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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation
+To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament
+       Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, (pages
+       189-252)
+
+Author: William H. Holmes
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2006 [EBook #17730]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART
+IN ITS RELATION TO THE
+DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
+
+
+
+
+Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
+to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85,
+Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, pages 189-252
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+Introduction.                                                      195
+  Form in textile art.                                             196
+  Relations of form to ornament.                                   201
+  Color in textile art.                                            201
+
+Textile ornament.                                                  202
+  Development of a geometric system within the art.                202
+    Introduction.                                                  202
+    Relief phenomena.                                              203
+      Ordinary features.                                           203
+      Reticulated work.                                            210
+      Superconstructive features.                                  211
+    Color phenomena.                                               215
+      Ordinary features.                                           215
+      Non-essential constructive features.                         226
+      Superconstructive features.                                  228
+      Adventitious features.                                       231
+  Geometricity imposed upon adopted elements.                      232
+  Extension of textile ornament to other forms of art.             244
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+FIG.                                                             Page.
+286. Mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form                  197
+287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form               198
+288. Pyriform water vessel                                         198
+289. Basket with esthetic characters of form                       199
+290. Basket of eccentric form                                      200
+291. Character of surface in the simplest form of weaving          204
+292. Surface produced by impacting                                 204
+293. Surface produced by use of wide fillets                       204
+294. Basket with ribbed surface                                    205
+295. Bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface                       205
+296. Tray showing radial ribs                                      205
+297. Combination giving herring bone effect                        206
+298. Combination giving triangular figures                         206
+299. Peruvian work basket                                          206
+300. Basket of Seminole workmanship                                207
+301. Surface effect produced in open twined combination            207
+302. Surface effect produced in open twined combination            207
+303. Surface effect produced by impacting in twined
+       combination                                                 208
+304. Surface effect produced by impacting the web strands
+       in twined combination                                       208
+305. Surface effect produced by crossing the web series
+       in open twined work                                         208
+306. Tray with open mesh, twined combination                       208
+307. Conical basket, twined combination                            209
+308. Example of primitive reticulated weaving                      210
+309. Simple form of reticulation                                   211
+310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth                           211
+311. Peruvian embroidery                                           213
+312. Basket with pendent ornaments                                 213
+313. Basket with pendent ornaments                                 213
+314. Tasseled Peruvian mantle                                      214
+315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+316. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+317. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+318. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   217
+319. Base of coiled basket                                         218
+320. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         218
+321. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         219
+322. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         220
+323. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         220
+324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         221
+325. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         223
+326. Coiled tray with geometric ornament                           224
+327. Coiled tray with geometric ornament                           225
+328. Tray with geometric ornament                                  225
+329. Tray with geometric ornament                                  226
+330. Ornament produced by wrapping the strands                     227
+331. Ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the
+       fabric                                                      227
+332. Basket with feather ornamentation                             227
+333. Basket with feather ornamentation                             227
+334. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof     228
+335. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof     228
+336. Example of grass embroidery                                   230
+337. Example of feather embroidery                                 231
+338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt                             233
+339. Figures from a California Indian basket                       234
+340. California Indian basket                                      234
+341. Figures from a Peruvian basket                                235
+342. Figure from a piece of Peruvian gobelins                      236
+343. Figures from a Peruvian vase                                  237
+344. Figure from a circular basket                                 238
+345. Figure of a bird from a Zuñi shield                           239
+346. Figure of a bird woven in a tray                              240
+347. Figure of a bird woven in a basket                            241
+348. Figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient
+       Peruvians                                                   242
+349. Figures of birds embroidered by the ancient Peruvians         243
+350. Conventional design painted upon cotton cloth                 243
+351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving         246
+352. Herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay            246
+353. Earthen vase with textile ornament                            247
+354. Example of textile ornament painted upon pottery              248
+355. Textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume        248
+356. Ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character      250
+357. Figures upon a tapa stamp                                     251
+358. Design in stucco exhibiting textile characters                251
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILE ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT.
+
+BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the
+very inception of culture. In primitive times it occupied a wide
+field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now
+expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of
+construction. Accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there
+was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and
+skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an
+important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts.
+
+Woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements
+or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are
+combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. The
+processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting,
+netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering.
+
+The materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such
+as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then
+fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous
+artificial preparations, are freely used. These are employed in the
+single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are
+combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices,
+by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms.
+
+The products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as
+shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these;
+and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they
+are cut and fitted. In earlier stages of art we have to deal almost
+exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house
+furnisher are evolved with civilization.
+
+In their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly
+with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of
+which I shall denominate _constructive_, the second _functional_, and
+the third _esthetic_. The last class, with which this paper has almost
+exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the
+superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes
+three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with (1) form,
+(2) color, and (3) design. Esthetic features of form are, in origin
+and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color
+and design, to construction mainly. In the following study separate
+sections are given to each of these topics.
+
+It is fortunate perhaps that in this work I am restricted to the
+products of rather primitive stages of culture, as I have thus to deal
+with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. In
+the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes,
+and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light
+can fall upon the field of vision.
+
+In America there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no
+parallel in the world. Uncontaminated by contact with the complex
+conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities
+for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development.
+
+The laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once
+rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous
+culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the
+succeeding stages of civilization.
+
+
+FORM IN TEXTILE ART.
+
+Form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is
+fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression
+of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping
+arts from expressing the whole of function. Such is the pliability of
+a large portion of textile products--as, for example, nets, garments,
+and hangings--that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore,
+when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles
+are without esthetic value or interest. The more rigid objects, in
+common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape
+still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form
+generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by
+the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. Such attributes are
+not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist
+conjointly with them.
+
+In addition to these features of form we observe others of a more
+decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose
+of enhancing the appearance.
+
+In very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas
+predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial
+characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. But as the ages
+pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are
+added and emphasized. In riper culture the growing pressure of
+esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial
+modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. In periods of
+deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual
+artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and
+erroneously applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus
+violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. In
+respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the
+acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal,
+the fourth abnormal: First, we have that in which functional
+characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to
+the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or
+model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary
+features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of
+taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected;
+third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described,
+undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity,
+&c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability;
+and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is
+sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 286. Mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic
+attributes of form. Moki work--1/8.]
+
+The exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena
+pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of
+illustrations. Woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and
+originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for
+purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of
+flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination;
+and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result
+of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material,
+models, &c. A close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of
+the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies
+on the part of the artist. The esthetic interest attaching to such a
+shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, as all
+individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to
+preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. The varied
+features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (Fig.
+286), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention
+in the proper place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of
+form. Obtained from the Apache--1/2.]
+
+In point of contour the basket tray shown in Fig. 287 has a somewhat
+more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the
+curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. How
+much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection
+must remain in doubt. In work so perfect we are wont, however
+unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 288. Pyriform water vessel used by the Piute
+Indians--1/8.]
+
+A third example--presented in Fig. 288--illustrates an advanced stage
+in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. The
+forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as
+follows: A primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a
+special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to
+give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may
+be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations
+of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace,
+the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies
+of the artist's mind. In regard to the last point there is generally
+in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be
+found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong
+desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of
+form. It will be observed that the textile materials and construction
+do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity
+of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most
+readily expressed.
+
+Modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally
+suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or
+accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction.
+In the vessel presented in Fig. 289--the work of Alaskan Indians--the
+margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns
+of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. This is without reference
+to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all
+probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. Other and much
+more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all
+countries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 289. Vessel with esthetic characters of form. Work
+of the Yakama--1/4.]
+
+In the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally
+noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details.
+This is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an
+art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance
+in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. When,
+through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the
+savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in
+the works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of
+construction and adaptability to use. An example of such work is
+presented in Fig. 290, a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of
+basketry. Other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets,
+bottles, and tea pots. They are the work of the Indians of the
+northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner,
+bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 290. Basket made under foreign influence,
+construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty--1/3.]
+
+It appears from the preceding analyses that _form_ in this art is not
+sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the
+delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar
+difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and
+supervision of taste. The inherent morphologic forces of the art are
+strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results
+that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to
+esthetic influence. If, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use
+are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if
+materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely
+bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high
+degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye.
+
+In a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity
+is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck
+and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain
+limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist
+cannot readily free himself. Models furnished by nature, as they are
+usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and
+all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity
+that belongs to simplicity. Taste which is in a formative state can
+but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led by
+them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and
+universality. If the textile art had been the only one known to man,
+ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure
+formed through that art. Natural forms would have had little to do
+with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by
+the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon
+which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity
+dwell with steady attention from generation to generation.
+
+
+RELATIONS OF FORM TO ORNAMENT.
+
+It would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to
+find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential
+features of the art--markings of the surface and color of
+filaments--creating a new field in which to labor and expending their
+energy upon ornament.
+
+Shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may
+be classified as follows:
+
+First, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large
+extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits;
+figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or
+rectangles--according, in no slight measure, to the character of the
+spaces afforded by details of contour. Secondly, it affects ornament
+through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as
+handles, for ornamental purposes. Thirdly, it is probable that shape
+influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the
+taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of
+ornament.
+
+
+COLOR IN TEXTILE ART.
+
+Color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it
+is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful
+as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily
+receives a large share of consideration. It is probably one of the
+foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the
+esthetic sense.
+
+The natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form
+one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. The great
+interest taken in color--the great importance attached to it--is
+attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional
+variety and brilliancy of effect are secured.
+
+Color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps,
+in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in
+construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which
+construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. It finds its chief
+use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures
+with which objects of art are embellished.
+
+Color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or
+worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is
+added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils,
+brushes, and dies. Its employment in the latter manner is especially
+convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be
+executed.
+
+
+TEXTILE ORNAMENT.
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF A GEOMETRIC SYSTEM OF DESIGN WITHIN THE ART.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, I
+shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose
+exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. It will be necessary,
+however, to present, besides those features of the art properly
+expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena
+that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest
+decorative conceptions and give shape to them. I shall show how the
+latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they
+gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic
+faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of
+a system of ornament of world wide application.
+
+For convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as
+_relieved_ and _flat_. Figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise
+during construction as a result of the intersections and other more
+complex relations--the bindings--of the warp and woof or of inserted
+or applied elements. Flat or surface features are manifested in color,
+either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. Such is
+the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain
+combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the
+art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the
+effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. The character of such
+figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental
+association of natural colors in construction.
+
+At some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious
+surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for
+the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now
+took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to
+gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from
+physical wants.
+
+It is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic
+notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile
+characters. Long before textile objects of a high class were made,
+ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for
+example, in connection with personal adornment. The skin had been
+painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in
+the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to
+conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal
+associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated
+with the person. No matter, however, what the period or manner of the
+association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may
+be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of
+decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the
+geometric textile construction.
+
+In amplifying this subject I find it convenient to treat separately
+the two classes of decorative phenomena--the relieved and the
+flat--notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part
+intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a
+common end.
+
+
+RELIEF PHENOMENA.
+
+_Ordinary features._--The relieved surface characters of fabrics
+resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or
+less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are
+susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. Such
+features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of
+basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of
+damasks, embroideries, and laces. So long as the figures produced are
+confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished
+construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain
+work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless
+repetition of like parts extremely monotonous.
+
+In right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which
+run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. In radiate
+weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally
+formal manner by concentric lines. In other classes of combination
+there is an almost equal degree of geometricity.
+
+When, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found
+that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the
+essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering
+with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is
+opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration.
+
+Moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary
+elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which
+the textile decorator may freely avail himself. The character of these
+is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with
+indigenous textile forms.
+
+To make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze
+somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of
+the resultant and associated phenomena.
+
+We may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made
+use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. As indicated above,
+these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and,
+second, extra or superconstructive features.
+
+First, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a
+variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been
+evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these--no matter
+what the material or what the size and character of the filamental
+elements--gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. Thus it
+appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations
+produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike
+constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. These
+constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style
+of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in
+the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination
+has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate
+sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. It sometimes
+even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical
+surface effects are produced.
+
+It will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series
+of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will
+suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the
+bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. I choose, first, a
+number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which
+the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at
+right angles or nearly so. In Fig. 291 we have the result exhibited in
+a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted
+fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. Fig.
+292 illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series
+of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is
+entirely hidden. The surface here exhibits a succession of vertical
+ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding
+example. The third variety (Fig. 293) differs but slightly from the
+first. The fillets are wider and are set close together without
+crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 291. Surface relief in simplest form of
+intersection.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 292. Surface relief produced by horizontal series
+crowded together.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 293. Surface relief produced by wide fillets set
+close together.]
+
+The second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in
+the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great
+degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain
+liquids, semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. The general
+surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in Fig. 294,
+which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the Moki
+Indians. In this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of
+radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 294. Basket showing ribbed surface produced by
+impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments. Moki work--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 295. Alternation of intersection, producing
+oblique or spiral ribs. Piute work--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 296. Radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed
+from above. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+It will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take
+the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation
+of the horizontal series--the woof--we get oblique ridges, as shown in
+the partly finished bottle illustrated in Fig. 295. They are,
+however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. The peculiar
+effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown
+in Fig. 296.
+
+By changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of
+combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding;
+so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships,
+there would be little suggestion of correlation. In the example given
+in Fig. 297 the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and
+under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by
+extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step
+and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 297. Diagonal combination, giving herring bone
+effect.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 298. Elaboration of diagonal combination, giving
+triangular figures.]
+
+This example is from an ancient work basket obtained at Ancon, Peru,
+and shown in Fig. 299. The surface features are in strong relief,
+giving a pronounced herring bone effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 299. Peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly
+relieved ridges.]
+
+Slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to
+produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is
+shown in Fig. 298. A good illustration is also seen in Fig. 286, and
+another piece, said to be of Seminole workmanship, is given in Fig.
+300. These and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of
+primitive decorative motives. They are employed not only within the
+art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with
+suggestions of embellishment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 300. Effects produced by varying the order of
+intersection. Seminole work--1/8.]
+
+Taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant
+patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 301. Surface effect in open twined combination.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 302. Surface effect of twined, lattice combination
+in basketry of the Clallam Indians of Washington Territory--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 301 illustrates the simplest form of what Dr. O.T. Mason has
+called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native
+tribes. The strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in
+weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the
+opposing fillets. The resulting open work has much the appearance of
+ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or
+strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is
+strikingly suggestive of decoration. The result of this combination
+upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the
+large basket presented in Fig. 302. Other variants of this type are
+given in the three succeeding figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 303. Surface effect in impacted work of twined
+combination.]
+
+The result seen in Fig. 303 is obtained by impacting the horizontal or
+twined series of threads. The surface is nearly identical with that of
+the closely impacted example of the preceding type (Fig. 292). The
+peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. When the doubled
+and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing
+series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in
+Fig. 304 and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in Fig.
+307.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 304. Surface effect obtained by placing the warp
+strands close together and the woof cables far apart.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 305. Surface effect obtained by crossing the warp
+series in open twined work.]
+
+In Fig. 305 we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the
+untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 306. Decorative effects produced by variations in
+the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. Klamath work--1/4.]
+
+Fig. 306 serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends
+itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the
+direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in
+vessel-making arts.
+
+The examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative
+resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate
+constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results
+can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of
+binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object
+or in the same piece of fabric. A good, though very simple,
+illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in Fig.
+286. In this case a border, varying from the center portion in
+appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a
+multiple to a single arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 307. Conical basket of the Klamath Indians of
+Oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work border--1/8.]
+
+The conical basket shown in Fig. 307 serves to illustrate the same
+point. In this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is
+secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and
+combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of
+open work.
+
+Now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some
+primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they
+are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many
+new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the
+elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of
+weaving.
+
+Other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all
+braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit
+characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of
+relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already
+illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric
+system of combination.
+
+_Reticulated work._--A few paragraphs may be added here in regard to
+reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit
+more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided
+bearing upon the growth of ornament.
+
+In all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite
+reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and
+other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the
+higher forms of the art. The production of reticulated work is the
+especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain
+varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are
+produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be
+undertaken by ambitious workmen.
+
+In the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class
+of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to
+marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite
+laces of cultured peoples. The Americans had only taken the first
+steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of
+especial interest in the history of the art.
+
+An example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in Fig. 308. It
+is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon
+an ancient piece of pottery obtained in Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 308. Incipient stage of reticulated ornament.
+Fabric of the mound builders.]
+
+Fig. 309 illustrates a bit of ancient Peruvian work executed on a
+frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging
+the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart.
+
+Open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes,
+certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which
+means the figures are emphasized and varied.
+
+In Fig. 310 we have a second Peruvian example in which the woof
+threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this
+interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing
+a lattice-like band.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 309. Simple form of ornamental reticulation.
+Ancient Peruvian work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth. Work of
+the ancient Peruvians.]
+
+In a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced,
+two above and two below the wide band. These are produced by leaving
+the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs
+across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as
+shown in the cut.
+
+Examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are
+found among the textile products of many American tribes and occur as
+well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where
+designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced
+to facilitate the work.
+
+_Superconstructive features._--These features, so important in the
+decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a
+construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by
+function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which
+may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. They constitute one of
+the most widely used and effective resources of the textile
+decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing,
+cutting, applying, appending, &c. They add enormously to the capacity
+for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render
+natural forms in the round. Notwithstanding this fact--the most
+important section of this class of features--embroidery is treated to
+better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally
+associated with the designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 311. Open work design embroidered upon a net-like
+fabric. From a grave at Ancon, Peru.]
+
+One example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. It is
+probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery America has
+produced. In design and in method of realization it is identical with
+the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient Peruvians, being worked
+upon a net foundation, as shown in Fig. 311. The broad band of figures
+employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and
+still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band.
+
+Appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of
+fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. They
+are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and
+are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or
+less pronounced geometric character. The work is a kind of embroidery,
+the parts employed being of the nature of pendants.
+
+These include numberless articles derived from nature and art. It will
+suffice to present a few examples already at hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 312. Basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped
+with bits of tin. Apache Indians--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 312 illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the Apache
+Indians. It serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and
+clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings
+tipped with conical bits of tin. The checker pattern is in color.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 313. Basket with pendants of beads and bits of
+shell, work of the northwest coast Indians.--1/4.]
+
+Fig. 313 illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. A feather
+decked basket made by the northwest coast Indians is embellished with
+pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of
+bright shell. The importance of this class of work in higher forms of
+textiles may be illustrated by an example from Peru. It is probable
+that American art has produced few examples of tasseled work more
+wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in Fig. 314. It is a
+fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth,
+obtained from an ancient tomb. The body is made up of separately woven
+bands, upon which disk-like and semilunar figures representing human
+faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. To the
+center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying
+sizes are attached. The fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is
+composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels
+supporting clusters of smaller ones. There are upwards of three
+thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in
+colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. The general
+color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson.
+The illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty
+of the original.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 314. Tassel ornamentation from an ancient Peruvian
+mantle.]
+
+We have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface
+characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by
+variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and
+ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. We
+shall now see how these are related to color phenomena.
+
+
+COLOR PHENOMENA.
+
+_Ordinary features._--In describing the constructive characters of
+fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, I called attention to the
+fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and
+supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. Color
+elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many
+simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before
+the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye.
+When, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater
+elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily
+to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful
+results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection
+of the articles embellished. But color is not confined to the mere
+emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. It is capable of
+advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs
+complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without
+altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters.
+
+In color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive
+combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative
+results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the
+work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of
+distinctions in national decorative conceptions.
+
+In addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression,
+lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary
+resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary
+construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to
+some extent in the preceding section.
+
+I have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary
+presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric
+materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic
+progress. My object in this section is to indicate the part it takes
+in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which
+it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric
+decoration.
+
+It will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the
+normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct
+domination of constructive elaboration. In the way of illustration,
+let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of
+the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a
+second series having a distinct color. A very simple geometric pattern
+is produced, as shown in Fig. 315. It is a sort of checker, an
+emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in Fig. 291, the
+figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Had these
+filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results
+might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail
+the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. So far as they
+exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of
+different colors.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 316. Pattern produced by modifying the alternation
+of fillets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 317. Isolated figures produced by modifying the
+order of intersection.]
+
+Assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more
+elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the
+processes and tendencies of growth. A very slight degree of ingenuity
+will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a
+succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in Fig. 316. In
+this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be
+turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they
+result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 318. Pattern produced by simple alternations of
+light and dark fillets. Basketry of the Indians of British Guiana.]
+
+Additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark
+strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of
+solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection,
+certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing
+series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in Fig. 317. With
+these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of
+expression, as will be seen in Fig. 318, which is taken from a basket
+made by South American Indians, and in Fig. 341, where human figures
+are delineated. The patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric
+and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. With impacting and
+increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a
+considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic
+representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. It
+is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic
+characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date,
+and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects
+would be attempted.
+
+I do not need to follow this style of combination into the more
+refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through
+all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic
+geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of
+normal textile decorative development I shall present a series of
+Indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted
+varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and
+at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in
+color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive
+textile products known. I have already shown that several types of
+combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface
+characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. In
+nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of
+fillets--those of the woof--the other, the warp, being completely
+hidden from view. In the preceding series the warp and woof were
+almost equally concerned in the expression of design. Here but one is
+used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the
+artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new
+ones at will. Still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no
+means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down
+by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely
+geometric results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 319. Base of coiled basket showing the method of
+building by dual coiling. The base or warp coil is composed of
+untwisted fiber and is formed by adding to the free end as the coiling
+goes on. The woof or binding filament, as it is coiled, is caught into
+the upper surface of the preceding turn--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 320. Coiled basket with simple geometric ornament.
+Work of the northwest coast Indians--1/8.]
+
+I will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are
+in all cases of the coiled ware. If a basket is made with no other
+idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in
+color, the natural color of the woof fillets. If decoration is desired
+a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place
+and does the duty of the ordinary strand. Fig. 319 serves to show the
+construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel
+still quite free from any color decoration. Now, if it is desired to
+begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored
+fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. Carried once around the
+vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the
+lower line of the ornament seen in Fig. 320. If the artist is content
+with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and
+takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the
+coiling. If further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished.
+In the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again
+and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then
+it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn,
+another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns,
+and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles
+have been produced. Desiring to introduce a meandered design he has
+taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored
+filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the
+right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of
+the warp coil. The pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in
+rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border
+line at the top. The vessel was then completed in the light colored
+material. In this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of
+lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial
+and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. Oblique bands of
+color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines.
+Although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that
+in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative
+conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. They serve
+quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as
+if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 321. Coiled basket with encircling bands of
+ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground. Obtained
+from the Indians of the Tule River, California--1/8.]
+
+In Fig. 321 I present a superb piece of work executed by the Indians
+of the Tule River, California. It is woven in the closely impacted,
+coiled style. The ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and
+consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red
+centers and black frames set side by side. The processes of
+substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in
+the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of
+designs are the same, being governed by the same forces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 322. Coiled basket with ornament arranged in
+zigzag rays. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/8.]
+
+Another choice piece, from the Pima Indians of Arizona, is given in
+Fig. 322. The lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the
+directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black
+color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance,
+then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending,
+the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close
+together. These rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark
+figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows
+at right angles to these. A few supplementary rays are added toward
+the margin to fill out the widening spaces. Another striking example
+of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in Fig. 323.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 323. Coiled basket with two bands of meandered
+ornament. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/4.]
+
+Two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the
+elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the
+radiate and the concentric lines of construction. This is the work of
+the Pima Indians of Arizona.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament
+composed of triangular figures. Obtained from the McCloud River
+Indians, California--1/8.]
+
+I shall close the series with a very handsome example of Indian
+basketry and of basketry ornamentation (Fig. 324). The conical shape
+is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like
+all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of
+the decorative requirements of the utensil. The design is wholly
+geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost
+exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. The
+general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing
+with or following the foundation coil. Details are governed by the
+horizontal and the oblique structure lines. The vertical construction
+lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting
+in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique
+outlines.
+
+These studies could be carried through all the types of primitive
+textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all
+cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along
+similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches
+closely corresponding results.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided
+tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. Now
+each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape
+and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and
+consistent ways. In contemplating them we are led to inquire into the
+nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results.
+The question arises as to exactly how much of the segregating and
+aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art
+and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent,
+questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted.
+This is a difficult problem to deal with, and I shall not attempt more
+here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied.
+
+The desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that
+gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the
+desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely
+decorative elaboration. It appears, however, that there is in the mind
+no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. The mind is a
+growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by
+environment. Seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it
+follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the
+useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. The results reached
+vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities
+furnished by the arts. As I have already amply shown, the textile art
+possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it
+is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of
+embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. The
+mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of
+technique.
+
+A close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art
+will be instructive. For the sake of simplicity I exclude from
+consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements.
+It will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the
+first lessons of the textile art. From the very beginning the workman
+finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in
+the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his
+utensils. If parts employed in construction are multiple they must be
+uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand
+for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a
+constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. The most
+fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and
+available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of
+the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant
+combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of
+isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these
+combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their
+complementaries, the diagonals. If large areas are covered certain
+separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called
+for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. Such separation or
+aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any
+other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment.
+When the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays
+they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united in
+various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through
+simple and complex convolutions. Whatever is done is at the suggestion
+of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by
+technique. Results are like in like techniques and are unlike in
+unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its
+variations in time and character.
+
+All those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important
+in this connection--the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell
+structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the
+beautiful--are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so
+far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates.
+Ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed
+by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain
+ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in
+their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the
+animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that
+throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its
+appetites.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there
+comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which
+the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered
+with by forces from without the art. This occurs when ideas, symbolic
+or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures,
+tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs
+when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the
+geometric units. This period cannot be always well defined, as the
+first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the
+textile forces. Between what may be regarded as purely technical,
+geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in
+each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or
+uncertain pedigree. These must receive slight attention here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 325. Coiled basket ornamented with devices
+probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects. Obtained
+from the Apache--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 325 represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the
+Apache. It will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the
+principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling
+directions of the textile combination. This was accomplished by
+increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays
+progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. This
+eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details
+at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that
+each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life
+form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man.
+
+By the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its
+pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. In the
+more advanced stages of Pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the
+textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude
+suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art.
+This is true of much of the coiled basketry of the Moki Indians. True,
+many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style
+is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. In
+many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs
+themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to
+realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are
+very remote. Two examples are given in Figs. 326 and 327. I shall
+expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to
+learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure
+geometric devices refer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 326. Coiled tray with geometric devices probably
+modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+The same is true of other varieties of Pueblo basketry, notably the
+common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are given in
+Figs. 328 and 329. This ware is of the interlaced style, with radially
+arranged web filaments. Its geometric characters are easily
+distinguished from those of the coiled ware. Many examples exhibit
+purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays,
+zones, checkers, and the like. It is to be expected, however, that the
+normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered
+with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the
+peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to
+attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art.
+Further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next
+section of this paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 327. Coiled tray with geometric devices, probably
+modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 328. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing
+geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki
+work--1/4.]
+
+The processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is
+mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive
+forms of art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 329. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing
+geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki
+work--1/4.]
+
+_Non-essential constructive features._--Now, all the varied effects of
+color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained
+without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without
+resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. The
+development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now
+receive attention. In the preceding examples, when it was desired to
+begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and
+a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it
+remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored
+elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them,
+although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to
+serviceability as well as to beauty. This is illustrated, for example,
+by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the
+introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other
+colors, or by twisting in feathers. Savage nations in all parts of the
+world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with
+great freedom. The effects produced often correspond closely to
+needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both
+varieties of execution.
+
+The following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. The effect
+seen in Fig. 330 is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in
+Mexico. The fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of
+varied colors. In order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker
+certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark
+tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small
+squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. Additional
+effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments
+with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. By
+other devices certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from
+the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures,
+either normal or added elements being employed. Another device is
+shown in Fig. 331. Here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets
+back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at
+regular intervals during the process of weaving. Again, feathers and
+other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. Two interesting
+baskets procured from the Indians of the northwest coast are shown in
+Figs. 332 and 333. Feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven
+in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the
+execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care
+being taken not to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process.
+The richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made
+to represent various figures necessarily geometric. This simple work
+is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of
+the Mexicans and Peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by
+historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. Much
+of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and
+will receive attention further on. A very clever device practiced by
+the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of
+contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the
+surface, as the pattern demands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 330. Ornament produced by wrapping certain light
+fillets with darker ones before weaving. Mexican work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 331. Ornamental effect secured by weaving in
+series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. Work of the
+Klamath Indians.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 332. Baskets ornamented with feather work.
+Northwest coast tribes--1/4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 333. Baskets ornamented with feather work.
+Northwest coast tribes--1/4.]
+
+An example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this
+connection. The ancient Peruvians resorted to many clever devices for
+purposes of enrichment. An illustration of the use of
+extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in Figs.
+334 and 335. Threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are
+carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they
+may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of
+contrasting color upon the right side. Fig. 334 shows the right side
+of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and
+central figure only. Fig. 335 illustrates the opposite side and shows
+the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. In such
+work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the
+surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and
+woof. Examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily
+be seen from what has been presented that the results of these
+extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately
+produced by the fundamental filaments alone.
+
+[Illustration FIG. 334. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a
+supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.]
+
+[Illustration FIG. 335. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a
+supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.]
+
+_Superconstructive features._--In reviewing the superconstructive
+decorative features in the preceding section I classified them
+somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric,
+as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. It will be
+seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature
+of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head.
+
+Before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and
+attached in a variety of ways. In open work nothing was needed but the
+end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations
+were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the
+waxed ends of the shoemaker.
+
+The importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive
+peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own
+Indian tribes. What a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes
+of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds,
+teeth, &c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications
+of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. The taste for these things
+is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas
+is doubtless very intimate.
+
+Needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was
+employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for
+various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. In
+time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and
+the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as
+embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various
+bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting
+colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like
+nature or use.
+
+No other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and
+called for the exercise of taste. It was the natural habitat for
+decoration. It was the field in which technique and taste were most
+frequently called upon to work hand in hand.
+
+With the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its
+wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to
+pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs,
+to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from
+these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and
+purely pictorial scenes.
+
+And now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its
+bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. As purely
+constructive ornamentation has already been presented, I will first
+take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to
+it. In some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and
+woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the
+construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone
+over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads
+passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. This
+process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one
+color to another are made without interfering with construction, and
+the result is of a closely similar character to that reached by
+working the colors in with warp and woof. In a very close fabric this
+method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the
+added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and,
+stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright
+patterns. Fig. 336 is intended to show how this is done. The
+foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed
+under by lifting, with or without a needle. This process is
+extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are
+extremely pleasing. The materials most used are quills and bright
+colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. The
+results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding
+more or less closely with the ground work combination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 336. Grass embroidery upon the surface of closely
+impacted, twined basketry. Work of the northwest coast Indians.]
+
+A large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but
+without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as
+they are also applied to felt and leather. Again, artificially
+prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed.
+The results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is
+followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part
+by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may
+be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work
+of the Indians.
+
+Feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our
+ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of
+all these wonderful decorations. I have already shown how feathers are
+woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single
+illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of
+fabrics. Among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of
+Ancon, Peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. In our
+example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to
+the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them
+together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them
+down, as shown in Fig. 337.
+
+The same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the
+world. Other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by
+attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. In
+all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with
+that of the foundation fabrics. Other classes of decoration, drawn
+work, appliqué, and the like, are not of great importance in
+aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but
+slight bearing upon the development of design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 337. Feather embroidery of the ancient Peruvians,
+showing the method of attaching the feathers.]
+
+Attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of
+decorative resource. They are less subject to the laws of
+geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close
+reference to the web and woof. They include fringes, tassels, and the
+multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which
+primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. A somewhat
+detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the
+preceding section.
+
+_Adventitious features._--Ornament is applied to the surfaces of
+fabrics by painting and by stamping. These methods of decoration were
+employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches
+of art. If the surface features of the textile upon which a design is
+painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush
+or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric
+result. If the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its
+natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to
+designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. In primitive times both
+the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired
+in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation,
+and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at
+all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as
+are similar designs woven in with the fabric. Illustrations of this
+are given in the next section.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the
+tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within
+textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed
+to explain the relations of this system to associated art.
+
+In the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it
+has made two conquests of especial importance. In the first place it
+has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have
+happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it
+has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all
+arts with which the textile art has come in contact.
+
+
+GEOMETRICITY IMPOSED UPON ADOPTED ELEMENTS OF DESIGN.
+
+At a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided
+artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various
+devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces
+of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. The figures are
+very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but
+very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or
+superstitions. The devices employed may be purely conventional or
+geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms
+afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording,
+conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. Such
+forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of
+the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their
+employment. As already seen, the peculiar character of textile
+construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing
+unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into
+fabrics. The idea of so employing them may originally have been
+suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces
+or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form
+derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art.
+
+At any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was
+suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown
+in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide
+range of graphic subjects.
+
+Now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the
+modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that
+the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with
+those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of
+elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. They have a style of
+their own. Each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is
+forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the
+geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt
+upon at considerable length. We find, however, that the degree of
+convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies
+with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of
+the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the
+artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through
+all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity.
+
+So pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a
+particular creature--as, for example, a bird--executed by distant and
+unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to
+almost identical shapes. This conventionalizing force is further
+illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out
+differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan,
+capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces
+a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result
+almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who
+has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline.
+
+A number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power
+of textile combination over ornament. I select three in which the
+human figure is presented. One is chosen from Iroquoian art, one from
+Digger Indian art, and one from the art of the Incas--peoples unequal
+in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. I
+have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of
+corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. The
+example shown in Fig. 338 illustrates a construction peculiar to the
+wampum belts of the Iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike
+ordinary weaving. It is taken from the middle portion of what is known
+as the Penn wampum belt. The horizontal series of strands consists of
+narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of
+threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell
+beads. Purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of
+white beads. If the maker of this belt had been required to execute in
+chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been
+very different.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt, showing
+the conventional form imposed in bead work.]
+
+My second illustration (Fig. 339) is drawn from a superb example of
+the basketry of the Yokut Indians of California. The two figures form
+part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good
+advantage in the small cut. Fig. 340. It is of the coiled style of
+construction. The design is worked in four colors and the effect is
+quiet and rich.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 339. Conventional figures from a California Indian
+basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 340. Basket made by the Yokut Indians of
+California.]
+
+Turning southward from California and passing through many strange
+lands we find ourselves in Peru, and among a class of remains that
+bespeak a high grade of culture. The inhabitants of Ancon were
+wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome
+examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. Among these
+relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. One of
+these, now in the National Museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in
+which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments
+upon a brown ground.
+
+The base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined
+combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the
+plain right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this
+combination was better suited to the development of the intended
+design. Besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted
+to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. In the
+first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not
+alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide
+space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands
+are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider
+interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing
+strands. In this way broad areas of color are obtained. It will be
+observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this
+modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra
+constructive series of fillets are added. These are of much lighter
+weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern.
+Over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 341. Conventional human figures from an ancient
+Peruvian basket.]
+
+It will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification
+of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples,
+the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity.
+
+The fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is
+absolutely unattainable. It appears that the sharply pronounced steps
+exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets
+used. With the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate
+culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth
+outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule,
+even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the
+pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. I present a
+striking example of this in Fig. 342, a superb piece of Incarian
+gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark
+red ground dotted with symbols and strange devices. The work is
+executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. But with all the
+facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the
+straight lines and sharp angles are still present. The traditions of
+the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of
+the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were
+decidedly in that direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 342. Human figure in Peruvian gobelins, showing
+characteristic textile convention. From chromolithographs published by
+Reiss and Stübel in The Necropolis of Ancon.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 343. Human figures from a Peruvian vase, done in
+free hand, graphic style.]
+
+In order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to the
+eye of the reader, I give an additional illustration (Fig. 343). The
+two figures here shown, although I am not able to say positively that
+the work is pre-Columbian, were executed by a native artist of about
+the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design. These
+figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an earthen
+vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free hand,
+graphic delineation. Place this and the last figure side by side and
+we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal
+capacity when executed in the two methods. This figure should also be
+compared with the embroidered figures shown in Fig. 348.
+
+The tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may
+be observed the world over. Every element entering the art must
+undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power of this
+almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative
+design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 344. Human figure modified by execution in
+concentric interlaced style of weaving--1/3.]
+
+That the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of
+woven objects may be appreciated, I present some additional examples.
+Coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at
+variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of
+parts. Instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel
+fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one
+concentric series. The effect of this arrangement upon the introduced
+human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to Fig.
+344, which represents a large tray obtained from the Moki Indians. The
+figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the
+Moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary,
+wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the
+plaque was to be used. The work is executed in wicker, stained in such
+bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of
+the costume. Referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the
+parts of the figure, it is apparent that many of the remarkable
+features are due to constructive peculiarities. The round face, for
+example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the
+concentric weaving. The oblique eyes have no reference to a Mongolian
+origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they
+are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the
+aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction
+forced it into this shape. The proportion of the figure is not so very
+bad because the Moki artist did not know better, but because the
+surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 345. Figure of a bird painted upon a Zuñi shield,
+free hand delineation.]
+
+Now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one
+side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of
+the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but
+this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented
+in the following figures. With many tribes the bird is an object of
+superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products
+suitable for its delineation. It is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery,
+and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected
+with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. The
+bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in
+the decoration of basketry. In Fig. 345 I present an ordinary graphic
+representation. It is copied from a Zuñi shield and is the device of
+an order or the totem of a clan. The style is quite conventional, as a
+result of the various constraints surrounding its production. But what
+a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the
+basketmaker's language. Observe the conventional pattern shown upon
+the surface of a Moki tray (Fig. 346). We have difficulty in
+recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with
+the preceding. The positions of the head and legs and the expanded
+wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is
+hampered by technique. The peculiar construction barely permits the
+presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a
+particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the
+treatment of the human figure in Fig. 344. In that case the interlaced
+combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating
+ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs
+in long steps. The power of expression lies almost wholly with the
+concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the
+concentric lines. In the present case (Fig. 346) this is reversed and
+lines employed in expressing forms are radiate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 346. Figure of a bird executed in a coiled Moki
+tray, textile delineation.]
+
+The precise effect of this difference of construction upon a
+particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another
+illustration. In Fig. 347 we have a bird woven in a basket of the
+interlaced style. We see with what ease the long sharp bill and the
+slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark
+mandibles) are expressed. In the other case the construction is such
+that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and
+square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the
+mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the
+truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical
+band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. It will be seen that the
+two representations are very unlike each other, not because of
+differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style
+of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across
+the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side
+of the center.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 347. Figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker
+at one side of the center.]
+
+It is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the
+convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with
+the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with
+the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style
+of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. These
+varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the
+incoming elements of textile embellishment.
+
+It will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications
+produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and
+adventitious agencies.
+
+We are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework
+employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe
+that even the Indian, under the tutelage of the European, reproduces
+in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life.
+As a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and
+conservatism of primitive art. The intention of the primitive artist
+was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate
+a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not
+submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art.
+
+I have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from
+necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely
+geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as
+well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. This is well shown
+in Fig. 348, a fine specimen given by Wiener in his work Pérou et
+Bolive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 348. Embroidery upon a cotton net in which the
+textile combinations are followed step by step. Ancient Peruvian
+work.]
+
+A life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the
+same subject woven in with the web and woof. The reason is found in
+the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first
+to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by
+step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method.
+
+It would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does
+not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven
+canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters and follow
+the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such
+is not the case in purely aboriginal work. An example of embroidery
+obtained from an ancient grave at Ancon, Peru, is shown in Fig. 349. A
+piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird
+figures in bright colored wool thread. The lines of the figures do not
+obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow,
+but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design
+were woven in the goods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 349. Embroidery in which the foundation fabric is
+not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile
+geometricity. Ancient Peruvian work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 350. Design painted in color upon a woven surface,
+exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. Ancient Peruvian
+work. Copied from The Necropolis of Ancon.]
+
+So habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious
+decoration. When the ancient Peruvian executed a design in color upon
+a woven surface (Fig. 350), using a pencil or brush, the result was
+hardly less subject to textile restraint.
+
+As a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of
+decorative design--the textile and the free hand--there exist
+intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is
+nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly
+modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced
+into the fabric or applied to its surface.
+
+In countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile
+system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may
+prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little
+felt. The Haidah Indians, for example, paint designs with great
+freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical
+with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is
+doubtless much modified by the means and methods of Europeans. Our
+studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art.
+
+
+EXTENSION OF TEXTILE ORNAMENT TO OTHER FORMS OF ART.
+
+I have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the
+textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the
+manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of
+the art. I have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which
+decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic
+influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws
+of textile combination. Pursuing the investigation still further it is
+found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the
+art, but extends to other arts. Like a strong race of men it is not to
+be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms,
+stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come
+within its reach. Its influence is felt throughout the whole range of
+those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate
+ideas of beauty. It is necessary, before closing this paper, to
+examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to
+describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are
+accomplished. First and most important are the results of direct
+transmission.
+
+House building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages,
+is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops,
+other materials and other systems of construction are employed,
+and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are
+especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and
+survive all changes, howsoever complete. In a similar way other
+branches of art differentiated in material and function from the
+parent art inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in
+the textile stage. It may be difficult to say with reference to any
+particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there
+may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms;
+but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric
+ornament that it owes something--if not its inspiration, its modes of
+expression--to the teachings of the textile system. This appears
+reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of
+esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors.
+Being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of
+art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon
+them. What claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon
+the decorative conceptions of the Digger Indians, or even upon those
+of the Zuñi or Moki? The former have no architecture, sculpture, or
+ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly
+developed. The Pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the
+stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet
+classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or
+varied. These examples of the development of high forms of decoration
+during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. Others are
+observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift
+the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's
+greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. It
+is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their
+development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to
+themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal,
+in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of
+which tend to give rise to ornament. But this ornament is generally
+only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not
+transferable by natural processes--as of a parent to its offspring--as
+are the esthetic features of the weaver's art.
+
+Besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested
+in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still
+efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire
+textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following
+illustrations.
+
+Japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. Upon
+superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects
+taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste
+upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. If we
+should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration,
+the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because
+they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators
+whose taste is well nigh infallible. But this explanation, however
+satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not
+at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of man was not
+primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements,
+nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they
+were indigenous. Now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few
+elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of
+its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily
+dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by
+direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly
+distinct.
+
+Textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large
+extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of
+the other. The textile art is the parent, and, as I have already
+shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. The
+fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for
+decoration. It is dependent and plastic. Its forms are to a great
+extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire
+automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold.
+This is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other
+methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are
+transferred to the other. Thus we explain the occurrence, the constant
+recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive
+ceramics. The herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like
+are greatly the heritage of the textile art. Two forms derived from
+textile surfaces are illustrated in Figs. 351 and 352. In the first
+example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile
+combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the
+same way. In Fig. 352 we see the result of copying these patterns in
+incised lines upon soft clay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in
+textile combinations.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 352. Herring bone and checker figures in fictile
+forms transferred from the textile.]
+
+Again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his wares
+within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his
+vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. The surface exhibits
+coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in Fig. 353, and the textile
+character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils
+with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the
+transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of
+the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. When these peoples came
+to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native
+to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less
+literal transfers by copying are to be found. A fine example of these
+painted textile designs is shown in Fig. 354. It is executed in a
+masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient
+Tusayan. Not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric
+exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the
+same as in the textile original. Nine-tenths of the more archaic,
+Pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art,
+and all show the influence of textile convention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 353. Earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting
+decorative characters derived from basketry.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 354. Ceramic ornament copied literally from a
+textile original.]
+
+Another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature
+may be noticed. All the more advanced American nations were very fond
+of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels
+having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. Now, in many cases
+the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated,
+and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their
+full share of attention. Such an example, from a sepulcher at Ancon,
+is shown in Fig. 355. Here the poncho or mantle thrown across the
+shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes
+and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. In this way both
+style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the
+ceramic art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 355. Textile patterns transferred to pottery
+through the copying of costume. From The Necropolis of Ancon, by Reiss
+and Stübel, Pl. 94.]
+
+It will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural
+methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art
+receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of
+textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical,
+and that it is continued automatically without any very decided
+exercise of judgment or taste. As a result, these borrowed decorations
+are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed
+within the art itself. Later in the course of progress the potter
+escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his
+designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by
+the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. When, finally,
+intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws,
+decoration tends to become debased.
+
+Turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the
+transfer to them of textile features? Take, for example, sculpture. In
+the wood carving of the Polynesians we observe a most elaborate system
+of decoration, more or less geometric in character. We do not need to
+look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile
+system, and we ask, Is it also derived from a textile source? In the
+first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar
+forms. In carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed
+tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and
+formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of
+uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of
+combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting
+and spacing in the textile art. In the presentation of natural forms
+curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the
+carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or
+knife. Graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the
+skill and habits of the artist. But, in reality, the geometric
+character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally
+toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not
+exercised an influence. The textile arts of these peoples are highly
+developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and
+must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially
+so in the matter of ornament. Specific examples may be cited showing
+the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. Bows, spears, arrows, &c.
+are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. Knives
+and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of
+certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. In ceremonial
+objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the
+characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated
+surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. A most instructive
+illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums
+(Fig. 356). The cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after
+loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become
+an important feature and assume the character of decoration. The heavy
+wooden handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures
+given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a
+little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface
+ceases and the sculptured portion begins.
+
+All things considered, I regard it as highly probable that much of the
+geometric character exhibited in Polynesian decoration is due to
+textile dominance. That these peoples are in the habit of employing
+textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume,
+such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree,
+which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. This
+transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied
+to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which
+the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by
+means of stamps themselves textile. Fig. 357 illustrates the
+construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile
+character is acquired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 356. Ceremonial adz, with carved ornament
+imitating textile wrapping. Polynesian work.]
+
+Textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure
+in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form,
+becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. Through
+sculpture these motives enter architecture. But textile decoration
+pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve
+ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the
+rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. Textile art in mats,
+covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors
+and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred
+to the stone and plaster. The wall of an ancient Pueblo estufa, or
+ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture,
+antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in Egyptian art,
+is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the
+pottery, from a textile source. The doorway or rather entrance to the
+rude hovel of a Navajo Indian is closed by a blanket of native make,
+unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high
+order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 357. Portion of a tapa stamp, showing its
+subtextile character. A palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the
+patterns are sewed in or stitched on.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 358. Design in stucco, exhibiting textile
+characters.]
+
+The ancient "hall of the arabesques" at Chimu, Peru, is decorated in
+elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art
+(Fig. 358), and other equally striking examples are to be found in
+other American countries. The classic surface decorations known and
+used in Oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in
+indigenous American architecture at a stage of culture lower than any
+known stage of classic art.
+
+It may appear that I have advocated too strongly the claims of the
+textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the
+conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but I have
+endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the
+student may readily reach deductions of his own. A correspondingly
+careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally
+to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and
+tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Alaskan Indians, illustration of ornamentation by 199
+Ancon, Peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at 212, 230,
+  231, 236, 243, 248
+Apache, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 213, 223
+British Guiana Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 217
+Chimu, Peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at 251, 252
+Clallam Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207
+Color in textile art 201, 202
+Color phenomena in textile ornament 215-232
+Form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations
+  from Indian work 196-201
+Geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament 202-244
+Holmes, W. H. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the
+  development of form and ornament 189-252
+Klamath Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 208, 209, 227
+McCloud River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 221
+Moki, illustrations of ornamentation by 197, 205, 224, 225, 226,
+  238, 240
+Northwest Coast Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 213,
+  218, 227, 230
+Penn wampum belt 233
+Peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by 211, 212,
+  214, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 242, 243, 248
+Pima Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 220
+Piute Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 205
+Polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of 249, 250
+Seminole Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207
+Textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament,
+  paper by W. H. Holmes on 189-252
+Tule River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 219
+Tusayan ornament, illustrations of 247, 248
+Wiener, cited 242
+Yokut Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 233, 234
+Zuñi, illustrations of ornamentation by 239
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its
+Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation
+To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament
+       Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, (pages
+              189-252)
+
+Author: William H. Holmes
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2006 [EBook #17730]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+<h1>A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART</h1>
+<br />
+<h4>IN ITS RELATION TO THE</h4>
+<br />
+<h2>DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT</h2>
+<br />
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<br />
+<h2>WILLIAM H. HOLMES.</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5>Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,<br />
+1884-'85, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, pages 189-252</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+
+<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td width="80%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Introduction.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Intro">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Form in textile art.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Form">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Relations of form to ornament.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Relations">201</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Color in textile art.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Color">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Textile ornament.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Ornament">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Development of a geometric system within the art.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Development">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Introduction.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#GeoIntro">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Relief phenomena.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Relief">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Ordinary features</span>.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Ordinary">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Reticulated work.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Reticulated">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Superconstructive features.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Superconstructive">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Color phenomena.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Phenomena">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Ordinary features.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Features">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Non-essential constructive features.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Nonessential">226</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Superconstructive features.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ColorSuper">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Adventitious features.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Adventitious">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Geometricity imposed upon adopted elements.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Geometricity">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Extension of textile ornament to other forms of art.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Extension">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toi" id="toi"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="80%">Fig.</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%">Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig286">286.</a> &nbsp; Mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form</td>
+  <td class="tdr">197</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig287">287.</a> &nbsp; Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form</td>
+  <td class="tdr">198</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig288">288.</a> &nbsp; Pyriform water vessel</td>
+  <td class="tdr">198</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig289">289.</a> &nbsp; Basket with esthetic characters of form</td>
+  <td class="tdr">199</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig290">290.</a> &nbsp; Basket of eccentric form</td>
+  <td class="tdr">200</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig291">291.</a> &nbsp; Character of surface in the simplest form of weaving</td>
+  <td class="tdr">204</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig292">292.</a> &nbsp; Surface produced by impacting</td>
+  <td class="tdr">204</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig293">293.</a> &nbsp; Surface produced by use of wide fillets</td>
+  <td class="tdr">204</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig294">294.</a> &nbsp; Basket with ribbed surface</td>
+  <td class="tdr">205</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig295">295.</a> &nbsp; Bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface</td>
+  <td class="tdr">205</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig296">296.</a> &nbsp; Tray showing radial ribs</td>
+  <td class="tdr">205</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig297">297.</a> &nbsp; Combination giving herring bone effect</td>
+  <td class="tdr">206</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig298">298.</a> &nbsp; Combination giving triangular figures</td>
+  <td class="tdr">206</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig299">299.</a> &nbsp; Peruvian work basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">206</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig300">300.</a> &nbsp; Basket of Seminole workmanship</td>
+  <td class="tdr">207</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig301">301.</a> &nbsp; Surface effect produced in open twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">207</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig302">302.</a> &nbsp; Surface effect produced in open twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">207</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig303">303.</a> &nbsp; Surface effect produced by impacting in twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">208</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig304">304.</a> &nbsp; Surface effect produced by impacting the web strands in twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">208</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig305">305.</a> &nbsp; Surface effect produced by crossing the web series in open twined work</td>
+  <td class="tdr">208</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig306">306.</a> &nbsp; Tray with open mesh, twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">208</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig307">307.</a> &nbsp; Conical basket, twined combination</td>
+  <td class="tdr">209</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig308">308.</a> &nbsp; Example of primitive reticulated weaving</td>
+  <td class="tdr">210</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig309">309.</a> &nbsp; Simple form of reticulation</td>
+  <td class="tdr">211</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig310">310.</a> &nbsp; Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth</td>
+  <td class="tdr">211</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig311">311.</a> &nbsp; Peruvian embroidery</td>
+  <td class="tdr">213</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig312">312.</a> &nbsp; Basket with pendent ornaments</td>
+  <td class="tdr">213</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig313">313.</a> &nbsp; Basket with pendent ornaments</td>
+  <td class="tdr">213</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig314">314.</a> &nbsp; Tasseled Peruvian mantle</td>
+  <td class="tdr">214</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig315">315.</a> &nbsp; Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors</td>
+  <td class="tdr">216</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig316">316.</a> &nbsp; Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors</td>
+  <td class="tdr">216</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig317">317.</a> &nbsp; Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors</td>
+  <td class="tdr">216</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig318">318.</a> &nbsp; Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors</td>
+  <td class="tdr">217</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig319">319.</a> &nbsp; Base of coiled basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">218</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig320">320.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">218</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig321">321.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">219</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig322">322.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">220</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig323">323.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">220</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig324">324.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">221</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig325">325.</a> &nbsp; Coiled basket with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">223</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig326">326.</a> &nbsp; Coiled tray with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">224</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig327">327.</a> &nbsp; Coiled tray with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">225</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig328">328.</a> &nbsp; Tray with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">225</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+    <a href="#Fig329">329.</a> &nbsp; Tray with geometric ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">226</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig330">330.</a> &nbsp; Ornament produced by wrapping the strands</td>
+  <td class="tdr">227</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig331">331.</a> &nbsp; Ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the fabric</td>
+  <td class="tdr">227</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig332">332.</a> &nbsp; Basket with feather ornamentation</td>
+  <td class="tdr">227</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig333">333.</a> &nbsp; Basket with feather ornamentation</td>
+  <td class="tdr">227</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig334">334.</a> &nbsp; Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof</td>
+  <td class="tdr">228</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig335">335.</a> &nbsp; Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof</td>
+  <td class="tdr">228</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig336">336.</a> &nbsp; Example of grass embroidery</td>
+  <td class="tdr">230</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig337">337.</a> &nbsp; Example of feather embroidery</td>
+  <td class="tdr">231</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig338">338.</a> &nbsp; Figures from the Penn wampum belt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">233</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig339">339.</a> &nbsp; Figures from a California Indian basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">234</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig340">340.</a> &nbsp; California Indian basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">234</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig341">341.</a> &nbsp; Figures from a Peruvian basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">235</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig342">342.</a> &nbsp; Figure from a piece of Peruvian gobelins</td>
+  <td class="tdr">236</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig343">343.</a> &nbsp; Figures from a Peruvian vase</td>
+  <td class="tdr">237</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig344">344.</a> &nbsp; Figure from a circular basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">238</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig345">345.</a> &nbsp; Figure of a bird from a Zu&ntilde;i shield</td>
+  <td class="tdr">239</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig346">346.</a> &nbsp; Figure of a bird woven in a tray</td>
+  <td class="tdr">240</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig347">347.</a> &nbsp; Figure of a bird woven in a basket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">241</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig348">348.</a> &nbsp; Figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient Peruvians</td>
+  <td class="tdr">242</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig349">349.</a> &nbsp; Figures of birds embroidered by the ancient Peruvians</td>
+  <td class="tdr">243</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig350">350.</a> &nbsp; Conventional design painted upon cotton cloth</td>
+  <td class="tdr">243</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig351">351.</a> &nbsp; Herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving</td>
+  <td class="tdr">246</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig352">352.</a> &nbsp; Herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay</td>
+  <td class="tdr">246</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig353">353.</a> &nbsp; Earthen vase with textile ornament</td>
+  <td class="tdr">247</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig354">354.</a> &nbsp; Example of textile ornament painted upon pottery</td>
+  <td class="tdr">248</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig355">355.</a> &nbsp; Textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume</td>
+  <td class="tdr">248</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig356">356.</a> &nbsp; Ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character</td>
+  <td class="tdr">250</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig357">357.</a> &nbsp; Figures upon a tapa stamp</td>
+  <td class="tdr">251</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp"><a href="#Fig358">358.</a> &nbsp; Design in stucco exhibiting textile characters</td>
+  <td class="tdr">251</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+<h3><a name="Intro" id="Intro"></a>TEXTILE ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT.</h3>
+
+<h4 class="sc">By William H. Holmes.</h4>
+<br />
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the
+very inception of culture. In primitive times it occupied a wide
+field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now
+expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of
+construction. Accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there
+was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and
+skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an
+important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts.</p>
+
+<p>Woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements
+or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are
+combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. The
+processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting,
+netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering.</p>
+
+<p>The materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such
+as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then
+fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous
+artificial preparations, are freely used. These are employed in the
+single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are
+combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices,
+by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms.</p>
+
+<p>The products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as
+shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these;
+and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they
+are cut and fitted. In earlier stages of art we have to deal almost
+exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house
+furnisher are evolved with civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly
+with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of
+which I shall denominate <i>constructive,</i> the second <i>functional,</i> and
+the third <i>esthetic</i>. The last class, with which this paper has almost
+exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the
+superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes
+three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with (1) form,
+(2) color, and (3) design. Esthetic features of form are, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>in origin
+and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color
+and design, to construction mainly. In the following study separate
+sections are given to each of these topics.</p>
+
+<p>It is fortunate perhaps that in this work I am restricted to the
+products of rather primitive stages of culture, as I have thus to deal
+with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. In
+the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes,
+and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light
+can fall upon the field of vision.</p>
+
+<p>In America there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no
+parallel in the world. Uncontaminated by contact with the complex
+conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities
+for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once
+rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous
+culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the
+succeeding stages of civilization.</p>
+<a name="Form" id="Form"></a>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>FORM IN TEXTILE ART.</h4>
+
+<p>Form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is
+fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression
+of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping
+arts from expressing the whole of function. Such is the pliability of
+a large portion of textile products&mdash;as, for example, nets, garments,
+and hangings&mdash;that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore,
+when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles
+are without esthetic value or interest. The more rigid objects, in
+common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape
+still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form
+generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by
+the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. Such attributes are
+not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist
+conjointly with them.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these features of form we observe others of a more
+decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose
+of enhancing the appearance.</p>
+
+<p>In very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas
+predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial
+characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. But as the ages
+pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are
+added and emphasized. In riper culture the growing pressure of
+esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial
+modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. In periods of
+deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual
+artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and
+erroneously <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus
+violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. In
+respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the
+acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal,
+the fourth abnormal: First, we have that in which functional
+characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to
+the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or
+model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary
+features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of
+taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected;
+third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described,
+undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity,
+&amp;c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability;
+and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is
+sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig286" id="Fig286"></a>
+<a href="images/fig286.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig286.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 286. Mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic attributes of form. Moki work" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 286.</span> Mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of
+esthetic attributes of form. Moki work&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>The exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena
+pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of
+illustrations. Woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and
+originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for
+purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of
+flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination;
+and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result
+of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material,
+models, &amp;c. A close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of
+the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies
+on the part of the artist. The esthetic interest attaching to such a
+shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>as all
+individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to
+preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. The varied
+features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (Fig.
+286), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention
+in the proper place.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig287" id="Fig287"></a>
+<a href="images/fig287.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig287.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 287.</span> Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form.
+Obtained from the Apache&mdash;1/2.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In point of contour the basket tray shown in Fig. 287 has a somewhat
+more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the
+curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. How
+much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection
+must remain in doubt. In work so perfect we are wont, however
+unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig288" id="Fig288"></a>
+<a href="images/fig288.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig288.png" width="45%" alt="Fig. 288. Pyriform water vessel used by the Piute Indians" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 288.</span> Pyriform water vessel used by the Piute
+Indians&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>A third example&mdash;presented in Fig. 288&mdash;illustrates an advanced stage
+in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. The
+forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as
+follows: A primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to
+give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may
+be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations
+of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace,
+the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies
+of the artist's mind. In regard to the last point there is generally
+in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be
+found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong
+desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of
+form. It will be observed that the textile materials and construction
+do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity
+of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most
+readily expressed.</p>
+
+<p>Modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally
+suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or
+accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction.
+In the vessel presented in Fig. 289&mdash;the work of Alaskan Indians&mdash;the
+margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns
+of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. This is without reference
+to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all
+probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. Other and much
+more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all
+countries.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig289" id="Fig289"></a>
+<a href="images/fig289.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig289.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 289. Vessel with esthetic characters of form. Work of the Yakama" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 289.</span> Vessel with esthetic characters of form. Work of
+the Yakama&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally
+noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details.
+This is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an
+art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance
+in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. When,
+through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the
+savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of
+construction and adaptability to use. An example of such work is
+presented in Fig. 290, a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of
+basketry. Other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets,
+bottles, and tea pots. They are the work of the Indians of the
+northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner,
+bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig290" id="Fig290"></a>
+<a href="images/fig290.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig290.png" width="51%" alt="Fig. 290. Basket made under foreign influence" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 290.</span> Basket made under foreign
+influence, construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty&mdash;1/3.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It appears from the preceding analyses that <i>form</i> in this art is not
+sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the
+delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar
+difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and
+supervision of taste. The inherent morphologic forces of the art are
+strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results
+that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to
+esthetic influence. If, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use
+are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if
+materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely
+bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high
+degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>In a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity
+is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck
+and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain
+limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist
+cannot readily free himself. Models furnished by nature, as they are
+usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and
+all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity
+that belongs to simplicity. Taste which is in a formative state can
+but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>by
+them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and
+universality. If the textile art had been the only one known to man,
+ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure
+formed through that art. Natural forms would have had little to do
+with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by
+the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon
+which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity
+dwell with steady attention from generation to generation.</p>
+<a name="Relations" id="Relations"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>RELATIONS OF FORM TO ORNAMENT.</h4>
+
+<p>It would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to
+find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential
+features of the art&mdash;markings of the surface and color of
+filaments&mdash;creating a new field in which to labor and expending their
+energy upon ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may
+be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large
+extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits;
+figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or
+rectangles&mdash;according, in no slight measure, to the character of the
+spaces afforded by details of contour. Secondly, it affects ornament
+through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as
+handles, for ornamental purposes. Thirdly, it is probable that shape
+influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the
+taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of
+ornament.</p>
+<a name="Color" id="Color"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>COLOR IN TEXTILE ART.</h4>
+
+<p>Color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it
+is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful
+as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily
+receives a large share of consideration. It is probably one of the
+foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the
+esthetic sense.</p>
+
+<p>The natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form
+one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. The great
+interest taken in color&mdash;the great importance attached to it&mdash;is
+attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional
+variety and brilliancy of effect are secured.</p>
+
+<p>Color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps,
+in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in
+construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which
+construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. It finds its chief
+use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures
+with which objects of art are embellished.</p>
+
+<p>Color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is
+added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils,
+brushes, and dies. Its employment in the latter manner is especially
+convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be
+executed.</p>
+
+<a name="Ornament" id ="Ornament"></a><a name="Development" id="Development"></a><a name="GeoIntro" id="GeoIntro"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3>TEXTILE ORNAMENT.</h3>
+
+<h4>DEVELOPMENT OF A GEOMETRIC SYSTEM OF DESIGN WITHIN THE ART.</h4>
+
+<p class="cen">INTRODUCTION.</p>
+
+<p>Having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, I
+shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose
+exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. It will be necessary,
+however, to present, besides those features of the art properly
+expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena
+that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest
+decorative conceptions and give shape to them. I shall show how the
+latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they
+gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic
+faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of
+a system of ornament of world wide application.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as
+<i>relieved</i> and <i>flat</i>. Figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise
+during construction as a result of the intersections and other more
+complex relations&mdash;the bindings&mdash;of the warp and woof or of inserted
+or applied elements. Flat or surface features are manifested in color,
+either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. Such is
+the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain
+combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the
+art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the
+effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. The character of such
+figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental
+association of natural colors in construction.</p>
+
+<p>At some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious
+surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for
+the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now
+took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to
+gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from
+physical wants.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic
+notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile
+characters. Long before textile objects of a high class were made,
+ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for
+example, in connection with personal adornment. The skin had been
+painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in
+the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal
+associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated
+with the person. No matter, however, what the period or manner of the
+association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may
+be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of
+decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the
+geometric textile construction.</p>
+
+<p>In amplifying this subject I find it convenient to treat separately
+the two classes of decorative phenomena&mdash;the relieved and the
+flat&mdash;notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part
+intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a
+common end.</p>
+
+<a name="Relief" id="Relief"></a><a name="Ordinary" id="Ordinary"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>RELIEF PHENOMENA.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Ordinary features.</i>&mdash;The relieved surface characters of fabrics
+resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or
+less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are
+susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. Such
+features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of
+basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of
+damasks, embroideries, and laces. So long as the figures produced are
+confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished
+construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain
+work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless
+repetition of like parts extremely monotonous.</p>
+
+<p>In right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which
+run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. In radiate
+weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally
+formal manner by concentric lines. In other classes of combination
+there is an almost equal degree of geometricity.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found
+that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the
+essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering
+with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is
+opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary
+elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which
+the textile decorator may freely avail himself. The character of these
+is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with
+indigenous textile forms.</p>
+
+<p>To make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze
+somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of
+the resultant and associated phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>We may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made
+use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. As indicated above,
+these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and,
+second, extra or superconstructive features.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>First, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a
+variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been
+evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these&mdash;no matter
+what the material or what the size and character of the filamental
+elements&mdash;gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. Thus it
+appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations
+produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike
+constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. These
+constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style
+of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in
+the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination
+has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate
+sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. It sometimes
+even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical
+surface effects are produced.</p>
+
+<p>It will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series
+of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will
+suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the
+bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. I choose, first, a
+number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which
+the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at
+right angles or nearly so. In Fig. 291 we have the result exhibited in
+a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted
+fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. Fig.
+292 illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series
+of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is
+entirely hidden. The surface here exhibits a succession of vertical
+ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding
+example. The third variety (Fig. 293) differs but slightly from the
+first. The fillets are wider and are set close together without
+crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance.</p>
+
+<a name="Fig291" id="Fig291"></a><a name="Fig292" id="Fig292"></a><a name="Fig293" id="Fig293"></a>
+<br />
+
+<div style="width: 100%;">
+
+<div style="float: left; width: 30%; padding-right: .25em;">
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/fig291.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig291tn.png" style="width: 100%;"
+alt="Fig. 291. Surface relief in simplest form of intersection" /></a>
+<p class="cen"><span class="sc">Fig. 291.</span> Surface relief in simplest form of intersection.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div style="float: right; width: 30%; padding-left: .25em;">
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/fig293.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig293tn.png" style="width: 100%;"
+alt="Fig. 293. Surface relief produced by wide fillets set close together" /></a>
+<p class="cen"><span class="sc">Fig. 293.</span> Surface relief produced by wide fillets set close together.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 31%; margin-right: 31%;">
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/fig292.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig292tn.png" style="width: 80%;"
+alt="Fig. 293. Surface relief produced by horizontal series crowded together" /></a>
+<p class="cen"><span class="sc">Fig. 292.</span> Surface relief produced by horizontal series crowded together.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>The second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in
+the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great
+degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain
+liquids, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. The general
+surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in Fig. 294,
+which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the Moki
+Indians. In this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of
+radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig294" id="Fig294"></a>
+<a href="images/fig294.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig294.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 294. Basket showing ribbed surface" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 294.</span> Basket showing
+ribbed surface produced by impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments.
+Moki work&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig295" id="Fig295"></a>
+<a href="images/fig295.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig295.png" width="40%" alt="Fig. 295. Alternation of intersection, producing oblique or spiral ribs" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 295.</span> Alternation of intersection, producing oblique or spiral ribs.
+Piute work&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig296" id="Fig296"></a>
+<a href="images/fig296.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig296.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 296. Radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed from above" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 296.</span> Radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed from
+above. Moki work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<p>It will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take
+the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation
+of the horizontal series&mdash;the woof&mdash;we get oblique ridges, as shown in
+the partly finished bottle illustrated in Fig. 295. They are,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. The peculiar
+effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown
+in Fig. 296.</p>
+
+<p>By changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of
+combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding;
+so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships,
+there would be little suggestion of correlation. In the example given
+in Fig. 297 the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and
+under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by
+extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step
+and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig297" id="Fig297"></a>
+<a href="images/fig297.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig297.png" width="50%" alt="Fig. 297. Diagonal combination, giving herring bone effect" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 297.</span> Diagonal combination, giving herring bone effect.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig298" id="Fig298"></a>
+<a href="images/fig298.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig298.png" width="50%" alt="Fig. 298. Elaboration of diagonal combination, giving triangular figures" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 298.</span> Elaboration of diagonal combination, giving
+triangular figures.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>This example is from an ancient work basket obtained at Ancon, Peru,
+and shown in Fig. 299. The surface features are in strong relief,
+giving a pronounced herring bone effect.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig299" id="Fig299"></a>
+<a href="images/fig299.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig299.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 299. Peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly relieved ridges" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 299.</span> Peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly
+relieved ridges.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to
+produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is
+shown in Fig. 298. A good illustration is also seen in Fig. 286, and
+another piece, said to be of Seminole workmanship, is given in Fig.
+300. These and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of
+primitive decorative motives. They are employed not only within <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>the
+art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with
+suggestions of embellishment.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig300" id="Fig300"></a>
+<a href="images/fig300.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig300.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 300. Effects produced by varying the order of intersection" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 300.</span> Effects produced by varying the order of
+intersection. Seminole work&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant
+patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig301" id="Fig301"></a>
+<a href="images/fig301.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig301.png" width="50%" alt="Fig. 301. Surface effect in open twined combination" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 301.</span> Surface effect in open twined
+combination.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig302" id="Fig302"></a>
+<a href="images/fig302.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig302.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 302. Surface effect of twined, lattice combination in basketry" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 302.</span> Surface effect of twined, lattice
+combination in basketry of the Clallam Indians of Washington
+Territory&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 301 illustrates the simplest form of what Dr. O.T. Mason has
+called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native
+tribes. The strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the
+opposing fillets. The resulting open work has much the appearance of
+ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or
+strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is
+strikingly suggestive of decoration. The result of this combination
+upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the
+large basket presented in Fig. 302. Other variants of this type are
+given in the three succeeding figures.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig303" id="Fig303"></a>
+<a href="images/fig303.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig303.png" width="50%" alt="Fig. 303. Surface effect in impacted work of twined combination" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 303.</span> Surface effect in impacted work of twined combination.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The result seen in Fig. 303 is obtained by impacting the horizontal or
+twined series of threads. The surface is nearly identical with that of
+the closely impacted example of the preceding type (Fig. 292). The
+peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. When the doubled
+and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing
+series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in
+Fig. 304 and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in Fig.
+307.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig304" id="Fig304"></a>
+<a href="images/fig304.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig304.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 304. Surface effect obtained by placing the warp strands close together and the woof cables far apart" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 304.</span> Surface effect obtained by placing
+the warp strands close together and the woof cables far apart.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig305" id="Fig305"></a>
+<a href="images/fig305.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig305.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 305. Surface effect obtained by crossing the warp series in open twined work" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 305.</span> Surface effect obtained by crossing
+the warp series in open twined work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In Fig. 305 we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the
+untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig306" id="Fig306"></a>
+<a href="images/fig306.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig306.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 306. Decorative effects produced by variations in the radiate or warp series in an open work tray" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 306.</span> Decorative effects produced by
+variations in the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. Klamath
+work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 306 serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the
+direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in
+vessel-making arts.</p>
+
+<p>The examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative
+resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate
+constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results
+can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of
+binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object
+or in the same piece of fabric. A good, though very simple,
+illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in Fig.
+286. In this case a border, varying from the center portion in
+appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a
+multiple to a single arrangement.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig307" id="Fig307"></a>
+<a href="images/fig307.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig307.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 307. Conical basket of the Klamath Indians of Oregon" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 307.</span> Conical basket of the Klamath
+Indians of Oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work
+border&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The conical basket shown in Fig. 307 serves to illustrate the same
+point. In this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is
+secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and
+combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of
+open work.</p>
+
+<p>Now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some
+primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they
+are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many
+new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the
+elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of
+weaving.</p>
+
+<p>Other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit
+characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of
+relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already
+illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric
+system of combination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Reticulated" id="Reticulated"></a>
+<i>Reticulated work.</i>&mdash;A few paragraphs may be added here in regard to
+reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit
+more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided
+bearing upon the growth of ornament.</p>
+
+<p>In all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite
+reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and
+other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the
+higher forms of the art. The production of reticulated work is the
+especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain
+varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are
+produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be
+undertaken by ambitious workmen.</p>
+
+<p>In the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class
+of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to
+marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite
+laces of cultured peoples. The Americans had only taken the first
+steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of
+especial interest in the history of the art.</p>
+
+<p>An example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in Fig. 308. It
+is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon
+an ancient piece of pottery obtained in Tennessee.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig308" id="Fig308"></a>
+<a href="images/fig308.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig308.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 308. Incipient stage of reticulated ornament" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 308.</span> Incipient stage of
+reticulated ornament. Fabric of the mound builders.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 309 illustrates a bit of ancient Peruvian work executed on a
+frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging
+the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart.</p>
+
+<p>Open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes,
+certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which
+means the figures are emphasized and varied.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 310 we have a second Peruvian example in which the woof
+threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing
+a lattice-like band.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig309" id="Fig309"></a>
+<a href="images/fig309.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig309.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 309. Simple form of ornamental reticulation" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 309.</span> Simple form of ornamental
+reticulation. Ancient Peruvian work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig310" id="Fig310"></a>
+<a href="images/fig310.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig310.png" width="75%" alt="Fig. 310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 310.</span> Reticulated pattern
+in cotton cloth. Work of the ancient Peruvians.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced,
+two above and two below the wide band. These are produced by leaving
+the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs
+across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as
+shown in the cut.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are
+found among the textile products of many American tribes and occur as
+well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where
+designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced
+to facilitate the work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Superconstructive" id="Superconstructive"></a>
+<i>Superconstructive features.</i>&mdash;These features, so important in the
+decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a
+construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by
+function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which
+may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. They constitute one of
+the most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>widely used and effective resources of the textile
+decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing,
+cutting, applying, appending, &amp;c. They add enormously to the capacity
+for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render
+natural forms in the round. Notwithstanding this fact&mdash;the most
+important section of this class of features&mdash;embroidery is treated to
+better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally
+associated with the designs.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig311" id="Fig311"></a>
+<a href="images/fig311.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig311.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 311. Open work design embroidered upon a net-like fabric" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 311.</span> Open work design embroidered upon a net-like fabric.
+From a grave at Ancon, Peru.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>One example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. It is
+probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery America has
+produced. In design and in method of realization it is identical with
+the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient Peruvians, being worked
+upon a net foundation, as shown in Fig. 311. The broad band of figures
+employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and
+still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band.</p>
+
+<p>Appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of
+fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. They
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and
+are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or
+less pronounced geometric character. The work is a kind of embroidery,
+the parts employed being of the nature of pendants.</p>
+
+<p>These include numberless articles derived from nature and art. It will
+suffice to present a few examples already at hand.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig312" id="Fig312"></a>
+<a href="images/fig312.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig312.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 312. Basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped with bits of tin" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 312.</span> Basket with pendent buckskin strands
+tipped with bits of tin. Apache Indians&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 312 illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the Apache
+Indians. It serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and
+clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings
+tipped with conical bits of tin. The checker pattern is in color.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig313" id="Fig313"></a>
+<a href="images/fig313.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig313.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 313. Basket with pendants of beads and bits of shell" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 313.</span> Basket with pendants of beads and
+bits of shell, work of the northwest coast Indians.&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 313 illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. A feather
+decked basket made by the northwest coast Indians is embellished with
+pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of
+bright shell. The importance of this class of work in higher forms of
+textiles may be illustrated by an example from Peru. It is probable
+that American art has produced few examples of tasseled work more
+wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in Fig. 314. It is a
+fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth,
+obtained from an ancient tomb. The body is made up of separately woven
+bands, upon which disk-like and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>semilunar figures representing human
+faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. To the
+center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying
+sizes are attached. The fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is
+composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels
+supporting clusters of smaller ones. There are upwards of three
+thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in
+colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. The general
+color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson.
+The illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty
+of the original.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig314" id="Fig314"></a>
+<a href="images/fig314.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig314.png" width="36%" alt="Fig. 314. Tassel ornamentation from an ancient Peruvian mantle" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 314.</span> Tassel ornamentation from an ancient Peruvian
+mantle.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>We have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface
+characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by
+variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and
+ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. We
+shall now see how these are related to color phenomena.</p>
+
+<a name="Phenomena" id="Phenomena"></a><a name="Features" id="Features"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>COLOR PHENOMENA.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Ordinary features.</i>&mdash;In describing the constructive characters of
+fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, I called attention to the
+fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and
+supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. Color
+elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many
+simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before
+the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye.
+When, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater
+elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily
+to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful
+results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection
+of the articles embellished. But color is not confined to the mere
+emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. It is capable of
+advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs
+complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without
+altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters.</p>
+
+<p>In color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive
+combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative
+results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the
+work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of
+distinctions in national decorative conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression,
+lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary
+resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary
+construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to
+some extent in the preceding section.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary
+presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic
+progress. My object in this section is to indicate the part it takes
+in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which
+it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>It will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the
+normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct
+domination of constructive elaboration. In the way of illustration,
+let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of
+the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a
+second series having a distinct color. A very simple geometric pattern
+is produced, as shown in Fig. 315. It is a sort of checker, an
+emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in Fig. 291, the
+figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Had these
+filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results
+might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail
+the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. So far as they
+exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig315" id="Fig315"></a>
+<a href="images/fig315.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig315.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 315.</span> Pattern produced by interlacing strands of
+different colors.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig316" id="Fig316"></a>
+<a href="images/fig316.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig316.png" width="55%" alt="Fig. 316. Pattern produced by modifying the alternation of fillets" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 316.</span> Pattern produced by modifying the alternation
+of fillets.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig317" id="Fig317"></a>
+<a href="images/fig317.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig317.png" width="55%" alt="Fig. 317. Isolated figures produced by modifying the order of intersection" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 317.</span> Isolated figures produced by modifying the order of
+intersection.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more
+elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the
+processes and tendencies of growth. A very slight degree of ingenuity
+will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a
+succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in Fig. 316. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>In
+this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be
+turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they
+result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig318" id="Fig318"></a>
+<a href="images/fig318.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig318.png" width="80%" alt="Fig. 318. Pattern produced by simple alternations of light and dark fillets" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 318.</span> Pattern produced by simple alternations of light and dark fillets.
+Basketry of the Indians of British Guiana.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark
+strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of
+solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection,
+certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing
+series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in Fig. 317. With
+these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of
+expression, as will be seen in Fig. 318, which is taken from a basket
+made by South American Indians, and in Fig. 341, where human figures
+are delineated. The patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric
+and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. With impacting and
+increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a
+considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic
+representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. It
+is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic
+characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date,
+and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects
+would be attempted.</p>
+
+<p>I do not need to follow this style of combination into the more
+refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through
+all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic
+geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;" />
+
+<p>For the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of
+normal textile decorative development I shall present a series of
+Indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted
+varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in
+color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive
+textile products known. I have already shown that several types of
+combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface
+characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. In
+nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of
+fillets&mdash;those of the woof&mdash;the other, the warp, being completely
+hidden from view. In the preceding series the warp and woof were
+almost equally concerned in the expression of design. Here but one is
+used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the
+artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new
+ones at will. Still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no
+means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down
+by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely
+geometric results.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig319" id="Fig319"></a>
+<a href="images/fig319.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig319.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 319. Base of coiled basket showing the method of building by dual coiling" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 319.</span> Base of coiled basket showing the method of building by dual coiling.
+The base or warp coil is composed of untwisted fiber and is formed
+by adding to the free end as the coiling goes on. The woof or binding
+filament, as it is coiled, is caught into the upper surface of the preceding
+turn&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig320" id="Fig320"></a>
+<a href="images/fig320.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig320.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 320. Coiled basket with simple geometric ornament" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 320.</span> Coiled basket with simple geometric
+ornament. Work of the northwest coast Indians&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>I will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are
+in all cases of the coiled ware. If a basket is made with no other
+idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in
+color, the natural color of the woof fillets. If decoration is desired
+a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place
+and does the duty of the ordinary strand. Fig. 319 serves to show the
+construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel
+still quite free from any color decoration. Now, if it is desired to
+begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. Carried once around the
+vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the
+lower line of the ornament seen in Fig. 320. If the artist is content
+with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and
+takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the
+coiling. If further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished.
+In the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again
+and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then
+it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn,
+another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns,
+and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles
+have been produced. Desiring to introduce a meandered design he has
+taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored
+filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the
+right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of
+the warp coil. The pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in
+rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border
+line at the top. The vessel was then completed in the light colored
+material. In this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of
+lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial
+and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. Oblique bands of
+color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines.
+Although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that
+in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative
+conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. They serve
+quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as
+if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig321" id="Fig321"></a>
+<a href="images/fig321.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig321.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 321. Coiled basket with encircling bands of ornament" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 321.</span> Coiled basket with encircling bands
+of ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground.
+Obtained from the Indians of the Tule River, California&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In Fig. 321 I present a superb piece of work executed by the Indians
+of the Tule River, California. It is woven in the closely impacted,
+coiled style. The ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and
+consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>centers and black frames set side by side. The processes of
+substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in
+the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of
+designs are the same, being governed by the same forces.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig322" id="Fig322"></a>
+<a href="images/fig322.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig322.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 322. Coiled basket with ornament arranged in zigzag rays" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 322.</span> Coiled basket with ornament arranged
+in zigzag rays. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Another choice piece, from the Pima Indians of Arizona, is given in
+Fig. 322. The lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the
+directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black
+color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance,
+then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending,
+the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close
+together. These rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark
+figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows
+at right angles to these. A few supplementary rays are added toward
+the margin to fill out the widening spaces. Another striking example
+of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in Fig. 323.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig323" id="Fig323"></a>
+<a href="images/fig323.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig323.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 323. Coiled basket with two bands of meandered ornament" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 323.</span> Coiled basket with two bands of
+meandered ornament. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the
+elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the
+radiate and the concentric lines of construction. This is the work of
+the Pima Indians of Arizona.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig324" id="Fig324"></a>
+<a href="images/fig324.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig324.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament composed of triangular figures" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 324.</span> Coiled basket with geometric
+ornament composed of triangular figures. Obtained from the McCloud
+River Indians, California&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>I shall close the series with a very handsome example of Indian
+basketry and of basketry ornamentation (Fig. 324). The conical shape
+is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like
+all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of
+the decorative requirements of the utensil. The design is wholly
+geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost
+exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. The
+general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing
+with or following the foundation coil. Details are governed by the
+horizontal and the oblique structure lines. The vertical construction
+lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting
+in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique
+outlines.</p>
+
+<p>These studies could be carried through all the types of primitive
+textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all
+cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along
+similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches
+closely corresponding results.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%; line-height: 2em;" />
+
+<p>We have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided
+tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. Now
+each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape
+and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and
+consistent ways. In contemplating them we are led to inquire into the
+nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results.
+The question arises as to exactly how <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>much of the segregating and
+aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art
+and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent,
+questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted.
+This is a difficult problem to deal with, and I shall not attempt more
+here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied.</p>
+
+<p>The desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that
+gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the
+desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely
+decorative elaboration. It appears, however, that there is in the mind
+no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. The mind is a
+growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by
+environment. Seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it
+follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the
+useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. The results reached
+vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities
+furnished by the arts. As I have already amply shown, the textile art
+possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it
+is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of
+embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. The
+mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of
+technique.</p>
+
+<p>A close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art
+will be instructive. For the sake of simplicity I exclude from
+consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements.
+It will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the
+first lessons of the textile art. From the very beginning the workman
+finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in
+the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his
+utensils. If parts employed in construction are multiple they must be
+uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand
+for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a
+constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. The most
+fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and
+available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of
+the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant
+combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of
+isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these
+combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their
+complementaries, the diagonals. If large areas are covered certain
+separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called
+for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. Such separation or
+aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any
+other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment.
+When the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays
+they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>in
+various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through
+simple and complex convolutions. Whatever is done is at the suggestion
+of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by
+technique. Results are like in like techniques and are unlike in
+unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its
+variations in time and character.</p>
+
+<p>All those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important
+in this connection&mdash;the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell
+structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the
+beautiful&mdash;are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so
+far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates.
+Ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed
+by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain
+ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in
+their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the
+animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that
+throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its
+appetites.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%; line-height: 2em;" />
+
+<p>Now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there
+comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which
+the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered
+with by forces from without the art. This occurs when ideas, symbolic
+or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures,
+tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs
+when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the
+geometric units. This period cannot be always well defined, as the
+first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the
+textile forces. Between what may be regarded as purely technical,
+geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in
+each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or
+uncertain pedigree. These must receive slight attention here.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig325" id="Fig325"></a>
+<a href="images/fig325.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig325.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 325. Coiled basket ornamented with devices probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 325.</span> Coiled basket ornamented with
+devices probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects.
+Obtained from the Apache&mdash;1/8.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Fig. 325 represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>Apache. It will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the
+principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling
+directions of the textile combination. This was accomplished by
+increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays
+progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. This
+eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details
+at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that
+each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life
+form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man.</p>
+
+<p>By the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its
+pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. In the
+more advanced stages of Pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the
+textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude
+suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art.
+This is true of much of the coiled basketry of the Moki Indians. True,
+many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style
+is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. In
+many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs
+themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to
+realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are
+very remote. Two examples are given in Figs. 326 and 327. I shall
+expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to
+learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure
+geometric devices refer.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig326" id="Fig326"></a>
+<a href="images/fig326.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig326.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 326. Coiled tray with geometric devices probably modified by ideographic association" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 326.</span> Coiled tray with geometric devices
+probably modified by ideographic association. Moki work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The same is true of other varieties of Pueblo basketry, notably the
+common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>given in
+Figs. 328 and 329. This ware is of the interlaced style, with radially
+arranged web filaments. Its geometric characters are easily
+distinguished from those of the coiled ware. Many examples exhibit
+purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays,
+zones, checkers, and the like. It is to be expected, however, that the
+normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered
+with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the
+peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to
+attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art.
+Further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next
+section of this paper.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig327" id="Fig327"></a>
+<a href="images/fig327.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig327.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 327. Coiled tray with geometric devices" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 327.</span> Coiled tray with geometric devices,
+probably modified by ideographic association. Moki work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig328" id="Fig328"></a>
+<a href="images/fig328.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig328.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 328. Tray of interlaced style of weaving" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 328.</span> Tray of interlaced style of weaving,
+showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic
+association. Moki work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>The processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is
+mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive
+forms of art.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig329" id="Fig329"></a>
+<a href="images/fig329.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig329.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 329. Tray of interlaced style of weaving" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 329.</span> Tray of interlaced style of weaving,
+showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic
+association. Moki work&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="Nonessential" id="Nonessential"></a>
+<i>Non-essential constructive features.</i>&mdash;Now, all the varied effects of
+color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained
+without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without
+resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. The
+development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now
+receive attention. In the preceding examples, when it was desired to
+begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and
+a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it
+remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored
+elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them,
+although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to
+serviceability as well as to beauty. This is illustrated, for example,
+by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the
+introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other
+colors, or by twisting in feathers. Savage nations in all parts of the
+world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with
+great freedom. The effects produced often correspond closely to
+needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both
+varieties of execution.</p>
+
+<p>The following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. The effect
+seen in Fig. 330 is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in
+Mexico. The fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of
+varied colors. In order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker
+certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark
+tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small
+squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. Additional
+effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments
+with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. By
+other devices <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from
+the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures,
+either normal or added elements being employed. Another device is
+shown in Fig. 331. Here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets
+back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at
+regular intervals during the process of weaving. Again, feathers and
+other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. Two interesting
+baskets procured from the Indians of the northwest coast are shown in
+Figs. 332 and 333. Feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven
+in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the
+execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care
+being taken not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process.
+The richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made
+to represent various figures necessarily geometric. This simple work
+is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of
+the Mexicans and Peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by
+historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. Much
+of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and
+will receive attention further on. A very clever device practiced by
+the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of
+contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the
+surface, as the pattern demands.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig330" id="Fig330"></a>
+<a href="images/fig330.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig330.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 330. Ornament produced by wrapping certain light fillets with darker ones before weaving" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 330.</span> Ornament produced by wrapping
+certain light fillets with darker ones before weaving. Mexican work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig331" id="Fig331"></a>
+<a href="images/fig331.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig331.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 331. Ornamental effect secured by weaving in series of dark fillets" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 331.</span> Ornamental effect secured by weaving
+in series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. Work of the
+Klamath Indians.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig332" id="Fig332"></a>
+<a href="images/fig332.png"><img border="0" src="images/fig332.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 332. Baskets ornamented with feather work" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 332.</span> Baskets ornamented with feather
+work. Northwest coast tribes&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig333" id="Fig333"></a>
+<a href="images/fig333.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig333.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 333. Baskets ornamented with feather work" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 333.</span> Baskets ornamented with feather
+work. Northwest coast tribes&mdash;1/4.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>An example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this
+connection. The ancient Peruvians resorted to many clever devices for
+purposes of enrichment. An illustration of the use of
+extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in Figs.
+334 and 335. Threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are
+carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they
+may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of
+contrasting color upon the right side. Fig. 334 shows the right side
+of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and
+central figure only. Fig. 335 illustrates the opposite side and shows
+the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. In such
+work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the
+surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and
+woof. Examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily
+be seen from what has been presented that the results of these
+extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately
+produced by the fundamental filaments alone.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig334" id="Fig334"></a>
+<a href="images/fig334.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig334.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 334. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 334.</span> Piece of cotton cloth showing the use
+of a supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig335" id="Fig335"></a>
+<a href="images/fig335.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig335.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 335. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 335.</span> Piece of cotton cloth showing the use
+of a supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><a name="ColorSuper" id="ColorSuper"></a>
+<i>Superconstructive features.</i>&mdash;In reviewing the superconstructive
+decorative features in the preceding section I classified them
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric,
+as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. It will be
+seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature
+of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head.</p>
+
+<p>Before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and
+attached in a variety of ways. In open work nothing was needed but the
+end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations
+were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the
+waxed ends of the shoemaker.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive
+peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own
+Indian tribes. What a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes
+of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds,
+teeth, &amp;c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications
+of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. The taste for these things
+is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas
+is doubtless very intimate.</p>
+
+<p>Needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was
+employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for
+various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. In
+time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and
+the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as
+embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various
+bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting
+colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like
+nature or use.</p>
+
+<p>No other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and
+called for the exercise of taste. It was the natural habitat for
+decoration. It was the field in which technique and taste were most
+frequently called upon to work hand in hand.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its
+wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to
+pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs,
+to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from
+these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and
+purely pictorial scenes.</p>
+
+<p>And now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its
+bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. As purely
+constructive ornamentation has already been presented, I will first
+take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to
+it. In some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and
+woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the
+construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone
+over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads
+passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. This
+process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one
+color to another are made without interfering with construction, and
+the result is of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>closely similar character to that reached by
+working the colors in with warp and woof. In a very close fabric this
+method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the
+added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and,
+stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright
+patterns. Fig. 336 is intended to show how this is done. The
+foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed
+under by lifting, with or without a needle. This process is
+extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are
+extremely pleasing. The materials most used are quills and bright
+colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. The
+results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding
+more or less closely with the ground work combination.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig336" id="Fig336"></a>
+<a href="images/fig336.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig336.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 336. Grass embroidery upon the surface of closely impacted, twined basketry" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 336.</span> Grass embroidery upon the surface of
+closely impacted, twined basketry. Work of the northwest coast
+Indians.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>A large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but
+without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as
+they are also applied to felt and leather. Again, artificially
+prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed.
+The results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is
+followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part
+by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may
+be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work
+of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our
+ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of
+all these wonderful decorations. I have already shown how feathers are
+woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single
+illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of
+fabrics. Among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of
+Ancon, Peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. In our
+example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to
+the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them
+together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them
+down, as shown in Fig. 337.</p>
+
+<p>The same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the
+world. Other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by
+attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. In
+all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>that of the foundation fabrics. Other classes of decoration, drawn
+work, appliqu&eacute;, and the like, are not of great importance in
+aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but
+slight bearing upon the development of design.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig337" id="Fig337"></a>
+<a href="images/fig337.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig337.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 337. Feather embroidery of the ancient Peruvians" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 337.</span> Feather embroidery of the ancient
+Peruvians, showing the method of attaching the feathers.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of
+decorative resource. They are less subject to the laws of
+geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close
+reference to the web and woof. They include fringes, tassels, and the
+multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which
+primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. A somewhat
+detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the
+preceding section.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Adventitious" id="Adventitious"></a>
+<i>Adventitious features.</i>&mdash;Ornament is applied to the surfaces of
+fabrics by painting and by stamping. These methods of decoration were
+employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches
+of art. If the surface features of the textile upon which a design is
+painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush
+or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric
+result. If the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its
+natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to
+designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. In primitive times both
+the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired
+in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation,
+and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at
+all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as
+are similar designs woven in with the fabric. Illustrations of this
+are given in the next section.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%; line-height: 2em;" />
+
+<p>I have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the
+tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within
+textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed
+to explain the relations of this system to associated art.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>In the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it
+has made two conquests of especial importance. In the first place it
+has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have
+happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it
+has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all
+arts with which the textile art has come in contact.</p>
+
+<a name="Geometricity" id="Geometricity"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>GEOMETRICITY IMPOSED UPON ADOPTED ELEMENTS OF DESIGN.</h4>
+
+<p>At a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided
+artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various
+devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces
+of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. The figures are
+very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but
+very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or
+superstitions. The devices employed may be purely conventional or
+geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms
+afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording,
+conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. Such
+forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of
+the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their
+employment. As already seen, the peculiar character of textile
+construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing
+unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into
+fabrics. The idea of so employing them may originally have been
+suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces
+or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form
+derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art.</p>
+
+<p>At any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was
+suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown
+in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide
+range of graphic subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the
+modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that
+the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with
+those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of
+elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. They have a style of
+their own. Each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is
+forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the
+geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt
+upon at considerable length. We find, however, that the degree of
+convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies
+with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of
+the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the
+artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through
+all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity.</p>
+
+<p>So pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a
+particular <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>creature&mdash;as, for example, a bird&mdash;executed by distant and
+unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to
+almost identical shapes. This conventionalizing force is further
+illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out
+differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan,
+capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces
+a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result
+almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who
+has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline.</p>
+
+<p>A number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power
+of textile combination over ornament. I select three in which the
+human figure is presented. One is chosen from Iroquoian art, one from
+Digger Indian art, and one from the art of the Incas&mdash;peoples unequal
+in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. I
+have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of
+corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. The
+example shown in Fig. 338 illustrates a construction peculiar to the
+wampum belts of the Iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike
+ordinary weaving. It is taken from the middle portion of what is known
+as the Penn wampum belt. The horizontal series of strands consists of
+narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of
+threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell
+beads. Purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of
+white beads. If the maker of this belt had been required to execute in
+chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been
+very different.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig338" id="Fig338"></a>
+<a href="images/fig338.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig338.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 338.</span> Figures from the Penn wampum belt,
+showing the conventional form imposed in bead work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>My second illustration (Fig. 339) is drawn from a superb example of
+the basketry of the Yokut Indians of California. The two figures form
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good
+advantage in the small cut. Fig. 340. It is of the coiled style of
+construction. The design is worked in four colors and the effect is
+quiet and rich.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig339" id="Fig339"></a>
+<a href="images/fig339.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig339.png" width="75%" alt="Fig. 339. Conventional figures from a California Indian basket" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 339.</span> Conventional figures from a California
+Indian basket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig340" id="Fig340"></a>
+<a href="images/fig340.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig340.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 340. Basket made by the Yokut Indians of California" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 340.</span> Basket made
+by the Yokut Indians of California.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Turning southward from California and passing through many strange
+lands we find ourselves in Peru, and among a class of remains that
+bespeak a high grade of culture. The inhabitants of Ancon were
+wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome
+examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. Among these
+relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. One of
+these, now in the National Museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in
+which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments
+upon a brown ground.</p>
+
+<p>The base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined
+combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the
+plain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this
+combination was better suited to the development of the intended
+design. Besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted
+to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. In the
+first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not
+alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide
+space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands
+are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider
+interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing
+strands. In this way broad areas of color are obtained. It will be
+observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this
+modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra
+constructive series of fillets are added. These are of much lighter
+weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern.
+Over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig341" id="Fig341"></a>
+<a href="images/fig341.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig341.png" width="90%" alt="Fig. 341. Conventional human figures from an ancient Peruvian basket" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 341.</span> Conventional human figures from an ancient
+Peruvian basket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification
+of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples,
+the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is
+absolutely unattainable. It appears that the sharply pronounced steps
+exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets
+used. With the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate
+culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth
+outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule,
+even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the
+pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. I present a
+striking example of this in Fig. 342, a superb piece of Incarian
+gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark
+red ground<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>dotted with symbols and strange devices. The work is
+executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. But with all the
+facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the
+straight lines and sharp angles are still present. The traditions of
+the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of
+the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were
+decidedly in that direction.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig342" id="Fig342"></a>
+<a href="images/fig342.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig342.png" width="32%" alt="Fig. 342. Human figure in Peruvian gobelins" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 342.</span> Human figure in Peruvian gobelins,
+showing characteristic textile convention. From chromolithographs
+published by Reiss and St&uuml;bel in The Necropolis of Ancon.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig343" id="Fig343"></a>
+<a href="images/fig343.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig343.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 343. Human figures from a Peruvian vase" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 343.</span> Human figures from a Peruvian vase,
+done in free hand, graphic style.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>In order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to
+the eye of the reader, I give an additional illustration (Fig. 343).
+The two figures here shown, although I am not able to say positively
+that the work is pre-Columbian, were executed by a native artist of
+about the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design.
+These figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an
+earthen vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free
+hand, graphic delineation. Place this and the last figure side by side
+and we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal
+capacity when executed in the two methods. This figure should also be
+compared with the embroidered figures shown in Fig. 348.</p>
+
+<p>The tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may
+be observed the world over. Every element entering the art must
+undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>of this
+almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative
+design.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig344" id="Fig344"></a>
+<a href="images/fig344.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig344.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 344. Human figure modified by execution in concentric interlaced style" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 344.</span> Human figure modified by execution in concentric
+interlaced style of weaving&mdash;1/3.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>That the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of
+woven objects may be appreciated, I present some additional examples.
+Coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at
+variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of
+parts. Instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel
+fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one
+concentric series. The effect of this arrangement upon the introduced
+human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to Fig.
+344, which represents a large tray obtained from the Moki Indians. The
+figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the
+Moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary,
+wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the
+plaque was to be used. The work is executed in wicker, stained in such
+bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of
+the costume. Referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the
+parts of the figure, it is apparent that many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>of the remarkable
+features are due to constructive peculiarities. The round face, for
+example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the
+concentric weaving. The oblique eyes have no reference to a Mongolian
+origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they
+are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the
+aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction
+forced it into this shape. The proportion of the figure is not so very
+bad because the Moki artist did not know better, but because the
+surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig345" id="Fig345"></a>
+<a href="images/fig345.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig345.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 345. Figure of a bird painted upon a Zu&ntilde;i shield" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 345.</span> Figure of a bird
+painted upon a Zu&ntilde;i shield, free hand delineation.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one
+side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of
+the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but
+this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented
+in the following figures. With many tribes the bird is an object of
+superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products
+suitable for its delineation. It is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery,
+and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected
+with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. The
+bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in
+the decoration of basketry. In Fig. 345 I present an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>ordinary graphic
+representation. It is copied from a Zu&ntilde;i shield and is the device of
+an order or the totem of a clan. The style is quite conventional, as a
+result of the various constraints surrounding its production. But what
+a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the
+basketmaker's language. Observe the conventional pattern shown upon
+the surface of a Moki tray (Fig. 346). We have difficulty in
+recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with
+the preceding. The positions of the head and legs and the expanded
+wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is
+hampered by technique. The peculiar construction barely permits the
+presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a
+particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the
+treatment of the human figure in Fig. 344. In that case the interlaced
+combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating
+ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs
+in long steps. The power of expression lies almost wholly with the
+concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the
+concentric lines. In the present case (Fig. 346) this is reversed and
+lines employed in expressing forms are radiate.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig346" id="Fig346"></a>
+<a href="images/fig346.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig346.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 346. Figure of a bird executed in a coiled Moki tray" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 346.</span> Figure of a bird executed in a
+coiled Moki tray, textile delineation.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The precise effect of this difference of construction upon a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another
+illustration. In Fig. 347 we have a bird woven in a basket of the
+interlaced style. We see with what ease the long sharp bill and the
+slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark
+mandibles) are expressed. In the other case the construction is such
+that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and
+square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the
+mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the
+truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical
+band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. It will be seen that the
+two representations are very unlike each other, not because of
+differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style
+of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across
+the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side
+of the center.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig347" id="Fig347"></a>
+<a href="images/fig347.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig347.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 347. Figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker at one side of the center" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 347.</span> Figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker
+at one side of the center.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the
+convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with
+the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with
+the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style
+of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. These
+varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the
+incoming elements of textile embellishment.</p>
+
+<p>It will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and
+adventitious agencies.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework
+employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe
+that even the Indian, under the tutelage of the European, reproduces
+in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life.
+As a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and
+conservatism of primitive art. The intention of the primitive artist
+was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate
+a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not
+submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art.</p>
+
+<p>I have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from
+necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely
+geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as
+well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. This is well shown
+in Fig. 348, a fine specimen given by Wiener in his work P&eacute;rou et
+Bolive.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig348" id="Fig348"></a>
+<a href="images/fig348.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig348.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 348. Embroidery upon a cotton net in which the textile combinations are followed step by step" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 348.</span> Embroidery upon a cotton net in which the textile combinations are followed step by step.
+Ancient Peruvian work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>A life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the
+same subject woven in with the web and woof. The reason is found in
+the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first
+to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by
+step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does
+not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven
+canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>and follow
+the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such
+is not the case in purely aboriginal work. An example of embroidery
+obtained from an ancient grave at Ancon, Peru, is shown in Fig. 349. A
+piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird
+figures in bright colored wool thread. The lines of the figures do not
+obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow,
+but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design
+were woven in the goods.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig349" id="Fig349"></a>
+<a href="images/fig349.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig349.png" width="85%" alt="Fig. 349. Embroidery in which the foundation fabric is not followed accurately" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 349.</span> Embroidery in which the foundation fabric is not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile
+geometricity. Ancient Peruvian work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig350" id="Fig350"></a>
+<a href="images/fig350.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig350.png" width="44%" alt="Fig. 350. Design painted in color upon a woven surface" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 350.</span> Design painted in color upon a woven surface,
+exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. Ancient
+Peruvian work. Copied from The Necropolis of Ancon.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>So habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious
+decoration. When the ancient Peruvian executed a design in color upon
+a woven surface (Fig. 350), using a pencil or brush, the result was
+hardly less subject to textile restraint.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of
+decorative design&mdash;the textile and the free hand&mdash;there exist
+intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is
+nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly
+modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced
+into the fabric or applied to its surface.</p>
+
+<p>In countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile
+system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may
+prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little
+felt. The Haidah Indians, for example, paint designs with great
+freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical
+with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is
+doubtless much modified by the means and methods of Europeans. Our
+studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art.</p>
+
+<a name="Extension" id="Extension"></a>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>EXTENSION OF TEXTILE ORNAMENT TO OTHER FORMS OF ART.</h4>
+
+<p>I have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the
+textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the
+manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of
+the art. I have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which
+decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic
+influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws
+of textile combination. Pursuing the investigation still further it is
+found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the
+art, but extends to other arts. Like a strong race of men it is not to
+be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms,
+stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come
+within its reach. Its influence is felt throughout the whole range of
+those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate
+ideas of beauty. It is necessary, before closing this paper, to
+examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to
+describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are
+accomplished. First and most important are the results of direct
+transmission.</p>
+
+<p>House building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages,
+is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops,
+other materials and other systems of construction are employed,
+and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are
+especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and
+survive all changes, howsoever complete. In a similar way other
+branches of art differentiated in material and function from the
+parent art <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in
+the textile stage. It may be difficult to say with reference to any
+particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there
+may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms;
+but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric
+ornament that it owes something&mdash;if not its inspiration, its modes of
+expression&mdash;to the teachings of the textile system. This appears
+reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of
+esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors.
+Being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of
+art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon
+them. What claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon
+the decorative conceptions of the Digger Indians, or even upon those
+of the Zu&ntilde;i or Moki? The former have no architecture, sculpture, or
+ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly
+developed. The Pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the
+stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet
+classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or
+varied. These examples of the development of high forms of decoration
+during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. Others are
+observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift
+the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's
+greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. It
+is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their
+development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to
+themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal,
+in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of
+which tend to give rise to ornament. But this ornament is generally
+only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not
+transferable by natural processes&mdash;as of a parent to its offspring&mdash;as
+are the esthetic features of the weaver's art.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested
+in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still
+efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire
+textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following
+illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. Upon
+superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects
+taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste
+upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. If we
+should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration,
+the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because
+they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators
+whose taste is well nigh infallible. But this explanation, however
+satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not
+at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>man was not
+primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements,
+nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they
+were indigenous. Now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few
+elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of
+its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily
+dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by
+direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly
+distinct.</p>
+
+<p>Textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large
+extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of
+the other. The textile art is the parent, and, as I have already
+shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. The
+fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for
+decoration. It is dependent and plastic. Its forms are to a great
+extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire
+automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold.
+This is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other
+methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are
+transferred to the other. Thus we explain the occurrence, the constant
+recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive
+ceramics. The herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like
+are greatly the heritage of the textile art. Two forms derived from
+textile surfaces are illustrated in Figs. 351 and 352. In the first
+example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile
+combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the
+same way. In Fig. 352 we see the result of copying these patterns in
+incised lines upon soft clay.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig351" id="Fig351"></a>
+<a href="images/fig351.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig351.png" width="90%" alt="Fig. 351. Herring bone and checker patterns" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 351.</span> Herring bone and checker patterns
+produced in textile combinations.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig352" id="Fig352"></a>
+<a href="images/fig352.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig352.png" width="90%" alt="Fig. 352. Herring bone and checker figures" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 352.</span> Herring bone and checker figures in
+fictile forms transferred from the textile.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>wares
+within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his
+vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. The surface exhibits
+coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in Fig. 353, and the textile
+character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils
+with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the
+transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of
+the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. When these peoples came
+to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native
+to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less
+literal transfers by copying are to be found. A fine example of these
+painted textile designs is shown in Fig. 354. It is executed in a
+masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient
+Tusayan. Not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric
+exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the
+same as in the textile original. Nine-tenths of the more archaic,
+Pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art,
+and all show the influence of textile convention.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig353" id="Fig353"></a>
+<a href="images/fig353.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig353.png" width="70%" alt="Fig. 353. Earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting decorative characters derived from basketry" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 353.</span> Earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting decorative characters
+derived from basketry.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig354" id="Fig354"></a>
+<a href="images/fig354.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig354.png" width="90%" alt="Fig. 354. Ceramic ornament copied literally from a textile original" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 354.</span> Ceramic ornament copied literally
+from a textile original.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature
+may be noticed. All the more advanced American nations were very fond
+of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels
+having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. Now, in many cases
+the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated,
+and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their
+full share of attention. Such an example, from a sepulcher at Ancon,
+is shown in Fig. 355. Here the poncho or mantle thrown across the
+shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes
+and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. In this way both
+style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the
+ceramic art.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig355" id="Fig355"></a>
+<a href="images/fig355.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig355.png" width="46%" alt="Fig. 355. Textile patterns transferred to pottery through the copying of costume" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 355.</span> Textile patterns transferred to pottery through the copying of costume. From The Necropolis of Ancon,
+by Reiss and St&uuml;bel, Pl. 94.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art
+receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of
+textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical,
+and that it is continued automatically without any very decided
+exercise of judgment or taste. As a result, these borrowed decorations
+are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed
+within the art itself. Later in the course of progress the potter
+escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his
+designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by
+the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. When, finally,
+intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws,
+decoration tends to become debased.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the
+transfer to them of textile features? Take, for example, sculpture. In
+the wood carving of the Polynesians we observe a most elaborate system
+of decoration, more or less geometric in character. We do not need to
+look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile
+system, and we ask, Is it also derived from a textile source? In the
+first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar
+forms. In carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed
+tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and
+formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of
+uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of
+combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting
+and spacing in the textile art. In the presentation of natural forms
+curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the
+carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or
+knife. Graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the
+skill and habits of the artist. But, in reality, the geometric
+character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally
+toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not
+exercised an influence. The textile arts of these peoples are highly
+developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and
+must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially
+so in the matter of ornament. Specific examples may be cited showing
+the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. Bows, spears, arrows, &amp;c.
+are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. Knives
+and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of
+certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. In ceremonial
+objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the
+characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated
+surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. A most instructive
+illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums
+(Fig. 356). The cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after
+loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become
+an important feature and assume the character of decoration. The heavy
+wooden <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures
+given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a
+little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface
+ceases and the sculptured portion begins.</p>
+
+<p>All things considered, I regard it as highly probable that much of the
+geometric character exhibited in Polynesian decoration is due to
+textile dominance. That these peoples are in the habit of employing
+textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume,
+such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree,
+which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. This
+transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied
+to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which
+the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by
+means of stamps themselves textile. Fig. 357 illustrates the
+construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile
+character is acquired.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig356" id="Fig356"></a>
+<a href="images/fig356.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig356.png" width="38%" alt="Fig. 356. Ceremonial adz, with carved ornament imitating textile wrapping" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 356.</span> Ceremonial adz, with carved ornament
+imitating textile wrapping. Polynesian work.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure
+in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form,
+becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. Through
+sculpture these motives enter architecture. But textile <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>decoration
+pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve
+ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the
+rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. Textile art in mats,
+covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors
+and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred
+to the stone and plaster. The wall of an ancient Pueblo estufa, or
+ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture,
+antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in Egyptian art,
+is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the
+pottery, from a textile source. The doorway or rather entrance to the
+rude hovel of a Navajo Indian is closed by a blanket of native make,
+unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high
+order.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig357" id="Fig357"></a>
+<a href="images/fig357.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig357.png" width="60%" alt="Fig. 357. Portion of a tapa stamp, showing its subtextile character" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 357.</span> Portion of a tapa stamp, showing its
+subtextile character. A palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the
+patterns are sewed in or stitched on.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="Fig358" id="Fig358"></a>
+<a href="images/fig358.png">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig358.png" width="80%" alt="Fig. 358. Design in stucco, exhibiting textile characters" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig. 358.</span> Design in stucco,
+exhibiting textile characters.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The ancient "hall of the arabesques" at Chimu, Peru, is decorated in
+elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>(Fig. 358), and other equally striking examples are to be found in
+other American countries. The classic surface decorations known and
+used in Oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in
+indigenous American architecture at a stage of culture lower than any
+known stage of classic art.</p>
+
+<p>It may appear that I have advocated too strongly the claims of the
+textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the
+conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but I have
+endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the
+student may readily reach deductions of his own. A correspondingly
+careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally
+to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and
+tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+<br />
+
+<ul>
+<li>Alaskan Indians, illustration of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>Ancon, Peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li>Apache, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>British Guiana Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chimu, Peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+<li>Clallam Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li>Color in textile art <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Color phenomena in textile ornament <a href="#Page_215">215-232</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations from Indian work <a href="#Page_196">196-201</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament <a href="#Page_202">202-244</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Holmes, W. H. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament <a href="#Page_189">189-252</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Klamath Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>McCloud River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li>Moki, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Northwest Coast Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Penn wampum belt <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li>Peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li>Pima Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+<li>Piute Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Seminole Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament, paper by W. H. Holmes on <a href="#Page_189">189-252</a></li>
+<li>Tule River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li>Tusayan ornament, illustrations of <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Wiener, cited <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Yokut Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zu&ntilde;i, illustrations of ornamentation by <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its
+Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation
+To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament
+       Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, (pages
+       189-252)
+
+Author: William H. Holmes
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2006 [EBook #17730]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART
+IN ITS RELATION TO THE
+DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
+
+
+
+
+Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
+to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85,
+Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, pages 189-252
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+Introduction.                                                      195
+  Form in textile art.                                             196
+  Relations of form to ornament.                                   201
+  Color in textile art.                                            201
+
+Textile ornament.                                                  202
+  Development of a geometric system within the art.                202
+    Introduction.                                                  202
+    Relief phenomena.                                              203
+      Ordinary features.                                           203
+      Reticulated work.                                            210
+      Superconstructive features.                                  211
+    Color phenomena.                                               215
+      Ordinary features.                                           215
+      Non-essential constructive features.                         226
+      Superconstructive features.                                  228
+      Adventitious features.                                       231
+  Geometricity imposed upon adopted elements.                      232
+  Extension of textile ornament to other forms of art.             244
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+FIG.                                                             Page.
+286. Mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form                  197
+287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form               198
+288. Pyriform water vessel                                         198
+289. Basket with esthetic characters of form                       199
+290. Basket of eccentric form                                      200
+291. Character of surface in the simplest form of weaving          204
+292. Surface produced by impacting                                 204
+293. Surface produced by use of wide fillets                       204
+294. Basket with ribbed surface                                    205
+295. Bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface                       205
+296. Tray showing radial ribs                                      205
+297. Combination giving herring bone effect                        206
+298. Combination giving triangular figures                         206
+299. Peruvian work basket                                          206
+300. Basket of Seminole workmanship                                207
+301. Surface effect produced in open twined combination            207
+302. Surface effect produced in open twined combination            207
+303. Surface effect produced by impacting in twined
+       combination                                                 208
+304. Surface effect produced by impacting the web strands
+       in twined combination                                       208
+305. Surface effect produced by crossing the web series
+       in open twined work                                         208
+306. Tray with open mesh, twined combination                       208
+307. Conical basket, twined combination                            209
+308. Example of primitive reticulated weaving                      210
+309. Simple form of reticulation                                   211
+310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth                           211
+311. Peruvian embroidery                                           213
+312. Basket with pendent ornaments                                 213
+313. Basket with pendent ornaments                                 213
+314. Tasseled Peruvian mantle                                      214
+315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+316. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+317. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   216
+318. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors   217
+319. Base of coiled basket                                         218
+320. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         218
+321. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         219
+322. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         220
+323. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         220
+324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         221
+325. Coiled basket with geometric ornament                         223
+326. Coiled tray with geometric ornament                           224
+327. Coiled tray with geometric ornament                           225
+328. Tray with geometric ornament                                  225
+329. Tray with geometric ornament                                  226
+330. Ornament produced by wrapping the strands                     227
+331. Ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the
+       fabric                                                      227
+332. Basket with feather ornamentation                             227
+333. Basket with feather ornamentation                             227
+334. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof     228
+335. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof     228
+336. Example of grass embroidery                                   230
+337. Example of feather embroidery                                 231
+338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt                             233
+339. Figures from a California Indian basket                       234
+340. California Indian basket                                      234
+341. Figures from a Peruvian basket                                235
+342. Figure from a piece of Peruvian gobelins                      236
+343. Figures from a Peruvian vase                                  237
+344. Figure from a circular basket                                 238
+345. Figure of a bird from a Zuni shield                           239
+346. Figure of a bird woven in a tray                              240
+347. Figure of a bird woven in a basket                            241
+348. Figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient
+       Peruvians                                                   242
+349. Figures of birds embroidered by the ancient Peruvians         243
+350. Conventional design painted upon cotton cloth                 243
+351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving         246
+352. Herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay            246
+353. Earthen vase with textile ornament                            247
+354. Example of textile ornament painted upon pottery              248
+355. Textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume        248
+356. Ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character      250
+357. Figures upon a tapa stamp                                     251
+358. Design in stucco exhibiting textile characters                251
+
+
+
+
+TEXTILE ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT.
+
+BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the
+very inception of culture. In primitive times it occupied a wide
+field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now
+expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of
+construction. Accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there
+was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and
+skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an
+important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts.
+
+Woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements
+or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are
+combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. The
+processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting,
+netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering.
+
+The materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such
+as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then
+fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous
+artificial preparations, are freely used. These are employed in the
+single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are
+combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices,
+by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms.
+
+The products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as
+shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these;
+and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they
+are cut and fitted. In earlier stages of art we have to deal almost
+exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house
+furnisher are evolved with civilization.
+
+In their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly
+with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of
+which I shall denominate _constructive_, the second _functional_, and
+the third _esthetic_. The last class, with which this paper has almost
+exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the
+superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes
+three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with (1) form,
+(2) color, and (3) design. Esthetic features of form are, in origin
+and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color
+and design, to construction mainly. In the following study separate
+sections are given to each of these topics.
+
+It is fortunate perhaps that in this work I am restricted to the
+products of rather primitive stages of culture, as I have thus to deal
+with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. In
+the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes,
+and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light
+can fall upon the field of vision.
+
+In America there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no
+parallel in the world. Uncontaminated by contact with the complex
+conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities
+for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development.
+
+The laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once
+rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous
+culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the
+succeeding stages of civilization.
+
+
+FORM IN TEXTILE ART.
+
+Form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is
+fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression
+of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping
+arts from expressing the whole of function. Such is the pliability of
+a large portion of textile products--as, for example, nets, garments,
+and hangings--that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore,
+when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles
+are without esthetic value or interest. The more rigid objects, in
+common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape
+still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form
+generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by
+the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. Such attributes are
+not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist
+conjointly with them.
+
+In addition to these features of form we observe others of a more
+decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose
+of enhancing the appearance.
+
+In very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas
+predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial
+characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. But as the ages
+pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are
+added and emphasized. In riper culture the growing pressure of
+esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial
+modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. In periods of
+deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual
+artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and
+erroneously applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus
+violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. In
+respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the
+acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal,
+the fourth abnormal: First, we have that in which functional
+characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to
+the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or
+model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary
+features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of
+taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected;
+third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described,
+undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity,
+&c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability;
+and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is
+sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 286. Mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic
+attributes of form. Moki work--1/8.]
+
+The exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena
+pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of
+illustrations. Woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and
+originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for
+purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of
+flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination;
+and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result
+of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material,
+models, &c. A close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of
+the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies
+on the part of the artist. The esthetic interest attaching to such a
+shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, as all
+individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to
+preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. The varied
+features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (Fig.
+286), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention
+in the proper place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of
+form. Obtained from the Apache--1/2.]
+
+In point of contour the basket tray shown in Fig. 287 has a somewhat
+more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the
+curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. How
+much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection
+must remain in doubt. In work so perfect we are wont, however
+unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 288. Pyriform water vessel used by the Piute
+Indians--1/8.]
+
+A third example--presented in Fig. 288--illustrates an advanced stage
+in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. The
+forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as
+follows: A primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a
+special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to
+give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may
+be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations
+of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace,
+the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies
+of the artist's mind. In regard to the last point there is generally
+in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be
+found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong
+desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of
+form. It will be observed that the textile materials and construction
+do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity
+of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most
+readily expressed.
+
+Modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally
+suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or
+accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction.
+In the vessel presented in Fig. 289--the work of Alaskan Indians--the
+margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns
+of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. This is without reference
+to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all
+probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. Other and much
+more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all
+countries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 289. Vessel with esthetic characters of form. Work
+of the Yakama--1/4.]
+
+In the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally
+noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details.
+This is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an
+art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance
+in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. When,
+through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the
+savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in
+the works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of
+construction and adaptability to use. An example of such work is
+presented in Fig. 290, a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of
+basketry. Other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets,
+bottles, and tea pots. They are the work of the Indians of the
+northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner,
+bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 290. Basket made under foreign influence,
+construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty--1/3.]
+
+It appears from the preceding analyses that _form_ in this art is not
+sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the
+delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar
+difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and
+supervision of taste. The inherent morphologic forces of the art are
+strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results
+that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to
+esthetic influence. If, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use
+are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if
+materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely
+bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high
+degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye.
+
+In a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity
+is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck
+and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain
+limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist
+cannot readily free himself. Models furnished by nature, as they are
+usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and
+all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity
+that belongs to simplicity. Taste which is in a formative state can
+but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led by
+them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and
+universality. If the textile art had been the only one known to man,
+ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure
+formed through that art. Natural forms would have had little to do
+with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by
+the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon
+which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity
+dwell with steady attention from generation to generation.
+
+
+RELATIONS OF FORM TO ORNAMENT.
+
+It would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to
+find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential
+features of the art--markings of the surface and color of
+filaments--creating a new field in which to labor and expending their
+energy upon ornament.
+
+Shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may
+be classified as follows:
+
+First, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large
+extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits;
+figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or
+rectangles--according, in no slight measure, to the character of the
+spaces afforded by details of contour. Secondly, it affects ornament
+through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as
+handles, for ornamental purposes. Thirdly, it is probable that shape
+influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the
+taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of
+ornament.
+
+
+COLOR IN TEXTILE ART.
+
+Color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it
+is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful
+as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily
+receives a large share of consideration. It is probably one of the
+foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the
+esthetic sense.
+
+The natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form
+one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. The great
+interest taken in color--the great importance attached to it--is
+attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional
+variety and brilliancy of effect are secured.
+
+Color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps,
+in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in
+construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which
+construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. It finds its chief
+use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures
+with which objects of art are embellished.
+
+Color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or
+worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is
+added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils,
+brushes, and dies. Its employment in the latter manner is especially
+convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be
+executed.
+
+
+TEXTILE ORNAMENT.
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF A GEOMETRIC SYSTEM OF DESIGN WITHIN THE ART.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, I
+shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose
+exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. It will be necessary,
+however, to present, besides those features of the art properly
+expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena
+that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest
+decorative conceptions and give shape to them. I shall show how the
+latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they
+gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic
+faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of
+a system of ornament of world wide application.
+
+For convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as
+_relieved_ and _flat_. Figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise
+during construction as a result of the intersections and other more
+complex relations--the bindings--of the warp and woof or of inserted
+or applied elements. Flat or surface features are manifested in color,
+either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. Such is
+the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain
+combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the
+art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the
+effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. The character of such
+figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental
+association of natural colors in construction.
+
+At some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious
+surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for
+the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now
+took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to
+gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from
+physical wants.
+
+It is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic
+notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile
+characters. Long before textile objects of a high class were made,
+ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for
+example, in connection with personal adornment. The skin had been
+painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in
+the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to
+conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal
+associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated
+with the person. No matter, however, what the period or manner of the
+association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may
+be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of
+decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the
+geometric textile construction.
+
+In amplifying this subject I find it convenient to treat separately
+the two classes of decorative phenomena--the relieved and the
+flat--notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part
+intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a
+common end.
+
+
+RELIEF PHENOMENA.
+
+_Ordinary features._--The relieved surface characters of fabrics
+resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or
+less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are
+susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. Such
+features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of
+basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of
+damasks, embroideries, and laces. So long as the figures produced are
+confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished
+construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain
+work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless
+repetition of like parts extremely monotonous.
+
+In right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which
+run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. In radiate
+weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally
+formal manner by concentric lines. In other classes of combination
+there is an almost equal degree of geometricity.
+
+When, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found
+that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the
+essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering
+with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is
+opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration.
+
+Moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary
+elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which
+the textile decorator may freely avail himself. The character of these
+is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with
+indigenous textile forms.
+
+To make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze
+somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of
+the resultant and associated phenomena.
+
+We may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made
+use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. As indicated above,
+these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and,
+second, extra or superconstructive features.
+
+First, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a
+variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been
+evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these--no matter
+what the material or what the size and character of the filamental
+elements--gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. Thus it
+appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations
+produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike
+constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. These
+constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style
+of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in
+the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination
+has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate
+sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. It sometimes
+even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical
+surface effects are produced.
+
+It will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series
+of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will
+suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the
+bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. I choose, first, a
+number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which
+the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at
+right angles or nearly so. In Fig. 291 we have the result exhibited in
+a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted
+fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. Fig.
+292 illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series
+of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is
+entirely hidden. The surface here exhibits a succession of vertical
+ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding
+example. The third variety (Fig. 293) differs but slightly from the
+first. The fillets are wider and are set close together without
+crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 291. Surface relief in simplest form of
+intersection.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 292. Surface relief produced by horizontal series
+crowded together.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 293. Surface relief produced by wide fillets set
+close together.]
+
+The second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in
+the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great
+degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain
+liquids, semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. The general
+surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in Fig. 294,
+which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the Moki
+Indians. In this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of
+radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 294. Basket showing ribbed surface produced by
+impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments. Moki work--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 295. Alternation of intersection, producing
+oblique or spiral ribs. Piute work--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 296. Radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed
+from above. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+It will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take
+the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation
+of the horizontal series--the woof--we get oblique ridges, as shown in
+the partly finished bottle illustrated in Fig. 295. They are,
+however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. The peculiar
+effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown
+in Fig. 296.
+
+By changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of
+combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding;
+so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships,
+there would be little suggestion of correlation. In the example given
+in Fig. 297 the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and
+under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by
+extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step
+and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 297. Diagonal combination, giving herring bone
+effect.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 298. Elaboration of diagonal combination, giving
+triangular figures.]
+
+This example is from an ancient work basket obtained at Ancon, Peru,
+and shown in Fig. 299. The surface features are in strong relief,
+giving a pronounced herring bone effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 299. Peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly
+relieved ridges.]
+
+Slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to
+produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is
+shown in Fig. 298. A good illustration is also seen in Fig. 286, and
+another piece, said to be of Seminole workmanship, is given in Fig.
+300. These and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of
+primitive decorative motives. They are employed not only within the
+art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with
+suggestions of embellishment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 300. Effects produced by varying the order of
+intersection. Seminole work--1/8.]
+
+Taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant
+patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 301. Surface effect in open twined combination.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 302. Surface effect of twined, lattice combination
+in basketry of the Clallam Indians of Washington Territory--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 301 illustrates the simplest form of what Dr. O.T. Mason has
+called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native
+tribes. The strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in
+weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the
+opposing fillets. The resulting open work has much the appearance of
+ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or
+strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is
+strikingly suggestive of decoration. The result of this combination
+upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the
+large basket presented in Fig. 302. Other variants of this type are
+given in the three succeeding figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 303. Surface effect in impacted work of twined
+combination.]
+
+The result seen in Fig. 303 is obtained by impacting the horizontal or
+twined series of threads. The surface is nearly identical with that of
+the closely impacted example of the preceding type (Fig. 292). The
+peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. When the doubled
+and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing
+series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in
+Fig. 304 and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in Fig.
+307.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 304. Surface effect obtained by placing the warp
+strands close together and the woof cables far apart.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 305. Surface effect obtained by crossing the warp
+series in open twined work.]
+
+In Fig. 305 we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the
+untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 306. Decorative effects produced by variations in
+the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. Klamath work--1/4.]
+
+Fig. 306 serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends
+itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the
+direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in
+vessel-making arts.
+
+The examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative
+resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate
+constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results
+can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of
+binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object
+or in the same piece of fabric. A good, though very simple,
+illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in Fig.
+286. In this case a border, varying from the center portion in
+appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a
+multiple to a single arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 307. Conical basket of the Klamath Indians of
+Oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work border--1/8.]
+
+The conical basket shown in Fig. 307 serves to illustrate the same
+point. In this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is
+secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and
+combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of
+open work.
+
+Now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some
+primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they
+are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many
+new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the
+elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of
+weaving.
+
+Other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all
+braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit
+characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of
+relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already
+illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric
+system of combination.
+
+_Reticulated work._--A few paragraphs may be added here in regard to
+reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit
+more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided
+bearing upon the growth of ornament.
+
+In all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite
+reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and
+other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the
+higher forms of the art. The production of reticulated work is the
+especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain
+varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are
+produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be
+undertaken by ambitious workmen.
+
+In the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class
+of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to
+marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite
+laces of cultured peoples. The Americans had only taken the first
+steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of
+especial interest in the history of the art.
+
+An example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in Fig. 308. It
+is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon
+an ancient piece of pottery obtained in Tennessee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 308. Incipient stage of reticulated ornament.
+Fabric of the mound builders.]
+
+Fig. 309 illustrates a bit of ancient Peruvian work executed on a
+frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging
+the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart.
+
+Open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes,
+certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which
+means the figures are emphasized and varied.
+
+In Fig. 310 we have a second Peruvian example in which the woof
+threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this
+interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing
+a lattice-like band.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 309. Simple form of ornamental reticulation.
+Ancient Peruvian work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth. Work of
+the ancient Peruvians.]
+
+In a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced,
+two above and two below the wide band. These are produced by leaving
+the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs
+across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as
+shown in the cut.
+
+Examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are
+found among the textile products of many American tribes and occur as
+well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where
+designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced
+to facilitate the work.
+
+_Superconstructive features._--These features, so important in the
+decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a
+construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by
+function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which
+may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. They constitute one of
+the most widely used and effective resources of the textile
+decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing,
+cutting, applying, appending, &c. They add enormously to the capacity
+for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render
+natural forms in the round. Notwithstanding this fact--the most
+important section of this class of features--embroidery is treated to
+better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally
+associated with the designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 311. Open work design embroidered upon a net-like
+fabric. From a grave at Ancon, Peru.]
+
+One example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. It is
+probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery America has
+produced. In design and in method of realization it is identical with
+the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient Peruvians, being worked
+upon a net foundation, as shown in Fig. 311. The broad band of figures
+employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and
+still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band.
+
+Appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of
+fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. They
+are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and
+are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or
+less pronounced geometric character. The work is a kind of embroidery,
+the parts employed being of the nature of pendants.
+
+These include numberless articles derived from nature and art. It will
+suffice to present a few examples already at hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 312. Basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped
+with bits of tin. Apache Indians--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 312 illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the Apache
+Indians. It serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and
+clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings
+tipped with conical bits of tin. The checker pattern is in color.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 313. Basket with pendants of beads and bits of
+shell, work of the northwest coast Indians.--1/4.]
+
+Fig. 313 illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. A feather
+decked basket made by the northwest coast Indians is embellished with
+pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of
+bright shell. The importance of this class of work in higher forms of
+textiles may be illustrated by an example from Peru. It is probable
+that American art has produced few examples of tasseled work more
+wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in Fig. 314. It is a
+fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth,
+obtained from an ancient tomb. The body is made up of separately woven
+bands, upon which disk-like and semilunar figures representing human
+faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. To the
+center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying
+sizes are attached. The fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is
+composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels
+supporting clusters of smaller ones. There are upwards of three
+thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in
+colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. The general
+color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson.
+The illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty
+of the original.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 314. Tassel ornamentation from an ancient Peruvian
+mantle.]
+
+We have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface
+characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by
+variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and
+ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. We
+shall now see how these are related to color phenomena.
+
+
+COLOR PHENOMENA.
+
+_Ordinary features._--In describing the constructive characters of
+fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, I called attention to the
+fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and
+supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. Color
+elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many
+simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before
+the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye.
+When, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater
+elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily
+to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful
+results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection
+of the articles embellished. But color is not confined to the mere
+emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. It is capable of
+advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs
+complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without
+altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters.
+
+In color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive
+combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative
+results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the
+work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of
+distinctions in national decorative conceptions.
+
+In addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression,
+lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary
+resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary
+construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to
+some extent in the preceding section.
+
+I have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary
+presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric
+materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic
+progress. My object in this section is to indicate the part it takes
+in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which
+it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric
+decoration.
+
+It will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the
+normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct
+domination of constructive elaboration. In the way of illustration,
+let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of
+the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a
+second series having a distinct color. A very simple geometric pattern
+is produced, as shown in Fig. 315. It is a sort of checker, an
+emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in Fig. 291, the
+figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Had these
+filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results
+might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail
+the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. So far as they
+exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of
+different colors.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 316. Pattern produced by modifying the alternation
+of fillets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 317. Isolated figures produced by modifying the
+order of intersection.]
+
+Assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more
+elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the
+processes and tendencies of growth. A very slight degree of ingenuity
+will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a
+succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in Fig. 316. In
+this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be
+turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they
+result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 318. Pattern produced by simple alternations of
+light and dark fillets. Basketry of the Indians of British Guiana.]
+
+Additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark
+strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of
+solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection,
+certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing
+series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in Fig. 317. With
+these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of
+expression, as will be seen in Fig. 318, which is taken from a basket
+made by South American Indians, and in Fig. 341, where human figures
+are delineated. The patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric
+and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. With impacting and
+increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a
+considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic
+representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. It
+is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic
+characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date,
+and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects
+would be attempted.
+
+I do not need to follow this style of combination into the more
+refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through
+all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic
+geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of
+normal textile decorative development I shall present a series of
+Indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted
+varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and
+at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in
+color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive
+textile products known. I have already shown that several types of
+combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface
+characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. In
+nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of
+fillets--those of the woof--the other, the warp, being completely
+hidden from view. In the preceding series the warp and woof were
+almost equally concerned in the expression of design. Here but one is
+used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the
+artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new
+ones at will. Still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no
+means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down
+by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely
+geometric results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 319. Base of coiled basket showing the method of
+building by dual coiling. The base or warp coil is composed of
+untwisted fiber and is formed by adding to the free end as the coiling
+goes on. The woof or binding filament, as it is coiled, is caught into
+the upper surface of the preceding turn--1/8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 320. Coiled basket with simple geometric ornament.
+Work of the northwest coast Indians--1/8.]
+
+I will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are
+in all cases of the coiled ware. If a basket is made with no other
+idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in
+color, the natural color of the woof fillets. If decoration is desired
+a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place
+and does the duty of the ordinary strand. Fig. 319 serves to show the
+construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel
+still quite free from any color decoration. Now, if it is desired to
+begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored
+fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. Carried once around the
+vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the
+lower line of the ornament seen in Fig. 320. If the artist is content
+with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and
+takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the
+coiling. If further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished.
+In the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again
+and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then
+it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn,
+another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns,
+and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles
+have been produced. Desiring to introduce a meandered design he has
+taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored
+filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the
+right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of
+the warp coil. The pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in
+rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border
+line at the top. The vessel was then completed in the light colored
+material. In this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of
+lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial
+and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. Oblique bands of
+color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines.
+Although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that
+in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative
+conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. They serve
+quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as
+if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 321. Coiled basket with encircling bands of
+ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground. Obtained
+from the Indians of the Tule River, California--1/8.]
+
+In Fig. 321 I present a superb piece of work executed by the Indians
+of the Tule River, California. It is woven in the closely impacted,
+coiled style. The ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and
+consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red
+centers and black frames set side by side. The processes of
+substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in
+the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of
+designs are the same, being governed by the same forces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 322. Coiled basket with ornament arranged in
+zigzag rays. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/8.]
+
+Another choice piece, from the Pima Indians of Arizona, is given in
+Fig. 322. The lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the
+directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black
+color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance,
+then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending,
+the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close
+together. These rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark
+figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows
+at right angles to these. A few supplementary rays are added toward
+the margin to fill out the widening spaces. Another striking example
+of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in Fig. 323.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 323. Coiled basket with two bands of meandered
+ornament. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/4.]
+
+Two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the
+elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the
+radiate and the concentric lines of construction. This is the work of
+the Pima Indians of Arizona.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament
+composed of triangular figures. Obtained from the McCloud River
+Indians, California--1/8.]
+
+I shall close the series with a very handsome example of Indian
+basketry and of basketry ornamentation (Fig. 324). The conical shape
+is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like
+all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of
+the decorative requirements of the utensil. The design is wholly
+geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost
+exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. The
+general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing
+with or following the foundation coil. Details are governed by the
+horizontal and the oblique structure lines. The vertical construction
+lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting
+in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique
+outlines.
+
+These studies could be carried through all the types of primitive
+textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all
+cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along
+similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches
+closely corresponding results.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided
+tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. Now
+each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape
+and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and
+consistent ways. In contemplating them we are led to inquire into the
+nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results.
+The question arises as to exactly how much of the segregating and
+aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art
+and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent,
+questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted.
+This is a difficult problem to deal with, and I shall not attempt more
+here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied.
+
+The desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that
+gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the
+desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely
+decorative elaboration. It appears, however, that there is in the mind
+no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. The mind is a
+growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by
+environment. Seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it
+follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the
+useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. The results reached
+vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities
+furnished by the arts. As I have already amply shown, the textile art
+possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it
+is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of
+embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. The
+mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of
+technique.
+
+A close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art
+will be instructive. For the sake of simplicity I exclude from
+consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements.
+It will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the
+first lessons of the textile art. From the very beginning the workman
+finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in
+the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his
+utensils. If parts employed in construction are multiple they must be
+uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand
+for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a
+constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. The most
+fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and
+available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of
+the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant
+combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of
+isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these
+combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their
+complementaries, the diagonals. If large areas are covered certain
+separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called
+for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. Such separation or
+aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any
+other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment.
+When the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays
+they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united in
+various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through
+simple and complex convolutions. Whatever is done is at the suggestion
+of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by
+technique. Results are like in like techniques and are unlike in
+unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its
+variations in time and character.
+
+All those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important
+in this connection--the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell
+structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the
+beautiful--are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so
+far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates.
+Ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed
+by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain
+ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in
+their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the
+animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that
+throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its
+appetites.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there
+comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which
+the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered
+with by forces from without the art. This occurs when ideas, symbolic
+or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures,
+tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs
+when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the
+geometric units. This period cannot be always well defined, as the
+first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the
+textile forces. Between what may be regarded as purely technical,
+geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in
+each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or
+uncertain pedigree. These must receive slight attention here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 325. Coiled basket ornamented with devices
+probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects. Obtained
+from the Apache--1/8.]
+
+Fig. 325 represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the
+Apache. It will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the
+principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling
+directions of the textile combination. This was accomplished by
+increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays
+progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. This
+eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details
+at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that
+each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life
+form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man.
+
+By the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its
+pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. In the
+more advanced stages of Pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the
+textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude
+suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art.
+This is true of much of the coiled basketry of the Moki Indians. True,
+many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style
+is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. In
+many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs
+themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to
+realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are
+very remote. Two examples are given in Figs. 326 and 327. I shall
+expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to
+learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure
+geometric devices refer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 326. Coiled tray with geometric devices probably
+modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+The same is true of other varieties of Pueblo basketry, notably the
+common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are given in
+Figs. 328 and 329. This ware is of the interlaced style, with radially
+arranged web filaments. Its geometric characters are easily
+distinguished from those of the coiled ware. Many examples exhibit
+purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays,
+zones, checkers, and the like. It is to be expected, however, that the
+normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered
+with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the
+peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to
+attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art.
+Further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next
+section of this paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 327. Coiled tray with geometric devices, probably
+modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 328. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing
+geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki
+work--1/4.]
+
+The processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is
+mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive
+forms of art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 329. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing
+geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki
+work--1/4.]
+
+_Non-essential constructive features._--Now, all the varied effects of
+color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained
+without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without
+resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. The
+development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now
+receive attention. In the preceding examples, when it was desired to
+begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and
+a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it
+remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored
+elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them,
+although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to
+serviceability as well as to beauty. This is illustrated, for example,
+by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the
+introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other
+colors, or by twisting in feathers. Savage nations in all parts of the
+world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with
+great freedom. The effects produced often correspond closely to
+needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both
+varieties of execution.
+
+The following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. The effect
+seen in Fig. 330 is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in
+Mexico. The fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of
+varied colors. In order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker
+certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark
+tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small
+squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. Additional
+effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments
+with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. By
+other devices certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from
+the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures,
+either normal or added elements being employed. Another device is
+shown in Fig. 331. Here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets
+back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at
+regular intervals during the process of weaving. Again, feathers and
+other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. Two interesting
+baskets procured from the Indians of the northwest coast are shown in
+Figs. 332 and 333. Feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven
+in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the
+execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care
+being taken not to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process.
+The richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made
+to represent various figures necessarily geometric. This simple work
+is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of
+the Mexicans and Peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by
+historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. Much
+of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and
+will receive attention further on. A very clever device practiced by
+the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of
+contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the
+surface, as the pattern demands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 330. Ornament produced by wrapping certain light
+fillets with darker ones before weaving. Mexican work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 331. Ornamental effect secured by weaving in
+series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. Work of the
+Klamath Indians.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 332. Baskets ornamented with feather work.
+Northwest coast tribes--1/4.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 333. Baskets ornamented with feather work.
+Northwest coast tribes--1/4.]
+
+An example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this
+connection. The ancient Peruvians resorted to many clever devices for
+purposes of enrichment. An illustration of the use of
+extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in Figs.
+334 and 335. Threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are
+carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they
+may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of
+contrasting color upon the right side. Fig. 334 shows the right side
+of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and
+central figure only. Fig. 335 illustrates the opposite side and shows
+the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. In such
+work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the
+surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and
+woof. Examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily
+be seen from what has been presented that the results of these
+extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately
+produced by the fundamental filaments alone.
+
+[Illustration FIG. 334. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a
+supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.]
+
+[Illustration FIG. 335. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a
+supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.]
+
+_Superconstructive features._--In reviewing the superconstructive
+decorative features in the preceding section I classified them
+somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric,
+as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. It will be
+seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature
+of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head.
+
+Before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and
+attached in a variety of ways. In open work nothing was needed but the
+end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations
+were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the
+waxed ends of the shoemaker.
+
+The importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive
+peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own
+Indian tribes. What a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes
+of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds,
+teeth, &c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications
+of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. The taste for these things
+is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas
+is doubtless very intimate.
+
+Needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was
+employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for
+various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. In
+time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and
+the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as
+embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various
+bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting
+colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like
+nature or use.
+
+No other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and
+called for the exercise of taste. It was the natural habitat for
+decoration. It was the field in which technique and taste were most
+frequently called upon to work hand in hand.
+
+With the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its
+wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to
+pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs,
+to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from
+these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and
+purely pictorial scenes.
+
+And now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its
+bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. As purely
+constructive ornamentation has already been presented, I will first
+take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to
+it. In some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and
+woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the
+construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone
+over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads
+passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. This
+process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one
+color to another are made without interfering with construction, and
+the result is of a closely similar character to that reached by
+working the colors in with warp and woof. In a very close fabric this
+method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the
+added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and,
+stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright
+patterns. Fig. 336 is intended to show how this is done. The
+foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed
+under by lifting, with or without a needle. This process is
+extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are
+extremely pleasing. The materials most used are quills and bright
+colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. The
+results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding
+more or less closely with the ground work combination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 336. Grass embroidery upon the surface of closely
+impacted, twined basketry. Work of the northwest coast Indians.]
+
+A large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but
+without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as
+they are also applied to felt and leather. Again, artificially
+prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed.
+The results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is
+followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part
+by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may
+be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work
+of the Indians.
+
+Feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our
+ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of
+all these wonderful decorations. I have already shown how feathers are
+woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single
+illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of
+fabrics. Among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of
+Ancon, Peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. In our
+example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to
+the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them
+together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them
+down, as shown in Fig. 337.
+
+The same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the
+world. Other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by
+attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. In
+all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with
+that of the foundation fabrics. Other classes of decoration, drawn
+work, applique, and the like, are not of great importance in
+aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but
+slight bearing upon the development of design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 337. Feather embroidery of the ancient Peruvians,
+showing the method of attaching the feathers.]
+
+Attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of
+decorative resource. They are less subject to the laws of
+geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close
+reference to the web and woof. They include fringes, tassels, and the
+multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which
+primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. A somewhat
+detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the
+preceding section.
+
+_Adventitious features._--Ornament is applied to the surfaces of
+fabrics by painting and by stamping. These methods of decoration were
+employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches
+of art. If the surface features of the textile upon which a design is
+painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush
+or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric
+result. If the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its
+natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to
+designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. In primitive times both
+the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired
+in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation,
+and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at
+all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as
+are similar designs woven in with the fabric. Illustrations of this
+are given in the next section.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the
+tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within
+textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed
+to explain the relations of this system to associated art.
+
+In the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it
+has made two conquests of especial importance. In the first place it
+has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have
+happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it
+has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all
+arts with which the textile art has come in contact.
+
+
+GEOMETRICITY IMPOSED UPON ADOPTED ELEMENTS OF DESIGN.
+
+At a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided
+artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various
+devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces
+of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. The figures are
+very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but
+very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or
+superstitions. The devices employed may be purely conventional or
+geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms
+afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording,
+conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. Such
+forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of
+the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their
+employment. As already seen, the peculiar character of textile
+construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing
+unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into
+fabrics. The idea of so employing them may originally have been
+suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces
+or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form
+derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art.
+
+At any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was
+suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown
+in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide
+range of graphic subjects.
+
+Now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the
+modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that
+the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with
+those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of
+elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. They have a style of
+their own. Each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is
+forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the
+geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt
+upon at considerable length. We find, however, that the degree of
+convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies
+with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of
+the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the
+artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through
+all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity.
+
+So pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a
+particular creature--as, for example, a bird--executed by distant and
+unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to
+almost identical shapes. This conventionalizing force is further
+illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out
+differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan,
+capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces
+a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result
+almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who
+has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline.
+
+A number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power
+of textile combination over ornament. I select three in which the
+human figure is presented. One is chosen from Iroquoian art, one from
+Digger Indian art, and one from the art of the Incas--peoples unequal
+in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. I
+have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of
+corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. The
+example shown in Fig. 338 illustrates a construction peculiar to the
+wampum belts of the Iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike
+ordinary weaving. It is taken from the middle portion of what is known
+as the Penn wampum belt. The horizontal series of strands consists of
+narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of
+threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell
+beads. Purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of
+white beads. If the maker of this belt had been required to execute in
+chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been
+very different.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt, showing
+the conventional form imposed in bead work.]
+
+My second illustration (Fig. 339) is drawn from a superb example of
+the basketry of the Yokut Indians of California. The two figures form
+part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good
+advantage in the small cut. Fig. 340. It is of the coiled style of
+construction. The design is worked in four colors and the effect is
+quiet and rich.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 339. Conventional figures from a California Indian
+basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 340. Basket made by the Yokut Indians of
+California.]
+
+Turning southward from California and passing through many strange
+lands we find ourselves in Peru, and among a class of remains that
+bespeak a high grade of culture. The inhabitants of Ancon were
+wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome
+examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. Among these
+relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. One of
+these, now in the National Museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in
+which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments
+upon a brown ground.
+
+The base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined
+combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the
+plain right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this
+combination was better suited to the development of the intended
+design. Besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted
+to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. In the
+first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not
+alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide
+space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands
+are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider
+interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing
+strands. In this way broad areas of color are obtained. It will be
+observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this
+modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra
+constructive series of fillets are added. These are of much lighter
+weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern.
+Over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 341. Conventional human figures from an ancient
+Peruvian basket.]
+
+It will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification
+of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples,
+the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity.
+
+The fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is
+absolutely unattainable. It appears that the sharply pronounced steps
+exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets
+used. With the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate
+culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth
+outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule,
+even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the
+pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. I present a
+striking example of this in Fig. 342, a superb piece of Incarian
+gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark
+red ground dotted with symbols and strange devices. The work is
+executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. But with all the
+facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the
+straight lines and sharp angles are still present. The traditions of
+the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of
+the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were
+decidedly in that direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 342. Human figure in Peruvian gobelins, showing
+characteristic textile convention. From chromolithographs published by
+Reiss and Stuebel in The Necropolis of Ancon.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 343. Human figures from a Peruvian vase, done in
+free hand, graphic style.]
+
+In order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to the
+eye of the reader, I give an additional illustration (Fig. 343). The
+two figures here shown, although I am not able to say positively that
+the work is pre-Columbian, were executed by a native artist of about
+the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design. These
+figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an earthen
+vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free hand,
+graphic delineation. Place this and the last figure side by side and
+we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal
+capacity when executed in the two methods. This figure should also be
+compared with the embroidered figures shown in Fig. 348.
+
+The tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may
+be observed the world over. Every element entering the art must
+undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power of this
+almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative
+design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 344. Human figure modified by execution in
+concentric interlaced style of weaving--1/3.]
+
+That the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of
+woven objects may be appreciated, I present some additional examples.
+Coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at
+variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of
+parts. Instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel
+fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one
+concentric series. The effect of this arrangement upon the introduced
+human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to Fig.
+344, which represents a large tray obtained from the Moki Indians. The
+figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the
+Moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary,
+wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the
+plaque was to be used. The work is executed in wicker, stained in such
+bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of
+the costume. Referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the
+parts of the figure, it is apparent that many of the remarkable
+features are due to constructive peculiarities. The round face, for
+example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the
+concentric weaving. The oblique eyes have no reference to a Mongolian
+origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they
+are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the
+aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction
+forced it into this shape. The proportion of the figure is not so very
+bad because the Moki artist did not know better, but because the
+surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 345. Figure of a bird painted upon a Zuni shield,
+free hand delineation.]
+
+Now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one
+side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of
+the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but
+this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented
+in the following figures. With many tribes the bird is an object of
+superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products
+suitable for its delineation. It is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery,
+and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected
+with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. The
+bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in
+the decoration of basketry. In Fig. 345 I present an ordinary graphic
+representation. It is copied from a Zuni shield and is the device of
+an order or the totem of a clan. The style is quite conventional, as a
+result of the various constraints surrounding its production. But what
+a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the
+basketmaker's language. Observe the conventional pattern shown upon
+the surface of a Moki tray (Fig. 346). We have difficulty in
+recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with
+the preceding. The positions of the head and legs and the expanded
+wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is
+hampered by technique. The peculiar construction barely permits the
+presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a
+particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the
+treatment of the human figure in Fig. 344. In that case the interlaced
+combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating
+ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs
+in long steps. The power of expression lies almost wholly with the
+concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the
+concentric lines. In the present case (Fig. 346) this is reversed and
+lines employed in expressing forms are radiate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 346. Figure of a bird executed in a coiled Moki
+tray, textile delineation.]
+
+The precise effect of this difference of construction upon a
+particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another
+illustration. In Fig. 347 we have a bird woven in a basket of the
+interlaced style. We see with what ease the long sharp bill and the
+slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark
+mandibles) are expressed. In the other case the construction is such
+that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and
+square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the
+mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the
+truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical
+band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. It will be seen that the
+two representations are very unlike each other, not because of
+differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style
+of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across
+the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side
+of the center.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 347. Figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker
+at one side of the center.]
+
+It is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the
+convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with
+the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with
+the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style
+of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. These
+varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the
+incoming elements of textile embellishment.
+
+It will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications
+produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and
+adventitious agencies.
+
+We are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework
+employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe
+that even the Indian, under the tutelage of the European, reproduces
+in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life.
+As a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and
+conservatism of primitive art. The intention of the primitive artist
+was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate
+a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not
+submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art.
+
+I have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from
+necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely
+geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as
+well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. This is well shown
+in Fig. 348, a fine specimen given by Wiener in his work Perou et
+Bolive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 348. Embroidery upon a cotton net in which the
+textile combinations are followed step by step. Ancient Peruvian
+work.]
+
+A life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the
+same subject woven in with the web and woof. The reason is found in
+the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first
+to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by
+step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method.
+
+It would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does
+not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven
+canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters and follow
+the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such
+is not the case in purely aboriginal work. An example of embroidery
+obtained from an ancient grave at Ancon, Peru, is shown in Fig. 349. A
+piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird
+figures in bright colored wool thread. The lines of the figures do not
+obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow,
+but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design
+were woven in the goods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 349. Embroidery in which the foundation fabric is
+not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile
+geometricity. Ancient Peruvian work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 350. Design painted in color upon a woven surface,
+exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. Ancient Peruvian
+work. Copied from The Necropolis of Ancon.]
+
+So habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious
+decoration. When the ancient Peruvian executed a design in color upon
+a woven surface (Fig. 350), using a pencil or brush, the result was
+hardly less subject to textile restraint.
+
+As a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of
+decorative design--the textile and the free hand--there exist
+intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is
+nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly
+modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced
+into the fabric or applied to its surface.
+
+In countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile
+system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may
+prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little
+felt. The Haidah Indians, for example, paint designs with great
+freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical
+with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is
+doubtless much modified by the means and methods of Europeans. Our
+studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art.
+
+
+EXTENSION OF TEXTILE ORNAMENT TO OTHER FORMS OF ART.
+
+I have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the
+textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the
+manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of
+the art. I have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which
+decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic
+influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws
+of textile combination. Pursuing the investigation still further it is
+found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the
+art, but extends to other arts. Like a strong race of men it is not to
+be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms,
+stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come
+within its reach. Its influence is felt throughout the whole range of
+those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate
+ideas of beauty. It is necessary, before closing this paper, to
+examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to
+describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are
+accomplished. First and most important are the results of direct
+transmission.
+
+House building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages,
+is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops,
+other materials and other systems of construction are employed,
+and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are
+especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and
+survive all changes, howsoever complete. In a similar way other
+branches of art differentiated in material and function from the
+parent art inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in
+the textile stage. It may be difficult to say with reference to any
+particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there
+may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms;
+but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric
+ornament that it owes something--if not its inspiration, its modes of
+expression--to the teachings of the textile system. This appears
+reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of
+esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors.
+Being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of
+art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon
+them. What claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon
+the decorative conceptions of the Digger Indians, or even upon those
+of the Zuni or Moki? The former have no architecture, sculpture, or
+ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly
+developed. The Pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the
+stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet
+classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or
+varied. These examples of the development of high forms of decoration
+during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. Others are
+observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift
+the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's
+greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. It
+is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their
+development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to
+themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal,
+in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of
+which tend to give rise to ornament. But this ornament is generally
+only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not
+transferable by natural processes--as of a parent to its offspring--as
+are the esthetic features of the weaver's art.
+
+Besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested
+in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still
+efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire
+textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following
+illustrations.
+
+Japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. Upon
+superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects
+taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste
+upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. If we
+should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration,
+the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because
+they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators
+whose taste is well nigh infallible. But this explanation, however
+satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not
+at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of man was not
+primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements,
+nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they
+were indigenous. Now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few
+elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of
+its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily
+dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by
+direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly
+distinct.
+
+Textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large
+extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of
+the other. The textile art is the parent, and, as I have already
+shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. The
+fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for
+decoration. It is dependent and plastic. Its forms are to a great
+extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire
+automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold.
+This is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other
+methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are
+transferred to the other. Thus we explain the occurrence, the constant
+recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive
+ceramics. The herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like
+are greatly the heritage of the textile art. Two forms derived from
+textile surfaces are illustrated in Figs. 351 and 352. In the first
+example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile
+combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the
+same way. In Fig. 352 we see the result of copying these patterns in
+incised lines upon soft clay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in
+textile combinations.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 352. Herring bone and checker figures in fictile
+forms transferred from the textile.]
+
+Again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his wares
+within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his
+vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. The surface exhibits
+coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in Fig. 353, and the textile
+character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils
+with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the
+transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of
+the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. When these peoples came
+to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native
+to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less
+literal transfers by copying are to be found. A fine example of these
+painted textile designs is shown in Fig. 354. It is executed in a
+masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient
+Tusayan. Not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric
+exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the
+same as in the textile original. Nine-tenths of the more archaic,
+Pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art,
+and all show the influence of textile convention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 353. Earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting
+decorative characters derived from basketry.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 354. Ceramic ornament copied literally from a
+textile original.]
+
+Another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature
+may be noticed. All the more advanced American nations were very fond
+of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels
+having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. Now, in many cases
+the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated,
+and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their
+full share of attention. Such an example, from a sepulcher at Ancon,
+is shown in Fig. 355. Here the poncho or mantle thrown across the
+shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes
+and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. In this way both
+style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the
+ceramic art.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 355. Textile patterns transferred to pottery
+through the copying of costume. From The Necropolis of Ancon, by Reiss
+and Stuebel, Pl. 94.]
+
+It will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural
+methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art
+receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of
+textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical,
+and that it is continued automatically without any very decided
+exercise of judgment or taste. As a result, these borrowed decorations
+are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed
+within the art itself. Later in the course of progress the potter
+escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his
+designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by
+the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. When, finally,
+intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws,
+decoration tends to become debased.
+
+Turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the
+transfer to them of textile features? Take, for example, sculpture. In
+the wood carving of the Polynesians we observe a most elaborate system
+of decoration, more or less geometric in character. We do not need to
+look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile
+system, and we ask, Is it also derived from a textile source? In the
+first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar
+forms. In carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed
+tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and
+formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of
+uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of
+combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting
+and spacing in the textile art. In the presentation of natural forms
+curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the
+carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or
+knife. Graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the
+skill and habits of the artist. But, in reality, the geometric
+character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally
+toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not
+exercised an influence. The textile arts of these peoples are highly
+developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and
+must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially
+so in the matter of ornament. Specific examples may be cited showing
+the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. Bows, spears, arrows, &c.
+are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. Knives
+and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of
+certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. In ceremonial
+objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the
+characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated
+surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. A most instructive
+illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums
+(Fig. 356). The cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after
+loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become
+an important feature and assume the character of decoration. The heavy
+wooden handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures
+given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a
+little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface
+ceases and the sculptured portion begins.
+
+All things considered, I regard it as highly probable that much of the
+geometric character exhibited in Polynesian decoration is due to
+textile dominance. That these peoples are in the habit of employing
+textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume,
+such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree,
+which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. This
+transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied
+to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which
+the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by
+means of stamps themselves textile. Fig. 357 illustrates the
+construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile
+character is acquired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 356. Ceremonial adz, with carved ornament
+imitating textile wrapping. Polynesian work.]
+
+Textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure
+in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form,
+becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. Through
+sculpture these motives enter architecture. But textile decoration
+pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve
+ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the
+rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. Textile art in mats,
+covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors
+and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred
+to the stone and plaster. The wall of an ancient Pueblo estufa, or
+ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture,
+antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in Egyptian art,
+is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the
+pottery, from a textile source. The doorway or rather entrance to the
+rude hovel of a Navajo Indian is closed by a blanket of native make,
+unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high
+order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 357. Portion of a tapa stamp, showing its
+subtextile character. A palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the
+patterns are sewed in or stitched on.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 358. Design in stucco, exhibiting textile
+characters.]
+
+The ancient "hall of the arabesques" at Chimu, Peru, is decorated in
+elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art
+(Fig. 358), and other equally striking examples are to be found in
+other American countries. The classic surface decorations known and
+used in Oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in
+indigenous American architecture at a stage of culture lower than any
+known stage of classic art.
+
+It may appear that I have advocated too strongly the claims of the
+textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the
+conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but I have
+endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the
+student may readily reach deductions of his own. A correspondingly
+careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally
+to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and
+tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Alaskan Indians, illustration of ornamentation by 199
+Ancon, Peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at 212, 230,
+  231, 236, 243, 248
+Apache, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 213, 223
+British Guiana Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 217
+Chimu, Peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at 251, 252
+Clallam Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207
+Color in textile art 201, 202
+Color phenomena in textile ornament 215-232
+Form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations
+  from Indian work 196-201
+Geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament 202-244
+Holmes, W. H. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the
+  development of form and ornament 189-252
+Klamath Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 208, 209, 227
+McCloud River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 221
+Moki, illustrations of ornamentation by 197, 205, 224, 225, 226,
+  238, 240
+Northwest Coast Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 213,
+  218, 227, 230
+Penn wampum belt 233
+Peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by 211, 212,
+  214, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 242, 243, 248
+Pima Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 220
+Piute Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 205
+Polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of 249, 250
+Seminole Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207
+Textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament,
+  paper by W. H. Holmes on 189-252
+Tule River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 219
+Tusayan ornament, illustrations of 247, 248
+Wiener, cited 242
+Yokut Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 233, 234
+Zuni, illustrations of ornamentation by 239
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its
+Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes
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