er_ or utter, outer_most_ or utmost, admits of the same +remark as _in_. + + * * * * * + +In this manner, we might explain a long list of words, called adverbs, +conjunctions, and prepositions. But I forbear, for the present, the +further consideration of this subject, and leave it for another lecture. + + + + +LECTURE VII. + +ON ADJECTIVES. + + Adjectives.--How formed.--The syllable _ly_.--Formed from proper + nouns.--The apostrophe and letter _s_.--Derived from pronouns.-- + Articles.--_A_ comes from _an_.--_In_definite.--_The_.--Meaning of + _a_ and _the_.--Murray's example.--That.--What.--"Pronoun + adjectives."--_Mon_, _ma_.--Degrees of comparison.--Secondary + adjectives.--Prepositions admit of comparison. + + +We resume the consideration of Adjectives. The importance of this class +of words in the expression of our thoughts, is my excuse for bestowing +upon it so much labor. Had words always been used according to their +primitive meaning, there would be little danger of being misunderstood. +But the fact long known, "_Verba mutanter_"--words change--has been the +prolific source of much of the diversity of opinion, asperity of +feeling, and apparent misconstruction of other's sentiments, which has +disturbed society, and disgraced mankind. I have, in a former lecture, +alluded to this point, and call it up in this place to prepare your +minds to understand what is to be said on the secondary use of words in +the character of adjectives. + +I have already spoken of adjectives in general, as derived from nouns +and verbs, and was somewhat particular upon the class sometimes called +_prepositions_, which describe one thing by its relation to another, +produced by some action which has placed them in such relation. We will +now pass to examine a little more minutely into the character and use +of certain adjectives, and the manner of their derivation. + +We commence with those derived from nouns, both common and proper, which +are somewhat peculiar in their character. I wish you distinctly to bear +in mind the use of adjectives. They are words _added to nouns to define +or describe them_. + +Many words which name things, are used as adjectives, with out change; +as, _ox_ beef, _beef_ cattle, _paper_ books, _straw_ hats, _bonnet_ +paper. Others admit of change, or addition; as, nation_al_ character, a +merci_ful_ (mercy-_ful_) man, a gloom_y_ prospect, a fam_ous_ horse, a +gold_en_ ball. The syllables which are added, are parts of words, which +are at first compounded with them, till, by frequency of use, they are +incorporated into the same word. "A merci_ful_ man" is one who is full +of mercy. A gold_en_ ball is one made of gold. This word is sometimes +used without change; as, a _gold_ ring. + +A numerous portion of these words take the syllable _ly_, contracted +from _like_, which is still retained in many words; as, Judas-_like_, +lady-_like_, gentleman-_like_. These two last words, are of late, +occasionally used as other words, lady_ly_, gentleman_ly_; but the last +more frequently than the former. She behaved very ladi_ly_, or +lady_like_; and his appearance was quite gentleman_ly_. But to say +ladi_ly_ appearance, does not yet sound quite soft enough; but it is +incorrect only because it is uncommon. God_ly_ and god_like_ are both in +use, and equally correct, with a nice shade of difference in meaning. + +All grammarians have found a difficulty in the word _like_, which they +were unable to unravel. They could never account for its use in +expressing a relation between two objectives. They forgot that to be +like, one thing must be _likened_ to another, and that it was the very +meaning of this word to express such like_ness_. John looks _like_ his +brother. The looks, the countenance, or appearance of John, are +_likened_ to his brother's looks or appearance. "This machine is more +like the pattern than any I have seen." Here the adjective _like_ takes +the comparative degree, as it is called, to show a nearer resemblance +than has been before observed between the things compared. "He has a +statesman-_like_ appearance." I _like_ this apple, because it agrees +with my taste; it has qualities _like_ my notion of what is palateable." +In every situation the word is used to express likeness between two +things. It describes one thing by its likeness to another. + +Many adjectives are formed from proper nouns by adding an apostrophe and +the letter _s_, except when the word ends in _s_, in which case the +final _s_ is usually omitted for the sake of euphony. This, however, was +not generally adopted by old writers. It is not observed in the earliest +translations of the Bible into the english language. It is now in common +practice. Thus, Montgomery's monument in front of St. Paul's church; +Washington's funeral; Shay's rebelion; England's bitterest foes; +Hamlet's father's ghost; Peter's wife's mother; Todd's, Walker's, +Johnson's dictionary; Winchell's Watts' hymns; Pond's Murray's grammar. +No body would suppose that the "relation of property or possession" was +expressed in these cases, as our grammar books tell us, but that the +terms employed are used to _define_ certain objects, about which we are +speaking. They possess the true character and use of adjectives, and as +such let them be regarded. It must be as false as frivolous to say that +Montgomery, who nobly fell at the siege of Quebec, _owns_ the monument +erected over his remains, which were conveyed to New-York many years +after his death; or that St. Paul _owns_ or _possesses_ the church +beneath which they were deposited; that Hamlet owned his father, and his +father his ghost; that Todd owns Walker, and Walker owns Johnson, and +Johnson his dictionary which may have had a hundred owners, and never +been the property of its author, but printed fifty years after his +death. These words, I repeat, are merely _definitive_ terms, and like +others serve to point out or specify particular objects which may thus +be better known. + +Words, however, in common use form adjectives the same as other words; +as, Russia iron, China ships, India silks, Vermont cheese, Orange county +butter, New-York flour, Carolina potatoes. Morocco leather was first +manufactured in a city of Africa called by that name, but it is now made +in almost every town in our country. The same may be said of Leghorn +hats, Russia binding, French shoes, and China ware. Although made in our +own country we still retain the words, morocco, leghorn, russia, french, +and china, to define the fashion, kind, or quality of articles to which +we allude. Much china ware is made in Liverpool, which, to distinguish +it from the real, is called liverpool china. Many french shoes are made +in Lynn, and many Roxbury russets, Newton pippins, and Rhode-Island +greenings, grow in Vermont. + +It may not be improper here to notice the adjectives derived from +pronouns, which retain so much of their character as relates to the +persons who employ them. These are _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, +_our_, _your_, _their_, _whose_. This is _my_ book, that is _your_ pen, +this is _his_ knife, and that is _her_ letter. Some of these, like other +words, vary their ending when standing alone; as, two apples are +your_s_, three her_s_, six their_s_, five our_s_, and the rest mine. +_His_ does not alter in popular use. Hence the reason why you hear it so +often, in common conversation, when standing without the noun expressed, +pronounced as if written _hisen_. The word _other_, and some others, +come under the same remark. When the nouns specified are expressed, they +take the regular termination; as, give me these Baldwin apples, and a +few others--a few other apples. + + * * * * * + +There is a class of small words which from the frequency of their use +have, like pronouns, lost their primitive character, and are now +preserved only as adjectives. Let us examine a few of them by +endeavoring to ferret out their true meaning and application in the +expression of ideas. We will begin with the old articles, _a_, _an_, and +_the_, by testing the truth and propriety of the duty commonly assigned +to them in our grammars. + +The standard grammar asserts that "an article is a word prefixed to +substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their signification +extends; as, "a garden, an eagle, the woman." Skepticism in grammar is +no crime, so we will not hesitate to call in question the correctness of +this "best of all grammars beyond all comparison." Let us consider the +very examples given. They were doubtless the best that could be found. +Does _a_ "point out" the garden, or "show how far its signification +extends?" It does neither of these things. It may name "_any_" garden, +and it certainly does not define whether it is a _great_ or a _small_ +one. It simply determines that _one_ garden is the subject of remark. +All else is to be determined by the word _garden_. + +We are told there are two articles, the one _in_definite, the other +definite--_a_ is the former, and _the_ the latter. I shall leave it with +you to reconcile the apparent contradiction of an _indefinite_ article +which "is used in a _vague sense, to point out the signification_ of +another word." But I challenge teachers to make their pupils comprehend +such a jargon, if they can do it themselves. But it is as good sense as +we find in many of the popular grammars of the day. + +Again, Murray says "_a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel or silent _h_;" and +so say all his _simplifying_ satellites after him. Is such the fact? Is +he right? He is, I most unqualifiedly admit, with this little +correction, the addition of a single word--he is right _wrong_! Instead +of _a_ becoming _an_, the reverse is the fact. The word is derived +directly from the same word which still stands as our first numeral. It +was a short time since written _ane_, as any one may see by consulting +all old books. By and by it dropped the _e_, and afterwards, for the +sake of euphony, in certain cases, the _n_, so that now it stands a +single letter. You all have lived long enough to have noticed the +changes in the word. Formerly we said _an_ union, _an_ holiday, _an_ +universalist, _an_ unitarian, &c., expressions which are now rarely +heard. We now say _a_ union, &c. This single instance proves that +arbitrary rules of grammar have little to do in the regulation of +language. Its barriers are of sand, soon removed. It will not be said +that this is an unimportant mistake, for, if an error, it is pernicious, +and if a grammarian knows enough to say that _a_ becomes _an_, he ought +to know that he tells a falsehood, and that _an_ becomes _a_ under +certain circumstances. Mr. Murray gives the following example to +illustrate the use of _a_. "Give me _a_ book; that is, _any_ book." How +can the learner understand such a rule? How will it apply? Let us try +it. "A man has _a_ wife;" that is, _any_ man has _any_ wife. I have a +hat; that is, _any_ hat. A farmer has a farm--_any_ farmer has _any_ +farm. A merchant in Boston has a beautiful piece of broadcloth--_any_ +merchant in Boston has any beautiful piece of broadcloth. A certain king +of Europe decreed a protestant to be burned--_any_ king of Europe +decreed _any_ protestant to be burned. How ridiculous are the rules we +have learned and taught to others, to enable them to "speak and write +with propriety." No wonder we never understood grammar, if so at +variance with truth and every day's experience. The rules of grammar as +usually taught can never be observed in practice. Hence it is called a +_dry study_. In every thing else we learn something that we can +understand, which will answer some good purpose in the affairs of life. +But this branch of science is among the things which have been tediously +learned to no purpose. No good account can be given of its advantages. + +_The_, we are told, "is called the definite article, because it +ascertains what _particular_ thing or things are meant." A most +unfortunate definition, and quite as erroneous as the former. Let us try +it. _The_ stars shine, _the_ lion roars, _the_ camel is a beast of +burden, _the_ deer is good for food, _the_ wind blows, _the_ clouds +appear, _the_ Indians are abused. What is there in these examples, which +"ascertain what _particular_ thing or things are meant?" They are +expressions as _in_definite as we can imagine. + +On the other hand, should I say _a_ star shines, _a_ lion roars, _an_ +Indian is abused, _a_ wind blows, _a_ cloud appears, you would +understand me to allude very _definitely_ to _one_ "particular" object, +as separate and distinguished from others of its kind. + +But what is the wonderful peculiarity in the meaning and use of these +two little words that makes them so unlike every thing else, as to +demand a separate "part of speech?" You may be surprised when I tell you +that there are other words in our language derived from the same source +and possessed of the same meaning; but such is the fact, as will soon +appear. Let us ask for the etymology of these important words. _A_ +signifies _one_, never more, never less. In this respect it is always +_definite_. It is sometimes applied to a single thing, sometimes to a +whole class of things, to a [one] man, or to a [one] hundred men. It may +be traced thro other languages, ancient and modern, with little +modification in spelling; Greek _eis_, ein; Latin _unus_; Armoric +_unan_; Spanish and Italian _uno_; Portuguese _hum_; French _un_; German +_ein_; Danish _een_, _en_; Dutch _een_; Swedish _en_; Saxon, _an_, +_aen_, _one_--from which ours is directly derived--old English _ane_; +and more modernly _one_, _an_, _a_. In all languages it defines a thing +to be _one_, a united or congregated whole, and the word _one_ may +always be substituted without affecting the sense. From it is derived +our word _once_, which signifies _oned_, _united_, _joined_, as we shall +see when we come to speak of "contractions." In some languages _a_ is +styled an article, in others it is not. The Latin, for instance, has no +article, and the Greek has no _indefinite_. But all languages have words +which are like ours, pure adjectives, employed to specify certain +things. The argument drawn from the fact that some other languages have +_articles_, and therefore ours should, is fallacious. The Latin, which +was surpassed for beauty of style or power in deliverance by few, if any +others, never suffered from the lack of articles. Nor is there any +reason why we should honor two small adjectives with that high rank to +the exclusion of others quite as worthy. + +_The_ is always used as a definitive word, tho it is the least definite +of the defining adjectives. In fact when we desire to "_ascertain +particularly_ what thing is meant," we select some more definite word. +"Give me _the_ books." Which? "Those with red covers, that in calf, and +this in Russia binding." _The_ nations are at peace. What nations? +_Those_ which were at war. You perceive how we employ words which are +more definite, that is, better understood, to "_point out_" the object +of conversation, especially when there is any doubt in the case. What +occasion, then, is there to give these [the?] words a separate "part of +speech," since in character they do not differ from others in the +language? + +We will notice another frivolous distinction made by Mr. Murray, merely +to show how learned men may be mistaken, and the folly of trusting to +special rules in the general application of words. He says, "Thou art +_a_ man," is a very general and _harmless_ expression; but, thou art +_the_ man, (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of +striking terror and remorse into the heart." The distinction in meaning +here, on which he insists, attaches to the articles _a_ and _the_. It is +a sufficient refutation of this definition to make a counter statement. +Suppose we say, "Murray is _the_ best grammarian in the world; or, he is +_a_ fool, _a_ knave, and _a_ liar." Which, think you, would be +considered the most _harmless_ expression? Suppose it had been said to +Aaron Burr, thou art _a_ traitor, or to General William Hull, thou art +_a_ coward, would they regard the phrase as "_harmless!_" On the other +hand, suppose a beautiful, accomplished, and talented young lady, should +observe to one of her suitors, "I have received offers of marriage from +several gentlemen besides yourself, but thou art =the= man of my +choice;" would it, think you, _strike_ terror and remorse into his +heart? I should pity the young student of Murray whose feelings had +become so stoical from the false teaching of his author as to be filled +with "terror and remorse" under such favorable circumstances, while fair +prospects of future happiness were thus rapidly brightening before him. +I speak as to the wise, judge ye what I say. + +The adjective _that_ has obtained a very extensive application in +language. However, it may seem to vary in its different positions, it +still retains its primitive meaning. It is comprised of _the_ and _it_, +thait, theat, thaet (Saxon,) thata (Gothic,) dat (Dutch.) It is the most +decided definitive in our language. It is by use applied to things in +the singular, or to a multitude of things regarded as a whole. By use, +it applies to a collection of ideas expressed in a sentence; as, it was +resolved, _that_. What? Then follows _that fact_ which was resolved. +"Provided _that_, in case he does" so and so. "It was agreed _that_," +_that fact_ was agreed to which is about to be made known. I wish you to +understand, all thro these lectures, _that_ I shall honestly endeavor to +expose error and establish truth. Wish you to understand _what_? _that +fact_, afterwards stated, "I shall endeavor," &c. You can not mistake my +meaning: _that_ would be impossible. What would be impossible? Why, to +mistake my meaning. + +You can not fail to observe the true character of this word called by +our grammarians "adjective pronoun," "relative pronoun," and +"conjunction." They did not think to look for its meaning. Had that +(duty) been done, it would have stood forth in its true character, an +important defining word. + +The only difficulty in the explanation of this word, originates in the +fact, that it was formerly applied to the plural as well as singular +number. It is now applied to the singular only when referring directly +to an object; as, _that man_. And it never should be used otherwise. But +we often see phrases like this; "These are the men _that_ rebeled." It +should be, "these are the men _who_ rebeled." This difficulty can not be +overcome in existing grammars on any other ground. In modern writings, +such instances are rare. _This_ and _that_ are applied to the singular; +_these_ and _those_ to the plural. + + * * * * * + +=What= is a compound of two original words, and often retains the +meaning of both, when employed as a compound relative, "having in itself +both the antecedent and the relative," as our authors tell us. But when +it is dissected, it will readily enough be understood to be an +adjective, defining things under particular relations. + +But I shall weary your patience, I fear, if I stay longer in this place +to examine the etymology of small words. I intended to have shown the +meaning and use of many words included in the list of conjunctions, +which are truly adjectives, such as _both_, _as_, _so_, _neither_, +_and_, etc.; but I let them pass for the present, to be resumed under +the head of contractions. + +From the view we have given of this class of words, we are saved the +tediousness of studying the grammatical distinctions made in the books, +where no real distinctions exist. In character these words are like +adjectives; their meaning, like the meaning of all other words, is +peculiar to themselves. Let that be known, and there will be little +difficulty in classing them. We need not confuse the learner with +"adjective pronouns, possessive adjective pronouns, distributive +adjective pronouns, demonstrative adjective pronouns, _indefinite_ +adjective pronouns," nor any other adjective pronouns, which can never +be understood nor explained. Children will be slow to apprehend the +propriety of a union of _adjectives_ and _pronouns_, when told that the +former is always used _with_ a noun, and never _for_ one; and the latter +always _for_ a noun, but never _with_ one; and yet, that there is such a +strange combination as a "_distributive or indefinite adjective +pronoun_,"--"confusion worse confounded." + +In the french language, the gender of adjectives is varied so as to +agree with the nouns to which they belong. "Possessive pronouns," as +they are called, come under the same rule, which proves them to be in +character, and formation, adjectives; else the person using them must +change gender. The father says, _ma_ (feminine) _fille_, my daughter; +and the mother, _mon_ (masculine) _fils_, my son; the same as they would +say, _bon pere_, good father; _bonne mere_, good mother; or, in Latin, +_bonus pater_, or _bona mater_; or, in Spanish, _bueno padre_, _buena +madre_. In the two last languages, as well as all others, where the +adjectives vary the termination so as to agree with the noun, the same +fact may be observed in reference to their "pronouns." If it is a fact +that these words are _pronouns_, that is, stand for other _nouns_, then +the father is _feminine_, and the mother is _masculine_; and whoever +uses them in reference to the opposite sex must change gender to do so. + + * * * * * + +Describing adjectives admit of variation to express different degrees of +comparison. The regular degrees have been reckoned three; positive, +comparative, and superlative. These are usually marked by changing the +termination. The _positive_ is determined by a comparison with other +things; as, a great house, a small book, compared with others of their +kind. This is truly a comparative degree. The _comparative_ adds _er_; +as, a great_er_ house, a small_er_ book. The _superlative_, _est_; as, +the great_est_ house, the small_est_ book. + +Several adjectives express a comparison less than the positive, others +increase or diminish the regular degrees; as, whit_ish_ white, _very_ +white, _pure_ white; whit_er_, _considerable_ whiter, _much_ whiter; +whit_est_, the _very_ whitest, _much_ the whitest _beyond all +comparison_, so that there can be none _whiter_, nor _so white_. + +We make an aukward use of the words _great_ and _good_, in the +comparison of things; as, a _good deal_, or _great deal_ whiter; a +_good_ many men, or a _great_ many men. As we never hear of a _small_ +deal, or a _bad_ deal whiter, nor of a _bad many_, nor _little many_, it +would be well to avoid such phrases. + +The words which are added to other adjectives, to increase or diminish +the comparison, or assist in their definition, may properly be called +_secondary adjectives_, for such is their character. They do not refer +to the thing to be _defined_ or _described_, but to the adjective which +is affected, in some way, by them. They are easily distinguished from +the rest by noticing this fact. Take for example: "A _very dark red_ raw +silk lady's dress handkerchief." The resolution of this sentence would +stand thus: + + _A_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _red_ ( ) handkerchief. + A ( ) _dark_ red ( ) handkerchief. + A _very_ dark red ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red ( ) _silk_ ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red _raw_ silk ( ) handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk ( ) _dress_ handkerchief. + A very dark red raw silk _lady's_ dress handkerchief. + +We might also observe that _hand_ is an adjective, compounded by use +with _kerchief_. It is derived from the french word _couvrir_, to cover, +and _chef_, the head. It means a head dress, a cloth to cover, a neck +cloth, a napkin. By habit we apply it to a single article, and speak of +_neck_ handkerchief. + +The nice shade of meaning, and the appropriate use of adjectives, is +more distinctly marked in distinguishing colors than in any thing else, +for the simple reason, that there is nothing in nature so closely +observed. For instance, take the word _green_, derived from _grain_, +because it is grain color, or the color of the fair carpet of nature in +spring and summer. But this hue changes from the _deep grass green_, to +the light olive, and words are chosen to express the thousand varying +tints produced by as many different objects. In the adaptation of +language to the expression of ideas, we do not separate these shades of +color from the things in which such colors are supposed to reside. Hence +we talk of _grass_, _pea_, _olive_, _leek_, _verdigris_, _emerald_, +_sea_, and _bottle_ green; also, of _light_, _dark_, _medium_; _very_ +light, or dark grass, pea, olive, or _invisible_ green. + +_Red_, as a word, means _rayed_. It describes the appearance or +substance produced when _rayed_, reddened, or radiated by the morning +beams of the sun, or any other _radiating_ cause. + +_Wh_ is used for _qu_, in white, which means _quite_, _quited_, +_quitted_, _cleared_, _cleansed_ of all _color_, _spot_, or _stain_. + +_Blue_ is another spelling for _blew_. Applied to color, it describes +something in appearance to the sky, when the clouds and mists are +_blown_ away, and the clear _blue ether_ appears. + +You will be pleased with the following extract from an eloquent writer +of the last century,[9] who, tho somewhat extravagant in some of his +speculations, was, nevertheless, a close observer of nature, which he +studied as it is, without the aid of human theories. The beauty of the +style, and the correctness of the sentiment, will be a sufficient +apology for its length. + +"We shall employ a method, not quite so learned, to convey an idea of +the generation of colors, and the decomposition of the solar ray. +Instead of examining them in a prism of glass, we shall consider them in +the heavens, and there we shall behold the five primordial colours +_unfold themselves_ in the order which we have indicated. + +"In a fine summer's night, when the sky is loaded only with some light +vapours, sufficient to stop and to refract the rays of the sun, walk out +into an open plain, where the first fires of Aurora may be perceptible. +You will first observe the horizon _whiten_ at the spot where she is to +make her appearance; and this radiance, from its colour, has procured +for it, in the French language, the name of _aube_, (the dawn,) from the +Latin word _alba_, white. This whiteness insensibly ascends in the +heavens, _assuming_ a tint of yellow some degrees above the horizon; the +yellow as it rises passes into orange; and this shade of orange rises +upward into the lively vermilion, which extends as far as the zenith. +From that point you will perceive in the heavens behind you the violet +succeeding the vermilion, then the azure, after it the deep blue or +indigo colour, and, last of all, the black, quite to the westward. + +"Though this display of colours presents a multitude of intermediate +shades, which rapidly succeed each other, yet at the moment the sun is +going to exhibit his disk, the dazzling white is visible in the horizon, +the pure yellow at an elevation of forty-five degrees; the fire color in +the zenith; the pure blue forty-five degrees under it, toward the west; +and in the very west the dark veil of night still lingering on the +horizon. I think I have remarked this progression between the tropics, +where there is scarcely any horizontal refraction to make the light +prematurely encroach on the darkness, as in our climates. + +"Sometimes the trade-winds, from the north-east or south-east, blow +there, card the clouds through each other, then sweep them to the west, +crossing and recrossing them over one another, like the osiers +interwoven in a transparent basket. They throw over the sides of this +chequered work the clouds which are not employed in the contexture, roll +them up into enormous masses, as white as snow, draw them out along +their extremities in the form of a crupper, and pile them upon each +other, moulding them into the shape of mountains, caverns, and rocks; +afterwards, as evening approaches, they grow somewhat calm, as if afraid +of deranging their own workmanship. When the sun sets behind this +magnificent netting, a multitude of luminous rays are transmitted +through the interstices, which produce such an effect, that the two +sides of the lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance of being +girt with gold, and the other two in the shade seem tinged with _ruddy_ +orange. Four or five divergent streams of light, emanated from the +setting sun up to the zenith, _clothe_ with fringes of gold the +undeterminate summits of this celestial barrier, and strike with the +reflexes of their fires the pyramids of the collateral aerial mountains, +which then appear to consist of _silver_ and _vermilion_. At this moment +of the evening are perceptible, amidst their redoubled ridges, a +multitude of valleys extending into infinity, and distinguishing +themselves at their opening by some shade of flesh or of rose colour. + +"These celestial valleys present in their different contours inimitable +tints of white, melting away into white, or shades lengthening +themselves out without mixing over other shades. You see, here and +there, issuing from the cavernous sides of those mountains, tides of +_light_ precipitating themselves, in ingots of gold and silver, over +rocks of coral. Here it is a gloomy rock, pierced through and through, +disclosing, beyond the aperture, the pure azure of the firmament; there +it is an extensive strand, covered with sands of gold, stretching over +the rich ground of heaven; _poppy-coloured_, _scarlet_, and _green_ as +the emerald. + +"The reverberation of those western colours diffuses itself over the +sea, whose azure billows it _glazes_ with saffron and purple. The +mariners, leaning over the gunwale of the ship, admire in silence those +aerial landscapes. Sometimes this sublime spectacle presents itself to +them at the hour of prayer, and seems to invite them to lift up their +hearts with their voices to the heavens. It changes every instant into +forms as variable as the shades, presenting celestial colors and forms +which no pencil can pretend to imitate, and no language can describe. + +"Travellers who have, at various seasons, ascended to the summits of the +highest mountains on the globe, never could perceive, in the clouds +below them, any thing but a gray and lead-colored surface, similar to +that of a lake. The sun, notwithstanding, illuminated them with his +whole light; and his rays might there combine all the laws of refraction +to which our systems of physics have subjected them. Hence not a single +shade of color is employed in vain, through the universe; those +celestial decorations being made for the level of the earth, their +magnificent point of view taken from the habitation of man. + +"These admirable concerts of lights and forms, manifest only in the +lower region of the clouds the least illuminated by the sun, are +produced by laws with which I am totally unacquainted. But the whole are +reducible to five colors: yellow, a generation from white; red, a deeper +shade of yellow; blue, a strong tint of red; and black, the extreme tint +of blue. This progression cannot be doubted, on observing in the morning +the expansion of the light in the heavens. You there see those five +colors, with their intermediate shades, generating each other nearly in +this order: white, sulphur yellow, lemon yellow, yolk of egg yellow, +orange, aurora color, poppy red, full red, carmine red, purple, violet, +azure, indigo, and black. Each color seems to be only a strong tint of +that which precedes it, and a faint tint of that which follows; thus the +whole together appear to be only modulations of a progression, of which +white is the first term, and black the last. + +"Indeed trade cannot be carried on to any advantage, with the Negroes, +Tartars, Americans, and East-Indians, but through the medium of red +cloths. The testimonies of travellers are unanimous respecting the +preference universally given to this color. I have indicated the +universality of this taste, merely to demonstrate the falsehood of the +philosophic axiom, that tastes are arbitrary, or that there are in +Nature no laws for beauty, and that our tastes are the effects of +prejudice. The direct contrary of this is the truth; prejudice corrupts +our natural tastes, otherwise the same over the whole earth. + +"With red Nature heightens the brilliant parts of the most beautiful +flowers. She has given a complete clothing of it to the rose, the queen +of the garden: and bestowed this tint on the blood, the principle of +life in animals: she invests most of the feathered race, in India, with +a plumage of this color, especially in the season of love; and there are +few birds without some shades, at least, of this rich hue. Some preserve +entirely the gray or brown ground of their plumage, but glazed over with +red, as if they had been rolled in carmine; others are besprinkled with +red, as if you had blown a scarlet powder over them. + +"The red (or _rayed_) color, in the midst of the five primordial colors, +is the harmonic expression of them by way of excellence; and the result +of the union of two contraries, light and darkness. There are, besides, +agreeable tints, compounded of the oppositions of extremes. For example, +of the second and fourth color, that is, of yellow and blue, is formed +green, which constitutes a very beautiful harmony, and ought, perhaps, +to possess the second rank in beauty, among colors, as it possesses the +second in their generation. Nay, green appears to many, if not the most +beautiful tint, at least the most lovely, because it is less dazzling +than red, and more congenial to the eye." + +Many words come under the example previously given to illustrate the +secondary character of adjectives, which should be carefully noticed by +the learner, to distinguish whether they define or describe things, or +are added to increase the distinction made by the adjectives themselves, +for both defining and describing adjectives admit of this addition; as, +_old_ English coin, New England rebelion; a mounted whip, and a _gold_ +mounted sword--not a gold sword; a _very fine_ Latin scholar. + +Secondary adjectives, also, admit of comparison in various ways; as, +_dearly_ beloved, a _more_ beloved, the _best_ beloved, the _very_ best +beloved brother. + +Words formerly called "prepositions," admit of comparison, as I have +before observed. "Benhadad fled into an _inner_ chamber." The in_ner_ +temple. The in_most_ recesses of the heart. The _out_ fit of a squadron. +The out_er_ coating of a vessel, or house. The ut_most_ reach of +grammar. The _up_ and _down_ hill side of a field. The up_per_ end of +the lot. The upper_most_ seats. A part _of_ the book. Take it _farther +off_. The _off_ cast. India _beyond_ the Ganges. Far beyond the +boundaries of the nation. I shall go _to_ the city. I am _near to_ the +town. _Near_ does not _qualify the verb_, for it has nothing to do with +it. I can exist in one place as well as another. It is _below_ the +surface; _very far_ below it. It is above the earth--"high above all +height." + +Such expressions frequently occur in the expression of ideas, and are +correctly understood; as difficult as it may have been to describe them +with the theories learned in the books--sometimes calling them one +thing, sometimes another--when their character and meaning was +unchanged, or, according to old systems, had "no meaning at all of their +own!" + +But I fear I have gone _far_ beyond your patience, and, perhaps, entered +_deeper_ into this subject than was necessary, to enable you to discover +my meaning. I desired to make the subject _as_ distinct _as_ possible, +that all might see the important improvement suggested. I am +apprehensive even now, that some will be compelled to _think_ many +_profound thoughts_ before they will see the end of the obscurity under +which they have long been shrouded, in reference to the false rules +which they have been taught. But we have one consolation--those who are +not bewildered by the grammars they have tried in vain to understand, +will not be very likely to make a wrong use of adjectives, especially if +they have ideas to express; for there is no more danger of mistaking an +adjective for a noun, or verb, than there is of mistaking a _horse_ +chestnut for a _chestnut_ horse. + + * * * * * + +In our next we shall commence the consideration of Verbs, the most +important department in the science of language, and particularly so in +the system we are defending. I hope you have not been uninterested thus +far in the prosecution of the subject of language, and I am confident +you will not be in what remains to be said upon it. The science, so long +regarded _dry_ and uninteresting, becomes delightful and easy; new and +valuable truths burst upon us at each advancing step, and we feel to +bless God for the ample means afforded us for obtaining knowledge from, +and communicating it to others, on the most important affairs of time +and eternity. + + + + +LECTURE VIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Unpleasant to expose error.--Verbs defined.--Every thing acts.-- + Actor and object.--Laws.--Man.--Animals.--Vegetables.--Minerals.-- + Neutrality degrading.--Nobody can explain a neuter verb.--_One_ kind + of verbs.--_You_ must decide.--Importance of teaching children the + truth.--Active verbs.--Transitive verbs false.--Samples.--Neuter + verbs examined.--Sit.--Sleep.--Stand.--Lie.--Opinion of Mrs. + W.--Anecdote. + + +We now come to the consideration of that class of words which in the +formation of language are called _Verbs_. You will allow me to bespeak +your favorable attention, and to insist most strenuously on the +propriety of a free and thoro examination into the nature and use of +these words. I shall be under the necessity of performing the thankless +task of exposing the errors of honest, wise, and good men, in order to +remove difficulties which have long existed in works on language, and +clear the way for a more easy and consistent explanation of this +interesting and essential department of literature. I regret the +necessity for such labors; but no person who wishes the improvement of +mankind, or is willing to aid the growth of the human intellect, in its +high aspirations after truth, knowledge, and goodness, should shrink +from a frank exposition of what he deems to be error, nor refuse his +assistance, feeble tho it may be, in the establishment of correct +principles. + +In former lectures we have confined our remarks to things and a +description of their characters and relations, so that every entity of +which we can conceive a thought, or concerning which we can form an +expression, has been defined and described in the use of nouns and +adjectives. Every thing in creation, of which we think, material or +immaterial, real or imaginary, and to which we give a name, to represent +the idea of it, comes under the class of words called nouns. The words +which specify or distinguish one thing from another, or describe its +properties, character, or relations, are designated as adjectives. There +is only one other employment left for words, and that is the expression +of the actions, changes, or inherent tendencies of things. This +important department of knowledge is, in grammar, classed under the head +of =Verbs=. + + * * * * * + +_Verb_ is derived from the Latin _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. By +specific application it is applied to those _words_ only which express +action, correctly understood; the same as Bible, derived from the Greek +"_biblos_" means literally _the book_, but, by way of eminence, is +applied to the sacred scriptures only. + +This interesting class of words does not deviate from the correct +principles which we have hitherto observed in these lectures. It depends +on established laws, exerted in the regulation of matter and thought; +and whoever would learn its sublime use must be a close observer of +things, and the mode of their existence. The important character it +sustains in the production of ideas of the changes and tendencies of +things and in the transmission of thought, will be found simple, and +obvious to all. + +Things exist; Nouns name them. + +Things differ; Adjectives define or describe them. + +Things act; Verbs express their actions. + + _All Verbs denote action._ + +By action, we mean not only perceivable motion, but an inherent tendency +to change, or resist action. It matters not whether we speak of animals +possessed of the power of locomotion; of vegetables, which _send_ forth +their branches, leaves, blossoms, and fruits; or of minerals, which +_retain_ their forms, positions, and properties. The same principles are +concerned, the same laws exist, and should be observed in all our +attempts to understand their operations, or employ them in the promotion +of human good. Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses; +from the small particle of sand, which _occupies_ its place upon the sea +shore, up thro the various gradation of being, to the tall archangel, +who _bows_ and _worships_ before the throne of the uncreated Cause of +all things and actions which exist thro out his vast dominions. + +As all actions presuppose an _actor_, so every action must result on +some _object_. No effect can exist without an efficient cause to produce +it; and no cause can exist without a corresponding effect resulting from +it. These mutual relations, helps, and dependencies, are manifest in all +creation. Philosophy, religion, the arts, and all science, serve only to +develope these primary laws of nature, which unite and strengthen, +combine and regulate, preserve and guide the whole. From the Eternal I +AM, the uncreated, self-existent, self-sustaining =Cause= of all things, +down to the minutest particle of dust, evidences may be traced of the +existence and influence of these laws, in themselves irresistible, +exceptionless, and immutable. Every thing has a place and a duty +assigned it; and harmony, peace, and perfection are the results of a +careful and judicious observance of the laws given for its regulation. +Any infringement of these laws will produce disorder, confusion, and +distraction. + +Man is made a little lower than the angels, possessed of a mind capable +of reason, improvement, and happiness; an intellectual soul inhabiting a +mortal body, the connecting link between earth and heaven--the material +and spiritual world. As a physical being, he is subject, in common with +other things, to the laws which regulate matter: as an intellectual +being, he is governed by the laws which regulate mind: as possessed of +both a body and mind, a code of moral laws demand his observance in all +the social relations and duties of life. Obedience to these laws is the +certain source of health of body, and peace of mind. An infringement of +them will as certainly be attended with disease and suffering to the +one, and sorrow and anguish to the other. + +Lower grades of animals partake of many qualities in common with man. In +some they are deficient; in others they are superior. Some animals are +possessed of all but reason, and even in that, the highest of them come +very little short of the lowest of the human species. If they have not +reason, they possess an instinct which nearly approaches it. These +qualities dwindle down gradually thro the various orders and varieties +of animated nature, to the lowest grade of animalculae, a multitude of +which may inhabit a single drop of water; or to the zoophytes and +lythophytes, which form the connecting link between the animal and +vegetable kingdom; as the star-fish, the polypus, and spunges. Then +strike off into another kingdom, and observe the laws vegetable life. +Mark the tall pine which has grown from a small seed which _sent_ forth +its root downwards and its trunk upwards, drawing nourishment from +earth, air, and water, till it now waves its top to the passing breeze, +a hundred feet above this dirty earth: or the oak or olive, which have +_maintained_ their respective positions a dozen centuries despite the +operations of wind and weather, and have shed their foliage and their +seeds to propagate their species and extend their kinds to different +places. While a hundred generations have lived and died, and the country +often changed masters, they resist oppression, scorn misrule, and retain +rights and privileges which are slowly encroached upon by the inroads of +time, which will one day triumph over them, and they fall helpless to +the earth, to submit to the chemical operations which shall dissolve +their very being and cause them to mingle with the common dust, yielding +their strength to give life and power to other vegetables which shall +occupy their places.[10] Or mark the living principle in the "sensitive +plant," which withers at every touch, and suffers long ere it regains +its former vigor. + +Descend from thence, down thro the various gradations of vegetable life, +till you pass the narrow border and enter the mineral world. Here you +will see displayed the same sublime principle, tho in a modified degree. +Minerals _assume_ different shapes, hues and relations; they increase +and diminish, attach and divide under various circumstances, all the +while _retaining_ their identity and properties, and exerting their +abilities according to the means they possess, till compelled to yield +to a superior power, and learn to submit to the laws which operate in +every department of this mutable world. + +_Every_ thing _acts_ according to the ability God has bestowed upon it; +and man can do no more. He has authority over all things on earth, and +yet he is made to depend upon all. His authority extends no farther than +a privilege, under wholesome restrictions, of making the whole +subservient to his real good. When he goes beyond this, he usurps a +power which belongs not to him, and the destruction of his happiness +pays the forfeit of his imprudence. The injured power rises triumphant +over the aggressor, and the glory of God's government, in the righteous +and immediate execution of his laws, is clearly revealed. So long as man +obeys the laws which regulate health, observes temperance in all things, +uses the things of this world as not abusing them, he is at rest, he is +blessed, he is happy: but no sooner has he violated heaven's law than he +becomes the slave, and the servant assumes the master. But I am +digressing. I would gladly follow this subject further, but I shall go +beyond my limits, and, it may be, your patience. + +I would insist, however, on the facts to which your attention has been +given, for it is impossible, as I have before contended, to use language +correctly without a knowledge of the things and ideas it is employed to +represent. + +Grovelling, indeed, must be the mind which will not trace the sublime +exhibitions of Divine power and skill in all the operations of nature; +and false must be that theory which teaches the young mind to think and +speak of neutrality as attached to things which do exist. As low and +debasing as the speculations of the schoolmen were, they gave to things +which they conceived to be incapable of action, a principle which they +called "_vis inertiae_," or, _power to lie still_. Shall our systems of +instruction descend below them, throw an insurmountable barrier in the +way of human improvement, and teach the false principles that actions +can exist without an effect, or that there is a class of words which +"express neither action or passion." Such a theory is at war with the +first principles of philosophy, and denies that "like causes produce +like effects." + +The ablest minds have never been able to explain the foundation of a +"neuter verb," or to find a single word, with a solitary exception, +which does not, in certain conditions, express a positive action, and +terminate on a definite object; and that exception we shall see refers +to a verb which expresses the highest degree of conceivable action. +Still they have insisted on _three_ and some on _four_ kinds of verbs, +one expressing action, another passion or suffering, and the third +neutrality. We propose to offer a brief review of these distinctions, +which have so long perplexed, not only learners, but teachers +themselves, and been the fruitful source of much dissention among +grammarians. + +It is to be hoped you will come up to this work with as great candor as +you have heretofore manifested, and as fully resolved to take nothing +for granted, because it has been said by good or great men, and to +reject nothing because it appears new or singular. Let truth be our +object and reason our guide to direct us to it. We can not fail of +arriving at safe and correct conclusions. + +Mr. Murray tells us that "verbs are of three kinds, _active_, _passive_, +and _neuter_. In a note he admits of "active _transitive_ and +intransitive verbs," as a subdivision of his first kind. Most of his +"improvers" have adopted this distinction, and regard it as of essential +importance. + +We shall contend, as before expressed, that _all_ verbs are of _one +kind_, that they _express action_, for the simple yet sublime reason, +that every thing acts, at all times, and under every possible condition; +according to the true definition of _action_ as understood and employed +by all writers on grammar, and natural and moral science. Here we are at +issue. Both, contending for principles so opposite, can not be correct. +One or the other, however pure the motives, must be attached to a system +wrong in theory, and of course pernicious in practice. You are to be the +umpires in the case, and, if you are faithful to your trust, you will +not be bribed or influenced in the least by the opinions of others. If +divested of all former attachments, if free from all prejudice, there +can be no doubt of the safety and correctness of your conclusions. But I +am apprehensive I expect too much, if I place the _new_ system of +grammar on a footing equally favorable in your minds with those you have +been taught to respect, as the only true expositions of language, from +your childhood up, and which are recommended to you on the authority of +the learned and good of many generations. I have to combat early +prejudices, and systems long considered as almost sacred. But I have in +my favor the common sense of the world, and a feeling of opposition to +existing systems, which has been produced, not so much by a detection of +their errors, as by a lack of capacity, as the learner verily thought, +to understand their profound mysteries. I am, therefore, willing to risk +the final decision with you, if _you_ will decide. But I am not willing +to have you made the tools of the opposite party, determined, whether +convinced or not, to hold to your old _neuter_ verb systems, right or +wrong, merely because others are doing so. All I ask is _your_ adoption +of what is proved to be undeniably true, and rejection of whatever is +found to be false. + +Here is where the matter must rest, for it will not be pretended that it +is better to teach falsehood because it is ancient and popular, than +truth because it is novel. Teachers, in this respect, stand in a most +responsible relation to their pupils. They should always insist with an +unyielding pertinacity, on the importance of truth, and the evils of +error. Every trifling incident, in the course of education, which will +serve to show the contrast, should be particularly observed. If an error +can be detected in their books, they should be so taught as to be able +to correct it; and they should be so inclined as to be willing to do it. +They should not be skeptics, however, but close observers, original +thinkers, and correct reasoners. It is degrading to the true dignity and +independence of man, to submit blindly to any proposition. Freedom of +thought is the province of all. Children should be made to breathe the +free air of honest inquiry, and to inhale the sweet spirit of truth and +charity. They should not study their books as the end of learning, but +as a means of knowing. Books should be regarded as lamps, which are set +by the way side, not as the objects to be looked at, but the aids by +which we may find the object of our search. Knowledge and usefulness +constitute the leading motives in all study, and no occasion should be +lost, no means neglected, which will lead the young mind to their +possession. + +Your attention is now invited to some critical remarks on the +distinctions usually observed in the use of verbs. Let us carefully +examine the meaning of these _three kinds_ and see if there is any +occasion for such a division; if they have any foundation in truth, or +application in the correct use of language. We will follow the +arrangements adopted by the most popular grammars. + +"A _verb active_ expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, +and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love Penelope." A very +excellent definition, indeed! Had grammarians stopped here, their works +would have been understood, and proved of some service in the study of +language. But when they diverge from this bright spot in the +consideration of verbs--this oasis in the midst of a desert--they soon +become lost in the surrounding darkness of conjecture, and follow each +their own dim light, to hit on a random track, which to follow in the +pursuit of their object. + +We give our most hearty assent to the above definition of a verb. It +expresses action, which necessarily implies an _actor_, and an _object_ +influenced by the action. In our estimation it matters not whether the +object on which the action terminates is expressed or _understood_. If I +_love_, I must love some object; either my neighbor, my enemy, my +family, _myself_, or something else. In either case the _action_ is the +same, tho the objects may be different; and it is regarded, on all +hands, as an active verb. Hence when the object on which the action +terminates is not expressed, it is necessarily understood. All language +is, in this respect, more or less eliptical, which adds much to its +richness and brevity. + +Active verbs, we are told, are divided into _transitive_ and +_intransitive_. Mr. Murray does not exactly approve of this distinction, +but prefers to class the intransitive and neuter together. Others, aware +of the fallacy of attempting to make children conceive any thing like +neutrality in the verbs, _run_, _fly_, _walk_, _live_, &c., have +preferred to mark the distinction and call them _in_transitive; because, +say they, they do not terminate on any object expressed. + +A _transitive verb_ "expresses an action which passes from the agent to +the object; as, Caesar conquered Pompey." To this definition we can not +consent. It attempts a distinction where there is none. It is not true +in principle, and can not be adopted in practice. + +"Caesar conquered Pompey." Did the act of conquering pass _transitively_ +over from _Caesar_ to Pompey? They might not have seen each other during +the whole battle, nor been within many miles of each other. They, each +of them, stood at the head of their armies, and alike gave orders to +their subordinate officers, and they again to their inferiors, and so +down, each man contending valiantly for _victory_, till, at last, the +fate of the day sealed the downfall of Pompey, and placed the crown of +triumph on the head of Caesar. The expression is a correct one, but the +action expressed by the verb "conquered," is not transitive, as that +term is understood. A whole train of causes was put in operation which +finally terminated in the defeat of one, and the conquest of the other. + +"Bonaparte _lost_ the battle of Waterloo." What did _he_ do to _lose_ +the battle? He exerted his utmost skill to _gain_ the battle and escape +defeat. He did not do a single act, he entertained not a single thought, +which lead to such a result; but strove against it with all his power. +If the fault was _his_, it was because he failed to act, and not because +he labored to _lose_ the battle. He had too much at stake to adopt such +a course, and no man but a teacher of grammar, would ever accuse him of +_acting_ to _lose_ the battle. + +"A man was sick; he desired to recover (his health). He took, for +medicine, opium by mistake, and _lost_ his life by it." Was he guilty of +suicide? Certainly, if our grammars are true. But he _lost_ his life in +trying to get well. + +"A man in America _possesses_ property in Europe, and his children +_inherit_ it after his death." What do the children do to _inherit_ this +property, of which they know nothing? + +"The geese, by their gabbling, _saved_ Rome from destruction." How did +the geese save the city? They made a noise, which waked the sentinels, +who roused the soldiers to arms; they fought, slew many Gauls, and +delivered the city. + +"A man in New-York _transacts_ business in Canton." How does he do it? +He has an agent there to whom he sends his orders, and he transacts the +business. But how does he get his letters? The clerk writes them, the +postman carries them on board the ship, the captain commands the +sailors, who work the ropes which unfurl the sails, the wind blows, the +vessel is managed by the pilot, and after a weary voyage of several +months, the letters are delivered to the agent, who does the business +that is required of him. + +The miser _denies_ himself every comfort, and spends his whole life in +hoarding up riches; and yet he dies and _leaves_ his gold to be the +possession of others. + +Christians _suffer_ insults almost every day from the Turks. + +Windows _admit_ light and _exclude_ cold. + +Who can discover any thing like _transitive_ action--a passing from the +agent to the object--in these cases? What transitive action do the +windows perform to _admit the light_; or the christians, to _suffer +insults_; or the miser, to _leave his money_? If there is neutrality any +where, we would look for it here. The fact is, these words express +_relative_ action, as we shall explain when we come to the examination +of the true character of the verb. + +_Neutrality_ signifies (transitive verb!) no action, and _neuter_ verbs +_express a state of being_! A class of words which can not act, which +apply to things in a quiescent state, _perform_ the transitive action of +"_expressing_ a state of being!" + +Who does not perceive the inconsistency and folly of such distinctions? +And who has not found himself perplexed, if not completely bewildered in +the dark and intricate labyrinths into which he has been led by the +false grammar books! Every attempt he has made to extricate himself, by +the dim light of the "simplifiers," has only tended to bewilder him +still more, till he is utterly confounded, or else abandons the study +altogether. + + * * * * * + +An _intransitive_ verb "denotes action which is confined to the actor, +and does not pass over to another object; as, I sit, he lives, they +sleep." + +"A verb _neuter_ expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a +state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit." + +These verbs are nearly allied in character; but we will examine them +separately and fairly. The examples are the same, with exception of the +verb _to be_, which we will notice by itself, and somewhat at large, in +another place. + +Our first object will be to ascertain the _meaning_ and use of the words +which have been given as samples of neutrality. It is unfortunate for +the neuter systems that they can not define a "neuter verb" without +making it express an action which terminates on some object. + + * * * + +"The man _sits_ in his chair." + +_Sits_, we are told, is a neuter verb. What does it mean? The man +_places_ himself in a sitting posture in his _seat_. He _keeps_ himself +in his chair by muscular energy, assisted by gravitation. The chair +_upholds_ him in that condition. Bring a small child and _sit_ it +(active verb,) in a chair beside him. Can it _sit_? No; it falls upon +the floor and is injured. Why did it fall? It was not able to _keep_ +itself from falling. The lady fainted and _fell_ from her _seat_. If +there is no action in sitting, why did she not remain as she was? A +company of ladies and gentlemen from the boarding school and college, +entered the parlor of a teacher of neuter verbs; and he asked them to +_sit_ down, or be _seated_. They were neutral. He called them impolite. +But they replied, that _sit_ "expresses neither action nor passion," and +hence he could not expect them to occupy his seats. + +"_Sit_ or _set_ it away; _sit_ near me; _sit_ farther along; _sit_ +still;" are expressions used by every teacher in addressing his +scholars. On the system we are examining, what would they understand by +such inactive expressions? Would he not correct them for disobeying his +orders? But what did he order them to do? Nothing at all, if _sit_ +denotes no action. + + "I _sat_ me down and wept." + + "He _sat him_ down by a pillar's base, + And drew his hand athwart his face." + _Byron._ + + "Then, having shown his wounds, he'd _sit him_ down, + And, all the live long day, discourse of war." + _Tragedy of Douglass._ + + "But wherefore _sits he_ there? + Death on my state! _This act_ convinces me + That this retiredness of the duke and her, + Is plain contempt." + _King Lear._ + + "_Sitting_, the _act of resting_ on a seat. + _Session_, the _act of sitting_." + _Johnson's Dictionary._ + + * * * + +"_I sleep._" + +Is sleep a neuter verb? So we are gravely told by our authors. Can +grammarians follow their own rules? If so, they may spend the "live long +night" and "its waking hours," without resorting to "tired nature's +sweet restorer, balmy sleep;" for there is no process under heaven +whereby they can procure sleep, unless they _sleep_ it. For one, I can +never _sleep_ without sleeping _sleep_--sometimes only a short _nap_. It +matters not whether the object is expressed or not. The action remains +the same. The true object is necessarily understood, and it would be +superfluous to name it. Cases, however, often occur where, both in +speaking and writing, it becomes indispensable to mention the object. +"The stout hearted have _slept_ their sleep." "They shall _sleep_ the +_sleep_ of death." "They shall _sleep_ the perpetual _sleep_, and shall +not awake." "_Sleep_ on now and _take_ your rest." The child was +troublesome and the mother sung it to sleep, and it _slept itself_ +quiet. A lady took opium and _slept herself_ to death. "Many persons +sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural stupidity." Rip Van Winkle, +according to the legend, _slept_ away a large portion of a common life. + + "Sleep, sleep to-day, tormenting cares." + + "And _sleep_ dull _cares_ away." + +Was your sleep refreshing last night? How did you procure it? Let a +person who still adheres to his _neuter_ verbs, that sleep expresses no +action, and has no object on which it terminates, put his theory in +practice; he may as well sleep with his eyes open, sitting up, as to +_lie himself_ upon his bed. + +A man lodged in an open chamber, and while he was _sleeping_ (doing +nothing) he _caught_ a severe _cold_ (active transitive verb) and had a +long _run_ of the fever. Who does not see, not only the bad, but also +the false philosophy of such attempted distinctions? How can you make a +child discover any difference in the _act of sleeping_, whether there is +an object after it, or not? Is it not the same? And is not the object +necessarily implied, whether expressed or not? Can a person _sleep_, +without procuring _sleep_? + + * * * + +"_I stand._" + +The man _stands_ firm in his integrity. Another stands in a very +precarious condition, and being unable to retain his hold, _falls_ down +the precipice and is killed. Who is killed? The man, surely. Why did he +fall? Because he could not _stand_. But there is no _action_ in +_standing_, say the books. + +"_Stand_ by thyself, come not near me?" "_Stand_ fast in the liberty +wherewith Christ hath made you free, and _be_ not again entangled in the +yoke of bondage." "Let him that thinketh he _standeth_, take heed lest +he _fall_." If it requires no act to _stand_, there can be no danger of +falling. + +"Two pillars stood together; the rest had fallen to the ground. The one +on the right was quite perfect in all its parts. The other _resembled +it_ very much, except it had _lost_ its capital, and _suffered_ some +other injuries." How could the latter column, while performing no action +in _standing_, act _transitively_, according to our grammars, and do +something to _resemble_ the other? or, what did it do to _lose_ its +capital, and _suffer_ other injury? + + * * * + +"To _lie_, or _lay_." + +It has been admitted that the verbs before considered are often used as +active verbs, and that there is, in truth, action expressed by them. +But when the man has fallen from his seat and _lies_ upon the floor, it +is contended that he no longer acts, and that _lie_ expresses no action. +He has ceased from physical, muscular action regulated by his will, and +is now subject to the common laws which govern matter. + +Let us take a strong example. The book _lies_ or _lays_ on the desk. Now +you ask, does that book perform any action in laying on the desk? I +answer, yes; and I will prove it on the principles of the soundest +philosophy, to the satisfaction of every one present. Nor will I deviate +from existing grammars to do it, so far as real action is concerned. + +The book _lies_ on the desk. The desk _supports_ the book. Will you +parse _supports_? It is, according to every system, an active transitive +verb. It has an objective case after it on which the action terminates. +But what does the desk do to _support_ the book? It barely resists the +action which the book _performs_ in lying on it. The action of the desk +and book is reciprocal. But if the book does not act, neither can the +desk act, for that only repels the force of the book in pressing upon it +in its tendency towards the earth, in obedience to the law of +gravitation. And yet our authors have told us that the desk is _active_ +in resisting no action of the book! No wonder people are unable to +understand grammar. It violates the first principles of natural science, +and frames to itself a code of laws, unequal, false, and exceptionable, +which bear no affinity to the rest of the world, and will not apply in +the expression of ideas. + +I was once lecturing on this subject in one of the cities of New-York. +Mrs. W., the distinguished teacher of one of the most popular Female +Seminaries in our country, attended. At the close of one lecture she +remarked that the greatest fault she had discovered in the new system, +was the want of a class of words to express neutrality. Children, she +said, conceived ideas of things in a quiescent state, and words should +be taught them by which to communicate such ideas. I asked her for an +example. She gave the rock in the side of the mountain. It had never +moved. It could never act. There it had been from the foundation of the +earth, and there it would remain unaltered and unchanged till time +should be no longer. I remarked, that I would take another small stone +and _lay_ it on the great one which could never act, and now we say the +great rock _upholds_, _sustains_ or _supports_ the small one--all active +transitive verbs with an object expressed. + +She replied, she would give it up, for it had satisfied her of a new +principle which must be observed in the exposition of all language, +which accords with _facts as developed in physical and mental science_. + +I continued, not only does that rock act in resisting the force of the +small one which lays upon it, but, by the attraction of gravitation it +is able to _maintain_ its _position_ in the side of the mountain; by +cohesion it _retains_ its distinct identity and solidity, and repels all +foreign bodies. It is also subject to the laws which govern the earth in +its diurnal and annual revolutions, and moves in common with other +matter at the astonishing rate of a thousand miles in an hour! Who shall +teach children, in these days of light and improvement, the grovelling +doctrine of neutrality, this relic of the peripatetic philosophy? Will +parents send their children to school to learn falsehood? And can +teachers be satisfied to remain in ignorance, following with blind +reverence the books they have studied, and refuse to examine new +principles, fearing they shall be compelled to acknowledge former +errors and study new principles? They should remember it is wiser and +more honorable to confess a fault and correct it, than it is to remain +permanent in error. + +Let us take another example of the verb "_to lie_." A country pedagogue +who has followed his authorities most devotedly, and taught his pupils +that _lie_ is a "_neuter verb_, expressing neither action nor passion, +but simply being, or a state of being," goes out, during the +intermission, into a grove near by, to _exercise himself_. In attempting +to roll a log up the hill, he _makes_ a mis-step, and _falls_ +(intransitive verb, _nothing_ falls!) to the ground, and the log _rolls_ +(_nothing_) on to him, and _lies_ across his legs. In this condition he +is observed by his scholars to whom he cries (nothing) for help. "Do +(nothing) come (intransitive) and help me." They obey him and remain +_neuter_, or at least act _intransitively_, and produce no effects. He +cries again for help and his _cries_ are regarded. They _present_ +themselves before him. "Do roll this log off; it will break my legs." +"Oh no, master; how can that be? The log _lies_ on you, does it not?" +"Yes, and it will _press me_ to death." "No, no; that can never be. The +log can not act. =Lies= is a _neuter_ verb, signifying neither _action_ +nor passion, but simply being or a state of being. You have a _state_ of +being, and the log has a state of being. It can not harm you. You must +have forgotten the practical application of the truths you have been +teaching us." It would be difficult to explain neuter verbs in such a +predicament. + + "Now I _lay_ me down _to sleep_." + +"She died and they _laid her_ beside her lover under the spreading +branches of the willow." + +"They _laid it_ away so secure that they could never find it." + +They _laid_ down to _rest themselves_ after the fatigue of a whole day's +journey. + +We have now considered the model verbs of the neuter kind, with the +exception of the verb =to be=, which is left for a distinct +consideration, being the most active of all verbs. It is unnecessary to +spend much time on this point. The errors I have examined have all been +discovered by teachers of language, long ago, but few have ventured to +correct them. An alleviation of the difficulty has been sought in the +adoption of the intransitive verb, which "expresses an action that is +confined to the actor or agent." + +The remarks which have been given in the present lecture will serve as a +hint to the course we shall adopt in treating of them, but the more +particular examination of their character and uses, together with some +general observation on the agents and objects of verbs, will be deferred +to our next lecture. + + + + +LECTURE IX. + +ON VERBS. + + Neuter and intransitive.--Agents.--Objects.--No actions as such can + be known distinct from the agent.--Imaginary actions.--Actions known + by their effects.--Examples.--Signs should guide to things + signified.--Principles of action.--=Power=.--Animals.--Vegetables. + --Minerals.--All things act.--Magnetic needle.--=Cause=.--Explained. + --First Cause.--=Means=.--Illustrated.--Sir I. Newton's example.-- + These principles must be known.--=Relative= action.--Anecdote of + Gallileo. + + +We resume the consideration of verbs. We closed our last lecture with +the examination of _neuter verbs_, as they have been called. It appears +to us that evidence strong enough to convince the most skeptical was +adduced to prove that _sit_, _sleep_, _stand_ and _lie_, stand in the +same relation to language as other verbs, that they do not, in any case, +express neutrality, but frequently admit an objective word after them. +These are regarded as the most neutral of all the verbs except _to be_, +which, by the way, expresses the highest degree of action, as we shall +see when we come to inquire into its meaning. + +Grammarians have long ago discovered the falsity of the books in the use +of a large portion of verbs which have been called neuter. To obviate +the difficulty, some of them have adopted the distinction of +_Intransitive_ verbs, which express action, but terminate on no object; +others still use the term _neuter_, but teach their scholars that when +the _object_ is _expressed_, it is active. This distinction has only +tended to perplex learners, while it afforded only a temporary expedient +to teachers, by which to dodge the question at issue. So far as the +action is concerned, which it is the business of the verb to express, +what is the difference whether "I _run_, or _run_ myself?" "A man +started in haste. He _ran_ so fast that he _ran himself_ to death." I +strike Thomas, Thomas _strikes David_, Thomas _strikes himself_. Where +is the difference in the action? What matters it whether the action +passes over to another object, or is confined within itself? + +"But," says the objector, "you mistake. An intransitive verb is one +where the 'effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass over +to any object.'" + +Very well, I think I understand the objection. When Thomas strikes David +the effects of the blow _passes over_ to him. And when he strikes +himself, it "is confined within the subject," and hence the latter is an +_intransitive_ verb. + +"No, no; there is an object on which the action terminates, in that +case, and so we must call it a _transitive_ verb." + +Will you give me an example of an _intransitive_ verb? + +"I _run_, he _walks_, birds _fly_, it _rains_, the fire _burns_. No +objects are expressed after these words, so the action is confined +within themselves." + +I now get your meaning. When the object is _expressed_ the verb is +transitive, when it is not it is intransitive. This distinction is +generally observed in teaching, however widely it may differ from the +intention of the makers of grammars. And hence children acquire the +habit of limiting their inquiries to what they see placed before them by +others, and do not think for themselves. When the verb has an objective +word after it _expressed_, they are taught to attach action to it; but +tho the action may be even greater, if the object is not expressed, +they consider the action as widely different in its character, and adopt +the false philosophy that a cause can exist without an effect resulting +from it. + +We assume this ground, and we shall labor to maintain it, that every +verb necessarily presupposes an _agent_ or _actor_, an _action_, and an +_object_ acted upon, or affected by the action. + +No action, as such, can be known to exist separate from the thing that +acts. We can conceive no idea of action, only by keeping our minds fixed +on the acting substance, marking its changes, movements, and tendencies. +"The book _moves_." In this case the eye rests on the book, and observes +its positions and attitudes, alternating one way and the other. You can +separate no action from the book, nor conceive any idea of it, as a +separate entity. Let the book be taken away. Where now is the action? +What can you think or say of it? There is the same space just now +occupied by the book, but no action is perceivable. + +The boy _rolls_ his marble upon the floor. All his ideas of the action +performed by it are derived from an observation of the marble. His eye +follows it as it moves along the floor. He sees it in that acting +condition. When he speaks of the action as a whole, he thinks where it +started and where it stopped. It is of no importance, so far as the verb +is concerned, whether the marble received an impulse from his hand, or +whether the floor was sufficiently inclined to allow it to roll by its +own inherent tendency. The action is, in this case, the obvious change +of the marble. + +Our whole knowledge of action depends on an observance of things in a +state of motion, or change, or exerting a tendency to change, or to +counteract an opposing substance. + +This will be admitted so far as material things are concerned. The same +principle holds good in reference to every thing of which we form ideas, +or concerning which we use language. In our definition of nouns we spoke +of immaterial and imaginary things to which we gave _names_ and which we +consider as agencies capable of exerting an influence in the production +of effects, or in resisting actions. It is therefore unimportant whether +the action be real or imaginary. It is still inseparably connected with +the thing that acts; and we employ it thus in the construction of +language to express our thoughts. Thus, lions roar; birds sing; minds +reflect; fairies dance; knowledge increases; fancies err; imagination +wanders. + +This fact should be borne in mind in all our attempts to understand or +explain language. The mind should remain fixed to the acting substance, +to observe its changes and relations at different periods, and in +different circumstances. There is no other process by which any +knowledge can be gained of actions. The mind contemplates the acting +thing in a condition of change and determines the precise action by the +_altered condition_ of the thing, and thus learns to judge of actions by +their effects. The only method by which we can know whether a _vegetable +grows_ or not is by comparing its form to-day with what it was some days +ago. We can not decide on the improvement of our children only by +observing the same rule. + +"By their fruits ye shall know them," will apply in physics as well as +in morals; for we judge of causes only by their effects. First +principles can never be known. We observe things as they _are_, and +remember how they _have been_; and from hence deduce our conclusions in +reference to the _cause_ of things we do not fully understand, or those +consequences which will follow a condition of things as now existing. It +is the business of philosophy to mark these effects, and trace them back +to the causes which produced them, by observing all the intermediate +changes, forms, attitudes, and conditions, in which such things have, at +different times, been placed. + +We say, "_trees grow_." But suppose no change had ever been observed in +trees, that they had always been as they now are; in stature as lofty, +in foliage as green and beautiful, in location unaltered. Who would then +say, "trees grow?" + +In this single expression a whole train of facts are taken into the +account, tho not particularly marked. As a single expression we imply +that _trees increase their stature_. But this we all know could never be +effected without the influence of other causes. The soil where it stands +must contain properties suited to the _growth_ of the tree. A due +portion of moisture and heat are also requisite. These facts all exist, +and are indispensable to make good the expression that the "tree grows." +We might also trace the capabilities of the tree itself, its roots, +bark, veins or pores, fibres or grains, its succulent and absorbent +powers. But, as in the case of the "man that killed the deer," noticed +in a former lecture, the mind here conceives a single idea of a complete +whole, which is signified by the single expression, "trees grow." + +Let the following example serve in further illustration of this point. +Take two bricks, the one heated to a high temperature, the other cold. +Put them together, and in a short time you will find them of equal +temperature. One has grown warm, the other cool. One has _imparted_ heat +and _received_ cold, the other has _received_ heat and _imparted_ cold. +Yet all this would remain forever unknown, but for the effects which +must appear obvious to all. From these effects the causes are to be +learned. + +It must, I think, appear plain to all who are willing to see, that +action, as such, can never exist distinct from the thing that acts; that +all our notions of action are derived from an observance of _things_ in +an acting condition; and hence that no words can be framed to express +our ideas of action on any other principle. + +I hope you will bear these principles in mind. They are vastly important +in the construction of language, as will appear when we come to speak of +the _agents_ and _objects_ of action. We still adhere to the fact, that +no rules of language can be successfully employed, which deviate from +the permanent laws which operate in the regulation of matter and mind; a +fact which can not be too deeply impressed on your minds. + +In the consideration of actions as expressed by verbs, we must observe +that _power_, _cause_, _means_, _agency_, and _effects_, are +indispensable to their existence. Such principles exist _in fact_, and +must be observed in obtaining a complete knowledge of language; for +words, we have already seen, are the expression of ideas, and ideas are +the impression of things. + +In our attempts at improvement, we should strip away the covering, and +come at the reality. Words should be measurably forgotten, while we +search diligently for the things expressed by them. _Signs_ should +always conduct to the things _signified_. The weary traveller, hungry +and faint, would hardly satisfy himself with an examination of the +_sign_ before the inn, marking its form, the picture upon it, the nice +shades of coloring in the painting. He would go in, and search for the +thing signified. + +It has been the fault in teaching language, that learners have been +limited to the mere _forms_ of words, while the important duty of +teaching them to look at the thing signified, has been entirely +disregarded. Hence they have only obtained book knowledge. They know +what the grammars say; but how to _apply_ what they say, or what is in +reality meant by it, they have yet to learn. This explains the reason +why almost every man who has studied grammar will tell you that "he +_used_ to understand it, but it has all gone from him, for he has not +looked into a _book_ these many years." Has he lost a knowledge of +language? Oh, no, he learned that before he saw a grammar, and will +preserve it to the day of his death. What good did his two or three +years study of grammar do him? None at all; he has forgotten all that he +ever knew of it, and that is not much, for he only learned what some +author said, and a few arbitrary rules and technical expressions which +he could never understand nor apply in practice, except in special +cases. But I wander. I throw in this remark to show you the necessity of +bringing your minds to a close observance of things as they do in truth +exist; and from them you can draw the principles of speech, and be able +to use language correctly. For we still insist on our former opinion, +that all language depends on the permanent laws of nature, as exerted in +the regulation of matter and mind. + + * * * + +To return. I have said that all action denotes _power_, _cause_, +_means_, _agency_, and _effects_. + + * * * + +_Power_ depends on _physical energy_, or _mental skill_. I have hinted +at this fact before. Things act according to the power or energy they +possess. Animals walk, birds fly, fishes swim, minerals sink, poisons +kill. Or, according to the adopted theories of naturalists: + +Minerals _grow_. + +Vegetables _grow_ and _live_. + +Animals _grow_, and _live_, and _feel_. + +Every thing acts according to the ability it possesses. Man, possessed +of reason, devises means and produces ends. Beasts change locations, +devour vegetables, and sometimes other beasts. The lowest grade of +animals never change location, but yet eat and live. Vegetables live and +grow, but do not change location. They have the power to reproduce their +species, and some of them to kill off surrounding objects. "The +_carraguata_ of the West Indies, clings round," says Goldsmith, +"whatever tree it happens to approach; there it quickly gains the +ascendant, and, loading the tree with a verdure not its own, keeps away +that nourishment designed to feed the trunk, and at last entirely +destroys its supporter." In our country, many gardens and fields present +convincing proof of the ability of weeds to kill out the vegetables +designed to grow therein. You all have heard of the _Upas_, which has a +power sufficient to destroy the lives of animals and vegetables for a +large distance around. Its very exhalations are death to whatever +approaches it. It serves in metaphor to illustrate the noxious effects +of all vice, of slander and deceit, the effects of which are to the +moral constitution, what the tree itself is to natural objects, blight +and mildew upon whatever comes within its reach. + +Minerals are possessed of _power_ no less astonishing, which may be +observed whenever an opportunity is offered to call it forth. Active +poisons, able to slay the most powerful men and beasts, lie hid within +their bosoms. They have strong attractive and repelling powers. From the +iron is made the strong cable which _holds_ the vessel fast in her +moorings, _enabling_ it to outride the collected force of the winds and +waves which _threaten_ its destruction. From it also are manufactured +the manacles which bind the strong man, or fasten the lion in his cage. +Gold _possesses_ a power which _charms_ nearly all men to sacrifice +their ease, and too many their moral principles, to pay their blind +devotions at its shrine. + +Who will contend that the power of action is confined to the animal +creation alone, and that inanimate matter can not act? That there is a +superior power possessed by man, endowed with an immaterial spirit in a +corporeal body, none will deny. By the agency of the mind he can +accomplish wonders, which mere physical power without the aid of such +mental skill, could never perform. But with all his boasted superiority, +he is often made the slave of inanimate things. His lofty powers of body +and soul bend beneath the weight of accumulated sorrows, produced by the +secret _operations_ of contagious disease, which _slays_ his wife, +children, and friends, who fall like the ripened harvest before the +gatherers scythe. Nay, he often submits to the controlling power of the +vine, alcohol, or tobacco, which _gain_ a secret influence over his +nobler powers, and _fix_ on him the stamp of disgrace, and _throw_ +around him fetters from which he finds it no easy matter to extricate +himself. By the illusions of error and vice he is often betrayed, and +long endures darkness and suffering, till he _regains_ his native +energies, and finds deliverance in the enjoyment of truth and virtue. + +What is that secret power which lies concealed beyond the reach of +human ken, and is transported from land to land unknown, till exposed in +conditions suited to its operation, will show its active and resistless +force in the destruction of life, and the devastation of whole cities or +nations? You may call it plague, or cholera, or small pox, miasma, +contagion, particles of matter floating in the air surcharged with +disease, or any thing else. It matters not what you call it. It is +sufficient to our present purpose to know that it has the ability to put +forth a prodigious power in the production of consequences, which the +highest skill of man is yet unable to prevent. + +I might pursue this point to an indefinite length, and trace the secret +powers possessed by all created things, as exhibited in the influence +they exert in various ways, both as regards themselves and surrounding +objects. But you will at once perceive my object, and the truth of the +positions I assume. A common power pervades all creation, operating by +pure and perfect laws, regulated by the Great First Cause, the Moving +Principle, which guides, governs, and controls the whole.[11] + +Degrading indeed must be those sentiments which limit all action to the +animal frame as an organized body, moved by a living principle. Ours is +a sublimer duty; to trace the operations of the Divine Wisdom which acts +thro out all creation, in the minutest particle of dust which _keeps_ +its _position_ secure, till moved by some superior power; or in the +_needle_ which points with unerring skill to its fixed point, and +_guides_ the vessel, freighted with a hundred lives, safe thro the +midnight storm, to its destined haven; tho rocked by the waves and +driven by the winds, it remains uninfluenced, and tremblingly alive to +the important duties entrusted to its charge, continues its faithful +service, and is watched with the most implicit confidence by all on +board, as the only guide to safety. The same Wisdom is displayed thro +out all creation; in the beauty, order, and harmony of the universe; in +the planets which float in the azure vault of heaven; in the glow worm +that glitters in the dust; in the fish which cuts the liquid element; in +the pearl which sparkles in the bottom of the ocean; in every thing +that lives, moves, or has a being; but more distinctly in man, created +in the moral image of his Maker, possessed of a heart to feel, and a +mind to understand--the third in the rank of intelligent beings. + +I cannot refuse to favor you with a quotation from that inimitable poem, +Pope's Essay on Man. It is rife with sentiment of the purest and most +exalted character. It is direct to our purpose. You may have heard it a +thousand times; but I am confident you will be pleased to hear it again. + + Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine, + Earth for whose use? Pride answers, "'Tis for mine: + "For me kind nature wakes her genial pow'r, + "Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flow'r; + "Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew + "The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew; + "For me, the mine a thousand treasures brings; + "For me health gushes from a thousand springs; + "Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; + "My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." + + But errs not nature from this gracious end, + From burning suns when livid deaths descend, + When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep + Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep? + "_No_," ('tis replied,) "_the first Almighty Cause + Acts not by partial, but by general laws; + Th' exceptions few; some change since all began: + And what created perfect?_" Why then man? + If the great end be human happiness, + Then nature deviates--and can man do less? + As much that end a constant course requires + Of show'rs and sunshine, as of man's desires; + As much eternal springs and cloudless skies, + As man forever temp'rate, calm, and wise. + If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design. + Why then a Borgia, or a Cataline? + Who knows but He whose hand the lightning forms, + Who heaves old ocean, and who wings the storms; + Pours fierce ambition in a Caesar's mind; + Or turns young Ammon loose to scourge mankind? + From pride, from pride our very reas'ning springs; + Account for moral as for nat'ral things: + Why charge we heaven in those, in these acquit? + In both, to reason right, is to submit. + + Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, + Were there all harmony, all virtue here; + That never air or ocean felt the wind; + That never passion discomposed the mind. + But =all= subsists by elemental strife; + And passions are the elements of life. + The general =order=, since the whole began, + Is kept in nature, and is kept in man. + + * * * * * + + Look round our world, behold the chain of love. + Combining all below and all above; + See plastic nature working to this end, + The single atoms each to other tend; + Attract, attracted to, the next in place + Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace, + See matter next, with various life endued, + Press to one center still the gen'ral good. + See dying vegetables life sustain, + See life dissolving, vegetate again; + All forms that perish, other forms supply, + (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die) + Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, + They rise, they break, and to that sea return, + Nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole; + One all-extending, all-preserving soul + Connects each being greatest with the least; + Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; + All served, all serving; nothing stands alone; + The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. + +But _power_ alone is not sufficient to produce action. There must be a +=cause= to call it forth, to set in operation and exhibit its latent +energies. It will remain hid in its secret chambers till efficient +causes have set in operation the _means_ by which its existence is to be +discovered in the production of change, effects, or results. There is, +it is said, in every created thing a power sufficient to produce its own +destruction, as well as to preserve its being. In the human body, for +instance, there is a constant tendency to decay, to waste; which a +counteracting power resists, and, with proper assistance, keeps alive. + +The same may be said of vegetables which are constantly throwing off, or +exhaling the waste, offensive, or useless matter, and yet a restoring +power, assisted by heat, moisture, and the nourishment of the earth, +resists the tendency to decay and preserves it alive and growing. The +air, the earth, nay, the ocean itself, philosophers assure us, contain +powers sufficient to self-destruction. But I will not enlarge here. Let +the necessary _cause_ be exerted which will give vent to this hidden +power and actions the most astonishing and destructive would be the +effect. These are often witnessed in the tremendous earthquakes which +devastate whole cities, states, and empires; in the tornados which pass, +like the genius of evil, over the land, levelling whatever is found in +its course; or in the waterspouts and maelstroms which prove the grave +of all that comes within their grasp. + +In the attempted destruction of the royal family and parliament of +England, by what is usually called the "gunpowder plot," the +arrangements were all made; two hogsheads and thirty-six barrels of +powder, sufficient to blow up the house of lords and the surrounding +buildings, were secreted in a vault beneath it, strown over with +faggots. Guy Fawkes, a spanish officer, employed for the purpose, lay at +the door, on the 5th of November, 1605, with the matches, or _means_, in +his pocket, which should set in operation the prodigious dormant +_power_, which would hurl to destruction James I., the royal family, and +the protestant parliament, give the ascendancy to the Catholics, and +change the whole political condition of the nation. The _project_ was +discovered, the _means_ were removed, the _cause_ taken away, and the +threatened _effects_ were prevented. + +The =cause= of action is the immediate subject which precedes or tends +to produce the action, without which it would not take place. It may +result from volition, inherent tendency, or communicated impulse; and is +known to exist from the effects produced by it, in the altered or new +condition of the thing on which it operates; which change would not have +been effected without it. + +Causes are to be sought for by tracing back thro the effects which are +produced by them. The factory is put in operation, and the cloth is +manufactured. The careless observer would enter the building and see the +spindles, looms, and wheels operated by the hands, and go away satisfied +that he has seen enough, seen all. But the more careful will look +farther. He will trace each band and wheel, each cog and shaft, down by +the balance power, to the water race and floom; or thro the complicated +machinery of the steam engine to the piston, condenser, water, wood, and +fire; marking a new, more secret, and yet more efficient cause at each +advancing step. But all this curiously wrought machinery is not the +product of chance, operated without care. A superior cause must be +sought in human skill, in the deep and active ingenuity of man. Every +contrivance presupposes a contriver. Hence there must have been a power +and means sufficient to combine and regulate the power of the water, or +generate and direct the steam. That power is vested in man; and hence, +man stands as the cause, in relation to the whole process operated by +wheels, bands, spindles, and looms. Yet we may say, with propriety, that +the water, or the steam; the water-wheel, or the piston; the shafts, +bands, cogs, pullies, spindles, springs, treddles, harnesses, reeds, +shuttles, an almost endless concatenation of instruments, are alike the +_causes_, which tend to produce the final result; for let one of these +intermediate causes be removed, and the whole power will be diverted, +and all will go wrong--the effect will not be produced. + +There must be a =first cause= to set in operation all inferior ones in +the production of action; and to that _first_ cause all action, nay, the +existence of all other causes, may be traced, directly, or more distant. +The intervening causes, in the consecutive order of things, may be as +diversified as the links in the chain of variant beings. Yet all these +causes are moved by the all-sufficient and ever present agency of the +Almighty Father, the =Uncaused Cause= of all things and beings; who +spoke into existence the universe with all its various and complicated +parts and orders; who set the sun, moon, and stars in the firmament, +gave the earth a place, and fixed the sea a bed; throwing around them +barriers over which they can never pass. From the height of his eternal +throne, his eye pervades all his works; from the tall archangel, that +"adores and burns," down to the very hairs of our heads, which are all +numbered, his wise, benevolent, and powerful supervision may be traced +in legible lines, which may be seen and read of all men. And from +effects, the most diminutive in character, may be traced back, from +cause to cause, upward in the ascending scale of being, to the same +unrivalled Source of all power, splendor, and perfection, the presence +of Him, who spake, and it was done; who commanded, and it _stood still_; +or, as the poet has it: + + "Look thro nature up to nature's God." + +The _means_ of action are those aids which are displayed as the medium +thro which existing causes are to exhibit their hidden powers in +producing changes or effects. The matches in the pocket of Guy Fawkes +were the direct means by which he intended to set in operation a train +of causes which should terminate in the destruction of the house of +lords and all its inmates. Those matches, set on fire, would convey a +spark to the faggots, and thence to the powder, and means after means, +and cause after cause, in the rapid succession of events, would ensue, +tending to a final, inevitable, and melancholy result. + +A ball shot from a cannon, receives its first impulse from the powder; +but it is borne thro the air by the aid of a principle inherent in +itself, which power is finally overcome by the density of the atmosphere +which impedes its progress, and the law of gravitation finally attracts +it to the earth. These contending principles may be known by observing +the curved line in which the ball moves from the cannon's mouth to the +spot where it rests. But if there is no power in the ball, why does not +the ball of cork discharged from the same gun with the same momentum, +travel to the same distance, at the same rate? The action commences in +both cases with the same projectile force, the same exterior _means_ are +employed, but the results are widely different. The cause of this +difference must be sought for in the comparative power of each substance +to _continue its own movements_. + +Every boy who has played at ball has observed these principles. He +throws his ball, which, if not _counteracted_, will continue in a +straight line, _ad infinitum_--without end. But the air impedes its +progress, and gravitation brings it to the ground. When he throws it +against a hard substance, its velocity is not only overcome, but it is +sent back with great force. But if he takes a ball of wax, of snow, or +any strong adhesive substance, it will not bound. How shall we account +to him for this difference? He did the same with both balls. The impetus +given the one was as great as the other, and the resistance of the +intervening substance was as great in one case as the other; and yet, +one bounds and rebounds, while the other sticks fast as a friend, to the +first object it meets. The cause of this difference is to be sought for +in the different capabilities of the respective balls. One possesses a +strong elastic and repelling power; in the other, the attraction of +cohesion is predominant. + +Take another example. Let two substances of equal size and form, the one +made of lead, the other of cork, be put upon the surface of a cistern of +water. The external circumstances are the same, but the effects are +widely different--one sinks, the other floats. We must look for the +cause of this difference, not in the opposite qualities of surrounding +matter, but in the things themselves. If you add to the cork another +quality possessed by the lead, and give it the same form, size, and +_weight_, it will as readily sink to the bottom. But this last property +is possessed in different degrees by the two bodies, and hence, while +the one floats upon the water, the other displaces its particles and +sinks to the bottom. You may take another substance; say the mountain +ebony, which is heavier than water, but lighter than lead, and immerse +it in the water; it will not sink with the rapidity of lead, because its +inherent _power_ is not so strong. + +Take still another case. Let two balls, suspended on strings, be +equally, or, to use the technical term, _positively_ electrified. Bring +them within a certain distance, and they will repel each other. Let the +electric fluid be extracted from one, and the other will attract it. +Before, they were as enemies; now they embrace as friends. The magnet +furnishes the most striking proof in favor of the theory we are laboring +to establish. Let one of sufficient power be let down within the proper +distance, it will overcome the power of gravitation, and _attract_ the +heavy steel to itself. What is the cause of this wonderful fact? Who can +account for it? Who can trace out the hidden cause; the "_primum +mobile_" of the Ptolmaic philosophy--the secret spring of motion? But +who will dare deny that such effects do exist, and that they are +produced by an efficient cause? Or who will descend into the still more +dark and perplexing mazes of neuter verb grammars, and deny that matter +has such a power to act? + +These instances will suffice to show you what we mean when we say, +_every thing acts according to the ability God has given it to act_. I +might go into a more minute examination of the properties of matter, +affinity, hardness, weight, size, color, form, mobility, &c., which even +old grammars will allow it to _possess_; but I shall leave that work +for you to perform at your leisure. + +Whoever has any doubts remaining in reference to the abilities of all +things to _produce_, _continue_, or _prevent_ motion, will do well to +consult the prince of philosophers, Sir Isaac Newton, who, after +Gallileo, has treated largely upon the laws of motion. He asserts as a +fact, full in illustration of the principles I am laboring to establish, +that in ascending a hill, the trace rope pulls the horse back as much as +he draws that forward, only the horse overcomes the resistance of the +load, and moves it up the hill. On the old systems, no power would be +requisite to move the load, for it could oppose no resistance to the +horse; and the small child could move it with as much ease as the strong +team. + +Who has not an acquaintance sufficiently extensive to know these things? +I can not believe there is a person present, who does not fully +comprehend my meaning, and discover the correctness of the ground I have +assumed. And it should be borne in mind, that no collection or +arrangement of words can be composed into a sentence, which do not +obtain their meaning from a connection of things as they exist and +operate in the material and intellectual world, and that it is not in +the power of man to frame a sentence, to think or speak, but in +conformity with these general and exceptionless laws. + +This important consideration meets us at every advancing step, as if to +admonish us to abandon the vain project of seeking a knowledge of +language without an acquaintance with the great principles on which it +depends. To look for the leading rules of speech in set forms of +expression, or in the capricious customs of any nation, however learned, +is as futile as to attempt to gain a knowledge of the world by shutting +ourselves up in a room, and looking at paintings and drawings which may +be furnished by those who know as little of it as we do. How fallacious +would be the attempt, how much worse than time thrown away, for the +parent to shut up his child in a lonely room, and undertake to impress +upon its mind a knowledge of man, beasts, birds, fish, insects, rivers, +mountains, fields, flowers, houses, cities, &c., with no other aid than +a few miserable pictures, unlike the reality, and in many respects +contradictory to each other. And yet that would be adopting a course +very similar to the one long employed as the only means of acquiring a +knowledge of language; limited to a set of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, which the brightest geniuses could never +understand, nor the most erudite employ in the expression of ideas. The +grammars, it was thought, must be studied to acquire the use of +language, and yet they were forgotten before such knowledge was put in +practice. + + * * * * * + +A simple remark on the principles of _relative_ action, and we will pass +to the consideration of _agents_ and _objects_, or the more immediate +_causes_ and _effects_ of action. + +We go forth at the evening hour and look upon the sun _sinking_ beneath +the horizon; we mark the varying hues of light as they appear, and +change, and fade away. We see the shades of night _approaching_, with a +gradual pace, till the beautiful landscape on which we had been gazing, +the hills and the meadows; the farm house and the cultivated fields, the +grove, the orchard, and the garden; the tranquil lake and the babbling +brook; the dairy returning home, and the lambkins gambolling beside +their dams; all _recede_ from our view, and _appear_ to us no longer. +All this is _relative_ action. But so far as language and ideas are +concerned, it matters not whether the sun actually _sinks_ behind the +hills, or the hills interpose between it and us; whether the landscape +_recedes_ from our view, or the shades of night intercept so as to +obscure our vision. The habit of thought is the same, and the form of +expression must agree with it. We say the sun _rises_ and _sets_, in +reference to the obvious fact, without stopping to inquire whether it +really moves or not. Nor is such an inquiry at all necessary, as to +matter of fact, for all we mean by such expressions, is, that by some +process, immaterial to the case in hand, the sun stands in a new +relation to the earth, its altitude is elevated or depressed, and hence +the action is strictly relative. For we should remember that _rising_ +and _setting_, _up_ and _down_, _above_ and _below_, in reference to the +earth, are only relative terms. + +We speak and read of the _changes_ of the moon, and we correctly +understand each other. But in truth the moon changes no more at one time +than at another. The action is purely relative. One day we observe it +_before_ the sun, and the next _behind_ it, as we understand these +terms. The precise time of the change, when it will appear to us in a +different relation to the sun, is computed by astronomers, and set down +in our almanacs; but it changes no more at that time than at any other, +for like every thing else, it is _always changing_. + +In a case we mentioned in a former lecture, "John _looks_ like or +_resembles_ his brother," we have an example of relative action. So in +the case of two men travelling the same way, starting together, but +advancing at different rates; one, we say, _falls_ behind the other. In +this manner of expression, we follow exactly the principles on which we +started, and suit our language to our ideas and habits of thinking. By +the law of optics things are reflected upon the retina of the eye +inversely, that is, upside down; but they are always seen in a proper +relation to each other, and if there is any thing wrong in the case, it +is overcome by early habit; and so our language accords with things as +they are manifested to our understandings. + +These examples will serve to illustrate what we mean by relative action, +when applied to natural philosophy or the construction of language. + +I had intended in this lecture to have treated of the agents and objects +of verbs, to prove, in accordance with the first and closest principles +of philosophy, that every "_cause_ must have an _effect_," or, in other +words, that every action must terminate on some object, either expressed +or necessarily understood; but I am admonished that I have occupied more +than my usual quota of time in this lecture already, and hence I shall +leave this work for our next. + +I will conclude by the relation of an anecdote or two from the life of +that wonderful man, Gallileo Gallilei, who was many years professor of +mathematics at Padua. Possessed of a strong, reflecting mind, he had +early given his attention to the observation of things, their motions, +tendencies, and power of resistance, from which he ascended, step by +step, to the sublime science of astronomy. Being of an honest and frank, +as well as benevolent disposition, he shunned not to state and defend +theories at war with the then received opinions. All learning was, at +that time, in the hands or under the supervision of the ecclesiastics, +who were content to follow blindly the aristotelian philosophy, which, +in many respects, was not unlike that still embraced in our _neuter verb +systems_ of grammar. There was a sworn hostility against all +improvement, or innovation as it was called, in science as well as in +theology. The copernican system, to which Gallileo was inclined, if it +had not been formally condemned, had been virtually denounced as false, +and its advocates heretical. Hence Gallileo never dared openly to defend +it, but, piece by piece, under different names, he brought it forth, +which, carried out, would establish the heretical system. Dwelling as a +light in the midst of surrounding darkness, he cautiously discovered the +precious truths revealed to his mind, lest the flood of light should +distract and destroy the mental vision, break up the elements of +society, let loose the resistless powers of ignorance, prejudice and +bigotry, and envelope himself and friends in a common ruin. At length +having prepared in a very guarded manner his famous "Dialogues on the +Ptolmaic and Copernican Systems," he obtained permission, and ventured +to publish it to the world, altho an edict had been promulgated +enjoining silence on the subject, and he had been personally instructed +"_not to believe or teach the motion of the earth in any manner_." + +By the false representation of his enemies, suspicions were aroused and +busily circulated prejudicial to Gallileo. Pope Urban himself, his +former friend, became exasperated towards him, and a sentence against +him and his books was fulminated by the Cardinals, prohibiting the "sale +and vending of the latter, and condemning him to the formal prison of +the Holy Office for a period determined at their pleasure." The sentence +of the Inquisition was in part couched in these words--"We pronounce, +judge, and declare, that you, the said Gallileo, by reason of these +things, which have been detailed in the course of this investigation, +and which, as above, you have confessed, have rendered yourself +vehemently suspected by this Holy Office, of heresy; that is to say, +that you believe and hold the false doctrine, and contrary to the Holy +and Divine Scriptures, namely, that the sun is the center of the world, +and that it does not _move_ from east to west, and that the earth does +_move_, and is not the center of the world; also, that an opinion _can +be held_ and _supported_ as _probable_, _after it has been_ declared, +and finally decreed contrary to the Holy Scriptures"--by the Holy See!! +"From which," they continue, "it is _our_ pleasure that you be absolved, +provided that, first, with a _sincere_ heart, and _unfeigned faith_, in +our presence, you _abjure_, _curse_, and _detest_ the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and +Apostolic Church of Rome, in the form now shown to you." + +After suffering under this anathema some time, Gallileo, by the advice +of his friends, consented to make a public abjuration of his former +heresies on the laws of motion. Kneeling before the "Most Eminent and +Most Reverend Lords Cardinals, General Inquisitors of the universal +Christian republic, against _heretical depravity_, having before his +eyes the Holy Gospels," he swears that he always "_believed_, and now +_believes_, and with the help of God, _will in future believe_, every +article which the Holy Catholic Church of Rome holds, teaches, and +preaches"--that he does altogether "abandon the false opinion which +maintains that the 'sun is the center of the world, and that the earth +is _not_ the center and _movable_,' that with a sincere heart and +unfeigned faith, he abjures, curses, and detests the said errors and +heresies, and every other error and sect contrary to the said Holy +Church, and that he will never more in future, say or assert any thing +verbally, or in writing, which may give rise to similar suspicion." As +he arose from his knees, it is said, he whispered to a friend standing +near him, "_E pur si muove_"--=it does move, tho=. + +In our times we are not fated to live under the terrors of the +Inquisition; but prejudice, if not as strong in power to execute, has +the ability to blind as truly as in other ages, and keep us from the +knowledge and adoption of practical improvements. And it is the same +philosophy now, which _asks_ if _inanimate matter can act_, which +_demanded_ of Gallileo if this ponderous globe could fly a thousand +miles in a minute, and no body feel the motion; and with Deacon +Homespun, in the dialogue, "why, if this world turned upside down, the +water did not spill from the mill ponds, and all the people fall +headlong to the bottomless pit?" + +If there are any such peripatetics in these days of light and science, +who still cling to the false and degrading systems of neutrality, +because they are honorable for age, or sustained by learned and good +men, and who will oppose all improvement, reject without examination, +or, what is still worse, refuse to adopt, after being convinced of the +truth of it, any system, because it is novel, an innovation upon +established forms, I can only say of them, in the language of Micanzio, +the Venetian friend of Gallileo--"The efforts of such enemies to get +these principles prohibited, will occasion no loss either to your +reputation, or to the intelligent part of the world. As to posterity, +this is just one of the surest ways to hand them down to them. But what +a wretched set this must be, to whom every good thing, and _all that is +found in nature_, necessarily appears hostile and odious." + + + + +LECTURE X. + +ON VERBS. + + A philosophical axiom.--Manner of expressing action.--Things taken + for granted.--Simple facts must be known.--Must never deviate from + the truth.--Every _cause_ will have an _effect_.--An example of an + intransitive verb.--Objects expressed or implied.--All language + eliptical.--Intransitive verbs examined.--I run.--I walk.--To + step.--Birds fly.--It rains.--The fire burns.--The sun shines.--To + smile.--Eat and drink.--Miscellaneous examples.--Evils of false + teaching.--A change is demanded.--These principles apply + universally.--Their importance. + + +We have made some general remarks on the power, cause, and means, +necessary in the production of action. We now approach nearer to the +application of these principles as observed in the immediate _agency_ +and _effects_ which precede and follow action, and as connected with the +verb. + +It is an axiom in philosophy which cannot be controverted, that every +_effect_ is the product of a prior _cause_, and that every _cause_ will +necessarily produce a corresponding _effect_. This fact has always +existed and will forever remain unchanged. It applies universally in +physical, mental, and moral science; to God or man; to angels or to +atoms; in time or thro eternity. No language can be constructed which +does not accord with it, for no ideas can be gained but by an observance +of its manifestations in the material or spiritual universe. The manner +of _expressing_ this cause and effect may differ in different nations or +by people of the same nation, but the fact remains unaltered, and so +far as understood the idea is the same. In the case of the horse +mentioned in a former lecture,[12] the idea was the same, but the manner +of expressing it different. Let that horse _walk_, _lay_ down, _roll_ +over, _rise_ up, _shake_ himself, _rear_, or _stand_ still, all present +will observe the same attitude of the horse, and will form the same +ideas of his positions. Some will doubtless inquire more minutely into +the _cause_ and _means_ by which these various actions are produced, +what muscles are employed, what supports are rendered by the bones; and +the whole regulated by the will of the horse, and their conclusions may +be quite opposite. But this has nothing to do with the obvious fact +expressed by the words above; or, more properly, it is not necessary to +enter into a minute detail of these minor considerations, these secret +springs of motion, in order to relate the actions of the horse. For were +we to do this we should be required to go back, step by step, and find +the causes still more numerous, latent, and perplexing. The pursuit of +causes would lead us beyond the mere organization of the horse, his +muscular energy, and voluntary action; for gravitation has no small +service to perform in the accomplishment of these results; as well as +other principles. Let gravitation be removed, and how could the horse +_lay_ down? He could _roll_ over as well in the air as upon the ground. +But the particular notice of these things is unnecessary in the +construction of language to express the actions of the horse; for he +stands as the obvious _agent_ of the whole, and the _effects_ are seen +to follow--the _horse_ is laid down, _his body_ is rolled over, _the +fore part_ of it is _reared up_, _himself_ is shaken, and the whole +_feat_ is produced by the direction of his master. + +Allow me to recal an idea we considered in a former lecture. I said no +action as such could be known distinct from the thing which acts; that +action as such is not perceptible, and that all things act, according to +the ability they possess. To illustrate this idea: Take a magnet and +lower it down over a piece of iron, till it attracts it to itself and +holds it suspended there. If you are not in possession of a magnet you +can make one at your pleasure, by the following process. Lay your knife +blade on a flat iron, or any hard, smooth surface; let another take the +old tongs or other iron which have stood erect for a considerable length +of time, and draw it upon the blade for a minute or more. A magnetic +power will be conveyed from the tongs to the blade sufficient to take up +a common needle. The tongs themselves may be manufactured into a most +perfect magnet. Now as the knife _holds_ the needle suspended beneath it +you perceive there must be an action, a power, and cause exerted beyond +our comprehension. Let the magnetic power be extracted from the blade, +and the needle will drop to the floor. A common unmagnetized blade will +not _raise_ and _hold_ a needle as this does. How those tongs come in +possession of such astonishing power; by what process it is there +retained; the power and means of transmission of a part of it to the +knife blade, and the reason of the phenomena you now behold--an +inanimate blade drawing to itself and there holding this needle +suspended--will probably long remain unknown to mortals. But that such +are the facts, incontestibly true, none will deny, for the evidence is +before us. Now fix your attention on that needle. There is an active and +_acting_ principle in that as well as in the magnetized blade; for the +blade will not attract a splinter of wood, of whalebone, or piece of +glass, tho equal in size and weight. It will have no operation on them. +Then it is by a sort of mutual affinity, a reciprocity of attachment, +between the blade and needle, that this phenomena is produced. + +To apply this illustration you have only to reverse the case--turn the +knife and needle over--and see all things attracted to the earth by the +law of gravitation, a principle abiding in all matter. All that renders +the exhibition of the magnet curious or wonderful is that it is an +uncommon condition of things, an apparent counteraction of the regular +laws of nature. But we should know that the same sublime principle is +constantly operating thro out universal nature. Let that be suspended, +cease its active operations for a moment, and our own earth will be +decomposed into particles; the sun, moon and stars will dissolve and +mingle with the common dust; all creation will crumble into atoms, and +one vast ocean of darkness and chaos will fill the immensity of space. + +Are you then prepared to deny the principles for which we are +contending? I think you will not; but accede the ground, that such being +the fact, true in nature, language, correctly explained, is only the +medium by which the ideas of these great truths, may be conveyed from +one mind to another, and must correspond therewith. If language is the +sign of ideas, and ideas are the impressions of things, it follows of +necessity, that no language can be employed unless it corresponds with +these natural laws, or first principles. The untutored child cannot talk +of these things, nor comprehend our meaning till clearly explained to +it. But some people act as tho they thought children must first acquire +a knowledge of words, and then begin to learn what such words mean. +This is putting the "cart before the horse." + +Much, in this world, is to be taken for granted. We can not enter into +the minutiae of all we would express, or have understood. We go upon the +ground that other people know something as well as we, and that they +will exercise that knowledge while listening to our relation of some new +and important facts. Hence it is said that "brevity is the soul of wit." +But suppose you should talk of surds, simple and quadratic equations, +diophantine problems, and logarithms, to a person who knows nothing of +proportion or relation, addition or subtraction. What would they know +about your words? You might as well give them a description in Arabic or +Esquimaux. They must first learn the simple rules on which the whole +science of mathematics depends, before they can comprehend a +dissertation on the more abstruse principles or distant results. So +children must learn to observe things as they are, in their simplest +manifestations, in order to understand the more secret and sublime +operations of nature. And our language should always be adapted to their +capacities; that is, it should agree with their advancement. You may +talk to a zealot in politics of religion, the qualities of forbearance, +candor, and veracity; to the enthusiast of science and philosophy; to +the bigot of liberality and improvement; to the miser of benevolence and +suffering; to the profligate of industry and frugality; to the +misanthrope of philanthropy and patriotism; to the degraded sinner of +virtue, truth, and heaven; but what do they know of your meaning? How +are they the wiser for your instruction? You have touched a cord which +does not vibrate thro their hearts, or, phrenologically, addressed an +organ they do not possess, except in a very moderate degree, at least. +Food must be seasoned to the palates of those who use it. Milk is for +babes and strong meat for men. Our instruction must be suited to the +capacities of those we would benefit, always elevated just far enough +above them to attract them along the upward course of improvement. + +But it should be remembered that evils will only result from a deviation +from truth, and that we can never be justified in doing wrong because +others have, or for the sake of meeting them half way. And yet this very +course is adopted in teaching, and children are learned to adopt certain +technical rules in grammar, not because they are _true_, but because +they are _convenient_! In fact, it is said by some, that language is an +arbitrary affair altogether, and is only to be taught and learned +mechanically! But who would teach children that _seven times seven_ are +_fifty_, and _nine times nine_ a _hundred_, and assign as a reason for +so doing, that _fifty_ and a _hundred_ are more easily remembered than +_forty-nine_ and _eighty-one_? Yet there would be as much propriety in +adopting such a principle in mathematics, as in teaching for a rule of +grammar that when an objective case comes after a verb, it is active; +but when there is none expressed, it is intransitive or neuter. + +The great fault is, grammarians do not allow themselves to _think_ on +the subject of language, or if they do, they only think intransitively, +that is, produce no _thoughts_ by their cogitations. + +This brings us to a more direct consideration of the subject before us. +All admit the correctness of the axiom that every effect must have a +cause, and that every cause will have an effect. It is equally true that +"_like causes will produce like effects_," a rule from which nature +itself, and thought, and language, can never deviate. It is as plain as +that two things mutually equal to each other, are equal to a third. On +this immutable principle we base our theory of the activity of all +verbs, and contend that they must have an object after them, either +expressed or _necessarily understood_. We can not yield this position +till it is proved that _causes_ can operate without producing effects, +which can never be till the order of creation is reversed! There never +was, to our knowledge, such a thing as an intransitive action, with the +solitary exception of the burning bush.[13] In that case the laws of +nature were suspended, and no effects were produced; for the _bush +burned_, but there was nothing burnt; no consequences followed to the +bush; it was not consumed. The records of the past present no instance +of like character, where effects have failed to follow, direct or more +distantly, every cause which has been set in operation. + +It makes no difference whether the object of the action is expressed or +not. It is the same in either case. But where it is not necessarily +implied from the nature and fitness of things, it must be expressed, and +but for such object or effect the action could not be understood. For +example, _I run_; but if there is no effect produced, _nothing_ run, how +can it be known whether I run or not. If I write, it is necessarily +understood that I write _something_--a _letter_, a _book_, a _piece_ of +poetry, a _communication_, or some other _writing_. When such object is +not liable to be mistaken, it would be superfluous to express it--it +would be a redundancy which should be avoided by all good writers and +speakers. All languages are, in this respect, more or less eliptical, +which constitutes no small share of their beauty, power, and elegance. + +This elipsis may be observed not only in regard to the objects of +verbs, but in the omission of many nouns after adjectives, which thus +assume the character of nouns; as, the Almighty, the Eternal, the +Allwise, applied to God, understood. So we say the wise, the learned, +the good, the faithful, the wicked, the vile, the base, to which, if +nouns, it would sound rather harsh to apply plurals. So we say, take +your hat off ( ); put your gloves on ( ); lay your coat off ( ); and +pull your boots on ( ); presuming the person so addressed knows enough +to fill the elipsis, and not take his hat off his back, pull his gloves +on his feet, or his boots on his head. + +In pursuing this subject farther, let us examine the sample words which +are called _intransitive_ verbs, because frequently used without the +object expressed after them; such as run, walk, step, fly, rain, snow, +burn, roll, shine, smiles, &c. + +"_I run._" + +That here is an action of the first kind, none will deny. But it is +contended by the old systems that there is no object on which the action +terminates. If that be true then there is _nothing_ run, no effect +produced, and the first law of nature is outraged, in the very onset; +for there is a _cause_, but no _effect_; an _action_, but no _object_. +How is the fact? Have you run nothing? conveyed nothing, moved nothing +from one place to another? no change, no effect, nothing moved? Look at +it and decide. It is said that a neuter or intransitive verb may be +known from the fact that it takes after it a preposition. Try it by this +rule. "A man run _against_ a post in a dark night, and broke his neck;" +that is, he run nothing against a post--no object to run--and yet he +broke his neck. Unfortunate man! + +The fact in relation to this verb is briefly this: It is used to +express the action which more usually terminates on the actor, than on +any other object. This circumstance being generally known, it would be +superfluous to mention the object, except in cases where such is not the +fact. But whenever we desire to be definite, or when there is the least +liability to mistake the object, it is invariably expressed. Instances +of this kind are numerous. "They _ran_ the _boat_ ashore." "The captain +_ran_ his _men_ to rescue them from the enemy." "They _ran_ the +_gauntlet_." "They _run_ a _stage_ to Boston." "He _ran himself_ into +discredit." "One bank _runs_ another." "The man had a hard _run_ of it." +"_Run_ the _account_ over, and see if it is right." "They _run forty +looms_ and two thousand spindles." "He _runs_ his _mill_ evenings." Such +expressions are common and correct, because they convey ideas, and are +understood. + +Two men were engaged in argument. The believer in intransitive verbs set +out to _run his opponent_ into an evident absurdity, and, contrary to +his expectation, he _ran himself_ into one. Leave out the objects of +this verb, run, and the sense is totally changed. He set out to _run_ +into an _evident absurdity_, and he ran into one; that is, he did the +very absurd thing which he intended to do.[14] + +"_I walk._" + +The action expressed by this verb is very similar in character to the +former, but rather _slower_ in performance. Writers on health tell us +that _to walk_ is a very healthy exercise, and that it would be well for +men of sedentary habits _to walk_ several miles every day. But if there +is no action in walk, or if it has no _object_ necessarily _walked_, it +would be difficult to understand what good could result from it. + +"Did you have a pleasant _walk_ this morning?" says a teacher to his +grammar class. + +"We did have a very pleasant one. The flowers were _blooming_ on each +side of the _walk_, and _sent_ forth their sweetest aroma, _perfuming_ +the soft breezes of the morning. Birds were _flitting from_ spray to +spray, _carolling_ their hymns of praise to Deity. The tranquil waters +of the lake lay _slumbering_ in silence, and _reflected_ the bright +_rays_ of the sun, _giving_ a sweet but solemn _aspect_ to the whole +scene. _To go_ thro the grove, down by the lake, and up thro the meadow, +is the most delightful _walk_ a person can take." + +"How did you get your _walk_?" + +"We walked it, to be sure; how did you think we got it?" + +"Oh, I did not know. _Walk_, your books tell you, is an intransitive +verb, terminating on no object; so I supposed, if you followed them, you +obtained it some other way; by _riding_, _running_, _sailing_, or, may +be, _bought_ it, as you could not have _walked it_! Were you tired on +your return?" + +"We were exceedingly fatigued, for you know it is a very long _walk_, +and we _walked it_ in an hour." + +"But _what_ tired you? If there are no effects produced by walking, I +can not conceive why _you_ should be fatigued by such exercise." + +Who does not perceive what flagrant violations of grammar rules are +committed every day, and every hour, and in almost every sentence that +is framed to express our knowledge of facts. + +_To step._ + +This verb is the same in character with the two just noticed. It +expresses the act of _raising_ each foot alternately, and usually +implies that the body is, by that means, conveyed from one place to +another. But as people _step_ their _feet_ and not their hands, or any +thing else, it is entirely useless to mention the object; for generally, +that can not be mistaken any more than in the case of the gloves, boots, +and hat. But it would be bad philosophy to teach children that there is +no objective word after it, because it is not written out and placed +before their eyes. They will find such teaching contradicted at every +_step_ they take. Let a believer in intransitive verbs _step_ on a red +hot iron; he will soon find to his sorrow, that he was mistaken when he +thought that he could _step_ without stepping any thing. It would be +well for grammar, as well as many other things, to have more practice +and less theory. The thief was detected by his steps. Step softly; put +your feet down carefully. + +_Birds fly._ + +We learned from our primers, that + + "The eagle's _flight_ + Is out of sight," + +How did the eagle succeed in producing a _flight_? I suppose he _flew_ +it. And if birds ever fly, they must produce a flight. Such being the +fact, it is needless to supply the object. But the action does not +terminate solely on the flight produced, for that is only the name given +to the action itself. The expression conveys to the mind the obvious +fact, that, by strong muscular energy, by the aid of feathers, and the +atmosphere, the bird carries itself thro the air, and changes its being +from one place to another. As birds rarely fly a race, or any thing but +_themselves_ and a _flight_, it is not necessary to suffix the object. + +_It rains._ + +This verb is insisted on as the strongest proof of intransitive action; +with what propriety, we will now inquire. It will serve as a clear +elucidation of the whole theory of intransitive verbs. + +What does the expression signify? It simply declares the fact, that +_water is shed_ down from the clouds. But is there no object after +_rains_? There is none expressed. Is there nothing rained? no effect +produced? If not, there can be no water fallen, and our cisterns would +be as empty, our streams as low, and fields as parched, after a rain as +before it! But who that has common sense, and has never been blinded by +the false rules of grammar, does not know that when _it rains_, it never +fails to _rain rain_, _water_, or _rain-water_, unless you have one of +the paddy's dry rains? When it hails, it hails _hail_, _hail-stones_, or +frozen _rain_. When it snows, it _snows snow_, sometimes two feet of it, +sometimes less. I should think teachers in our northern countries would +find it exceeding difficult to convince their readers that snow is an +intransitive verb--that it snows _nothing_. And yet so it is; people +will remain wedded to their old systems, and refuse to open their eyes +and behold the evidences every where around them. Teachers themselves, +the guides of the young--and I blush to say it, for I was long among the +number--have, with their scholars, labored all the morning, breaking +roads, _shovelling snow_, and clearing paths, to get to the +school-house, and then set down and taught them that _to snow_ is an +_in_transitive verb. What nonsense; nay, worse, what falsehoods have +been instilled into the youthful mind in the name of grammar! Can we be +surprised that people have not understood grammar? that it is a dry, +cold, and lifeless business? + +I once lectured in Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In a conversation with Miss B., a +distinguished scholar, who had taught a popular female school for twenty +years; was remarking upon the subject of intransitive verbs, and the +apparent inconsistency of the new system, that all verbs must have an +object after them, expressed or understood; she said, "there was the +verb _rain_, (it happened to be a rainy day,) the whole action is +confined to the agent; it does not pass on to another object; it is +purely intransitive." Her aged mother, who had never looked into a +grammar book, heard the conversation, and very bluntly remarked, "Why, +you fool you, I want to know if you have studied grammar these thirty +years, and taught it more than twenty, and have never _larned_ that when +it rains it _always_ rains _rain_? If it didn't, do you s'pose you'd +need an umbrella to go out now into the storm? I should think you'd know +better. I always told you these plaguy grammars were good for nothing, I +didn't b'lieve." "Amen," said I, to the good sense of the old lady, "you +are right, and have reason to be thankful that you have never been +initiated into the intricate windings, nor been perplexed with the false +and contradictory rules, which have blasted many bright geniuses in +their earliest attempts to gain a true knowledge of the sublime +principles of language, on which depends so much of the happiness of +human life." The good matron's remark was a poser to the daughter, but +it served as a means of her entire deliverance from the thraldom of +neuter verbs, and the adoption of the new principles of the exposition +of language. + +The anecdote shows us how the unsophisticated mind will observe facts, +and employ words as correctly, if not more so, than those schooled in +the high pretensions of science, falsely taught. Who does not know from +the commonest experience, that the direct object of _raining_ must +follow as the necessary sequence? that it can never fail? And yet our +philologists tell us that such is not always the case; and that the +exception is to be marked on the singular ground, whether the word is +written out or omitted! What a narrow view of the sublime laws of +motion! What a limited knowledge of things! or else, what a _mistake_! + +"Then the Lord said unto Moses, behold, I will _rain_ bread for you from +heaven." + +"Then the _Lord rained_ down, upon Sodom and Gomorrah, _brimstone_ and +_fire_, from the Lord out of heaven."--_Bible._ + +_The fire burns._ + +The fire _burns_ the wood, the coal, or the peat. The great fire in +New-York _burned_ the buildings which covered fifty-two acres of ground. +Mr. Experiment _burns_ coal in preference to wood. His new grate _burns +it_ very finely. Red ash coal _burns_ the best; it _makes_ the fewest +_ashes_, and hence _is_ the most convenient. The cook _burns_ too much +fuel. The house took fire and _burned_ up. _Burned what_ up? Burn is an +intransitive verb. It would not trouble the unfortunate tenant to know +that there must be an _object burned_, or what _it_ was. He would find +it far more difficult to rebuild his _house_. Do you suppose fires never +burn any thing belonging to neuter verb folks? Then they never need pay +away insurance money. With the solitary exception I have mentioned--the +burning bush--this verb can not be intransitive. + +_The sun shines._ + +This is an intransitive verb if there ever was one, because the object +is not often expressed after it. But if the sun _emits_ no _rays_ of +light, how shall it be known whether it shines or not? "The _radiance_ +of the sun's bright beaming" is produced by the _exhibition_ of +_itself_, when it _brightens_ the objects exposed to its _rays_ or +_radiance_. We talk of _sun shine_ and moon shine, but if these bodies +never produce _effects_ how shall it be known whether such things are +real? _Sun shine_ is the direct effect of the sun's _shining_. But +clouds sometimes intervene and prevent the rays from extending to the +earth; but _then_ we do not say "the sun _shines_." You see at once, +that all we know or can know of the fact we state as truth, is derived +from a knowledge of the very _effects_ which our grammars tell us do not +exist. Strange logic indeed! It is a mark of a wiser man, and a better +scholar, not to know the popular grammars, than it is to profess any +degree of proficiency in them! + +_To smile._ + +The _smiles_ of the morning, the _smiles_ of affection, a _smile_ of +kindness, are only produced by the appearance of something that _smiles_ +upon us. _Smiles_ are the direct consequence of _smiling_. If a person +should _smile_ ever so _sweetly_ and yet present no _smiles_, they +might, for aught we could know to the contrary, be _sour_ as vinegar. + +But this verb frequently has another object after it; as, "to _smile_ +the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age," or "_smile_ dull _cares_ away." "A +sensible wife would soon _reason_ and _smile him_ into good nature." + +But I need not multiply examples. When such men as Johnson, Walker, +Webster, Murray, Lowthe, and a host of other wise and renowned men, +gravely tell us that _eat_ and _drink_, which they define, "to _take +food_; _to feed_; _to take a meal_; _to go to meals_; to be maintained +in food; _to swallow liquors_; _to quench thirst_; to take any liquid;" +are _intransitive_ or _neuter_ verbs, having no objects after them, we +must think them insincere, egregiously mistaken, or else possessed of a +means of subsistence different from people generally! Did they _eat_ and +_drink_, "take food and swallow liquors," _in_transitively; that is, +without _eating_ or _drinking_ any thing? Is it possible in the nature +of things? Who does not see the absurdity? And yet they were _great_ +men, and nobody has a right to question such _high_ authority. And the +"_simplifiers_" who have come after, making books and teaching grammar +to _earn_ their _bread_, have followed close in their footsteps, and, I +suppose, _eaten_ nothing, and thrown their bread away! Was I a believer +in neuter verbs and desired to get money, my first step would be to set +up a boarding house for all believers in, and _practisers_ of, +intransitive verbs. I would board cheap and give good fare. I could +afford it, for no provisions would be consumed. + +Some over cautious minds, who are always second, if not last, in a good +cause, ask us why these principles, if so true and clear, were not found +out before? Why have not the learned who have studied for many +centuries, never seen and adopted them? It is a sufficient answer to +such a question, to ask why the copernican system of astronomy was not +sooner adopted, why the principles of chemistry, the circulation of the +blood, the power and application of steam, nay, why all improvement was +not known before. When grammar and dictionary makers, those wise +expounders of the principles of speech, have so far forgotten facts as +to teach that _eat_ and _drink_, "express neither action nor passion," +or are "confined to the agents;" that when a man eats, he eats nothing, +or when he drinks, he drinks nothing, we need not stop long to decide +why these things were unknown before. The wisest may sometimes mistake; +and the proud aspirant for success, frequently passes over, unobserved, +the humble means on which all true success depends. + +Allow me to quote some miscellaneous examples which will serve to show +more clearly the importance of supplying the elipses, in order to +comprehend the meaning of the writers, or profit by their remarks. You +will supply the objects correctly from the attendant circumstances where +they are not expressed. + +"Ask ( ) and ye shall receive ( ); seek ( ) and ye shall find ( ); knock +( ) and _it_ shall be opened unto you." + +Ask _what_? Seek _what_? Knock _what_? That _it_ may be opened? Our +"Grammars Made Easy" would teach us to _ask_ and _seek_ nothing! no +objectives after them. What then could we reasonably expect to _receive_ +or _find_? The _thing_ we _asked_ for, of course, and that was nothing! +Well might the language apply to such, "Ye ask ( ) and _receive not_ +(naught) because ye ask ( ) amiss." False teaching is as pernicious to +religion and morals as to science. + +"Charge them that are rich in this world--that they _do good_, that they +be rich in good works, ready to _distribute_ ( ), willing to +_communicate_ ( )."--_Paul to Timothy._ + +The hearer is to observe that there is no object after these +words--_nothing_ distributed, or communicated! There is too much such +charity in the world. + +"He spoke ( ), and _it_ was done; he commanded ( ), and _it_ stood +fast." + +"_Bless_ ( ), and _curse_ ( ) not."--_Bible._ + +"_Strike_ ( ) while the iron is hot."--_Proverb._ + +"I _came_ ( ), I _saw_ ( ), I _conquered_ ( )."--_Caesar's Letter._ + +He lives ( ) contented and happy. + +"The _life_ that I now _live_, in the flesh, I _live_ by the faith of +the son of God."--_Paul._ + +"Let me _die_ the _death_ of the righteous, and let my last _end be_ +like his."--_Numbers._ + +As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites ( ) to +sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against great disorders, it is to be +generally encouraged. Gymnastic exercises may be established for all +ages and for all classes. The Jews were ordered to _take a walk_ out of +the city on the Sabbath day; and here rich and poor, young and old, +master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent mirth or in the +pleasures of friendly intercourse.--_Spurzheim on Education._ + +"Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; fight ( ) for it; +die ( ) for it; any thing but live ( ) for it."--_Lacon._ + +"I have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and some may +accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in presuming ( ) to inscribe +a book to so small a minority. But a volume addressed to those that +think ( ) is in fact addressed to all the world; for altho the +proportion of those who _do_ ( ) think ( ) be extremely small, yet every +individual _flatters himself_ that he is one of the number."--_Idem._ + +What is the difference whether a man _thinks_ or not, if he produces no +_thoughts_? + +"He that _thinks himself_ the happiest man, really is so; but he that +_thinks himself_ the wisest, is generally the greatest fool."--_Idem._ + +"A man _has_ many _workmen employed_; some to plough ( ) and sow ( ), +others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to +score ( ) and hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory he +has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and +weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and +pay ( ). They eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and +as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, +sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; they rise ( ) up early to +go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress +( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) to read ( ), write +( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or intransitive verbs!! + +"The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on Tuesday evening in +the circus. He will leap ( ) over four bars, separately, in imitation of +the english hunter. He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at +the _word of command_. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, rear ( ) +and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a +cushion. To conclude ( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over +two horses."--_Cardell's Grammar._ + +The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no legerdemain upon the +public. He will stretch a line across the room, several feet from the +floor, over which he will leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will +stand ( ) on his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from side +to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; spring ( ) upon +his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out +touching his hands. He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) +like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) and cry ( ), as +if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp ( ) like a bird. To conclude +( ): He will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians, without +either "_action_ or _passion_," all the while having a "_state of +being_," motionless, in the center of the room!! + +What a lie! say you. _A lie?_ I hope you do not accuse _me_ of lying. If +there is any thing false in this matter it all _lies_ in the quotation, +at the conclusion, from the standard grammar. If that is false, whose +fault is it? Not mine, certainly. But what if I should _lie_ ( ), +intransitively? I should tell no falsehoods. + +But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or inconsistent, +any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the subject, it should be +remembered that it has been long taught, not only in common schools, but +in our academies and colleges, as serious, practical truth; as the only +means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves +for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile at such trash, +and well you may; but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only +thing in which we may turn round and _laugh_ ( ) at past follies. + +But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence +than to deserve our _laughter_. When I see the rising generation spend +months and years of the best and most important part of their lives, +which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and +useful, studying the dark and false theory of language as usually +taught, I am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which +imposes such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly the years that +have just gone by. I have seen too many blighted hopes, too many +wearisome hours, too many sad countenances, too many broken resolutions; +to say nothing of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter +that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, because +sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an important change, a +radical change, in this department of education, is imperiously +demanded, and teachers must obey the call, and effect the change. There +is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without +complaint, to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and +contradictory rules, merely from respect to age. It demands reason, +consistency and plainness; and yields assent only where they are found. +And teachers, if they will not lead in the reformation, must be +satisfied to follow after; for a reformation is loudly called for, and +will be had. None are satisfied with existing grammars, which, in +principle, are nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and +simplify Murray, have only acted _intransitively_, and accomplished very +little, if any good, save the employment given to printers, paper +makers, and booksellers. + +But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder at the errors +and mistakes of grammar makers, when our lexicographers tell us for +sober truth, that =to act=, _to be in action_, _not to rest_, to be in +_motion_, to _move_, is _v. n._ a verb neuter, signifying _no action_!! +or _v. i._ verb intransitive, producing _no effects_; and that a +"_neuter verb_ =expresses= (active transitive verb) _a state of being_!! +There are few minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing +therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. Truth is rarely +elicted from error, beauty from deformity, or order from confusion. +While, therefore, we allow the neuter systems to sink into +forgetfulness, as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut +our books, let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have +thoughtlessly (without _thinking thoughts_) and innocently lead us many +months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error and +contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness. But +let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following +the same unpleasant and unprofitable course, and endeavor to _reflect_ +the _light_ which may _shine_ upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding +darkness, and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall +come after us. + +Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of +foreign tongues. Because there are genitive cases, different kinds of +verbs, six tenses, etc. in the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions +should exist in our grammars. But this argument will not apply, +admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition +we have adopted, which we very seriously question, tho we have not time +to go into that investigation. We believe that the principles we have +adopted are capable of universal application; that what is action in +England would be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; +that "_like causes will produce like effects_" all the world over. It +matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, and all who +gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them, let them +speak what language they may. But if they have no ideas to express, they +need no language to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, +can speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because they +have nothing to say. + +Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous +multitude. They would all attempt a description of it, so far as they +were able to gain a knowledge of its construction, each in his own +language. Some might be unable to trace the _cause_, the moving _power_, +thro all the curiously arranged _means_, to the _agent_ who acted as +prime mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their +conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would find a _first +cause_ short of the Creator, the great original of all things and +actions; and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy. Heaven +has never left a vacuum where a new and _self_ sustaining power may be +set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision; and hence +the long talked of _perpetual motion_ is the vainest chimera which ever +occupied the human brain. It may well appear as the opposite extreme of +neuter verbs; for, while one would give no action to matter according to +the physical laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter +act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to take a more +rational and consistent stand; to view all things and beings as +occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite Wisdom, _acting_ according +to their several abilities, and subject to the regulation of the +all-pervading laws which guide, preserve, and harmonize the whole. + +If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence +of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an all-wise and ever-present +God, it is found in the order and harmony of all things, produced by the +regulation of Divine laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the +world is most clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt +language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse, or +in the transmission of thought, drawn from an observation and knowledge +of things as presented to his understanding. + +There is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect +and the future happiness of the child, as the knowledge of language. +Without it, what is life? Wherein would man be elevated above the brute? +And what is language without ideas? A sound without harmony--a shadow +without a substance. + +Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, as a +science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, a mere art, and +you will no longer hear the complaint of a "_dry_, _cold_, uninteresting +study." Its rules will be simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the +child will increase in the knowledge of more than _words_, in an +acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science. And if there +is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and +grovelling things of earth, and fill the soul with reverence and +devotion to the Holy Being who fills immensity with his presence, it is +when, from observing the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe +the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends to the +Intellectual Source of _light_, _life_, and _being_, and contemplates +the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of Deity; +soul mingling with soul, love absorbed in love, and God all in all. + + + + +LECTURE XI. + +ON VERBS. + + The verb =to be=.--Compounded of different radical words.--=Am=. + --Defined.--The name of Deity.--_Ei_.--=Is=.--=Are=.--=Were=, + =was=.--=Be=.--A dialogue.--Examples.--Passive Verbs examined.-- + Cannot be in the present tense.--The past participle is an + adjective. + + +We have gone through the examination of _neuter_ and _intransitive_ +verbs, with the exception of the verb =to be=, which we propose to +notice in this place. Much more might be said on the subjects I have +discussed, and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and +operation of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to the +_objects_ of action; but I trust the hints I have given will be +satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your minds to _think_ +correct _thoughts_, and not _suffer_ them _to be_ misled by erroneous +teaching, you will arrive at the same conclusion that I have, viz. that +all verbs depend on a _common principle_ for their explanation; that +they are alike active, and necessarily take an object after them, either +expressed or understood, in accordance with the immutable law of nature, +which teaches that like causes will produce like effects. + + * * * * * + +The verb =to be=, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid of six +different words, in its various modes and tenses; _am_, _is_, _are_, +_was_, _were_, _be_. _Am_ is unchanged, always in the indicative mood, +present tense, agreeing with the _first_ person singular. _Is_ is also +unchanged, in the same mood and tense, agreeing with the _third_ person +singular. _Art_, in the singular, is the same as _are_ in the plural. +_Was_ and _wast_, are the same as _were_ and _wert_ in meaning, being +derived from the same etymon. _Be_, _being_, and _been_, are changes of +the same word. _Be_ was formerly extensively used in the indicative +present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete. _Were_ was also +used in the singular as well as plural, especially when coming before +the agent; as, "were I to go, I would do your business." But it is now +more common to have _was_ correctly used in that case. But, as one +extreme often follows another, people have laid _were_ quite too much +aside, and often crowd _was_ into its place in common conversation; as +"we _was_ (were) there yesterday." "There _was_ (were) five or six men +engaged in the business." This error appears to be gaining ground, and +should be checked before it goes farther. + +The combination of these different words was produced by habit, to avoid +the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word, so necessary in +the expression of thought, would occasion: the same as the past tense of +_go_ is made by the substitution of another word radically different, +_went_, the past tense of _wend_ or _wind_. "O'er hills and dales they +_wend_ their way." "The lowing herd _wind_ slowly o'er the lea." _Go_ +and _wend_ convey to our minds nearly the same ideas. The latter is a +little more poetical, because less used. But originally their +signification was quite different. So with the parts of the verb =to +be=. They were consolidated as a matter of convenience, and now appear +in their respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or +existence. + +I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. I will +now attempt to prove it. I should like to go into a labored and critical +examination of the words, and trace their changes thro various +languages, was it in accordance with the design of these lectures. But +as it is not, I shall content myself with general observations. + +_I am._ + +This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only said to be +"_the first person of to be_." We must look for its meaning some where +else. It is a compound of two ancient words, _ah_, _breath_, to +_breathe_, life, to _live_, _light_, to _light_; and _ma_, the _hand_, +or to _hand_. It signifies to _vivify_, _sustain_, or _support_ one's +self in being or existence. In process of time, like other things in +this mutable world, its form was changed, but the meaning retained. But +as one person could not _vivify_ or _live_ another, _inflate_ another's +lungs, or breathe another's breath, it became restricted to the first +person. It means, I _breathe breath_, _vivify myself_, _live life_, or +_exercise_ the power of _being_ or _living_. It conveys this fact in +every instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say _I am_. Let +any person pronounce the word _ah-ma_, and they will at once perceive +the appropriateness of the meaning here given. It is very similar to the +letter _h_, and the pronoun, (originally _noun_,) _he_, or the "_rough +breathing_" in the Greek language. _Ma_ is compounded with many words +which express action done by the hand; as, _ma_nufacture, _ma_numit. It +denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument; but, like +other words, it gradually changed its import, so as to express any +_effective_ operation. Hence the union of the words was natural and +easy, and _ahma_ denoted _breathing_, _to live_ or sustain life. _H_ is +a precarious letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation +of it by many who speak the English language, will prove. It was long +ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last _a_, so that we now have +the plain word _am_. + +It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as such may be found +in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses said unto God, Behold when I come unto +the children of Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers +sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his _name_? what +shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I =am= the I AM; and he +said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me +unto you." Chap. 6: 3.--"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto +Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name =Jehovah= (I AM) was +I not known unto them." The word _Jehovah_ is the same as _am_. It is +the name of the _self-existent_, _self-sustaining_ =Being=, who has not +only power to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime +action of _upholding_ or _sustaining himself_. This is the highest +possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation will be a +wreck. He is the _ever-living_, _uncontrolled_, _unfailing_, +_unassisted_, and _never-changing_ God, the Creator, Preserver, Alpha +and Omega, the Beginning and End of all things. He is the _First Cause_ +of all causes, the _Agent_, original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, +which set in motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and +governs them without "variableness or the shadow of turning." + + "I AM the first, and I, the last, + Thro endless years the same; + I AM is my memorial still, + And my eternal name." + _Watts' Hymn._ + +Ask the Jews the meaning of this _neuter verb_ in their language. They +hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence. After the +captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except +once a year when the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence +the true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare not +attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in characters +untranslated. When their Messiah comes they expect he will restore the +pronunciation, and by it they shall be able to accomplish all +things.[15] + +According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, =thou art=, +engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which is the second person +of =Eimi=, _I am_.[16] + +This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to whom it was given as +the name of the God of Jacob. The same name you may see engraven on +monuments, on pictures of the bible, on masonic implements, and in +various places, untranslated. + +Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," when the very +person incapable of it can not utter it, and no one else can speak it +for him? It denotes the highest conceivable action applied to Deity or +to man, and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this +fact. The action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not +terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is self-action. + +_He is._ + +This word is constructed from an old verb signifying _to stand forth_, +_to appear_, _to show one's self_, and may be traced, I think, to the +latin _eo_, _to go_, and _exist_, to _exeo_, _to go from_; that is, our +_being_ or _existence_, _came_ or _stood forth_ from God. It is +certainly a contraction from the old english _to exist_. _Ist_ is the +spelling still retained in the german and some other languages. It +denotes self-action. One man does not _exist_ another, but himself. He +_keeps himself_ in existence. + +_We are_, _thou are-est_, _arst_, or _art_. + +Be not surprised when I tell you this is the same word as _air_, for +such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to _air ourselves_, or +_breathe air_. "God _breathed_ into man the _breath of life_, and man +became a _living soul_." The new born infant _inhales air_, _inflates +its lungs_ with _air_, and begins to live. We all know how essential +_air_ is to the preservation of life. No animal can live an instant +without it. Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all _air_ has +been extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die where +there is no air. _Light_ is also indispensable to _life_ and _health_. +_Air_ is _inhaled_ and _exhaled_, and from it life receives support. The +fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed by the careless, as +tho it was more rare. But did you never see the man dying of a +consumption, when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? +How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows thrown open. At +length he _suffocates_ and dies. Most persons struggle hard for +_breath_ in the hour of dissolving nature. The heaving bosom, the hollow +gasp for _air_, tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be +extinguished, that the hour of their departure has come. + +When a person faints, we carry them into the _air_, or blow _air_ upon +them, that nature may be restored to its regular course. In certain +cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of +infants; they can after that _air_, themselves, _imbibe_ or _drink in +air_, or _inspirit_ themselves with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever +has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or +unwholesome air, can appreciate what we mean. + +_We were_; _he was_. + +I have said before that these words are the same, and are used in +certain cases irrespective of number. I have good authority for this +opinion, altho some etymologists give them different derivations. + +_Were_, _wert_; _worth_, _werth_; _word_ and _werde_, are derived from +the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. They signify +_spirit_, _life_, _energy_. "In the beginning was the _word_, and the +_word_ was with God." "By the _word_ of his grace." + +"_They were_," they _inspirited_ themselves, _possessed_ the life, +vitality, or _spirit_, the Creator gave them, and having that spirit, +life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due degree, they were +_worthy_ of the esteem, regard, sympathy, and good _word_ of others. + +_To be._ + +This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, and to +it all others are referred for a definition. Dictionaries give no +definition to _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, and _were_, all of them as truly +principal verbs as _be_, and possessed of as distinct a meaning. It can +hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our +language, and yet be incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the +most significant words in our language, and those most frequently used, +are undefined in the books. + +Mr. Webster says =to be= signifies, "to exist, to _have_ a real _state_ +or _existence_," and so say Walker and Johnson. Now if it is possible to +"=have= _a state of being_ without action or passion," then may this +word express neutrality. But the very definition requires activity, and +an object expressed. It denotes the _act of being_, or living; to +_exercise_ the powers of life, to _maintain_ a position or rank in the +scale of existent things. + +The name of the action is _being_, and applies to the Almighty BEING who +_exists_ unchanged as the source of all inferior _beings_ and things, +whose name is _Jehovah_, I AM, the Being of beings, the Fountain of +_light_, _life_, and _wisdom_. + +_Be_ is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, by every +body who employs language. "_Be_ here in ten minutes." "_Be it_ far from +thee." "I will _be_ in Boston before noon." If there is any action in +going from Providence to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or +before noon, it is all expressed by the verb _be_, which we are told +expresses _no action_. + +The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I want you _to be_ +in your seats in five minutes." What would they understand him to mean? +that they should stand still? or that they should _change their state of +being_ from play in the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There +is no word to denote such change, except the word _to be_. _Be_ off, +_be_ gone, _be_ here, _be_ there, are commands frequently given and +correctly understood. + +The master says to a bright little lad, who has well learned his +grammar, "_Be_ here in a minute." + +"Yes, sir, I will _be_ there;" but he does not move. + +"_Be_ here immediately." + +"Yes, yes, I will _be_ there." + +"Don't you understand me? I say, _be_ here instantly." + +"Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey." + +The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, "do you mean to +disobey my orders and insult me?" + +"Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies the honest +boy. + +"Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it." + +"No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have obeyed you as +well as I know how, to the very letter and spirit of your command." + +"Didn't I tell you _to be_ here in a minute, and have not you _remained_ +where you were? and didn't you say you would _be_ here?" + +"Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?" + +"Why, no, you blockhead; I told you _to be_ here." + +"Well, I told you I would _be_ there." + +"You _was_ not here." + +"Nor did you expect I would _be_, if you have taught me to _speak_, +_write_, and understand correctly." + +"What do you mean, you saucy boy?" + +"I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to." + +"Why didn't you do so then?" + +"I did." + +"You didn't." + +"I did." + +"You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will punish you severely." And in a passion +he starts for his ferrule, takes the boys hand, and bruises him badly; +the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any +intended wrong. + +In a short time they commence _parsing_ this sentence: "It is necessary +_to be_ very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we +use them." The master puts _to be_ to the same boy. He says it is an +_active verb_, infinitive mood. + +"How is that? an _active_ verb?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"No, it is not. It is a _neuter_ verb." + +"Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active." + +"Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent fellow. You are +not fit to be in school. I will inform your parents of your conduct." + +"What have I done that is wrong?" + +"You say _to be_ is an _active_ verb, when _I_ tell you, and the +_grammar_ and _dictionary_ tell you, it is _neuter_!" + +"What is a _neuter_ verb, master?" + +"It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a state of +being.' Have you forgotten it?" + +"No, sir, I _thought_ that was the case." + +"What did you ask me for then?" + +"Because I supposed you had found another meaning for it." + +"To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? I'll not bear your +insults much longer." + +"For what did you punish me so severely just now?" + +"For disobeying my orders." + +"What did you order me to do?" + +"_To be_ here in a minute." + +"Well, did not I do what you told me?" + +"No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me." + +"Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that _to be_ is a +_neuter_ verb, expressing no _action_, but _being_. I had a _state_ of +_being_, and promised to keep it, and did keep it, and you punished me +for doing the very thing you told me to do!!" + +The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to say that grammar +is a "_dry_, _cold_, and _useless_" study, hardly worth the trouble of +learning it. + + * * * * * + +"_I am_ Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, +who _is_, and who _was_, and who _is_ to come, the Almighty."--_Rev. 1: +8._ + +If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by which all +things were created and are upheld, it is expressed in the verbs _am_, +_is_, and _was_. + +God said, "Let there _be_ light, and there _was_ light;" or more +properly rendered, "Light =be=, and light =was=." + +Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in the firmament, +and in causing them to _send_ forth the rays of light to _dispel_ the +surrounding darkness? If there was, _be_ and _was_ denote that action. + +"You are commanded =to be= and _appear_ before the court of common +pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply +with this citation--for neglecting to do what is expressed by the +_neuter verb_ to _be_. + +Such cases might be multiplied without number, where this verb is +correctly used by all who employ language, and correctly understood by +all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words. But I think you +must all be convinced of the truth of our proposition, that all verbs +express action, either _real_ or _relative_; and in all cases have an +object, expressed or necessarily implied, which stands as the _effect_, +and an agent, as the cause of action: and hence that language, as a +means for the communication of thought, does not deviate from the +soundest principles of philosophy, but in all cases, rightly explained, +serves to illustrate them, in the plainest manner. + + * * * * * + +A few remarks on the "Passive Verb," and I will conclude this part of +our subject, which has already occupied much more of our attention than +I expected at the outset. + +"_A verb passive_ expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving +of an action; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent +by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved; Penelope is loved by me." + +In the explanation of this verb, grammarians further tell us that a +passive verb is formed by adding the verb _to be_, which is thus made +auxiliary, to a past participle; as, Portia _was loved_. Pompey _was +conquered_. + +It is singular how forgetful our great men sometimes are about observing +their own rules. Take an instance in Mr. Walker's octavo dictionary. +Look for the word _simeter_, a small sword. You will find it spelled +_scimitar_. Then turn over, and you will find it _s_im_i_t_a_r, with the +same definition, and the remark, "more properly _c_im_e_t_a_r." Then +turn back, and find the correct word as he spells it, and there you will +find it cimet_e_r. + +Unsettled as to the true spelling, go to our own honored Webster. Look +for "scimiter." He says, see cimit_a_r. Then look for "cimitar;" see +cim_e_t_e_r. Then hunt up the true word, be it _ar_ or _er_, and you +will find it still another way, cim_i_t_e_r. Here the scholar has seven +different ways to spell this word, and neither of his authorities have +followed their own examples. I cite this as one of a thousand instances, +where our savans have laid down rules for others, and disregarded them +themselves. + +Portia _is loved_ and _happy_. She is _respectable_, _virtuous_, +_talented_, and _respected_ by all who know her. She _is seated by the +door_. Does the _door_ seat her? What agent, then, causes her _passion_ +or _suffering_? + +The book is printed. Will you parse _is printed_? It is a passive verb, +indicative mood, _present tense_. Who _is_ printing it? causing it, in +the present tense, to _suffer_ or _receive_ the action? The act of +printing _was performed_ a hundred years ago. How can it be present +time? + +Penelope _is loved_ by me. The blow _is received_ by me. It _is given_ +by me. Penelope _is seated_ by me. The earthquake _is felt_ by her. The +evils _are suffered_ by her. The thunder _is heard_ by her. Does this +mean that she is the agent, and the earthquake, evils, and thunder, are +the objects which receive the _effects_ which she produces? That would +be singular philosophy, indeed. But _to feel_, _to suffer_, and _to +hear_, are active, and are constructed into passive verbs. Why is it not +as correct to say she _is suffering_ by another's wrongs, _is raging_ by +the operation of passion, or _is travelling_ by rail-road, are passive +verbs? The fact is, our language can not _be explained_ by set rules or +forms of speech. We must regard the sense. The past participle, as it is +called, becomes an adjective by use, and describes her as some way +affected by a previous action. She is _learned_, _handsome_, _modest_, +and, of course, _beloved_ by all who know her. + +To say "she _is placed_ by the water's edge," is a passive verb, and +that the water's edge, as the agent, causes her "passion, suffering, or +receiving of the action," is false and ridiculous, for she _placed_ +herself there. + +"We _are seated_ on our seats by the stove." What power is _now_ +operating on us to make us suffer or receive the action of being seated +on our seats? Does the stove perform this action? This is a passive +verb, _present tense_, which requires an "object acted upon, and an +_agent_ by which it is acted upon." But we came in and _seated +ourselves_ here an hour ago. + +The man _is acquitted_. He _stands acquitted_ before the public. He _is +learned_, wise, and happy, very much _improved_ within a few years. He +_is_ always active, studious, and _engaged_ in his own affairs. He _is +renowned_, and _valorous_. She _is respected_. She _lives respected_. + +If there is such a thing as a passive verb, it can never be used in the +present tense, for the action expressed by the principal verb which is +produced by the agent operating upon the object, is always _past_ tense, +and the auxiliary, or helping verb _to be_, is always present. Let this +verb be analyzed, and the true meaning of each word understood, little +difficulty will be found in giving it an explanation. + +I will not spend more time in exposing the futility of this attempted +distinction. It depends solely on a verbal form, but can never _be +explained_ so as _to be understood_ by any scholar. Most grammarians +have seen the fallacy of attempting to give the meaning of this verb. +They can show its _form_, but _are_ frequently _compelled_, as in the +cases above, to sort out the "_passed_ participles" from a host of +adjectives, and it will _be found_ exceeding troublesome to make +scholars perceive any difference in the use of the words, or in the +construction of a sentence. But it may be they have never thought that +duty belonged to them; that they have nothing to do but to show them +what the book says. Suppose they should teach arithmetic on the same +principles, and learn the scholars to set down 144 as the product of 12 +times 12. Let them look at the form of the figures, observe just how +they appear, and make some more like them, and thus go thro the book. +What would the child know of arithmetic? Just as much as they do of +grammar, and no more. They would understand nothing of the science of +numbers, of proportion, or addition. They would exercise the power of +imitation, and make one figure look like another. Beyond that, all would +be a _terra incognita_, a land unknown. So in the science of language; +children may learn that the verb _to be_, joined with the past +participle of an active verb, makes _a passive verb_; but what that +passive verb is when made, or how to apply it, especially in the present +tense, they have no means of knowing. Their knowledge is all taken on +trust, and when thrown upon their own resources, they have none on which +to rely. + + + + +LECTURE XII. + +ON VERBS. + + =Mood=.--Indicative.--Imperative.--Infinitive.--Former distinctions. + --Subjunctive mood.--=Time=.--Past.--Present.--Future.--The future + explained.--How formed.--Mr. Murray's distinction of time.-- + Imperfect.--Pluperfect.--Second future.--How many tenses.-- + =Auxiliary Verbs=.--Will.--Shall.--May.--Must.--Can.--Do.--Have. + + +We are now come to consider the different relations of action in +reference to _manner_ and _time_. We shall endeavor to be as brief as +possible upon this subject, keeping in view meanwhile that candor and +perspicuity which are indispensable in all our attempts to explain new +views. + +_Mood_ signifies _manner_. Applied to verbs it explains _how_, in _what +manner_, by what means, under what circumstances, actions are performed. + +There are _three_ moods, the _indicative_ or declarative, the +_imperative_ or commanding, and the _infinitive_ or unlimited. + +The indicative mood declares an action to be _done_ or _doing_, _not +done_, or _not doing_. It is always in the past or present tense; as, +David _killed_ Goliath; scholars _learn_ knowledge; I _spoke not_ a +word; they _sing not_. + +The imperative mood denotes a command given from the first _person_ to +the _second_, _to do_ or _not do_ an action. It expresses the wish or +desire of the first person to have a certain action performed which +depends on the agency of the second. The command is _present_, but the +action signified by the word is _future_ to the giving of the command. +The second person cannot comply with the will of the first till such +will is made known; as, bring me a book; go to the door. + +The _infinitive_ mood has no direct personal agent, but is produced as a +necessary consequence, growing out of a certain condition of things. It +is always _future_ to such condition; that is, some prior arrangement +must be had before such consequences will follow. It is always _future_; +as, they are collecting a force _to besiege_ the city. We study grammar +_to acquire_ a knowledge of language. Windows are made _to admit_ light. +The act of besieging the city depends on the previous circumstance, the +collection of a force _to do_ it. Were there no windows, the light would +not be admitted to the room. + +These distinctions in regard to action must be obvious to every hearer. +You all are aware of the fact that action necessarily implies an actor, +as every effect must have an efficient cause; and such action clearly or +distinctly _indicated_, must have such an agent to produce it. 2d. You +are acquainted with the fact that one person can express his will to the +second, directing him to do or avoid some thing. 3d. From an established +condition of things, it is easy to deduce a consequence which will +follow, in the nature of things, as an unavoidable result of such a +combination of power, cause, and means. + +With these principles you are all familiar, whether you have studied +grammar or not. They are clearly marked, abundantly simple, and must be +obvious to all. They form the only necessary, because the only real, +distinction, in the formation and use of the verb to express action. Any +minor distinctions are only calculated to perplex and embarrass the +learner. + +But some grammarians have passed these natural barriers, and built to +themselves schemes to accord with their own vain fancies. The remarks of +Mr. Murray upon this point are very appropos. He says: + +"Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have +assigned to them. They assert that the english language may be said, +without any great impropriety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary +verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound +expression which they help to form, point out those various dispositions +and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This +would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, +certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the english +language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We +must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; and do that +by their assistance, which has been done in the learned languages (a few +instances to the contrary excepted) in another manner, namely, by +varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary +to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity +and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, +therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and +introducing moods _interrogative_, _optative_, _promissive_, +_hortative_, _precative_, &c., we have exhibited such only as are +obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and +display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, +and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods +were introduced. + +"From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, +respecting this part of english grammar, on the principles and +constructions of languages which, in these points, do not suit the +peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may +naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor +perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than to inform +the learner." + +Had he followed this rule, he would have saved weeks and months to every +student in grammar in the community. But his remarks were aimed at Mr. +Harris, who was by far the most popular writer on language in England at +that time. He has adopted the very rules of Mr. Murray, and carried them +out. By a careful observance of the different forms and changes of the +verb and its auxiliaries, he makes out quite evidently to his own mind, +_fourteen_ moods, which I forbear to name. + +Most grammarians contend for _five_ moods, two of which, the _potential_ +or powerful, and the _subjunctive_, are predicated on the same +principles as Mr. Harris' optative, interrogative, etc., which they +condemn. It is impossible to explain the character of these moods so as +to be understood. _If_, it is said, is the sign of the subjunctive, and +_may_ and _can_ of the potential; and yet they are often found together; +as, "I will go _if I can_." No scholar can determine in what mood to put +this last verb. It of right belongs to both the potential and +subjunctive. _If_ I _may_ be allowed to speak my mind, I _should_ say +that such distinctions were false. + +I will not go into an exposure of these useless and false distinctions, +which are adopted to help carry out erroneous principles. The only +pretence for a subjunctive mood is founded on the fact that _be_ and +_were_ were formerly used in a character different from what they are +at present. _Be_ was used in the indicative mood, present tense, when +doubt or supposition was implied; as, If I _be_ there; if they _be_ +wise. _Be_ I a man, and _receive_ such treatment? _Were_ was also used +instead of _was_ in the past tense; as, "_Were_ I an American I would +fight for liberty. If I _were_ to admit the fact." In this character +these words are rapidly becoming obsolete. We now say, "If I _am_ there; +am I a man, and _receive_ such abuses? _was_ I an American; if I was to +admit," etc. + +All the round about, perplexing, and tedious affair of conjugating verbs +thro the different modes and tenses will appear in its true character, +when we come to give you a few brief examples, according to truth and +plain sense. But before doing that it will be necessary to make some +remarks on time. + +_Tense_ means _time_. We distinguish time according to certain events +which are generally observed. In the use of the verb we express action +in reference to periods of time when it is performed. + +There are three tenses, or divisions of time; _past_, _present_, and +_future_. + +_Past tense_ applies to actions which are accomplished; as, I _wrote_ a +book; he _recited_ his lesson. + +_Present tense_ denotes actions commenced, but not finished, and now in +operation; as, he _reads_ his book; we _sit_ on our seats and _hear_ the +lecture. + +_Future tense_ refers to actions, which are _to take_ place hereafter; +as, I am _to go_ from the Institute; we desire _to learn_ grammar +correctly. + +Every body can mark three plain distinctions of time, past, present, and +future. With the past we have been acquainted. It has ceased to be. Its +works are ended. The present is a mere line--, nothing as it +were--which is constantly passing unchecked from the past to the future. +It is a mere division of the past and future. The Hebrew, which is +strictly a philosophic language, admits no present; only a _past_ and +_future_. We speak of the present as denoting an action begun and not +finished. In the summer, we say the trees grow, and bear fruit. But when +the fruit is fallen, and the leaves seared by the frost, we change the +expression, and say, it _grew_ and _bore_ fruit. + +Of the _future_ we can know nothing definitely. Heaven has hung before +all human eyes an impenetrable veil which obscures all future events. No +man without prophetic vision bestowed by Him who "sees the end from the +beginning," can know what is _to be_, and no expression can be made, no +words employed which will positively declare a future action. We may see +a present condition of things, and from it argue what is _to be_, or +take place hereafter; but all that knowledge is drawn from the past and +deduced from a review of the present relation and tendencies of things. + +I hold the paper near the fire and you say it _will_ burn, and you say +truly, for it has a _will_, or what is the same, an inherent tendency +_to burn_. It is made of combustible matter, like paper which we have +seen burn, and hence we argue this has the same tendency to be consumed. +But how does your mind arrive at that fact? If you had never seen a +substance like it burn, why should you conclude this _will_? Does the +child know it _will_ burn? No; for it has not yet learned the quality of +the paper. It is not till the child has been burned that it dreads the +fire. Suppose I take some asbestus, of the kind called amianthus, which +is a mineral, and is formed of slender flexible fibres like flax; and in +eastern countries, especially in Savoy and Corsica, is manufactured into +cloth, paper, and lamp wicks. It was used in making winding sheets for +the dead, in which the bodies were burned, and the ashes, retained in +the incombustible sheet, were gathered into an urn, and revered as the +manes of the dead. Suppose I take some of this incombustible paper or +cloth, and present to you. You say it _will_ burn. Why do you say thus? +Because you have seen other materials which appear like this, consume to +ashes. Let us put it into the fire. It _will not_ burn. It has no +_tendency_ to burn; no quality which will consume. But this is a new +idea to you and hence your mistake. You did not know it _would_ burn, +nor could you _indicate_ such a fact. You only told your opinion derived +from the present appearance of things, and hence you made an assertion +in the _indicative_ mood, present tense, and added to it an _infinitive_ +mood, in order to deduce the consequence of this future action--it +_wills_, or has a _tendency_ to burn. But you were mistaken, because +ignorant of the _nature_ of things. This amianthus looks like flax, and +to a person unacquainted with it, appears to be as truly combustible; +but the mineralogist, and all who know its properties, know very well +that it _will_ not--wills nothing, has no inclination, or tendency, to +burn. + +Take another example. Here is a steel needle. I hold it before you. You +say, "if I let go of it, it _will_ fall," and you say correctly, for it +has such a tendency. But suppose a magnet, as great as that which is +said to have drawn the iron coffin of Mohammed to the roof of the temple +at Mecca, should be placed in the room above us. The needle, instead of +falling to the floor, would be drawn in the nearest direction to that +magnet. The _will_ or _tendency_ of the needle, as generally understood, +would be overcome, the natural law of gravitation would lose its +influence, by the counteracting power of the loadstone. + +I say, "I will go home in an hour." But does that expression _indicate_ +the act of _going_? It is placed in the indicative mood in our grammars; +and _go_ is the principal, and _will_ the auxiliary verb. May be I shall +fall and die before I reach my home. But the expression is correct; +_will_ is _present_, go _future_. I _will_, I now _resolve_, am now +inclined _to go_ home. + +You see the correctness of our position, that we can not positively +assert a future active in the indicative mood. Try and form to +yourselves a phrase by which it can be done. Should you succeed, you +would violate a law of nature. You would penetrate the dark curtain of +the future, and claim to yourself what you do not possess, a power to +declare future actions. Prophets, by the help of the Almighty, had this +power conferred upon them. But in the revelation of the sublime truths +they were instructed to make known, they were compelled to adopt human +language, and make it agree with our manner of speech. + +The only method by which we express a future event, is to make an +assertion in the indicative mood, present tense, and to that append the +natural consequence in the infinitive or unlimited; as, I _am to go_ to +Boston. He is preparing _to visit_ New-York. The infinitive mood is +always future to the circumstance on which it depends. + +Mr. Murray says, that "tense, being the distinction of time, might seem +to admit of only the present, past, and future; but to mark it more +_accurately_, it is made to consist of six variations, viz.: the +present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first and second future +tenses." This _more accurate mark_, only serves to expose the author's +folly, and distract the learner's mind. Before, all was plain. The past, +present, and future are distinct, natural divisions, easily understood +by all. But what idea can a person form of an _imperfect_ tense in +action. If there was ever such an action in the world, it was when +_grammarians_ =made= their grammars, which is, if I mistake not, +according to their own authority, in the _im-perfect_ tense! I _wrote_ a +letter. He _read_ his piece well. The scholar learn_ed_ and recit_ed_ +his lesson _perfectly_; and yet _learned_, tho made _perfect_ by the +qualification of an _adverb_, is an _imperfect_ action! + +But this explains the whole mystery in the business of grammar. We can +here discover the cause of all the troubles and difficulties we have +encountered in the whole affair. When authors _made_ their books, they +_did_ it _imperfectly_; when teachers _taught_ them, it was +_imperfectly_; and when scholars _learned_ them, it was _imperfectly_!! +So at last, we have found the origin of this whole difficulty, in the +grammars themselves; it was all imperfectly done. + +But here, again, _mirabile dictu!_ wonderful to tell, we are presented +with a _plu-perfect_ tense; that is,--_plus_ means _more_,--a _more_ +than perfect tense! What must that be? If a thing is perfect, we can not +easily conceive any thing beyond. That is a _ne plus ultra_ to all +advancement--there can be no more beyond. If any change is introduced, +it must be by falling from _perfect_ back to _imperfect_. + +I _have said_, "many of the distinctions in the grammar books _have +proved_ mischievous; that they are as false as frivolous;" and +this is said _perfectly_, in the perfect tense. If I should say, +"they _had been_ of some benefit," that would be _more_ than +_perfect_--plu-perfect. But when I say, "they _exhibited_ great depth +of research, and _conveyed_ some light on the subject of which they +_treated_," it would all be _im_-perfect. + +Next, we are presented with a _second future_ tense, which attempts a +division of time unbounded and unknown. In the greek, they have what is +called a "_paulo post future_," which in plain english, means a "_little +after the future_;" that is, I suppose, when futurity has come to an +end, this tense will commence! At that time we may expect to meet a +"_praeter plus quam perfectum_"--a more than perfect tense! But till that +period shall arrive, we see little need of making such false and +unphilosophic distinctions. + +A teacher once told me that he explained the distinctions of time to his +scholars from the clock dial which stood in the school room. Suppose +_twelve_ o'clock represents the _present_ tense; _nine_ would signify +the _perfect_; any thing between nine and twelve would be _imperfect_; +any thing beyond, _pluperfect_. On the other hand, any act, forward of +twelve, would be _future_; and at _three_ the _second future_ would +commence. I remarked that I thought this a wonderful improvement, +especially to those who were able to have clocks by which to teach +grammar, but that I could not discover why he did not have _three +future_, as well as _three past_ tenses. Why, he said, there were no +such tenses marked in the books, and hence there was no occasion to +explain them. I asked him why he did not have a tense for every hour, +and so he could distinguish with Mr. Webster, _twelve_ tenses, without +any trouble whatever; and, by going three times round the dial, he could +easily prove the correctness of Dr. Beattie's division; for he says, in +his grammar, there are _thirty-six_ tenses, and thinks there can not be +less without "introducing confusion in the grammatical _art_." But he +thought such a course would serve rather to perplex than enlighten; and +so thought I. But he was the teacher of a popular school in the city +of ----, and had published a duodecimo grammar of over 300 pages, +entitled "Murray's Grammar, _improved_, by ----." I will not give his +name; it would be libellous! + +Mr. Murray thinks because certain things which he asserts, but does not +prove, are found in greek and latin, "we may doubtless apply them to the +english verb; and extend the principle _as far as convenience_, and the +idiom of our language require." He found it to his "convenience" to note +_six_ principal, and as many _indefinite_ tenses. Mr. Webster does the +same. Dr. Beattie found it "convenient" to have _thirty-six_. In the +greek they have _nine_. Mr. Bauzee distinguishes in the french _twenty_ +tenses; and the royal academy of Spain present a very learned and +elaborate treatise on _seven future tenses_ in that language. The clock +dial of my friend would be found quite "_convenient_" in aiding the +"convenience" of such distinctions. + +The fact is, there are only three real divisions of time in any +language, because there are only three in nature, and the ideas of all +nations must agree in this respect. In framing language it was found +impossible to mark any other distinctions, without introducing other +words than those which express simple action. These words became +compounded in process of time, till they are now used as changes of the +same verb. I would here enter into an examination of the formation of +the tenses of greek, latin, french, spanish, and german verbs, did I +conceive it necessary, and show you how, by compounding two words, they +form the various tenses found in the grammars. But it will be more +edifying to you to confine my remarks to our own language. Here it will +be found impossible to distinguish more than three tenses, or find the +verb in any different form, except by the aid of other words, wholly +foreign from those that express the action under consideration. + +It is by the aid of auxiliary verbs that the perfect, pluperfect, or +future tenses are formed. But when it is shown you that these are +principal verbs, and like many other words, are used before the +infinitive mood without the word _to_ prefixed to them, you will +perceive the consistency of the plan we propose. That such is the fact +we have abundant evidence to show, and with your consent we will +introduce it in this place. I repeat, all the words long considered +auxiliaries, are _principal_ verbs, declarative of positive action, and +as such are in extensive use in our language. We can hardly agree that +the words _will_, _shall_, _may_, _must_, _can_, _could_, _would_, +_should_, etc. have no meaning, as our grammars and dictionaries would +teach us; for you may look in vain for a definition of them, as +principal verbs, with a few exceptions. + +The reason these words are not found in the same relation to other +words, with a _to_ after them, is because they are so often used that we +are accustomed to drop that word. The same may be said of all small +words in frequent use; as, _bid_, _do_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _have_, +_let_, _make_, _see_, and sometimes _needs_, _tell_, and a few others. +Bid him go. I _dare say_ so. I _feel_ it _move_. We _hear_ him _sing_. +_Let_ us _go_. _Make_ him _do_ it. He _must go_ thro Samaria. _Tell_ him +_do_ it immediately. + +It is a singular fact, but in keeping with neuter verb systems, that all +the _neuter_ verbs as well as the active, take these auxiliary or +_helping_ verbs, which, according to their showing _help them do +nothing_--"express neither action or passion." A wonderful _help_ +indeed! + + * * * * * + +=Will.= This verb signifies to _wish_, to _resolve_, to _exercise +volition_, in reference to a certain thing or action. "I will go." I +_now resolve_ to perform the act of going. When applied to inanimate +things incapable of volition, it signifies what is analogous to it, +_inherent tendency_; as, paper _will_ burn; iron _will_ sink; water +_will_ run. All these things have an inherent or active tendency to +change. Water is composed of minute particles of a round form, piled +together. While on a level they do not move; but let a descent be made, +and these particles, under the influence of gravitation, _will_ change +position, and roll one over another with a rapidity equalled to the +condition in which they are placed. The same may be observed in a +quantity of shot opened at one side which _will_ run thro the aperture; +but the particles being larger, they will not find a level like water. +Grain, sand, and any thing composed of small particles, _will_ exhibit +the same tendency. Iron, lead, or any mineral, in a state of igneous +solution, _will_ run, has the same _inclination_ to run as water, or any +other liquid. In oil, tallow, and lard, when expanded by heat, the same +tendency is observed; but severely chilled with the cold, it congeals, +and _will_ not, has no such _tendency_, to run. + +You have doubtless observed a cask filled with water and nearly tight, +(if it is possible, make it quite so,) and when an aperture is made in +the side, it _will_ run but a trifle before it will stop. Open a vent +upon the top of the cask and it _will_ run freely. This _will_ or +tendency was counteracted by other means which I will not stop here to +explain. + +This is a most important word in science, physical and moral, and may +be traced thro various languages where it exerts the same influence in +the expression of thought. + +"To avoid multiplying of words, I would crave leave here, under the word +_action_, to comprehend the _forbearance_ too of any action proposed; +_sitting still_, or _holding one's peace_, when _walking_ or _speaking_ +are proposed, tho mere forbearances, requiring as much the determination +of the _will_, and being as often weighty in their consequences as the +_contrary actions_, may, on that consideration, well enough pass for +actions too. For he that shall turn his thoughts inwards upon what +passes in his mind when he _wills_, shall see that the _will_ or power +of volition is conversant about nothing."--_Locke's Essay_, b. II. c. +21. Sec. 30. + +It is correctly applied by writers to _matter_ as well as mind, as may +be seen by consulting their works. + + "Meanwhile as nature _wills_, night bids us rest." + _Milton._ + +The _lupulis_, or common hop, _feels_ for some elevated object which +will assist it in its high aspirations, and _will_ climb it by winding +from left to right, and _will_ not be obliged to go in an opposite +direction; while the _phaseolus_, or kidney bean, takes the opposite +direction. Neither _will_ be compelled to change its course. They _will_ +have their own way, and grow as they please, or they _will_ die in the +contest for liberty. + +Arsenic has a _tendency_ in itself, a latent power, which only requires +an opportunity suited to its objects, when it _will act_ in the most +efficacious manner. It _will_ destroy the life of the Emperor, who has +_voluntarily_ slain his thousand and tens of thousands. This secret +power does not reside in the flour of wheat, for that _will not_, has no +tendency, to produce such disastrous consequences. + +This word is applied in a similar manner to individuals and nations. +The man _will_ fall, not of intention, but of accident. He _will_ kill +himself. The man _will_ drown, and the boat _will_ swim. The water +_will_ hold up the boat, but it _will_ allow the man to sink. The +Russians _will_ conquer the Turks. If conquest depended solely on the +_will_, the Turks would as soon conquer as the Russians. But I have not +time to pursue this topic farther. You can follow out these hints at +your leisure. + +=Shall= signifies to be _bound_, _obligated_, or _required_, from +external necessity. Its etymology may be traced back thro various +languages. It is derived direct from the saxon _scaelan_ or _scylan_, +and is found as a principal verb in that language, as well as in ours. +In the church homily they say, "To Him alone we _schall us_ to devote +ourselves;" we _bind_ or _obligate_ ourselves. Chaucer, an early english +poet, says. + + "The faith we _shall_ to God." + +Great difficulty has been found in distinguishing between _shall_ and +_will_, and frequent essays have been written, to give arbitrary rules +for their use. If the words were well understood, there could be no +difficulty in employing them correctly. _Will_ signifies _inherent +tendency_, _aptitude_, or _disposition_, and _volition_ in beings +capable of using it. _Shall_ implies _external necessity_, or foreign +obligation. The parent says, "You _will_ suffer misery if you do evil," +for it is in accordance with the nature of things for evil to produce +misery. "You _shall_ regard my wishes," for you are under _obligation_, +from the relation in which you stand to me, to do so. Let these words be +clearly explained, and there will be no difficulty in using them +correctly. + +=May=, past tense _might_. This verb expresses _power_, _strength_, or +_ability_ to perform an action. It is a mistake that it means permission +or liberty only. It implies more than that, the delegation of a power to +perform the contemplated action. Suppose the scholar should faint, would +the teacher say to him you _may_ go into the open air? He has no +_power_, _might_, or _strength_, communicated by such liberty, and must +receive the _might_ or strength of others to carry him out. But to the +scholar in health he says you _may_ go out, thereby giving to him a +power and liberty sufficient to perform the action. This is done on the +same principle that one man gives another a "_power_ of attorney" to +transact his business; and that _power_ constitutes his _liberty_ of +action. + +=Must= signifies to be _confined_, _limited_, _bound_, or _restrained_. +I _must_, or am bound, to obey; certain obligations require me to obey. +The adjective of this word is in common use. The air in the cask is +_musty_. It has long been _bound_ or _confined_ there, and prevented +from partaking of the purifying qualities of the atmosphere, and hence +has become _musty_. + +=Can.= This word is found as a principal verb and as a noun in our +language, especially in the Scotch dialect. "I _ken_ nae where he'd +gone." Beyond the _ken_ of mortals. Far from all human _ken_. It +signifies to _know_, to perceive, to understand. I knew not where he had +gone. Beyond the knowledge of mortals. Far from all human reach. To +_con_ or _cun_ is a different spelling of the same word. _Cunning_ is +that quick _perception_ of things, which enables a person to use his +knowledge adroitly. The child _can_ read; _knows_ how to read. It _can_ +walk. Here it seems to imply _power_; but power, in this case, as in +most others, is gained only by knowledge, for =knowledge is power=. +Many children have strength sufficient to walk, long before they do. The +reason why they _can not_ walk, is, they do not _know how_; they have +not learned to balance themselves in an erect position, so as to move +forward without falling. + +A vast proportion of human ability is derived from knowledge. There is +not a being in creation so entirely incapable of self-support, as the +new-born infant; and yet, by the help of knowledge, he becomes the lord +of this lower world. Bonaparte was once as helpless as any other child, +and yet by dint of _can_, _ken_, _cunning_, or knowledge, he made all +Europe tremble. But his knowledge was limited. He became blind to +danger, bewildered by success, and he _could_ no longer follow the +prudent course of wisdom, but fell a sacrifice to his own unbridled +ambition, and blinded folly. An enlightened people _can_ govern +themselves; but _power_ of government is gained by a knowledge of the +principles of equality, and mutual help and dependency; and whenever the +people become ignorant of that fact, they _will_ fall, the degraded +victims of their own folly, and the wily influence of some more knowing +aspirant for power. + +This is a most important topic; but I dare not pursue it farther, lest I +weary your patience. A few examples _must_ suffice. + + "Jason, she cried, for aught I _see_ or _can_, + This deed," &c. + _Chaucer._ + + A famous man, + Of every _witte_ somewhat he _can_, + _Out take_ that him lacketh rule, + His own estate to guide and rule. + _Gower._ + +=Do= has been called a _helping_ verb; but it needs little observation +to discover that it is no more so than a hundred other words. "_Do_ +thy diligence to come before winter." "_Do_ the work of an +evangelist."--_Paul to Timothy._ I _do_ all in my power _to expose_ the +error and wickedness of false teaching. _Do_ afford relief. _Do_ +something to afford relief. + +=Have= has also been reckoned as an auxiliary by the "helping verb +grammars," which has no other duty to perform than help conjugate other +verbs thro some of their moods and tenses. It is a word in very common +use, and of course must possess a very important character, which should +be carefully examined and distinctly known by all who desire a knowledge +of the construction of our language. + +The principal difficulty in the explanation of this word, is the +peculiar meaning which some have attached to it. It has been defined to +denote _possession_ merely. But when we say, a man _has_ much _property +destroyed_ by fire, we do not mean that he _gains_ or _possesses_ much +property by the fire; nor can we make _has_ auxiliary to _destroyed_, +for in that case it would stand thus: a man _has destroyed_ much +property by fire, which would be false, for the destruction was produced +by an incendiary, or some other means wholly unknown to him. + +You at once perceive that _to possess_ is not the only meaning which +attaches to _have_. It assumes a more important rank. It can be traced, +with little change in form, back thro many generations. It is the same +word as _heave_, originally, and retains nearly the same meaning. Saxon +_habban_, Gothic _haban_, German _haben_, Latin _habeo_, French _avoir_, +are all the same word, varied in spelling more than in sound; for _b_ in +many languages is sounded very much like _v_, or _bv_. It may mean to +_hold_, _possess_, _retain_, _sway_, _control_, _dispose of_, either as +a direct or _relative_ action; for a man sustains relations to his +actors, duties, family, friends, enemies, and all the world, as well as +to his possessions. He _has_ a hard task to perform. He _has_ much pain +_to suffer_. He _has_ suffered much unhappiness. + +I _have written_ a letter. I _have_ a written letter. I _have_ a letter +_written_. These expressions differ very little in meaning, but the verb +_have_ is the same in each case. By the first expression, I signify that +I have _caused_ the letter to be _written_; by the second that I have a +letter on which such action has been performed; and by the third, that +such written letter stands in such relation to myself. + +I _have written_ a letter and sent it away. _Written_ is the past +participle from _write_; as an adjective it describes the letter in the +condition I placed it; so that it will be defined, wherever it is found, +as my letter; that is, some way _related_ to me. + +We can here account for the old _perfect tense_, which is said, "not +only to refer to what is _past_, but also _to convey an allusion to the +present time_." The verb is in the _present_ tense, the participle is in +the _past_, and hence the reason of this allusion. I _have_ no _space +allowed_ me to go into a full investigation of this word, in its +application to the expression of ideas. But it is necessary to _have_ it +well _understood_, as it _has_ an important _service entrusted_ to it; +and I hope you will _have_ clear _views presented_ to your minds, strong +enough to _have_ former _errors eradicated_ therefrom. + +If you _have_ leisure _granted_, and patience and disposition equal-_ed_ +to the task, you have my consent to go back and read this sentence over +again. You will find it _has_ in it embodied much important information +in relation to the use of _have_ and the perfect tense. + + + + +LECTURE XIII. + +ON VERBS. + + Person and number in the agent, not in the action.--Similarity of + agents, actions, and objects.--Verbs made from nouns.--Irregular + verbs.--Some examples.--Regular Verbs.--_Ed_.--_Ing_.--Conjugation + of verbs.--To love.--To have.--To be.--The indicative mood + varied.--A whole sentence may be agent or object.--Imperative + mood.--Infinitive mood.--Is always future. + + +I have said before that action can never be known separate from the +actor; that the verb applies to the agent in an _acting_ condition, as +that term has been defined and should be understood. Hence Person and +Number can never attach to the verb, but to the agent with which, of +course, the action must, in every respect, agree; as, "_I write_." In +this case the action corresponds with myself. But to say that _write_ is +in the "first person, singular number," would be wrong, for no such +number or person belongs to the verb, but is confined to myself as the +agent of the action. + +The form of the verb is changed when it agrees with the second or third +person singular; more on account of habit, I apprehend, than from any +reason, or propriety as to a change of meaning in the word. We say, when +using the regular _second_ person singular, "_thou writest_," a form +rarely observed except in addresses to Deity, or on solemn occasions. In +the _third_ person, an _s_ is added to the regular form; as, "_he +writes_." The old form, which was in general use at the time the common +version of the Bible was published, was still different, ending in +_eth_; as, _he thinketh_, _he writeth_. This style, altho considerably +used in the last century, is nearly obsolete. When the verb agrees with +the plural number it is usually the same as when it agrees with the +first person; as, "_We write_, _you write_, _they write_." There are few +exceptions to these rules. + +Some people have been very tenacious about retaining the old forms of +words, and our books were long printed without alteration; but change +will break thro every barrier, and book-makers must keep pace with the +times, and put on the dress that is catered for them by the public +taste; bearing in mind, meanwhile, that great and practical truths are +more essential than the garb in which they appear. We should be more +careful of our health of body and purity of morals than of the costume +we put on. Many genteel coats wrap up corrupt hearts, and fine hats +cover silly heads. What is the chaff to the wheat? + +Even our good friends, the quakers, who have particularly labored to +retain old forms--"the plain language,"--have failed in their attempt, +and have substituted the _object_ form of the pronoun for the _agent_, +and say, "_thee thinks_," for _thou thinkest_. Their mistake is even +greater than the substitution of _you_ for _thou_. + +So far as language depends on the conventional regulation of those who +use it, it will be constantly changing; new words will be introduced, +and the spelling of old ones altered, so as to agree with modern +pronounciation. We have all lived long enough to witness the truth of +this remark. The only rule we can give in relation to this matter is, to +follow our own judgments, aided by our best writers and speakers. + +The words which express action, are in many cases very similar to the +agents which produce them; and the objects which are the direct results +produced by such action, do not differ very materially. I will give you +a few examples. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + Actors Act Actions + Breathers Breathe Breath + Builders Build Buildings + Coiners Coin Coins + Casters Cast Casts or castings + Drinkers Drink Drink + Dreamers Dream Dreams + Earners Earn Earnings + Fishers Fish Fishes + Gainers Gain Gain + Hewers Hew Hewings + Innkeepers Keep Inns + Light or lighters Light or shed Lights + Miners Mine or dig Mines + Pleaders Plead or make Pleas + Producers Produce Products + Raisers Raise Raisings or houses + Runners or racers Run Runs or races + Sufferers Suffer Sufferings + Speakers Speak Speeches + Thinkers Think Thoughts + Writers Write Writings + Workers Work Works + +I give you these examples to show you the near alliance between +_actors_, ( ,) and _actions_; or agents, _actions_, and objects. Such +expressions as the above are inelegant, because they are uncommon; but +for no other reason, for we, in numberless cases, employ the same word +for agent and verb; as, _painters paint_ buildings, and _artists_ paint +paintings; _bookbinders bind books_; _printers print_ books, and other +_prints_. A little observation will enable you to carry out these hints, +and profit by them. You have observed the disposition in children, and +foreigners, who are partially acquainted with our language, to make +verbs out of almost every noun, which appears to us very aukward; but +was it common, it would be just as correct as the verbs now used. There +are very few verbs which have not a noun to correspond with them, for we +make verbs, that is, we use words to express action, which are nearly +allied to the agent with which such action agrees.[17] From botany we +have made _botanize_; from Mr. McAdam, the inventor of a particular +kind of road, _macadamize_, which means to make roads as he made them. +Words are formed in this way very frequently. The word _church_ is often +used as a noun to express a building used for public worship; for the +services performed in it; for the whole congregation; for a portion of +believers associated together; for the Episcopal order, etc. It is also +used as a verb. Mr. Webster defines it, "To perform with any one the +office of returning thanks in the church after any signal deliverance." +But the word has taken quite a different turn of late. _To church_ a +person, instead of receiving him into communion, as that term would seem +to imply, signifies to deal with an offending member, to excommunicate, +or turn him out. + +But I will not pursue this point any farther. The brief hints I have +thrown out, will enable you to discover how the meaning and forms of +words are changed from their original application to suit the notions +and improvements of after ages. A field is here presented which needs +cultivation. The young should be taught to search for the etymology of +words, to trace their changes and meaning as used at different times and +by different people, keeping their minds constantly directed to the +object signified by such verbal sign. This is the business of +philosophy, under whatever name it may be taught; for grammar, rhetoric, +logic, and the science of the mind, are intimately blended, and should +always be taught in connexion. We have already seen that words without +meaning are like shadows without realities. And persons can not employ +language "correctly," or "with propriety," till they have acquainted +themselves with the import of such language--the ideas of things +signified by it. Let this course be adopted in the education of +children, and they will not be required to spend months and years in the +study of an "_art_" which they can not comprehend, for the simple reason +that they can not apply it in practice. Grammar has been taught as a +mere _art_, depending on arbitrary rules to be mechanically learned, +rather than a science involving the soundest and plainest principles of +philosophy, which are to be known only as developed in common practice +among men, and in accordance with the permanent laws which govern human +thought. + +Verbs differ in the manner of forming their _past_ tenses, and +participles, or adjectives. Those ending in _ed_ are called _regular_; +those which take any other termination are _irregular_. There are about +two hundred of the latter in our language, which differ in various ways. +Some of them have the _past_ tense and the past participle the same; as, + + Bid Bid Bid + Knit Knit Knit + Shut Shut Shut + Let Let Let + Spread Spread Spread, etc. + +Others have the past tense and participle alike, but different from the +present; as, + + Lend Lent Lent + Send Sent Sent + Bend Bent Bent + Wend Went Went + Build Built or builded Built + Think Thought Thought, etc. + +Some have the present and past tense and participle different; as, + + Blow Blew Blown + Grow Grew Grown + Begin Began Begun + See Saw Seen + Write Wrote Written + Give Gave Given + Speak Spoke Spoken + Rise Rose Risen + Fall Fell Fallen, etc. + +There are a few which are made up of different radicals, which have been +wedded together by habit, to avoid the frequent and unpleasant +recurrence of the same word; as, + + Am Was Been + Go (wend) Went Gone, etc. + +Some which were formerly irregular, are now generally used with the +regular termination, in either the past tense or participle, or both; +as, + + Hang Hung or hanged Hung or hanged + Dare Dared or durst Dared + Clothe Clad or clothed Clad or clothed + Work Worked or wrought Worked + Shine Shined or shone Shone or shined + Spill Spilled or spilt Spilt or spilled, etc. + +The syllable _ed_ is a contraction of the past tense of _do_; as, I +_loved_, love _did_, _did_ love, or love-_ed_. He learn_ed_, learn did, +did learn, or learned. It signifies action, _did_, done, or +accomplished. You have all lived long enough to have noticed the change +in the pronounciation of this syllable. Old people sound it full and +distinct; and so do most others in reading the scriptures; but not so +generally as in former times. In poetry it was usually abbreviated so as +to avoid the full sound; and hence we may account for the _irregular_ +termination of many words, such as _heard_, for _heared_; _past_, for +_passed_; _learnt_, for _learned_; _built_, for _builded_. In modern +poetry, however, the _e_ is retained, tho sounded no more than formerly. + +_Ing_ is derived from the verb to _be_, and signifies _being_, +_existing_; and, attached to a verb, is used as a noun, or adjective, +retaining so much of its former character as to have an object after it +which is affected by it; as, "I am _writing_ a lecture." Here _writing_, +the present participle of _write_, describes myself in my present +employment, and yet retains its action as a verb, and terminates on +_lecture_ as the thing written. "The man was taken in the act of +_stealing_ some money." In this case _stealing_ names the action which +the man was performing when detected, which action thus named, has +_money_ for the object on which it terminates. + +I barely allude to this subject in this place to give you an idea of the +method we adopt to explain the meaning and use of participles. It +deserves more attention, perhaps, to make it plain to your minds; but as +it is not an essential feature in the new system, I shall leave it for +consideration in a future work. Whoever is acquainted with the formation +of the present participle in other languages, can carry out the +suggestions I have made, and fully comprehend my meaning. + +I will present you with an example of the conjugations of a few verbs +which you are requested to compare with the "_might could would should +have been loved_" systems, which you were required to learn in former +times. You will find the verb in every _form_ or position in which it +ever occurs in our language, written or spoken. + +Conjugation of the regular verb =to love=. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I _love_ We _love_ + Present tense Thou _lovest_ You _love_ + He, she, or it _loves_ They _love_ + + I _loved_ We _loved_ + Past tense Thou _lovedst_ You _loved_ + He, she, or it _loved_ They _loved_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Love._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To love._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Loving_ + Past, _Loved_ + +The irregular verb =to have=, is thus conjugated. + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _have_ We _have_ + Present tense Thou _hast_ You _have_ + He _has_ They _have_ + + I _had_ We _had_ + Past tense Thou _hadst_ You _had_ + He _had_ They _had_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Have._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To have._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Having_ + Past, _Had_ + +The irregular verb =to be=, stands thus: + + + INDICATIVE MOOD. + + I _am_ We _are_ + Present tense Thou _art_ You _are_ + He _is_ They _are_ + + I _was_ We _were_ + Past tense Thou _wast_ You _were_ + He _was_ They _were_ + + + IMPERATIVE MOOD. + + _Be._ + + + INFINITIVE MOOD. + + _To be._ + + PARTICIPLES. + + Present, _Being_ + Past, _Been_ + +These examples will suffice to give you an idea of the ease and +simplicity of the construction of verbs, and by a comparison with old +systems, you can, for yourselves, determine the superiority of the +principles we advocate. The above tabular views present every form which +the verb assumes, and every position in which it is found. In use, +these words are frequently compounded together;[18] but with a +knowledge of the above principles, and the _meaning_ of the words--a +most essential consideration--you will always be able to analyze any +sentence, and parse it correctly. I have not time to enlarge on this +point, to show how words are connected together. Nor do I think it +necessary to enable you to understand my views. To children such a work +would be indispensable, and shall be attended to if we are able to +publish a grammar containing the simple principles of language. + + * * * * * + +The indicative mood is varied four ways. 1st, affirmatively, _he +writes_; 2d, negatively, _he writes not_; 3d, interrogatively, _does_ he +write? or _writes_ he? 4th, suppositively, if _he writes_, _suppose he +writes_, allow _he writes_. + +The _first_ is a simple affirmation of a fact, and is easily understood. +The _second_ is formed by annexing a term to express negation. _Not_ is +a contraction from _nought_ or _naught_, which is a compound of _ne_, +negative, and ought or aught, _ne-aught_, meaning _no-thing_. _He writes +not_; he writes nothing. He does _not_ write; he does _nothing_ to +write. _Neither_ is a compound of _ne_ and _either_, _not either_. He +_can not_ read; he _can_, _kens_, _knows nothing_, has no ability _to +read_. + +The third is constructed into a question by placing the verb before the +agent, or by prefixing another word before the agent, and then placing +the former verb as an infinitive after it; as, _Does_ he write? or +_writes_ he? When another verb is prefixed, one is always chosen which +will best decide the query. Does he _any thing_ to write? Does he make +any motions or show any indications to write? When the _will_ or +disposition of a person is concerned, we choose a word accordingly. +_Will_ he write? Has he the _will_ or disposition to write? _Can_ he +write? Is he able--_knows_ he how to write? A little observation will +enable you to understand my meaning. + +In the fourth place, a supposition is made in the imperative mood, in +accordance with which the action is performed. "_If_ ye _love_ me, keep +my commandments." _Give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_ this fact--you +_love_ me, keep my commandments. I will go if I can. I _resolve_, +_will_, or _determine_ to go; _if_, _gif_, _give_, grant, allow this +fact, I _can_, _ken_, _know_ how, or _am_ able _to go_. But more on this +point when we come to the consideration of contractions. + +In this mood the verb must have an agent and object, expressed or +implied; as, "_farmers_ cultivate the _soil_." But a whole sentence, +that is, an idea written out, may perform this duty; as, "The study of +grammar, on false principles, is productive of no good." What is +productive of no good? What is the agent of _is_? "The _study_," our +books and teachers tell us. But does such a construction give the true +meaning of the sentence? I think not, for _study_ is indispensable to +knowledge and usefulness, and _the study_ of grammar, properly directed, +is a most useful branch of literature, which should never be dispensed +with. It is the study of grammar _on false principles_, which _is +productive of no good_. You discover my meaning, and will not question +its correctness. You must also see how erroneous it would be to teach +children that "_to study_ is productive of no good." The force of the +sentence rests on the "false principles" taught. Hence the whole +statement is truly the agent of the verb. + +The object on which the action terminates is frequently expressed in a +similar manner; as, "He wrote to me, that he will adopt the new system +of grammar, if he can procure some books to give his scholars to learn." +Will you parse _wrote_? Most grammarians will call it an _intransitive_ +verb, and make out that "he wrote" _nothing_ to me, because there is no +regular objective word after it. Will you parse _that_? It is a +"conjunction _copulative_." What does it connect? "_He wrote_" to the +following sentence, according to Rule 18 of Mr. Murray; "conjunctions +connect the _same_ moods and tenses of verbs and cases of nouns and +pronouns." Unluckily you have two different tenses connected in this +case. Will you parse _if_? It is a _copulative_ conjunction, connecting +the two members of the sentence--_he will adopt_ if _he can procure_: +Rule, as above. How exceeding unfortunate! You have _two_ different +moods, and too different tenses, connected by a _copulative_ conjunction +which the rule says "connects _the same_ moods and tenses! What +nonsense! What a falsehood! What a fine thing to be a grammarian! And +yet, I venture the opinion, and I judge from what I have seen in myself +and others, there is not one teacher in a hundred who will not learn +children to parse as above, and apply the same rule to it. "I _will go_ +if I _can_." "I _do_ and _will_ contend." "As it _was_ in the beginning, +_is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_." "I _am_ here and _must_ remain." "He +_will do_ your business _if_ he _has_ time." "I _am_ resolved _to +expose_ the errors of grammar, _and will do_ it thoroly _if_ I _can_." + +In these examples you have different moods and tenses, indiscriminately, +yet correctly coupled together, despite the rules of syntax which teach +us to explain language "with propriety." + +_That_, in the sentence before us, is an adjective, referring to the +following sentence, which is the _object_ of _wrote_, or is the thing +written. "He wrote to me _that_" fact, sentiment, opinion, +determination, or resolution, that writing, letter, or word--"he will +adopt the new system of grammar, if he can procure some books." + +This subject properly belongs to that department of language called +syntax; but as I shall not be able to treat of that in this course of +lectures, I throw in here these brief remarks to give you some general +ideas of the arrangement of words into sentences, according to their +true meaning, as obtained from a knowledge of their etymology. You +cannot fail to observe this method of constructing language if you will +pay a little attention to it when reading; keeping all the time in view +the fact that words are only the signs of ideas, derived from an +observation of things. You all know that it is not merely the steam that +propels the boat, but that it is steam _applied to machinery_. Steam is +the more latent cause; and the engine with its complicated parts is the +direct means. In the absence of either, the boat would not be propelled. +In the formation of language, I may say correctly, "Solomon _built_ the +temple;" for he stood in that relation to the matter which supposes it +would not have been built without his direction and command. To +accomplish such an action, however, he need not raise a hammer or a +gavel, or draw a line on the trestle board. His command made known to +his ministers was sufficient to _cause_ the work to be done. Hence the +whole fact is _indicated_ or declared by the single expression, "Solomon +_built_ the temple." + +The Imperative mood is unchanged in form. I can say to one man, _go_, or +to a thousand, _go_. The commander when drilling _one_ soldier, says, +_march_; and he bids the whole battalion, _march_. The agent who is _to +perform_ the action is understood when not expressed; as, _go_, _go +thou_, or _go you_. The agent is generally omitted, because the address +is given direct to the person who is expected to obey the instruction, +request, or command. This verb always agrees with an agent in the +_second_ person. And yet our "grammars made easy" have given us _three +persons_ in this mood--"_Let me love_; _love_, _love thou_, or _do_ thou +_love_; let him love." In the name of common sense, I ask, what can +children learn by such instruction? "_Let me love_," in the conjugation +of the verb _to love_! To whom is this command given? To _myself_ of +course! I command myself to "_let me love_!" What nonsense! "Let _him_ +love." I stand here, you set there, and the _third_ person is in +Philadelphia. I utter these words, "Let _him love_." What is my meaning? +Why, our books tell us, that the verb to _love_ is _third_ person. Then +I command _him_ to _let himself love_! What jargon and falsehood! You +all know that we can address the _second_ person only. You would call me +insane if I should employ language according to the rules of grammar as +laid down in the standard books. In my room alone, no person near me, I +cry out, "_let me be quiet_"--imperative mood, first person of _to be_! +Do I command myself to _let_ myself _be_ quiet? Most certainly, if _be_ +is the principal verb in the first person, and _let_ the auxiliary. The +teacher observes one of his pupils take a pencil from a classmate who +sets near him. He says, "_let him have it_." To whom is the command +given? It is the imperative mood, third person of the verb _to have_. +Does he command the third person, the boy who _has_ not the pencil? Such +is the resolution of the sentence, according to the authority of +standard grammars. But where is there a child five years old who does +not know better. Every body knows that he addresses the second person, +the boy who has the pencil, to _let_ the other _have_ it. + +Teachers have learned their scholars the _first_ and _third_ persons of +this mood when committing the conjugation of verbs; but not one in ten +thousand ever adopted them in parsing. "_Let me love._" _Let_, all +parse, Mr. Murray not excepted, in the _second_ person, and _love_ in +the infinitive mood after it, without the sign _to_; according to the +rule, that "verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, +_needs_, _speak_," etc. are in the infinitive mood. It is strange people +will not eat their own cooking. + +There can be no trouble in understanding this mood, as we have explained +it, always in the future tense, that is, future to the command or +request, agreeing with the _second_ person, and never varied on account +of number. + +The only variation in the infinitive mood is the omission of _to_ in +certain cases, which is considered as a part of the verb; tho in truth +it is no more so than when used in the character of an old fashioned +preposition. In certain cases, as we have before observed, it is not +expressed. This is when the infinitive verb follows small words in +frequent use; as, shall, will, let, can, must, may, bid, do, have, make, +feel, hear, etc. + +This mood is always in the future tense; that is, it is future to the +circumstances or condition of things upon which it depends; as, they are +making preparations _to raise_ the building. Here _to raise_ is future +to the preparations, for if they make no preparations, the buildings +will not be raised. The boy studies his book _to learn_ his lesson. If +he does not study, he will not be likely _to learn_ his lesson. + +The allied powers of Europe combined their forces _to defeat_ Napoleon. +In this instance the whole expression is in the past tense; +nevertheless, the action expressed in the infinitive mood, _was future_ +to the circumstance on which it depended; that is, the _defeat_ was +_future_ to the _combination_ of the forces. Abraham raised the knife +_to slay_ his son. Not that he did _slay_ him, as that sentence must be +explained on the common systems, which teach us that _to slay_ is in the +_present tense_; but he raised the fatal knife for that purpose, the +fulfilment of which was future; but the angel staid his hand, and +averted the blow. The patriots of Poland _made_ a noble attempt _to +gain_ their liberty. But they did not _gain it_, as our grammars would +teach us. _To gain_ was future to the attempt, and failed because the +circumstances _indicated_ by the event, were insufficient to produce so +favorable a result. + +No person of common discernment can fail to observe the absolute +falsehood of existing systems in respect to this mood. It is used by our +authors of grammar in the _present_ and _past_ tenses, but never in the +_future_. Let us give a moment to the consideration of this matter. Take +the following example. He _will prepare_ himself next week _to go_ to +Europe. Let the school master parse _will prepare_. It is a verb, +indicative mood, _first future_ tense. _Next week_ is the point in +futurity when the _preparation_ will be _made_. Now parse _to go_. It +is a verb, infinitive mood, _present tense_! Then _he_ is already on his +way to Europe, when he is not _to prepare_ himself till next week! An +army is collected _to fight_ the enemy. Is the fight already commenced? +_To fight_ is present tense, say the books. We shall study grammar next +year, _to obtain_ a knowledge of the principles and use of language. Is +_to obtain_ present tense? If so there is little need of spending time +and money to study for a knowledge we _already possess_. + + "Hope springs eternal in the human breast; + Man never _is_, but always =to be= blest." + _Pope._ + +"Who _was_, and who _is_, and who _is_ =to come=."--_Bible._ It is not +that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but +hopes =to be= qualified, etc. + +I _am to go_ in an hour. He _is to go_ to-morrow. I _am_ ready _to hear_ +you recite your lesson. He _has been waiting_ a long time _to see_ if +some new principles will not be introduced. He is prepared _to appear_ +before you whenever you shall direct. We _are_ resolved _to employ_ +neuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, +and second future tenses, no longer. False grammars _are_ only fit-_ted +to be_ laid aside. We are in duty bound _to regard_ and _adopt_ truth, +and _reject_ error; and we _are_ determined _to do_ it in grammar, and +every thing else. + +We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually +taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, +or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. +The hints I have given must suffice. + +Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as +these lectures are not designed for _a system_ of grammar _to be +taught_, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the +way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall +leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to +comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been +somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we +should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the +time of the Institute, which is designed as a means of improvement on +general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if +you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate +and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the +theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be +adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the +study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here +attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain +philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and +adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and +ineffectual teaching be still preserved. + + + + +LECTURE XIV. + +ON CONTRACTIONS. + + A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have + a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should + be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray. + --Awake.--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, + till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence. + --Perhaps.--Not.--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Distinctions + false.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho.--Yet. + + +We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words. +Things _named_, _defined_ and _described_, and their _actions_, +_relations_, and _tendencies_, have been considered under the classes of +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these classes all words belong when +properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in +all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many +words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and +disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they +are difficult of explanation. These words we have classed under the head +of _Contractions_, a term better calculated than any other we have seen +adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on +the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary +expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then +be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed. + +Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, +conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and +meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be +conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only +reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in +numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with +such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses some _quality_ or +circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a +conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of _two_ to +make only _one_ sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words +with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been +explained. They have been _passed over_ with little difficulty by +teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of +speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for +ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have +been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be +pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such +explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is +the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and +exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology. + +But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the +expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and +so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known. +Horne Tooke calls them "the _wheels_ of language, the _wings_ of +Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would +be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he +undertakes to show that they were _constructed_ for this object, he +mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that +purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they +have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he +says,[19] "_abbreviation_ and _corruption_ are always busiest with the +words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being +very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their +passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country." + +In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not +get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and +exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, +language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, +and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty +figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of +invention. It was not until people had _ideas_ to communicate, that they +sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and +then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their +purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part +completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions, +_sign_-ificant of things, or _ideas_ of _things_ and _actions_, were +first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20] As the +human mind advanced in knowledge, by observing the character, +relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, +compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; +just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and +distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most +complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and +great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles +on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some +wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different +kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the +engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with +immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being +unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and +should be clearly understood by him who would build or _use_ the latter. +So, in the formation of language, simple _first_ principles must be +observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would +obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with +propriety." + +In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting +science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their +various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be +known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may +aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language are +equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood. +But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, +is the paucity of _means_ to trace back to their original form and +meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been +employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that +long space has undergone many and strange modifications. At the +dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned +thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick +up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, +and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, +as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the +different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were +thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the +trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose +affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, +will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced. + +In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a +measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who +use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their +stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; +and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been +changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in +1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the +necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old +writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this +lecture. + +The words which we class under the head of Contractions, are so altered +and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion +are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to +attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid +that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability +to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the +words which belong to this class. I will be candid, if I am not +successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may +be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the +ground we have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the +subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words. + +But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I +am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few +exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common +grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the _meaning_ of these +words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like pens or +reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed +to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, +they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, +I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain +circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives," +and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not +unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, +drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping +cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can +you write your lesson? _Not yet quite well enough._ "_But and if_ that +evil servant,"[21] etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally +used _both as_ a conjunction _and as_ an adverb, and sometimes _as_ a +preposition. + +Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from +the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered +parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, +and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy. +Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called +contractions, for such they _mostly_ are, as adverbs or any thing else; +for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other. + +In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by +sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and +whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the +true and practical use of these words. + +Let us begin with _Adverbs_. + +I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into +which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of +speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have been _contrived_ +to express compendiously in _one word_, what must _otherwise_ have +required two or more; as, "he acted _wisely_." They could have been +"_contrived_" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they +are made up of various words combined together, which are used to +express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very +example Mr. M. has given. _Wisely_ is made up of two words; _wise_ and +_like_. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did he _act_? _Wisely_, we +are taught, expresses the "_manner_ or quality" of the verb _act_. But +_act_, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and _wisely_ +expresses the _manner of action_ where there is none! But he must have +_acted something_ which was _wise_ like something else. What did he act? +If he produced no _actions_, how can it be known that he _acted_ wisely +or unwisely? _Action_ or _acts_ is the direct object of to _act_. Hence +the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He acted _acts_ or +_actions_ like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears +aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, +improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we +have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in +which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with +the latest fashions. + +"The bird sings _sweetly_." The bird sings _songs_, _notes_, or _tunes_, +_like sweet notes_, _tunes,_ or _songs_. The comparison here made, is +not in reference to the agent or action, but the _object_ of the action; +and this explains the whole theory of those _adverbs_, which are said to +"qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that no _action_, as +such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the +_thing_ or _agent_ which _acts_; and such action can only be determined +by the _changed_ or altered condition of something which is the _object_ +of such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be +known to _qualify_ the action, as distinct from the object or agent? And +if it does not in _fact_, how can we explain words to children, or to +our own minds, so as to understand what is not true? + +Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing +by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of +comparison; as, a likely man, a _very_ likely man, a likelier, and the +_likeliest_ man. "He is the _most likely_ pedlar I ever knew." "He is +_more liable_ to be deceived." "A _lively_ little fellow." "He is +worthless." He is worth less, _less worthy_ of respect and confidence. +"He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words _like very +correct_ letters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind +the fact, that _ly_ is a contraction of _like_, which is often retained +in many words; as god_like_, christian_like_, etc., and search for a +definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a +large portion of this adverb family. + +It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still +adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs _qualify neuter_ as well +as active verbs, and express the _quality_ or _manner of action_, where +there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When +a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest +course is to return back and start again. + +Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying from _eleven_ to +_seventy-two_, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the +nice shades of form which these words have assumed. But a bonnet is a +bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on +as many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a +bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it a _bonnet_, and +talk about its _appendages_. But when it is constructed into something +else, then we will give it a new name. + +Adjectives, we have said, are _derived_ from either nouns or verbs, and +we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either +adjectives, nouns, or verbs. In defence of this sentiment we will +adduce a few words in this place for examples. + +=Ago.= "Three years _ago_, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past +participle from the verb _ago_, meaning the same as _gone_ or _agone_, +and was so used a few centuries _ago_--_agone_, or _gone by_. + + "For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, + God wotte, worldly ioye is soone _ago_." + _Chaucer._ + + "For if it erst was well, tho was it bet + A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require + _Ago_ was euery sorowe and euery fere." + _Troylus, boke 3, p. 2._ + + "Of such examples as I finde + Upon this point of tyme _agone_ + I thinke for to tellen one." + _Gower_, lib. 5, p. 1. + + "Which is no more than has been done + By knights for ladies, long _agone_." + _Hudibras._ + + "Twenty years _agone_." + _Tillotson's sermon._ + + "Are all _the go_." + _Knickerbocker._ + +=Astray.= "They went astray." _Astrayed_, wandered or were scattered, +and of course soon became _estranged_ from each other. Farmers all know +what it is for cattle to _stray_ from home; and many parents have felt +the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons _strayed_ from the paths of +virtue. In that condition they are _astray-ed_. + + "This prest was drank and goth _astrayede_." + + "Achab to the bottle went. + When Benedad for all his shelde + Him slough, so that upon the felde + His people goth aboute _astraie_." + _Gower._ + +=Awake.= "He is _awake_." "Samson _awaked_ out of his sleep." "That I +may _awake_ him out of sleep." "It is high time to _awake_." "As a man +that is _wakened_ out of sleep." The Irish hold _a wake_--they do not +sleep the night after the loss of friends. + +=Asleep.= + + "When that pyte, which longe _on sleep_ doth tary + Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse." + _Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1._ + + "Ful sound _on sleep_ did caucht thare rest be kind." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 283. + +"In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd and _in +sleepe_."--_Fabian._ + +A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, which, from their +frequent recurrence, are used without their usual connexion with small +words. The letter _a_ is compounded with many of these words, which may +have been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaning _on_, +_to_, _at_, _in_, as it is used in the french and some other languages. +You often hear expressions like these, "he is _a_-going; he is +_a_-writing; he began _a_-new," etc. The old adverbs which take this +letter, you can easily analyze; as, "The house is _a_-fire"--on fire; +"He fell _a_-sleep"--he fell _on_ sleep. "When deep sleep falleth on +men."--_Job._ "He stept _a_-side"--on one side. "He came _a_-board"--on +board. "They put it _a_-foot"--on foot. "He went _a_-way"--a way, +followed some _course_, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all the _go_ +now _a_-days," etc. + +The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these +words: + + "Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre, + And al thare schyppis and navy set _in fire_." + _Douglas_, b. 9, p. 274. + + "Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis with _ane_ swak, + Now bendis he up his bourdon with _ane_ mynt, + _On side_ (a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt." + _Idem._ + + "That easter fire and flame aboute + Both at mouth and at nase + So that thei setten all _on blaze_," (ablaze.) + _Gower._ + + "And tyl a wicked deth him take + _Him had_ leuer _asondre_ (a-sunder) shake + And let al his lymmes _asondre_ ryue + Thane leaue his richesse in his lyue." + _Chaucer._ + +Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length. But +the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these +words, and also, by comparison with the present, of the changes which +have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries. + +A large portion of adverbs relate to _time_ and _place_, because many of +our ideas, and much of our language, are employed in reference to them; +as, _then_, _when_, _where_, _there_, _here_, _hence_, _whence_, +_thence_, _while_, _till_, _whether_, etc. These are compound words +considerably disguised in their meaning and formation. Let us briefly +notice some of them. + +_Per annum_ is a latin phrase, _for the year_, a _year_; and _the annum_ +is _the year_, _round_ or _period_ of time, from which it was corrupted +gradually into its present shape. _Thanne_, tha anne, _thane_, _thenne_, +_then_, _than_, are different forms of the same word. + +"We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, face to face. +Nowe I know of partye; _thanne_ forsathe schal know as I am knowen."--1. +Cor. 13: 12. _Translation in 1350._ + +I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which stands thus: +"For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: but _thene_ face to face: now +I know in part: but _then_ shal I know even as I am knowen." Here +several words are spelled differently in the same verse. + +=Then=, _the anne_, that time. =When=, _wha anne_, "_wha-icht-anne_," +which, or what _anne_, period of time. + +_Area_ means an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or place. Arena is +from the same etymon, altered in application. =There=, _the area_, the +_place_ or _spot_. "If we go _there_," to that place. =Where=, which, or +what ("wha-icht area") place. =Here=, _his_ (latin word for _this_,) +_area_, this place. These words refer to _place_, _state_, or +_condition_. + +_While_ is another spelling for _wheel_. "To while away our time," is to +_pass_, spend, or _wheel_ it away. _While_ applies to the _period_, or +space of time, in which something _wheels_, _whirls_, _turns_ round, or +transpires; as, "You had better remain here _while_ (during the time) he +examines whether it is prudent for you to go." + +=Till= is _to while_, to the _period_ at which something is expected to +follow. "If I will that he tarry _till_ (to the time) I come what is +that to thee?" + +The idea of _time_ and _place_ are often blended together. It is not +uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in some parts of our +country say "down _till_ the bottom, over _till_ the woods." etc. Altho +we do not regard such expressions correct, yet they serve to explain the +meaning of the word. The only mistake is in applying it to _place_ +instead of _time_. + +=Whether= is _which either_. "Shew _whether_ of these _two_ thou hast +chosen."--_Acts 1: 24._ It is more frequently applied in modern times to +circumstance and events _than to_ persons and things. "I will let you +know _whether_ I _will_ or _will not_ adopt it," one or the other. + +=Together= signifies two or more united. _Gethered_ is the past +participle of _gather_. + + "As Mailie, an' her lambs _thegither_, + Were ae day nibbling on the tether." + _Burns._ + +=Ever= means _time_, _age_, _period_. It originally and essentially +signified _life_. _For ever_ is for the age or period. _For ever_ and +_ever_, to the ages of ages. _Ever-lasting_ is _age-lasting_. +Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc. + +=Never=, _ne-ever_, _not ever_, at no time, age or period. + +=When-ever.=--At what point or space of _time_ or _age_. + +=What-ever.=--What thing, fact, circumstance, or event. + +=Where-ever.=--To, at, or in what place, period, age, or time. + +=Whither-so-ever=, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, never-the-less, +etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning will appear obvious to +all. + +=Oft=, _often_, _oft-times_, often-_times_, can be understood by all, +because the noun to which they belong is _oft-en_ retained in practice. + +=Once=, twice, at one time, two times. + +=Hence=, _thence_, _whence_, from _this_, _that_, or _what_, place, +spot, circumstance, post, or starting place. + +=Hence-for-ward=, _hence-forth_, in time _to come_, after this period. + +=Here-after=, after this _era_, or present time. + +=Hither=, to this spot or place. _Thither_, to that place. _Hither-to_, +_hither-ward_, etc. the same as _to you ward_, or to God ward, still +retained in our bibles. + +=Per-haps=, it may hap. _Perchance_, _peradventure_, by chance, by +adventure. The latin _per_ means _by_. + +=Not=, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound of _ne_ and _ought_ +or _a_ught. + +=Or= is a contraction from other, and _nor_ from _ne-or_, no-or, no +other. + +=No-wise=, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another way or manner, +you must go. + +=Than=, _the ane_, the one, that one, alluding to a particular object +with which a comparison is made; as, This book is larger _than_ that +bible. That _one_ bible, this book is larger. It is always used with the +comparative degree, to define particularly the object with which the +comparison is made. Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often +bestowed regardless of merit, talent is better. + +=As= is an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, that, these, +the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first kind. You practice +_as_ you have been taught--_the same duties_ or _principles_ understood. +We use language _as_ we have learned it; in _the same_ way or manner. It +is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way, +manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. I can go _as +well as_ you. In _the same well_, easy, convenient way or manner you can +go, I can go in _the same_ way. He was _as_ learned, _as_ pious, _as_ +benevolent, _as_ brave, _as_ faithful, _as_ ardent. These are purely +adjectives, used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity +between the things compared. Secondary words are often added to this, to +aid the distinction or definition; as, (_the same_ illustrated,) He is +_just as willing_. I am _quite as well_ pleased without it. _As_, like +many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, in which +case it was formerly parsed by Murray himself _as_ (like, or the same) a +relative pronoun; as, "And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the +tip, _as happens_ in acute diseases."--_Dr. Sweetster._ "The ground I +have assumed is tenable, _as will appear_."--_Webster._ "Bonaparte had +a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris is France, _as has_ +often been observed."--_Channing._ "The words are such _as +seem_."--_Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro._ + +=So= has nearly the same signification as the word last noticed, and is +frequently used along with it, to define the other member of the +comparison. _As_ far _as_ I can understand, _so_ far I approve. _As_ he +directed, _so_ I obeyed. It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; +as, "In pious and benevolent offices _so_ simple, _so_ minute, _so_ +steady, _so_ habitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a course +_so_ unvarying."--_Channing._ + +These words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary, +because (_for this cause_, be this the cause, this is the cause) they +are the most frequently used; and yet there are no words _so_ little +understood, or _so_ much abused by grammarians, _as_ these are. + +We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech. +"Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech void of +signification, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or +more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." Mr. Harris +gives about forty "species." Murray admits of only the _dis_-junctive +and copulative, and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But +what is meant by a _dis_-junctive _con_-junctive word, is left for you +to determine. It must be in keeping with _in_definite _defining_ +articles, and _post_-positive _pre_-positions. He says, "it joins words, +but disjoins the sense."[22] And what is a _word_ with out _sense_," +pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," how, in the name of +reason, can you give the sign and separate the sense? You can as well +separate the shadow from the substance, or a quality from matter. + +We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use of +conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. "As it +_was_ in the beginning, _is_ now, _and_ ever _shall be_."--_Common +Prayer._ "What I _do_, _have done,_ or _may_ hereafter _do_, _has +been_, and _will_ always _be_ matter of inclination, the gratifying of +which _pays_ itself: and I _have_ no more merit in employing my time +and money in the way I _am known_ to do, than another has in other +occupations."--_Howard._ + +The following examples must suffice. + +=If.= This word is derived from the saxon _gifan_, and was formerly +written _giff_, _gyff_, _gif_, _geve_, _give_, _yiff_, _yef_, _yeve_. It +signifies _give_, _grant_, _allow_, _suppose_, _admit_, and is always a +verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence or idea for +its object. "_If_ a pound of sugar cost ten cents, what will ten pounds +cost?" _Give_, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact,) _one pound cost_, etc. +In this case the supposition which stands as a predicate--_one pound of +sugar cost ten cents_, is the object of _if_--the thing to be allowed, +supposed, or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost of +_ten_ pounds is to be drawn. + +"He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, (the fact,) he +has the means, he will assist us. + + "_Gif_ luf be vertew, than is it leful thing; + _Gif_ it be vice, it is your undoing." + _Douglas_ p. 95. + + "Ne I ne wol non reherce, _yef_ that I may." + _Chaucer._ + + "She was so charitable and so pytous + She wolde wepe _yf that_ she sawe a mous + Caught in a trappe, _if_ it were deed or bledde." + _Prioresse._ + + "O haste and come to my master dear." + + "_Gin_ ye be Barbara Allen." + _Burns._ + +=But.= This word has two opposite significations. It is derived from two +different radicals. _But_, from the saxon _be_ and _utan_, _out_, means +_be out_, _leave out_, _save_, _except_, _omit_, as, "all _but_ one are +here." _Leave out_, _except_, _one_, all are here. + + "Heaven from all creation hides the book of fate + All _but_ (_save_, _except_) the page prescribed our present state." + + "When nought _but_ (_leave out_) the _torrent_ is heard on the hill, + And nought _but_ (_save_) the nightingale's _song_ in the grove." + +"Nothing _but fear_ restrains him." In these cases the direct _objects_ +of the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed. + +_But_ is also derived from _botan_, which signifies _to add_, +_superadd_, _join_ or _unite_; as, in the old form of a deed, "it is +_butted_ and bounded as follows." Two animals _butt_ their heads +together. The _butt_ of a log is that end which was _joined_ to the +stump. A _butt_, _butment_ or _a-butment_ is the joined end, where there +is a connexion with something else. A _butt_ of ridicule is an object to +which ridicule is attached. + + "Not only saw he all that was, + _But (add) much_ that never came to pass." + _M'Fingal._ + +_To button_, _butt-on_, is derived from the same word, to join one side +to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly spelled _botan_, +_boote_, _bote_, _bot_, _butte_, _bute_, _but_. It is still spelled +_boot_ in certain cases as a verb; as, + + "What _boots it_ thee to fly from pole to pole, + Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll? + What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam, + _If_ thou, O man, a stranger art at home?" + _Grainger._ + + "If love had _booted_ care or cost." + +A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and received fifty +dollars to _boot_; _to add_ to his property, and make the exchange +equal. + +_Let_ presents the same construction in form and meaning as _but_, for +it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. It means +sometimes to _permit_ or _allow_; as, _let_ me go; _let_ me have it; and +to _hinder_ or _prevent_; as, "I proposed to come unto you, _but_ (add +this fact) I was _let_ hitherto."--_Rom. 1: 13._ "He who now _letteth_, +will _let_ until he be taken out of the way."--_2 Thess. 2: 7._ + +=And= is a past participle signifying _added_, _one-ed_, _joined_. It +was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, David, _and_, +(_united to-_gether_-ed_,) go to school." We now place it _before_ the +last word. + +=Tho=, _altho_, _yet_. "Tho (_admit_, _allow_, _the fact_) he slay me, +yet (_get_, _have_, _know_, _the fact_) I will trust in him." _Yes_ is +from the same word as _yet_. It means _get_ or _have_ my consent to the +question asked. _Nay_ is the opposite of _yes_, _ne_-aye, nay, no. The +_ayes_ and _noes_ were called for. + +I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned me have been +overrun already. What light may have been afforded you in relation to +these words, will enable you to discover that they have _meaning_ which +must be learned before they can be explained correctly; that done, all +difficulty is removed. + +Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part of language, but +may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men. They are indistinct +utterances of emotions, which come not within the range of human speech. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, + revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High School, as a + correct system of teaching practical orthography. + +[2] Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the science + of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho the + doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false--which is + quite doubtful--or receive extensive modifications, yet the + consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. + The very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of + the mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long + deserve peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the + introduction of a vocabulary, from which may be selected words for + the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects. + +[3] Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and + principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the + philosophy of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another + meaning. Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, + that nobody could understand them; and hence, _metaphysical_ is now + applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a + speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. + "How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but he + was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand + him. + +[4] In this respect, many foreign languages possess a great advantage + over ours. They can augment or diminish the same word to increase + or lessen the meaning. For instance; in the Spanish, we can say + _Hombre_, a man; _Hombron_, a _large_ man; _Hombrecito_, a _young_ + man, or youth; _Hombrecillo_, a _miserable little_ man; _Pagaro_, a + bird; _Pagarito_, a _pretty little_ bird; _Perro_, a dog; + _Perrillo_, an _ugly little_ dog; _Perrazo_, a _large_ dog. + + The Indian languages admit of diminutives in a similar way. In the + Delaware dialect, they are formed by the suffix _tit_, in the class + of animate nouns; but by _es_, to the inanimate; as, _Senno_, a + man; _Sennotit_, a _little_ man; _Wikwam_, a house; _Wikwames_, a + _small_ house.--_Enc. Amer. Art. Indian Languages, vol. 6, p. 586._ + +[5] Mr. Harris, in his "Hermes," says, "A preposition is a part of + speech, _devoid itself of signification_; but so formed as to unite + two words that are significant, and that refuse to coalesce or + unite themselves." + + Mr. Murray says, "Prepositions serve to _connect_ words with one + another, and show the relation between them." + +[6] "Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that with a slender + _twist_, that none can doe with a tough _with_." + _Euphues and his England, p. 136._ + + "They had arms under the straw in the boats, and had cut the + _withes_ that held the oars of the town boats, to prevent any + pursuit." + _Ludlow's Memoirs, p. 435._ + + "The only furniture belonging to the houses, appears to be an + oblong vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a _withe_." + _Cooke's Description of Botany Bay._ + +[7] See Galatians, chap. 1, verse 15. "When it pleased God, who + _separated_ me," &c. + +[8] Acts, xvii, 28. + +[9] St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.--Dr. Hunter's translation, pp. + 172-176. + +[10] It is reported on very good authority that the same olive trees + are now standing in the garden of Gethsemane under which the + Saviour wept and near which he was betrayed. This is rendered more + probable from the fact, that a tax is laid, by the Ottoman Porte, + on all olive trees planted since Palestine passed into the + possession of the Turks, and that several trees standing in + Gethsemane do not pay such tribute, while all others do. + +[11] We do not assent to the notions of ancient philosophers and poets, + who believed the doctrine that the world is animated by a soul, + like the human body, which is the spirit of Deity himself; but that + by the operation of wise and perfect laws, he exerts a supervision + in the creation and preservation of all things animate and + inanimate. Virgil stated the opinions of his times, in his AEneid, + B. VI. l. 724. + + "Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes, + Lucentemque globum, Lunae, Titaniaque astra + Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus + Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet." + + "Know, first, that heaven, and earth's compacted frame, + And flowing waters, and the starry flame, + And both the radiant lights, _one common soul_ + Inspires and feeds--and _animates the whole_. + This active mind, infused thro all the space, + Unites and mingles with the mighty mass." + _Dryden_, b. VI. l. 980. + + This sentiment, he probably borrowed from Pythagoras and Plato, who + argue the same sentiment, and divide this spirit into + "_intellectus_, _intelligentia_, et _natura_"--intellectual, + intelligent, and natural. Whence, "_Ex hoc Deo, qui est mundi + anima: quasi decerptae particulae sunt vitae hominum et pecudum._" Or, + "Omnia animalia ex quatuor elementis et _divino spiritu_ constare + manifestum est. Trahunt enim a terra carnem, ab aqua humorem, ab + aere anhelitum, ab igne fervorem, _a divino spiritu + ingenium_."--_Timeus, chap. 24, and Virgil's Geor. b. 4, l. 220, + Dryden's trans. l. 322._ + + Pope alludes to the same opinion in these lines: + + "All are but parts of one stupendous whole. + Whose body nature is, and God the soul." + +[12] Page 41. + +[13] Exodus, iii. 2, 3. + +[14] Cardell's grammar. + +[15] The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to keep it + from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm that by this + mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed the wonders + recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name from the temple and put + it into his thigh between the flesh and skin, and by its power + accomplished the miracles attributed to him. They think if they + could pronounce the word correctly, the very heavens and earth + would tremble, and angels be filled with terror. + +[16] Plutarch says, "This title is not only _proper_ but _peculiar to + God_, because =He= alone is _being_; for mortals have no + participation of _true being_, because that which _begins_ and + _ends_, and is constantly _changing_, is never _one_ nor the + _same_, nor in the same state. The deity on whose temple this word + was inscribed was called =Apollo=, Apollon, from _a_ negative and + _pollus_, _many_, because God is =one=, his nature simple, and + _uncompounded_."--_Vide, Clark's Com._ + +[17] The same fact may be observed in other languages, for all people + form language alike, in a way to correspond with their ideas. The + following hasty examples will illustrate this point. + + _Agent._ _Verb._ _Object._ + _English_ Singers Sing Songs + _French_ Les chanteurs Chantent Les chansons + _Spanish_ Los cantores Cantan Las cantinelas + _Italian_ I cantori Cantano I canti + _Latin_ Cantores Canunt Cantus + + _English_ Givers Give Gifts + _French_ Les donneurs Donnent Les dons + _Spanish_ Los donadores Dan o donan Los dones + _Italian_ I danatori Dano o danano I doni + _Latin_ Datores Donant Dona + + _English_ Fishers Fish Fishes + _French_ Les pecheurs Pechent Les poissons + _Spanish_ Los pescadores Pescan Los peces + _Italian_ I pescatori Pescan I pesci + _Latin_ Piscatores Piscantur Pisces + + _English_ Students Study Studies + _French_ Les etudiens Etudient Les etudes + _Spanish_ Los estudiantes Estudian Los estudios + _Italian_ I studienti Studiano I studii + _Latin_ Studiosi Student Studia + +[18] Mr. Murray says, "These compounds," _have_, _shall_, _will_, + _may_, _can_, _must_, _had_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and + _should_, which he uses as auxiliaries to _help_ conjugate _other_ + verbs, "are, however, to be considered as _different forms_ of the + _same_ verb." I should like to know, if these words have any thing + to do with the _principal_ verbs; if they only alter the _form_ of + the verb which follows them. I _may_, _can_, _must_, _shall_, + _will_, or _do love_. Are these only different forms of _love_? or + rather, are they not distinct, important, and original verbs, pure + and perfect _in_ and _of_ themselves? Ask for their etymons and + meaning, and then decide. + +[19] Diversions of Purley, vol. 1, p. 77. + +[20] Dr. Edwards observes, in a communication to the Connecticut Society + of Arts and Sciences, from personal knowledge, that "the Mohegans + (Indians) have _no adjectives_ in all their language. Altho it may + at first seem not only singular and curious, but impossible, that a + language should exist without adjectives, yet it is an indubitable + fact." But it is proved that in later times the Indians employ + adjectives, derived from nouns or verbs, as well as other nations. + Altho many of their dialects are copious and harmonious, yet they + suffered no inconvenience from a want of contracted words and + phrases. They added the ideas of definition and description to the + things themselves, and expressed them in the _same_ word, in a + modified form. + +[21] Matthew, chap. 24, v. 48. + +[22] Examples of a _dis_-junctive conjunction. "They came with her, + _but_ they went without her."--_Murray._ + + Murray is _wrong_, _and_ Cardell is _right_. The simplifiers are + wrong, _but_ their standard is so likewise. + + "Me he restored to my office, _and_ him he hanged."--_Pharaoh's + Letter._ + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE + +The following printer's errors have been corrected in this etext. +Changes are indicated in brackets. + +Contents ON NOUNS AMD [AND] PRONOUNS + +Lecture I process of time as ingle [a single] + will not unfrequenly [unfrequently] represent + +Lecture III German, Danish, Dutch, Sweedish [Swedish] + +Lecture V _David_ killed Goliah [Goliath] + +Lecture VI and cosinder [consider] them in this place + +Lecture VII We are told there are are [are] two articles + the mother is _mascu.line_ [masculine] + dress handkerchief.["] The resolution + +Lecture VIII object will be to ascertion [ascertain] + ["]But wherefore _sits he_ there? + act _transitively_, acording [according] to + +Lecture IX the pocket of Guy Fawks [Fawkes] + For we should rember [remember] + _looks_ like or _resembles_ his brother,["] + +Lecture X A philosophical axiom[.]--Manner + And our languge [language] should + ["]I have addressed this volume + +Lecture XI Be not surprized [surprised] when I tell you + +Lecture XII the qualifification [qualification] of an _adverb_, + --"express neither actionn [action] or passion." + +Lecture XIV trace back to their orignal [original] form + ["]He stept _a_-side" + ["]As Mailie, an' her lambs + ["]Not only saw he all that was, + +Footnote 22 Murray is _wroug_ [wrong] + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lectures on Language, by William S. 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