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diff --git a/17730.txt b/17730.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d36cdd4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17730.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2512 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation +To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. Holmes + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Study Of The Textile Art In Its Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament + Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the + Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85, + Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, (pages + 189-252) + +Author: William H. Holmes + +Release Date: February 9, 2006 [EBook #17730] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART *** + + + + +Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie +Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale +de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +A STUDY OF THE TEXTILE ART +IN ITS RELATION TO THE +DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT + +BY + +WILLIAM H. HOLMES. + + + + +Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology +to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-'85, +Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, pages 189-252 + + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page +Introduction. 195 + Form in textile art. 196 + Relations of form to ornament. 201 + Color in textile art. 201 + +Textile ornament. 202 + Development of a geometric system within the art. 202 + Introduction. 202 + Relief phenomena. 203 + Ordinary features. 203 + Reticulated work. 210 + Superconstructive features. 211 + Color phenomena. 215 + Ordinary features. 215 + Non-essential constructive features. 226 + Superconstructive features. 228 + Adventitious features. 231 + Geometricity imposed upon adopted elements. 232 + Extension of textile ornament to other forms of art. 244 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +FIG. Page. +286. Mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form 197 +287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of form 198 +288. Pyriform water vessel 198 +289. Basket with esthetic characters of form 199 +290. Basket of eccentric form 200 +291. Character of surface in the simplest form of weaving 204 +292. Surface produced by impacting 204 +293. Surface produced by use of wide fillets 204 +294. Basket with ribbed surface 205 +295. Bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface 205 +296. Tray showing radial ribs 205 +297. Combination giving herring bone effect 206 +298. Combination giving triangular figures 206 +299. Peruvian work basket 206 +300. Basket of Seminole workmanship 207 +301. Surface effect produced in open twined combination 207 +302. Surface effect produced in open twined combination 207 +303. Surface effect produced by impacting in twined + combination 208 +304. Surface effect produced by impacting the web strands + in twined combination 208 +305. Surface effect produced by crossing the web series + in open twined work 208 +306. Tray with open mesh, twined combination 208 +307. Conical basket, twined combination 209 +308. Example of primitive reticulated weaving 210 +309. Simple form of reticulation 211 +310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth 211 +311. Peruvian embroidery 213 +312. Basket with pendent ornaments 213 +313. Basket with pendent ornaments 213 +314. Tasseled Peruvian mantle 214 +315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 +316. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 +317. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 +318. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 217 +319. Base of coiled basket 218 +320. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 218 +321. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 219 +322. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 220 +323. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 220 +324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 221 +325. Coiled basket with geometric ornament 223 +326. Coiled tray with geometric ornament 224 +327. Coiled tray with geometric ornament 225 +328. Tray with geometric ornament 225 +329. Tray with geometric ornament 226 +330. Ornament produced by wrapping the strands 227 +331. Ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the + fabric 227 +332. Basket with feather ornamentation 227 +333. Basket with feather ornamentation 227 +334. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof 228 +335. Piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof 228 +336. Example of grass embroidery 230 +337. Example of feather embroidery 231 +338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt 233 +339. Figures from a California Indian basket 234 +340. California Indian basket 234 +341. Figures from a Peruvian basket 235 +342. Figure from a piece of Peruvian gobelins 236 +343. Figures from a Peruvian vase 237 +344. Figure from a circular basket 238 +345. Figure of a bird from a Zuni shield 239 +346. Figure of a bird woven in a tray 240 +347. Figure of a bird woven in a basket 241 +348. Figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient + Peruvians 242 +349. Figures of birds embroidered by the ancient Peruvians 243 +350. Conventional design painted upon cotton cloth 243 +351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving 246 +352. Herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay 246 +353. Earthen vase with textile ornament 247 +354. Example of textile ornament painted upon pottery 248 +355. Textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume 248 +356. Ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character 250 +357. Figures upon a tapa stamp 251 +358. Design in stucco exhibiting textile characters 251 + + + + +TEXTILE ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORM AND ORNAMENT. + +BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES. + + +INTRODUCTION. + +The textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the +very inception of culture. In primitive times it occupied a wide +field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now +expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of +construction. Accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there +was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and +skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an +important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts. + +Woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements +or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are +combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. The +processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting, +netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering. + +The materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such +as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then +fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous +artificial preparations, are freely used. These are employed in the +single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are +combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices, +by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms. + +The products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as +shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these; +and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they +are cut and fitted. In earlier stages of art we have to deal almost +exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house +furnisher are evolved with civilization. + +In their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly +with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of +which I shall denominate _constructive_, the second _functional_, and +the third _esthetic_. The last class, with which this paper has almost +exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the +superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes +three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with (1) form, +(2) color, and (3) design. Esthetic features of form are, in origin +and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color +and design, to construction mainly. In the following study separate +sections are given to each of these topics. + +It is fortunate perhaps that in this work I am restricted to the +products of rather primitive stages of culture, as I have thus to deal +with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. In +the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes, +and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light +can fall upon the field of vision. + +In America there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no +parallel in the world. Uncontaminated by contact with the complex +conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities +for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development. + +The laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once +rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous +culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the +succeeding stages of civilization. + + +FORM IN TEXTILE ART. + +Form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is +fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression +of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping +arts from expressing the whole of function. Such is the pliability of +a large portion of textile products--as, for example, nets, garments, +and hangings--that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore, +when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles +are without esthetic value or interest. The more rigid objects, in +common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape +still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form +generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by +the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. Such attributes are +not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist +conjointly with them. + +In addition to these features of form we observe others of a more +decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose +of enhancing the appearance. + +In very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas +predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial +characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. But as the ages +pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are +added and emphasized. In riper culture the growing pressure of +esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial +modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. In periods of +deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual +artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and +erroneously applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus +violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. In +respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the +acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal, +the fourth abnormal: First, we have that in which functional +characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to +the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or +model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary +features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of +taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected; +third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described, +undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity, +&c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability; +and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is +sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection. + +[Illustration: FIG. 286. Mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic +attributes of form. Moki work--1/8.] + +The exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena +pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of +illustrations. Woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and +originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for +purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of +flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination; +and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result +of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material, +models, &c. A close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of +the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies +on the part of the artist. The esthetic interest attaching to such a +shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, as all +individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to +preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. The varied +features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (Fig. +286), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention +in the proper place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 287. Tray having decided esthetic attributes of +form. Obtained from the Apache--1/2.] + +In point of contour the basket tray shown in Fig. 287 has a somewhat +more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the +curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. How +much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection +must remain in doubt. In work so perfect we are wont, however +unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste. + +[Illustration: FIG. 288. Pyriform water vessel used by the Piute +Indians--1/8.] + +A third example--presented in Fig. 288--illustrates an advanced stage +in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. The +forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as +follows: A primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a +special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to +give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may +be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations +of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace, +the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies +of the artist's mind. In regard to the last point there is generally +in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be +found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong +desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of +form. It will be observed that the textile materials and construction +do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity +of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most +readily expressed. + +Modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally +suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or +accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction. +In the vessel presented in Fig. 289--the work of Alaskan Indians--the +margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns +of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. This is without reference +to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all +probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. Other and much +more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all +countries. + +[Illustration: FIG. 289. Vessel with esthetic characters of form. Work +of the Yakama--1/4.] + +In the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally +noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details. +This is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an +art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance +in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. When, +through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the +savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in +the works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of +construction and adaptability to use. An example of such work is +presented in Fig. 290, a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of +basketry. Other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets, +bottles, and tea pots. They are the work of the Indians of the +northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner, +bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste. + +[Illustration: FIG. 290. Basket made under foreign influence, +construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty--1/3.] + +It appears from the preceding analyses that _form_ in this art is not +sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the +delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar +difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and +supervision of taste. The inherent morphologic forces of the art are +strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results +that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to +esthetic influence. If, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use +are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if +materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely +bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high +degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye. + +In a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity +is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck +and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain +limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist +cannot readily free himself. Models furnished by nature, as they are +usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and +all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity +that belongs to simplicity. Taste which is in a formative state can +but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led by +them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and +universality. If the textile art had been the only one known to man, +ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure +formed through that art. Natural forms would have had little to do +with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by +the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon +which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity +dwell with steady attention from generation to generation. + + +RELATIONS OF FORM TO ORNAMENT. + +It would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to +find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential +features of the art--markings of the surface and color of +filaments--creating a new field in which to labor and expending their +energy upon ornament. + +Shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may +be classified as follows: + +First, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large +extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits; +figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or +rectangles--according, in no slight measure, to the character of the +spaces afforded by details of contour. Secondly, it affects ornament +through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as +handles, for ornamental purposes. Thirdly, it is probable that shape +influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the +taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of +ornament. + + +COLOR IN TEXTILE ART. + +Color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it +is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful +as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily +receives a large share of consideration. It is probably one of the +foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the +esthetic sense. + +The natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form +one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. The great +interest taken in color--the great importance attached to it--is +attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional +variety and brilliancy of effect are secured. + +Color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps, +in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in +construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which +construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. It finds its chief +use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures +with which objects of art are embellished. + +Color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or +worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is +added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils, +brushes, and dies. Its employment in the latter manner is especially +convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be +executed. + + +TEXTILE ORNAMENT. + +DEVELOPMENT OF A GEOMETRIC SYSTEM OF DESIGN WITHIN THE ART. + +INTRODUCTION. + +Having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, I +shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose +exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. It will be necessary, +however, to present, besides those features of the art properly +expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena +that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest +decorative conceptions and give shape to them. I shall show how the +latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they +gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic +faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of +a system of ornament of world wide application. + +For convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as +_relieved_ and _flat_. Figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise +during construction as a result of the intersections and other more +complex relations--the bindings--of the warp and woof or of inserted +or applied elements. Flat or surface features are manifested in color, +either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. Such is +the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain +combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the +art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the +effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. The character of such +figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental +association of natural colors in construction. + +At some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious +surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for +the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now +took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to +gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from +physical wants. + +It is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic +notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile +characters. Long before textile objects of a high class were made, +ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for +example, in connection with personal adornment. The skin had been +painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in +the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to +conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal +associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated +with the person. No matter, however, what the period or manner of the +association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may +be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of +decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the +geometric textile construction. + +In amplifying this subject I find it convenient to treat separately +the two classes of decorative phenomena--the relieved and the +flat--notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part +intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a +common end. + + +RELIEF PHENOMENA. + +_Ordinary features._--The relieved surface characters of fabrics +resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or +less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are +susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. Such +features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of +basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of +damasks, embroideries, and laces. So long as the figures produced are +confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished +construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain +work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless +repetition of like parts extremely monotonous. + +In right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which +run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. In radiate +weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally +formal manner by concentric lines. In other classes of combination +there is an almost equal degree of geometricity. + +When, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found +that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the +essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering +with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is +opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration. + +Moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary +elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which +the textile decorator may freely avail himself. The character of these +is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with +indigenous textile forms. + +To make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze +somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of +the resultant and associated phenomena. + +We may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made +use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. As indicated above, +these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and, +second, extra or superconstructive features. + +First, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a +variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been +evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these--no matter +what the material or what the size and character of the filamental +elements--gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. Thus it +appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations +produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike +constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. These +constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style +of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in +the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination +has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate +sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. It sometimes +even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical +surface effects are produced. + +It will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series +of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will +suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the +bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. I choose, first, a +number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which +the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at +right angles or nearly so. In Fig. 291 we have the result exhibited in +a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted +fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. Fig. +292 illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series +of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is +entirely hidden. The surface here exhibits a succession of vertical +ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding +example. The third variety (Fig. 293) differs but slightly from the +first. The fillets are wider and are set close together without +crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 291. Surface relief in simplest form of +intersection.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 292. Surface relief produced by horizontal series +crowded together.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 293. Surface relief produced by wide fillets set +close together.] + +The second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in +the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great +degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain +liquids, semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. The general +surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in Fig. 294, +which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the Moki +Indians. In this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of +radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position. + +[Illustration: FIG. 294. Basket showing ribbed surface produced by +impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments. Moki work--1/8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 295. Alternation of intersection, producing +oblique or spiral ribs. Piute work--1/8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 296. Radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed +from above. Moki work--1/4.] + +It will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take +the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation +of the horizontal series--the woof--we get oblique ridges, as shown in +the partly finished bottle illustrated in Fig. 295. They are, +however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. The peculiar +effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown +in Fig. 296. + +By changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of +combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding; +so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships, +there would be little suggestion of correlation. In the example given +in Fig. 297 the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and +under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by +extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step +and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally. + +[Illustration: FIG. 297. Diagonal combination, giving herring bone +effect.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 298. Elaboration of diagonal combination, giving +triangular figures.] + +This example is from an ancient work basket obtained at Ancon, Peru, +and shown in Fig. 299. The surface features are in strong relief, +giving a pronounced herring bone effect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 299. Peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly +relieved ridges.] + +Slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to +produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is +shown in Fig. 298. A good illustration is also seen in Fig. 286, and +another piece, said to be of Seminole workmanship, is given in Fig. +300. These and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of +primitive decorative motives. They are employed not only within the +art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with +suggestions of embellishment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 300. Effects produced by varying the order of +intersection. Seminole work--1/8.] + +Taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant +patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding. + +[Illustration: FIG. 301. Surface effect in open twined combination.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 302. Surface effect of twined, lattice combination +in basketry of the Clallam Indians of Washington Territory--1/8.] + +Fig. 301 illustrates the simplest form of what Dr. O.T. Mason has +called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native +tribes. The strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in +weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the +opposing fillets. The resulting open work has much the appearance of +ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or +strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is +strikingly suggestive of decoration. The result of this combination +upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the +large basket presented in Fig. 302. Other variants of this type are +given in the three succeeding figures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 303. Surface effect in impacted work of twined +combination.] + +The result seen in Fig. 303 is obtained by impacting the horizontal or +twined series of threads. The surface is nearly identical with that of +the closely impacted example of the preceding type (Fig. 292). The +peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. When the doubled +and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing +series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in +Fig. 304 and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in Fig. +307. + +[Illustration: FIG. 304. Surface effect obtained by placing the warp +strands close together and the woof cables far apart.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 305. Surface effect obtained by crossing the warp +series in open twined work.] + +In Fig. 305 we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the +untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 306. Decorative effects produced by variations in +the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. Klamath work--1/4.] + +Fig. 306 serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends +itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the +direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in +vessel-making arts. + +The examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative +resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate +constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results +can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of +binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object +or in the same piece of fabric. A good, though very simple, +illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in Fig. +286. In this case a border, varying from the center portion in +appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a +multiple to a single arrangement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 307. Conical basket of the Klamath Indians of +Oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work border--1/8.] + +The conical basket shown in Fig. 307 serves to illustrate the same +point. In this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is +secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and +combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of +open work. + +Now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some +primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they +are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many +new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the +elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of +weaving. + +Other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all +braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit +characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of +relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already +illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric +system of combination. + +_Reticulated work._--A few paragraphs may be added here in regard to +reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit +more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided +bearing upon the growth of ornament. + +In all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite +reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and +other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the +higher forms of the art. The production of reticulated work is the +especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain +varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are +produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be +undertaken by ambitious workmen. + +In the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class +of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to +marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite +laces of cultured peoples. The Americans had only taken the first +steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of +especial interest in the history of the art. + +An example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in Fig. 308. It +is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon +an ancient piece of pottery obtained in Tennessee. + +[Illustration: FIG. 308. Incipient stage of reticulated ornament. +Fabric of the mound builders.] + +Fig. 309 illustrates a bit of ancient Peruvian work executed on a +frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging +the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart. + +Open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes, +certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which +means the figures are emphasized and varied. + +In Fig. 310 we have a second Peruvian example in which the woof +threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this +interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing +a lattice-like band. + +[Illustration: FIG. 309. Simple form of ornamental reticulation. +Ancient Peruvian work.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 310. Reticulated pattern in cotton cloth. Work of +the ancient Peruvians.] + +In a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced, +two above and two below the wide band. These are produced by leaving +the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs +across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as +shown in the cut. + +Examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are +found among the textile products of many American tribes and occur as +well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where +designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced +to facilitate the work. + +_Superconstructive features._--These features, so important in the +decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a +construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by +function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which +may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. They constitute one of +the most widely used and effective resources of the textile +decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing, +cutting, applying, appending, &c. They add enormously to the capacity +for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render +natural forms in the round. Notwithstanding this fact--the most +important section of this class of features--embroidery is treated to +better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally +associated with the designs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 311. Open work design embroidered upon a net-like +fabric. From a grave at Ancon, Peru.] + +One example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. It is +probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery America has +produced. In design and in method of realization it is identical with +the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient Peruvians, being worked +upon a net foundation, as shown in Fig. 311. The broad band of figures +employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and +still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band. + +Appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of +fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. They +are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and +are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or +less pronounced geometric character. The work is a kind of embroidery, +the parts employed being of the nature of pendants. + +These include numberless articles derived from nature and art. It will +suffice to present a few examples already at hand. + +[Illustration: FIG. 312. Basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped +with bits of tin. Apache Indians--1/8.] + +Fig. 312 illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the Apache +Indians. It serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and +clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings +tipped with conical bits of tin. The checker pattern is in color. + +[Illustration: FIG. 313. Basket with pendants of beads and bits of +shell, work of the northwest coast Indians.--1/4.] + +Fig. 313 illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. A feather +decked basket made by the northwest coast Indians is embellished with +pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of +bright shell. The importance of this class of work in higher forms of +textiles may be illustrated by an example from Peru. It is probable +that American art has produced few examples of tasseled work more +wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in Fig. 314. It is a +fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth, +obtained from an ancient tomb. The body is made up of separately woven +bands, upon which disk-like and semilunar figures representing human +faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. To the +center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying +sizes are attached. The fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is +composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels +supporting clusters of smaller ones. There are upwards of three +thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in +colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. The general +color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson. +The illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty +of the original. + +[Illustration: FIG. 314. Tassel ornamentation from an ancient Peruvian +mantle.] + +We have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface +characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by +variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and +ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. We +shall now see how these are related to color phenomena. + + +COLOR PHENOMENA. + +_Ordinary features._--In describing the constructive characters of +fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, I called attention to the +fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and +supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. Color +elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many +simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before +the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye. +When, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater +elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily +to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful +results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection +of the articles embellished. But color is not confined to the mere +emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. It is capable of +advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs +complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without +altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters. + +In color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive +combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative +results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the +work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of +distinctions in national decorative conceptions. + +In addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression, +lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary +resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary +construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to +some extent in the preceding section. + +I have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary +presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric +materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic +progress. My object in this section is to indicate the part it takes +in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which +it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric +decoration. + +It will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the +normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct +domination of constructive elaboration. In the way of illustration, +let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of +the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a +second series having a distinct color. A very simple geometric pattern +is produced, as shown in Fig. 315. It is a sort of checker, an +emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in Fig. 291, the +figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Had these +filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results +might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail +the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. So far as they +exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration. + +[Illustration: FIG. 315. Pattern produced by interlacing strands of +different colors.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 316. Pattern produced by modifying the alternation +of fillets.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 317. Isolated figures produced by modifying the +order of intersection.] + +Assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more +elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the +processes and tendencies of growth. A very slight degree of ingenuity +will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a +succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in Fig. 316. In +this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be +turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they +result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares. + +[Illustration: FIG. 318. Pattern produced by simple alternations of +light and dark fillets. Basketry of the Indians of British Guiana.] + +Additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark +strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of +solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection, +certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing +series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in Fig. 317. With +these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of +expression, as will be seen in Fig. 318, which is taken from a basket +made by South American Indians, and in Fig. 341, where human figures +are delineated. The patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric +and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. With impacting and +increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a +considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic +representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. It +is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic +characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date, +and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects +would be attempted. + +I do not need to follow this style of combination into the more +refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through +all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic +geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading. + + * * * * * + +For the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of +normal textile decorative development I shall present a series of +Indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted +varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and +at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in +color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive +textile products known. I have already shown that several types of +combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface +characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. In +nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of +fillets--those of the woof--the other, the warp, being completely +hidden from view. In the preceding series the warp and woof were +almost equally concerned in the expression of design. Here but one is +used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the +artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new +ones at will. Still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no +means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down +by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely +geometric results. + +[Illustration: FIG. 319. Base of coiled basket showing the method of +building by dual coiling. The base or warp coil is composed of +untwisted fiber and is formed by adding to the free end as the coiling +goes on. The woof or binding filament, as it is coiled, is caught into +the upper surface of the preceding turn--1/8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 320. Coiled basket with simple geometric ornament. +Work of the northwest coast Indians--1/8.] + +I will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are +in all cases of the coiled ware. If a basket is made with no other +idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in +color, the natural color of the woof fillets. If decoration is desired +a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place +and does the duty of the ordinary strand. Fig. 319 serves to show the +construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel +still quite free from any color decoration. Now, if it is desired to +begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored +fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. Carried once around the +vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the +lower line of the ornament seen in Fig. 320. If the artist is content +with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and +takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the +coiling. If further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished. +In the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again +and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then +it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn, +another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns, +and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles +have been produced. Desiring to introduce a meandered design he has +taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored +filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the +right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of +the warp coil. The pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in +rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border +line at the top. The vessel was then completed in the light colored +material. In this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of +lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial +and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. Oblique bands of +color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines. +Although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that +in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative +conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. They serve +quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as +if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 321. Coiled basket with encircling bands of +ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground. Obtained +from the Indians of the Tule River, California--1/8.] + +In Fig. 321 I present a superb piece of work executed by the Indians +of the Tule River, California. It is woven in the closely impacted, +coiled style. The ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and +consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red +centers and black frames set side by side. The processes of +substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in +the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of +designs are the same, being governed by the same forces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 322. Coiled basket with ornament arranged in +zigzag rays. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/8.] + +Another choice piece, from the Pima Indians of Arizona, is given in +Fig. 322. The lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the +directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black +color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance, +then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending, +the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close +together. These rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark +figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows +at right angles to these. A few supplementary rays are added toward +the margin to fill out the widening spaces. Another striking example +of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in Fig. 323. + +[Illustration: FIG. 323. Coiled basket with two bands of meandered +ornament. Obtained from the Pima Indians of Arizona--1/4.] + +Two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the +elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the +radiate and the concentric lines of construction. This is the work of +the Pima Indians of Arizona. + +[Illustration: FIG. 324. Coiled basket with geometric ornament +composed of triangular figures. Obtained from the McCloud River +Indians, California--1/8.] + +I shall close the series with a very handsome example of Indian +basketry and of basketry ornamentation (Fig. 324). The conical shape +is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like +all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of +the decorative requirements of the utensil. The design is wholly +geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost +exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. The +general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing +with or following the foundation coil. Details are governed by the +horizontal and the oblique structure lines. The vertical construction +lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting +in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique +outlines. + +These studies could be carried through all the types of primitive +textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all +cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along +similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches +closely corresponding results. + + * * * * * + +We have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided +tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. Now +each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape +and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and +consistent ways. In contemplating them we are led to inquire into the +nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results. +The question arises as to exactly how much of the segregating and +aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art +and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent, +questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted. +This is a difficult problem to deal with, and I shall not attempt more +here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied. + +The desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that +gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the +desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely +decorative elaboration. It appears, however, that there is in the mind +no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. The mind is a +growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by +environment. Seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it +follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the +useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. The results reached +vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities +furnished by the arts. As I have already amply shown, the textile art +possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it +is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of +embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. The +mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of +technique. + +A close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art +will be instructive. For the sake of simplicity I exclude from +consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements. +It will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the +first lessons of the textile art. From the very beginning the workman +finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in +the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his +utensils. If parts employed in construction are multiple they must be +uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand +for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a +constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. The most +fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and +available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of +the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant +combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of +isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these +combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their +complementaries, the diagonals. If large areas are covered certain +separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called +for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. Such separation or +aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any +other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment. +When the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays +they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united in +various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through +simple and complex convolutions. Whatever is done is at the suggestion +of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by +technique. Results are like in like techniques and are unlike in +unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its +variations in time and character. + +All those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important +in this connection--the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell +structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the +beautiful--are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so +far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates. +Ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed +by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain +ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in +their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the +animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that +throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its +appetites. + + * * * * * + +Now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there +comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which +the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered +with by forces from without the art. This occurs when ideas, symbolic +or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures, +tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs +when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the +geometric units. This period cannot be always well defined, as the +first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the +textile forces. Between what may be regarded as purely technical, +geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in +each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or +uncertain pedigree. These must receive slight attention here. + +[Illustration: FIG. 325. Coiled basket ornamented with devices +probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects. Obtained +from the Apache--1/8.] + +Fig. 325 represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the +Apache. It will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the +principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling +directions of the textile combination. This was accomplished by +increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays +progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. This +eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details +at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that +each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life +form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man. + +By the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its +pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. In the +more advanced stages of Pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the +textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude +suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art. +This is true of much of the coiled basketry of the Moki Indians. True, +many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style +is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. In +many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs +themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to +realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are +very remote. Two examples are given in Figs. 326 and 327. I shall +expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to +learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure +geometric devices refer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 326. Coiled tray with geometric devices probably +modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.] + +The same is true of other varieties of Pueblo basketry, notably the +common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are given in +Figs. 328 and 329. This ware is of the interlaced style, with radially +arranged web filaments. Its geometric characters are easily +distinguished from those of the coiled ware. Many examples exhibit +purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays, +zones, checkers, and the like. It is to be expected, however, that the +normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered +with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the +peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to +attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art. +Further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next +section of this paper. + +[Illustration: FIG. 327. Coiled tray with geometric devices, probably +modified by ideographic association. Moki work--1/4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 328. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing +geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki +work--1/4.] + +The processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is +mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive +forms of art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 329. Tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing +geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. Moki +work--1/4.] + +_Non-essential constructive features._--Now, all the varied effects of +color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained +without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without +resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. The +development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now +receive attention. In the preceding examples, when it was desired to +begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and +a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it +remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored +elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them, +although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to +serviceability as well as to beauty. This is illustrated, for example, +by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the +introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other +colors, or by twisting in feathers. Savage nations in all parts of the +world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with +great freedom. The effects produced often correspond closely to +needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both +varieties of execution. + +The following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. The effect +seen in Fig. 330 is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in +Mexico. The fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of +varied colors. In order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker +certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark +tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small +squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. Additional +effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments +with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. By +other devices certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from +the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures, +either normal or added elements being employed. Another device is +shown in Fig. 331. Here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets +back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at +regular intervals during the process of weaving. Again, feathers and +other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. Two interesting +baskets procured from the Indians of the northwest coast are shown in +Figs. 332 and 333. Feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven +in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the +execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care +being taken not to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process. +The richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made +to represent various figures necessarily geometric. This simple work +is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of +the Mexicans and Peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by +historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. Much +of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and +will receive attention further on. A very clever device practiced by +the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of +contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the +surface, as the pattern demands. + +[Illustration: FIG. 330. Ornament produced by wrapping certain light +fillets with darker ones before weaving. Mexican work.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 331. Ornamental effect secured by weaving in +series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. Work of the +Klamath Indians.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 332. Baskets ornamented with feather work. +Northwest coast tribes--1/4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 333. Baskets ornamented with feather work. +Northwest coast tribes--1/4.] + +An example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this +connection. The ancient Peruvians resorted to many clever devices for +purposes of enrichment. An illustration of the use of +extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in Figs. +334 and 335. Threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are +carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they +may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of +contrasting color upon the right side. Fig. 334 shows the right side +of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and +central figure only. Fig. 335 illustrates the opposite side and shows +the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. In such +work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the +surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and +woof. Examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily +be seen from what has been presented that the results of these +extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately +produced by the fundamental filaments alone. + +[Illustration FIG. 334. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a +supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.] + +[Illustration FIG. 335. Piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a +supplementary web and woof. Ancient Peru.] + +_Superconstructive features._--In reviewing the superconstructive +decorative features in the preceding section I classified them +somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric, +as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. It will be +seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature +of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head. + +Before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and +attached in a variety of ways. In open work nothing was needed but the +end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations +were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the +waxed ends of the shoemaker. + +The importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive +peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own +Indian tribes. What a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes +of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds, +teeth, &c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications +of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. The taste for these things +is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas +is doubtless very intimate. + +Needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was +employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for +various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. In +time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and +the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as +embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various +bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting +colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like +nature or use. + +No other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and +called for the exercise of taste. It was the natural habitat for +decoration. It was the field in which technique and taste were most +frequently called upon to work hand in hand. + +With the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its +wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to +pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs, +to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from +these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and +purely pictorial scenes. + +And now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its +bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. As purely +constructive ornamentation has already been presented, I will first +take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to +it. In some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and +woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the +construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone +over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads +passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. This +process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one +color to another are made without interfering with construction, and +the result is of a closely similar character to that reached by +working the colors in with warp and woof. In a very close fabric this +method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the +added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and, +stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright +patterns. Fig. 336 is intended to show how this is done. The +foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed +under by lifting, with or without a needle. This process is +extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are +extremely pleasing. The materials most used are quills and bright +colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. The +results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding +more or less closely with the ground work combination. + +[Illustration: FIG. 336. Grass embroidery upon the surface of closely +impacted, twined basketry. Work of the northwest coast Indians.] + +A large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but +without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as +they are also applied to felt and leather. Again, artificially +prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed. +The results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is +followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part +by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may +be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work +of the Indians. + +Feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our +ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of +all these wonderful decorations. I have already shown how feathers are +woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single +illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of +fabrics. Among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of +Ancon, Peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. In our +example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to +the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them +together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them +down, as shown in Fig. 337. + +The same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the +world. Other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by +attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. In +all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with +that of the foundation fabrics. Other classes of decoration, drawn +work, applique, and the like, are not of great importance in +aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but +slight bearing upon the development of design. + +[Illustration: FIG. 337. Feather embroidery of the ancient Peruvians, +showing the method of attaching the feathers.] + +Attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of +decorative resource. They are less subject to the laws of +geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close +reference to the web and woof. They include fringes, tassels, and the +multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which +primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. A somewhat +detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the +preceding section. + +_Adventitious features._--Ornament is applied to the surfaces of +fabrics by painting and by stamping. These methods of decoration were +employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches +of art. If the surface features of the textile upon which a design is +painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush +or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric +result. If the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its +natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to +designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. In primitive times both +the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired +in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation, +and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at +all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as +are similar designs woven in with the fabric. Illustrations of this +are given in the next section. + + * * * * * + +I have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the +tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within +textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed +to explain the relations of this system to associated art. + +In the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it +has made two conquests of especial importance. In the first place it +has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have +happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it +has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all +arts with which the textile art has come in contact. + + +GEOMETRICITY IMPOSED UPON ADOPTED ELEMENTS OF DESIGN. + +At a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided +artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various +devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces +of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. The figures are +very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but +very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or +superstitions. The devices employed may be purely conventional or +geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms +afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording, +conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. Such +forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of +the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their +employment. As already seen, the peculiar character of textile +construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing +unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into +fabrics. The idea of so employing them may originally have been +suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces +or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form +derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art. + +At any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was +suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown +in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide +range of graphic subjects. + +Now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the +modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that +the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with +those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of +elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. They have a style of +their own. Each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is +forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the +geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt +upon at considerable length. We find, however, that the degree of +convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies +with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of +the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the +artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through +all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity. + +So pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a +particular creature--as, for example, a bird--executed by distant and +unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to +almost identical shapes. This conventionalizing force is further +illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out +differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan, +capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces +a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result +almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who +has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline. + +A number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power +of textile combination over ornament. I select three in which the +human figure is presented. One is chosen from Iroquoian art, one from +Digger Indian art, and one from the art of the Incas--peoples unequal +in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. I +have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of +corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. The +example shown in Fig. 338 illustrates a construction peculiar to the +wampum belts of the Iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike +ordinary weaving. It is taken from the middle portion of what is known +as the Penn wampum belt. The horizontal series of strands consists of +narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of +threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell +beads. Purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of +white beads. If the maker of this belt had been required to execute in +chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been +very different. + +[Illustration: FIG. 338. Figures from the Penn wampum belt, showing +the conventional form imposed in bead work.] + +My second illustration (Fig. 339) is drawn from a superb example of +the basketry of the Yokut Indians of California. The two figures form +part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good +advantage in the small cut. Fig. 340. It is of the coiled style of +construction. The design is worked in four colors and the effect is +quiet and rich. + +[Illustration: FIG. 339. Conventional figures from a California Indian +basket.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 340. Basket made by the Yokut Indians of +California.] + +Turning southward from California and passing through many strange +lands we find ourselves in Peru, and among a class of remains that +bespeak a high grade of culture. The inhabitants of Ancon were +wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome +examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. Among these +relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. One of +these, now in the National Museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in +which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments +upon a brown ground. + +The base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined +combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the +plain right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this +combination was better suited to the development of the intended +design. Besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted +to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. In the +first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not +alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide +space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands +are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider +interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing +strands. In this way broad areas of color are obtained. It will be +observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this +modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra +constructive series of fillets are added. These are of much lighter +weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern. +Over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely. + +[Illustration: FIG. 341. Conventional human figures from an ancient +Peruvian basket.] + +It will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification +of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples, +the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity. + +The fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is +absolutely unattainable. It appears that the sharply pronounced steps +exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets +used. With the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate +culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth +outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule, +even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the +pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. I present a +striking example of this in Fig. 342, a superb piece of Incarian +gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark +red ground dotted with symbols and strange devices. The work is +executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. But with all the +facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the +straight lines and sharp angles are still present. The traditions of +the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of +the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were +decidedly in that direction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 342. Human figure in Peruvian gobelins, showing +characteristic textile convention. From chromolithographs published by +Reiss and Stuebel in The Necropolis of Ancon.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 343. Human figures from a Peruvian vase, done in +free hand, graphic style.] + +In order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to the +eye of the reader, I give an additional illustration (Fig. 343). The +two figures here shown, although I am not able to say positively that +the work is pre-Columbian, were executed by a native artist of about +the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design. These +figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an earthen +vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free hand, +graphic delineation. Place this and the last figure side by side and +we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal +capacity when executed in the two methods. This figure should also be +compared with the embroidered figures shown in Fig. 348. + +The tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may +be observed the world over. Every element entering the art must +undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power of this +almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative +design. + +[Illustration: FIG. 344. Human figure modified by execution in +concentric interlaced style of weaving--1/3.] + +That the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of +woven objects may be appreciated, I present some additional examples. +Coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at +variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of +parts. Instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel +fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one +concentric series. The effect of this arrangement upon the introduced +human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to Fig. +344, which represents a large tray obtained from the Moki Indians. The +figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the +Moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary, +wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the +plaque was to be used. The work is executed in wicker, stained in such +bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of +the costume. Referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the +parts of the figure, it is apparent that many of the remarkable +features are due to constructive peculiarities. The round face, for +example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the +concentric weaving. The oblique eyes have no reference to a Mongolian +origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they +are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the +aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction +forced it into this shape. The proportion of the figure is not so very +bad because the Moki artist did not know better, but because the +surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 345. Figure of a bird painted upon a Zuni shield, +free hand delineation.] + +Now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one +side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of +the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but +this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented +in the following figures. With many tribes the bird is an object of +superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products +suitable for its delineation. It is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery, +and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected +with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. The +bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in +the decoration of basketry. In Fig. 345 I present an ordinary graphic +representation. It is copied from a Zuni shield and is the device of +an order or the totem of a clan. The style is quite conventional, as a +result of the various constraints surrounding its production. But what +a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the +basketmaker's language. Observe the conventional pattern shown upon +the surface of a Moki tray (Fig. 346). We have difficulty in +recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with +the preceding. The positions of the head and legs and the expanded +wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is +hampered by technique. The peculiar construction barely permits the +presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a +particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the +treatment of the human figure in Fig. 344. In that case the interlaced +combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating +ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs +in long steps. The power of expression lies almost wholly with the +concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the +concentric lines. In the present case (Fig. 346) this is reversed and +lines employed in expressing forms are radiate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 346. Figure of a bird executed in a coiled Moki +tray, textile delineation.] + +The precise effect of this difference of construction upon a +particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another +illustration. In Fig. 347 we have a bird woven in a basket of the +interlaced style. We see with what ease the long sharp bill and the +slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark +mandibles) are expressed. In the other case the construction is such +that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and +square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the +mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the +truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical +band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. It will be seen that the +two representations are very unlike each other, not because of +differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style +of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across +the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side +of the center. + +[Illustration: FIG. 347. Figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker +at one side of the center.] + +It is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the +convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with +the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with +the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style +of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. These +varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the +incoming elements of textile embellishment. + +It will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications +produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and +adventitious agencies. + +We are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework +employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe +that even the Indian, under the tutelage of the European, reproduces +in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life. +As a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and +conservatism of primitive art. The intention of the primitive artist +was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate +a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not +submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art. + +I have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from +necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely +geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as +well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. This is well shown +in Fig. 348, a fine specimen given by Wiener in his work Perou et +Bolive. + +[Illustration: FIG. 348. Embroidery upon a cotton net in which the +textile combinations are followed step by step. Ancient Peruvian +work.] + +A life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the +same subject woven in with the web and woof. The reason is found in +the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first +to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by +step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method. + +It would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does +not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven +canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters and follow +the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such +is not the case in purely aboriginal work. An example of embroidery +obtained from an ancient grave at Ancon, Peru, is shown in Fig. 349. A +piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird +figures in bright colored wool thread. The lines of the figures do not +obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow, +but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design +were woven in the goods. + +[Illustration: FIG. 349. Embroidery in which the foundation fabric is +not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile +geometricity. Ancient Peruvian work.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 350. Design painted in color upon a woven surface, +exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. Ancient Peruvian +work. Copied from The Necropolis of Ancon.] + +So habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious +decoration. When the ancient Peruvian executed a design in color upon +a woven surface (Fig. 350), using a pencil or brush, the result was +hardly less subject to textile restraint. + +As a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of +decorative design--the textile and the free hand--there exist +intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is +nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly +modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced +into the fabric or applied to its surface. + +In countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile +system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may +prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little +felt. The Haidah Indians, for example, paint designs with great +freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical +with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is +doubtless much modified by the means and methods of Europeans. Our +studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art. + + +EXTENSION OF TEXTILE ORNAMENT TO OTHER FORMS OF ART. + +I have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the +textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the +manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of +the art. I have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which +decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic +influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws +of textile combination. Pursuing the investigation still further it is +found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the +art, but extends to other arts. Like a strong race of men it is not to +be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms, +stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come +within its reach. Its influence is felt throughout the whole range of +those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate +ideas of beauty. It is necessary, before closing this paper, to +examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to +describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are +accomplished. First and most important are the results of direct +transmission. + +House building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages, +is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops, +other materials and other systems of construction are employed, +and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are +especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and +survive all changes, howsoever complete. In a similar way other +branches of art differentiated in material and function from the +parent art inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in +the textile stage. It may be difficult to say with reference to any +particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there +may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms; +but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric +ornament that it owes something--if not its inspiration, its modes of +expression--to the teachings of the textile system. This appears +reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of +esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors. +Being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of +art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon +them. What claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon +the decorative conceptions of the Digger Indians, or even upon those +of the Zuni or Moki? The former have no architecture, sculpture, or +ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly +developed. The Pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the +stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet +classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or +varied. These examples of the development of high forms of decoration +during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. Others are +observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift +the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's +greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. It +is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their +development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to +themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal, +in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of +which tend to give rise to ornament. But this ornament is generally +only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not +transferable by natural processes--as of a parent to its offspring--as +are the esthetic features of the weaver's art. + +Besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested +in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still +efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire +textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following +illustrations. + +Japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. Upon +superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects +taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste +upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. If we +should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration, +the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because +they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators +whose taste is well nigh infallible. But this explanation, however +satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not +at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of man was not +primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements, +nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they +were indigenous. Now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few +elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of +its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily +dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by +direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly +distinct. + +Textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large +extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of +the other. The textile art is the parent, and, as I have already +shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. The +fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for +decoration. It is dependent and plastic. Its forms are to a great +extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire +automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold. +This is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other +methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are +transferred to the other. Thus we explain the occurrence, the constant +recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive +ceramics. The herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like +are greatly the heritage of the textile art. Two forms derived from +textile surfaces are illustrated in Figs. 351 and 352. In the first +example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile +combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the +same way. In Fig. 352 we see the result of copying these patterns in +incised lines upon soft clay. + +[Illustration: FIG. 351. Herring bone and checker patterns produced in +textile combinations.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 352. Herring bone and checker figures in fictile +forms transferred from the textile.] + +Again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his wares +within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his +vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. The surface exhibits +coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in Fig. 353, and the textile +character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils +with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the +transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of +the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. When these peoples came +to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native +to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less +literal transfers by copying are to be found. A fine example of these +painted textile designs is shown in Fig. 354. It is executed in a +masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient +Tusayan. Not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric +exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the +same as in the textile original. Nine-tenths of the more archaic, +Pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art, +and all show the influence of textile convention. + +[Illustration: FIG. 353. Earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting +decorative characters derived from basketry.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 354. Ceramic ornament copied literally from a +textile original.] + +Another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature +may be noticed. All the more advanced American nations were very fond +of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels +having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. Now, in many cases +the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated, +and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their +full share of attention. Such an example, from a sepulcher at Ancon, +is shown in Fig. 355. Here the poncho or mantle thrown across the +shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes +and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. In this way both +style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the +ceramic art. + +[Illustration: FIG. 355. Textile patterns transferred to pottery +through the copying of costume. From The Necropolis of Ancon, by Reiss +and Stuebel, Pl. 94.] + +It will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural +methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art +receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of +textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical, +and that it is continued automatically without any very decided +exercise of judgment or taste. As a result, these borrowed decorations +are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed +within the art itself. Later in the course of progress the potter +escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his +designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by +the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. When, finally, +intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws, +decoration tends to become debased. + +Turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the +transfer to them of textile features? Take, for example, sculpture. In +the wood carving of the Polynesians we observe a most elaborate system +of decoration, more or less geometric in character. We do not need to +look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile +system, and we ask, Is it also derived from a textile source? In the +first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar +forms. In carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed +tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and +formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of +uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of +combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting +and spacing in the textile art. In the presentation of natural forms +curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the +carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or +knife. Graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the +skill and habits of the artist. But, in reality, the geometric +character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally +toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not +exercised an influence. The textile arts of these peoples are highly +developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and +must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially +so in the matter of ornament. Specific examples may be cited showing +the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. Bows, spears, arrows, &c. +are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. Knives +and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of +certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. In ceremonial +objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the +characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated +surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. A most instructive +illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums +(Fig. 356). The cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after +loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become +an important feature and assume the character of decoration. The heavy +wooden handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures +given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a +little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface +ceases and the sculptured portion begins. + +All things considered, I regard it as highly probable that much of the +geometric character exhibited in Polynesian decoration is due to +textile dominance. That these peoples are in the habit of employing +textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume, +such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree, +which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. This +transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied +to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which +the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by +means of stamps themselves textile. Fig. 357 illustrates the +construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile +character is acquired. + +[Illustration: FIG. 356. Ceremonial adz, with carved ornament +imitating textile wrapping. Polynesian work.] + +Textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure +in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form, +becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. Through +sculpture these motives enter architecture. But textile decoration +pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve +ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the +rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. Textile art in mats, +covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors +and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred +to the stone and plaster. The wall of an ancient Pueblo estufa, or +ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture, +antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in Egyptian art, +is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the +pottery, from a textile source. The doorway or rather entrance to the +rude hovel of a Navajo Indian is closed by a blanket of native make, +unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high +order. + +[Illustration: FIG. 357. Portion of a tapa stamp, showing its +subtextile character. A palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the +patterns are sewed in or stitched on.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 358. Design in stucco, exhibiting textile +characters.] + +The ancient "hall of the arabesques" at Chimu, Peru, is decorated in +elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art +(Fig. 358), and other equally striking examples are to be found in +other American countries. The classic surface decorations known and +used in Oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in +indigenous American architecture at a stage of culture lower than any +known stage of classic art. + +It may appear that I have advocated too strongly the claims of the +textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the +conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but I have +endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the +student may readily reach deductions of his own. A correspondingly +careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally +to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and +tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration. + + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + + +Alaskan Indians, illustration of ornamentation by 199 +Ancon, Peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at 212, 230, + 231, 236, 243, 248 +Apache, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 213, 223 +British Guiana Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 217 +Chimu, Peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at 251, 252 +Clallam Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207 +Color in textile art 201, 202 +Color phenomena in textile ornament 215-232 +Form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations + from Indian work 196-201 +Geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament 202-244 +Holmes, W. H. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the + development of form and ornament 189-252 +Klamath Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 208, 209, 227 +McCloud River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 221 +Moki, illustrations of ornamentation by 197, 205, 224, 225, 226, + 238, 240 +Northwest Coast Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 213, + 218, 227, 230 +Penn wampum belt 233 +Peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by 211, 212, + 214, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 242, 243, 248 +Pima Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 220 +Piute Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 205 +Polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of 249, 250 +Seminole Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207 +Textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament, + paper by W. H. Holmes on 189-252 +Tule River Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 219 +Tusayan ornament, illustrations of 247, 248 +Wiener, cited 242 +Yokut Indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 233, 234 +Zuni, illustrations of ornamentation by 239 + + * * * * * + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study Of The Textile Art In Its +Relation To The Development Of Form And Ornament, by William H. 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