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+Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Science of Human Nature
+       A Psychology for Beginners
+
+Author: William Henry Pyle
+
+Release Date: May 31, 2006 [EBook #18477]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Transcriber's Note                                                 |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Eight printer errors have been corrected, all of them wrong or     |
+  | missing full-stops or commas. Also, in the completion tests which  |
+  | start at line 5972, the words to be omitted, which were italicised |
+  | in the original, have instead been surrounded by curly brackets    |
+  | to aid readability.  In all other cases, italics are denoted by    |
+  | underscores and bold by equals signs.                              |
+  |                                                                    |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+                       Teacher Training Series
+                              EDITED BY
+                            W. W. CHARTERS
+      _Professor of Education, Carnegie Institute of Technology_
+
+
+
+                            THE SCIENCE OF
+
+                             HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+
+                     _A PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS_
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          WILLIAM HENRY PYLE
+
+                 PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+                        UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
+
+
+                      SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY
+                      BOSTON  NEW YORK  CHICAGO
+
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1917,
+
+                    BY SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+This book is written for young students in high schools and normal
+schools. No knowledge can be of more use to a young person than a
+knowledge of himself; no study can be more valuable to him than a study
+of himself. A study of the laws of human behavior,--that is the purpose
+of this book.
+
+What is human nature like? Why do we act as we do? How can we make
+ourselves different? How can we make others different? How can we make
+ourselves more efficient? How can we make our lives more worth while?
+This book is a manual intended to help young people to obtain such
+knowledge of human nature as will enable them to answer these questions.
+
+I have not attempted to write a complete text on psychology. There are
+already many such books, and good ones too. I have selected for
+treatment only such topics as young students can study with interest and
+profit. I have tried to keep in mind all the time the practical worth of
+the matters discussed, and the ability and experience of the intended
+readers.
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER
+
+This book can be only a guide to you. You are to help your students
+study human nature. You must, to some extent, be a psychologist yourself
+before you can teach psychology. You must yourself be a close and
+scientific student of human nature. Develop in the students the spirit
+of inquiry and investigation. Teach them to look to their own minds and
+their neighbor's actions for verification of the statements of the text.
+Let the students solve by observation and experiment the questions and
+problems raised in the text and the exercises. The exercises should
+prove to be the most valuable part of the book. The first two chapters
+are the most difficult but ought to be read before the rest of the book
+is studied. If you think best, merely read these two chapters with the
+pupils, and after the book is finished come back to them for careful
+study.
+
+In the references, I have given parallel readings, for the most part to
+Titchener, Pillsbury, and Münsterberg. I have purposely limited the
+references, partly because a library will not be available to many who
+may use the book, and partly because the young student is likely to be
+confused by much reading from different sources before he has worked out
+some sort of system and a point of view of his own. Only the most
+capable members of a high school class will be able to profit much from
+the references given.
+
+
+TO THE STUDENT
+
+You are beginning the study of human nature. You can not study human
+nature from a book, you must study yourself and your neighbors. This
+book may help you to know what to look for and to understand what you
+find, but it can do little more than this. It is true, this text gives
+you many facts learned by psychologists, but you must verify the
+statements, or at least see their significance to _you_, or they will
+be of no worth to you. However, the facts considered here, properly
+understood and assimilated, ought to prove of great value to you. But
+perhaps of greater value will be the psychological frame of mind or
+attitude which you should acquire. The psychological attitude is that of
+seeking to find and understand the _causes of human action, and the
+causes, consequences, and significance of the processes of the human
+mind_. If your first course in psychology teaches you to look for these
+things, gives you some skill in finding them and in using the knowledge
+after you have it, your study should be quite worth while.
+
+W. H. PYLE.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+There are at least two possible approaches to the study of psychology by
+teacher-training students in high schools and by beginning students in
+normal schools.
+
+One of these is through methods of teaching and subject matter. The
+other aims to give the simple, concrete facts of psychology as the
+science of the mind. The former presupposes a close relationship between
+psychology and methods of teaching and assumes that psychology is
+studied chiefly as an aid to teaching. The latter is less complicated.
+The plan contemplates the teaching of the simple fundamentals at first
+and applying them incidentally as the occasion demands. This latter
+point of view is in the main the point of view taken in the text.
+
+The author has taught the material of the text to high school students
+to the end that he might present the fundamental facts of psychology in
+simple form.
+
+W. W. C.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER    I. INTRODUCTION                                      1
+
+  CHAPTER   II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL    18
+
+  CHAPTER  III. MIND AND BODY                                    34
+
+  CHAPTER   IV. INHERITED TENDENCIES                             50
+
+  CHAPTER    V. FEELING AND ATTENTION                            73
+
+  CHAPTER   VI. HABIT                                            87
+
+  CHAPTER  VII. MEMORY                                          124
+
+  CHAPTER VIII. THINKING                                        152
+
+  CHAPTER   IX. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES                          176
+
+  CHAPTER    X. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY                              210
+
+  GLOSSARY                                                      223
+
+  INDEX                                                         227
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+=Science.= Before attempting to define psychology, it will be helpful to
+make some inquiry into the nature of science in general. Science is
+knowledge; it is what we know. But mere knowledge is not science. For a
+bit of knowledge to become a part of science, its relation to other bits
+of knowledge must be found. In botany, for example, bits of knowledge
+about plants do not make a science of botany. To have a science of
+botany, we must not only know about leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, etc.,
+but we must know the relations of these parts and of all the parts of a
+plant to one another. In other words, in science, we must not only
+_know_, we must not only have _knowledge_, but we must know the
+significance of the knowledge, must know its _meaning_. This is only
+another way of saying that we must have knowledge and know its relation
+to other knowledge.
+
+A scientist is one who has learned to organize his knowledge. The main
+difference between a scientist and one who is not a scientist is that
+the scientist sees the significance of facts, while the non-scientific
+man sees facts as more or less unrelated things. As one comes to hunt
+for causes and inquire into the significance of things, one becomes a
+scientist. A thing or an event always points beyond itself to something
+else. This something else is what goes before it or comes after it,--is
+its cause or its effect. This causal relationship that exists between
+events enables a scientist to prophesy. By carefully determining what
+always precedes a certain event, a certain type of happening, a
+scientist is able to predict the event. All that is necessary to be able
+to predict an event is to have a clear knowledge of its true causes.
+Whenever, beyond any doubt, these causes are found to be present, the
+scientist knows the event will follow. Of course, all that he really
+_knows_ is that such results have always followed similar causes in the
+past. But he has come to have faith in the uniformity and regularity of
+nature. The chemist does not find sulphur, or oxygen, or any other
+element acting one way one day under a certain set of conditions, and
+acting another way the next day under exactly the same conditions. Nor
+does the physicist find the laws of mechanics holding good one day and
+not the next.
+
+The scientist, therefore, in his thinking brings order out of chaos in
+the world. If we do not know the causes and relations of things and
+events, the world seems a very mixed-up, chaotic place, where anything
+and everything is happening. But as we come to know causes and
+relations, the world turns out to be a very orderly and systematic
+place. It is a lawful world; it is not a world of chance. Everything is
+related to everything else.
+
+Now, the non-scientific mind sees things as more or less unrelated. The
+far-reaching causal relations are only imperfectly seen by it, while
+the scientific mind not only sees things, but inquires into their causes
+and effects or consequences. The non-scientific man, walking over the
+top of a mountain and noticing a stone there, is likely to see in it
+only a stone and think nothing of how it came to be there; but the
+scientific man sees quite an interesting bit of history in the stone. He
+reads in the stone that millions of years ago the place where the rock
+now lies was under the sea. Many marine animals left their remains in
+the mud underneath the sea. The mud was afterward converted into rock.
+Later, the shrinking and warping earth-crust lifted the rock far above
+the level of the sea, and it may now be found at the top of the
+mountain. The one bit of rock tells its story to one who inquires into
+its causes. The scientific man, then, sees more significance, more
+meaning, in things and events than does the non-scientific man.
+
+Each science has its own particular field. Zoölogy undertakes to answer
+every reasonable question about animals; botany, about plants; physics,
+about motion and forces; chemistry, about the composition of matter;
+astronomy, about the heavenly bodies, etc. The world has many aspects.
+Each science undertakes to describe and explain some particular aspect.
+To understand all the aspects of the world, we must study all the
+sciences.
+
+=A Scientific Law.= By _law_ a scientist has reference to uniformities
+which he notices in things and events. He does not mean that necessities
+are imposed upon things as civil law is imposed upon man. He means only
+that in certain well-defined situations certain events always take
+place, according to all previous observations. The Law of Falling Bodies
+may be cited as an example. By this law, the physicist means that in
+observing falling bodies in the past, he has noticed that they fall
+about sixteen feet in the first second and acquire in this time a
+velocity of thirty-two feet. He has noted that, taking into account the
+specific gravity of the object and the resistance of the air, this way
+of falling holds true of all objects at about the level of the sea.
+
+The more we carefully study the events of the world, the more strongly
+we come to feel that definite causes, under the same circumstances,
+always produce precisely the same result. The scientist has faith that
+events will continue to happen during all the future in the same order
+of cause and effect in which they have been happening during all the
+past.
+
+The astronomer, knowing the relations of the members of the solar
+system--the sun and planets--can successfully predict the occurrence of
+lunar and solar eclipses. In other fields, too, the scientist can
+predict with as much certainty as does the astronomer, provided his
+knowledge of the factors concerned is as complete as is the knowledge
+which the astronomer has of the solar system. Even in the case of human
+beings, uncertain as their actions seem to be, we can predict their
+actions when our knowledge of the factors is sufficiently complete. In a
+great many instances we do make such predictions. For example, if we
+call a person by name, we expect him to turn, or make some other
+movement in response. Our usual inability to make such predictions in
+the case of human beings is not because human beings are not subject to
+the law of cause and effect, it is not that their acts are due to
+chance, but that the factors involved are usually many, and it is
+difficult for us to find out all of them.
+
+=The Science of Psychology.= Now, let us ask, what is the science of
+psychology? What kind of problems does it try to solve? What aspect of
+the world has it taken for its field of investigation?
+
+We have said that each science undertakes to describe some particular
+aspect of the world. Human psychology is the science of human nature.
+But human nature has many aspects. To some extent, our bodies are the
+subject matter for physiology, anatomy, zoölogy, physics, and chemistry.
+Our bodies may be studied in the same way that a rock or a table might
+be studied. But a human being presents certain problems that a rock or
+table does not present. If we consider the differences between a human
+being and a table, we shall see at once the special field of psychology.
+If we stick a pin into a leg of the table, we get no response. If we
+stick a pin into a leg of a man, we get a characteristic response. The
+man moves, he cries out. This shows two very great differences between a
+man and a table. The man is _sensitive_ and has the power of action, the
+power of _moving himself_. The table is not sensitive, nor can it move
+itself. If the pin is thrust into one's own leg, one has _pain_. Human
+beings, then, are sensitive, conscious, acting beings. And the study of
+sensitivity, action, and consciousness is the field of psychology. These
+three characteristics are not peculiar to man. Many, perhaps all,
+animals possess them. There is, therefore, an animal psychology as well
+as human psychology.
+
+A study of the human body shows us that the body-surface and many parts
+within the body are filled with sensitive nerve-ends. These sensitive
+nerve-ends are the sense organs, and on them the substances and forces
+of the world are constantly acting. In the sense organs, the nerve-ends
+are so modified or changed as to be affected by some particular kind of
+force or substance. Vibrations of ether affect the eye. Vibrations of
+air affect the ear. Liquids and solutions affect the sense of taste.
+Certain substances affect the sense of smell. Certain organs in the skin
+are affected by low temperatures; others, by high temperatures; others,
+by mechanical pressure. Similarly, each sense organ in the body is
+affected by a definite kind of force or substance.
+
+This affecting of a sense organ is known technically as _stimulation_,
+and that which affects the organ is known as the _stimulus_.
+
+Two important consequences ordinarily follow the stimulation of a sense
+organ. One of these is movement. The purpose of stimulation is to bring
+about movement. To be alive is to respond to stimulation. When one
+ceases to respond to stimulation, he is dead. If we are to continue
+alive, we must constantly adjust ourselves to the forces of the world in
+which we live. Generally speaking, we may say that every nerve has one
+end in a sense organ and the other in a muscle. This arrangement of the
+nerves and muscles shows that man is essentially a sensitive-action
+machine. The problems connected with sensitivity and action and the
+relation of each to the other constitute a large part of the field of
+psychology.
+
+We said just now, that a nerve begins in a sense organ and ends in a
+muscle. This statement represents the general scheme well enough, but
+leaves out an important detail. The nerve does not extend directly to a
+muscle, but ordinarily goes by way of the brain. The brain is merely a
+great group of nerve cells and fibers which have developed as a central
+organ where a stimulation may pass from almost any sense organ to
+almost any muscle.
+
+But another importance attaches to the brain. When a sense organ is
+stimulated and this stimulation passes on to the brain and agitates a
+cell or group of cells there, _we are conscious_. Consciousness shifts
+and changes with every shift and change of the stimulation.
+
+The brain has still another important characteristic. After it has been
+stimulated through sense organ and nerve, a similar brain activity can
+be revived later, and this revival is the basis of _memory_. When the
+brain is agitated through the medium of a sense organ, we have
+_sensation_; when this agitation is revived later, we have a _memory
+idea_. A study of consciousness, or mind, the conditions under which it
+arises, and all the other problems involved, give us the other part of
+the field of psychology.
+
+We are not merely acting beings; we are _conscious_ acting beings.
+Psychology must study human nature from both points of view. We must
+study man not only from the outside; that is, objectively, in the same
+way that we study a stone or a tree or a frog, but we must study him
+from the inside or subjectively. It is of importance to know not only
+how a man _acts_, but also how he _thinks and feels_.
+
+It must be clear now, that human action, human behavior, is the main
+field of psychology. For, even though our main interests in people were
+in their minds, we could learn of the minds only through the actions.
+But our interests in other human beings are not in their minds but in
+_what they do_. It is true that our interest in ourselves is in our
+minds, and we can know these minds directly; but we cannot know
+directly the mind of another person, we can only guess what it is from
+the person's actions.
+
+=The Problems of Psychology.= Let us now see, in some detail, what the
+various problems of psychology are. If we are to understand human
+nature, we must know something of man's past; we must therefore treat of
+the origin and development of the human race. The relation of one
+generation to that preceding and to the one following makes necessary a
+study of heredity. We must find out how our thoughts, feelings,
+sensations, and ideas are dependent upon a physical body and its organs.
+A study of human actions shows that some actions are unlearned while
+others are learned or acquired. The unlearned acts are known as
+_instincts_ and the acquired acts are known as _habits_. Our psychology
+must, therefore, treat of instincts and habits.
+
+How man gets experience, and retains and organizes this experience must
+be our problem in the chapters on sensations, ideas, memory, and
+thinking. Individual differences in human capacity make necessary a
+treatment of the different types and grades of intelligence, and the
+compilation of tests for determining these differences. We must also
+treat of the application of psychology to those fields where a knowledge
+of human nature is necessary.
+
+=Applied Psychology.= At the beginning of a subject it is legitimate to
+inquire concerning the possibility of applying the principles studied to
+practical uses, and it is very proper to make this inquiry concerning
+psychology. Psychology, being the science of human nature, ought to be
+of use in all fields where one needs to know the causes of human action.
+And psychology is applicable in these fields to the extent that the
+psychologist is able to work out the laws and principles of human
+action.
+
+In education, for example, we wish to influence children, and we must go
+to psychology to learn about the nature of children and to find out how
+we can influence them. Psychology is therefore the basis of the science
+of education.
+
+Since different kinds of work demand, in some cases, different kinds of
+ability, the psychology of individual differences can be of service in
+selecting people for special kinds of work. That is to say, we must have
+sometime, if we do not now, a psychology of professions and vocations.
+Psychological investigations of the reliability of human evidence make
+the science of service in the court room. The study of the laws of
+attention and interest give us the psychology of advertising. The study
+of suggestion and abnormal states make psychology of use in medicine. It
+may be said, therefore, that psychology, once abstract and unrelated to
+any practical interests, will become the most useful of all sciences, as
+it works out its problems and finds the laws of human behavior.
+
+At present, the greatest service of psychology is to education. So true
+is this that a department has grown up called "educational psychology,"
+which constitutes at the present time the most important subdivision of
+psychology. While in this book we treat briefly of the various
+applications of psychology, we shall have in mind chiefly its
+application to education.
+
+=The Science of Education.= Owing to the importance which psychology has
+in the science of education, it will be well for us to make some inquiry
+into the nature of education. If the growth, development, and learning
+of children are all controlled and determined by definite causal
+factors, then a systematic statement of all these factors would
+constitute the science of education. In order to see clearly whether
+there is such a science, or whether there can be, let us inquire more
+definitely as to the kind of problems a science of education would be
+expected to solve.
+
+There are four main questions which the science of education must solve:
+(1) What is the aim of education? (2) What is the nature of education?
+(3) What is the nature of the child? (4) What are the most economical
+methods of changing the child from what it is into what it ought to be?
+
+The first question is a sociological question, and it is not difficult
+to find the answer. We have but to inquire what the people wish their
+children to become. There is a pretty general agreement, at least in the
+same community, that children should be trained in a way that will make
+them socially efficient. Parents generally wish their children to become
+honest, truthful, sympathetic, and industrious. It should be the aim of
+education to accomplish this social ideal. It should be the aim of the
+home and the school to subject children to such influences as will
+enable them to make a living when grown and to do their proper share of
+work for the community and state, working always for better things, and
+having a sympathetic attitude toward neighbors. Education should also do
+what it can to make people able to enjoy the world and life to the
+fullest and highest extent. Some such aim of education as this is held
+by all our people.
+
+The second question is also answered. Psychological analysis reveals the
+fact that education is a process of becoming adjusted to the world. It
+is the process of acquiring the habits, knowledge, and ideals suited to
+the life we are to live. The child in being educated learns what the
+world is and how to act in it--how to act in all the various situations
+of life.
+
+The third question--concerning the nature of the child--cannot be so
+briefly answered. In fact, it cannot be fully answered at the present
+time. We must know what the child's original nature is. This means that
+we must know the instincts and all the other inherited capacities and
+tendencies. We must know the laws of building up habits and of acquiring
+knowledge, the laws of retention and the laws of attention. These
+problems constitute the subject matter of educational psychology, and at
+present can be only partially solved. We have, however, a very
+respectable body of knowledge in this field, though it is by no means
+complete.
+
+The answer to the fourth question is in part dependent upon the progress
+in answering the third. Economical methods of training children must be
+dependent upon the nature of children. But in actual practice, we are
+trying to find out the best procedure of doing each single thing in
+school work; we are trying to find out by experimentation. The proper
+way to teach children to read, to spell, to write, etc., must be
+determined in each case by independent investigation, until our
+knowledge of the child becomes sufficient for us to infer from general
+laws of procedure what the procedure in a particular case should be. We
+venture to infer what ought to be done in some cases, but generally we
+feel insecure till we have proved our inference correct by trying out
+different methods and measuring the results.
+
+Education will not be fully scientific till we have definite knowledge
+to guide us at every step. What should we teach? When should we teach
+it? How should we teach it? How poorly we answer these questions at the
+present time! How inefficient and uneconomical our schools, because we
+cannot fully answer them! But they are answerable. We can answer them in
+part now, and we know how to find out the answer in full. It is just a
+matter of patient and extensive investigation. We must say, then, that
+we have only the beginnings of a science of education. The problems
+which a science of education must solve are almost wholly psychological
+problems. They could not be solved till we had a science of psychology.
+Experimental psychology is but a half-century old; educational
+psychology, less than a quarter-century old. In the field of education,
+the science of psychology may expect to make its most important
+practical contribution. Let us, then, consider very briefly the problems
+of educational psychology.
+
+=Educational Psychology.= Educational psychology is that division of
+psychology which undertakes to discover those aspects of human nature
+most closely related to education. These are (1) the original nature of
+the child--what it is and how it can be modified; (2) the problem of
+acquiring and organizing experience--habit-formation, memory, thinking,
+and the various factors related to these processes. There are many
+subordinate problems, such as the problem of individual differences and
+their bearing on the education of subnormal and supernormal children.
+Educational psychology is not, then, merely the application of
+psychology to education. It is a distinct science in itself, and its aim
+is the solving of those educational problems which for their solution
+depend upon a knowledge of the nature of the child.
+
+=The Method of Psychology.= We have enumerated the various problems of
+psychology, now how are they solved? The method of psychology is the
+same as that of all other sciences; namely, the method of observation
+and experiment. We learn human nature by observing how human beings act
+in all the various circumstances of life. We learn about the human mind
+by observing our own mind. We learn that we _see_ under certain
+objective conditions, _hear_ under certain objective conditions,
+_taste_, _smell_, _feel cold_ and _warm_ under certain objective
+conditions. In the case of ourselves, we can know both our _actions_ and
+our _mind_. In the case of others, we can know only their _actions_, and
+must infer their mental states from our own in similar circumstances.
+With certain restrictions and precautions this inference is legitimate.
+
+We said the method of psychology is that of observation and experiment.
+The experiment is observation still, but observation subjected to exact
+methodical procedure. In a psychological experiment we set out to
+provide the necessary conditions, eliminating some and supplying others
+according to our object. The experiment has certain advantages. It
+enables us to isolate the phenomena to be studied, it enables us to vary
+the circumstances and conditions to suit our purposes, it enables us to
+repeat the observation as often as we like, and it enables us to measure
+exactly the factors of the phenomena studied.
+
+=A Psychological Experiment.= Let us illustrate psychological method by a
+typical experiment. Suppose we wish to measure the individual
+differences among the members of a class with respect to a certain
+ability; namely, the muscular speed of the right hand. Psychological
+laboratories have delicate apparatus for making such a study. But let
+us see how we can do it, roughly at least, without any apparatus. Let
+each member of the class take a sheet of paper and a pencil, and make as
+many strokes as possible in a half-minute, as shown in Figure I. The
+instructor can keep the time with a stop watch, or less accurately with
+the second hand of an ordinary watch. Before beginning the experiment,
+the instructor should have each student taking the test try it for a
+second or two. This is to make sure that all understand what they are to
+do. When the instructor is sure that all understand, he should have the
+students hold their pencils in readiness above the paper, and at the
+signal, "Begin," all should start at the same time and make as many
+marks as possible in the half-minute. The strokes can then be counted
+and the individual scores recorded. The experiment should be repeated
+several times, say six or eight, and the average score for each
+individual recorded.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE I.--STROKES MADE IN THIRTY SECONDS
+A test of muscular speed]
+
+Whether the result in such a performance as this varies from day to day,
+and is accidental, or whether it is constant and fundamental, can be
+determined by repeating the experiment from day to day. This repetition
+will also show whether improvement comes from practice.
+
+If it is decided to repeat the experiment in order to study these
+factors, constancy and the effects of practice, some method of studying
+and interpreting the results must be found. Elaborate methods of doing
+this are known to psychologists, but the beginner must use a simpler
+method. When the experiment is performed for the first time, the
+students can be ranked with reference to their abilities, the fastest
+one being called "first," the second highest, "second," and so on down
+to the slowest performer. Then after the experiment has been performed
+the second time, the students can be again ranked.
+
+A rough comparison can then be made as follows: Determine how many who
+were in the best half in the first experiment are among the best half in
+the second experiment. If most who were among the best half the first
+time are among the best half in the second experiment, constancy in this
+performance is indicated. Or we might determine how many change their
+ranks and how much they change. Suppose there are thirty in the class
+and only four improve their ranks and these to the extent of only two
+places each. This would indicate a high degree of constancy. Two
+different performances can be compared as above described. The abilities
+on successive days can be determined by taking the average rank of the
+first day and comparing it with the average rank of the second day.
+
+If the effects of practice are to be studied, the experiments must be
+kept up for many days, and each student's work on the first day compared
+with his work on succeeding days. Then a graph can be plotted to show
+the improvement from day to day. The average daily speed of the class
+can be taken and a graph made to show the improvement of the class as a
+whole. This might be plotted in black ink, then each individual student
+could put on his improvement in red ink, for comparison. A group of
+thirty may be considered as furnishing a fair average or norm in this
+kind of performance.
+
+In connection with this simple performance, making marks as fast as
+possible, it is evident that many problems arise. It would take several
+months to solve anything like all of them. It might be interesting, for
+example, to determine whether one's speed in writing is related to this
+simple speed in marking. Each member of the class might submit a plan
+for making such a study.
+
+The foregoing simple study illustrates the procedure of psychology in
+all experimentation. A psychological experiment is an attempt to find
+out the truth in regard to some aspect of human nature. In finding out
+this truth, we must throw about the experiment all possible safeguards.
+Every source of error must be discovered and eliminated. In the above
+experiment, for example, the work must be done at the same time of day,
+or else we must prove that doing it at different times of day makes no
+difference. Nothing must be taken for granted, and nothing must be
+assumed. Psychology, then, is like all the other sciences, in that its
+method of getting its facts is by observation and experiment.
+
+  SUMMARY. Science is systematic, related knowledge. Each science has
+  a particular field which it attempts to explore and describe. The
+  field of psychology is the study of sensitivity, action, and
+  consciousness, or briefly, human behavior. Its main problems are
+  development, heredity, instincts, habits, sensation, memory,
+  thinking, and individual differences. Its method is observation and
+  experiment, the same as in all other sciences.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make out a list of things about human nature which you would like to
+know. Paste your list in the front of this book, and as you find your
+questions answered in this book, or in other books which you may read,
+check them off. At the end of the course, note how many remain
+unanswered. Find out whether those not answered can be answered at the
+present time.
+
+2. Does everything you do have a cause? What kind of cause?
+
+3. Human nature is shown in human action. Human action consists in
+muscular contraction. What makes a muscle contract?
+
+4. Plan an experiment the object of which shall be to learn something
+about yourself.
+
+5. Enumerate the professions and occupations in which a knowledge of
+some aspect of human nature would be valuable. State in what way it
+would be valuable.
+
+6. Make a list of facts concerning a child, which a teacher ought to
+know.
+
+7. Make a complete outline of Chapter I.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters I, II, and V.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL
+
+
+=Racial Development.= The purpose of this chapter is to make some inquiry
+concerning the origin of the race and of the individual. In doing this,
+it is necessary for us first of all to fix in our minds the idea of
+causality. According to the view of all modern science, everything has a
+cause. Nothing is uncaused. One event is the result of other previous
+events, and is in turn the cause of other events that follow. Yesterday
+flowed into to-day, and to-day flows into to-morrow. The world as it
+exists to-day is the result of the world as it existed yesterday. This
+is true not only of the inorganic world--the world of physics and
+chemistry--but it is true of living things as well. The animals and
+plants that exist to-day are the descendants of others that lived
+before. There is probably an unbroken line of descent from the first
+life that existed on the earth to the living forms of to-day.
+
+Not only does the law of causality hold true in the case of our bodies,
+but of our minds as well. Our minds have doubtless developed from
+simpler minds just as our bodies have developed from simpler bodies.
+That different grades and types of minds are to be found among the
+various classes of animals now upon the earth, no one can doubt, for the
+different forms certainly show different degrees of mentality.
+According to the evidence of those scientists who have studied the
+remains of animals found in the earth's crust, there is a gradual
+development of animal forms shown in successive epochs. In the very
+oldest parts of the earth's crust, the remains of animal life found are
+very simple. In later formations, the remains show an animal life more
+complex. The highest forms of animals, the mammals, are found only in
+the more recent formations. The remains of man are found only in the
+latest formations.
+
+Putting these two facts together--(1) that the higher types of mind are
+found to-day only in the higher types of animals, and (2) that a gradual
+development of animal forms is shown by the remains in the earth's
+crust--the conclusion is forced upon us that mind has passed through
+many stages of development from the appearance of life upon the earth to
+the present time. Among the lower forms of animals to-day one sees
+evidence of very simple minds. In amoebas, worms, insects, and fishes,
+mind is very simple. In birds, it is higher. In mammals, it is higher
+still. Among the highest mammals below man, we see manifestations of
+mind somewhat like our own. These grades of mentality shown in the
+animals of to-day represent the steps in the development of mind in the
+animals of the past.
+
+We cannot here go into the proof of the doctrine of development. For
+this proof, the reader must be referred to zoölogy. One further point,
+however, may be noted. If it is difficult for the reader to conceive of
+the development of mind on the earth similar to the development of
+animals in the past, let him think of the development of mind in the
+individual. There can certainly be no doubt of the development of mind
+in an individual human being. The infant, when born, shows little
+manifestation of mentality; but as its body grows, its mind develops,
+becoming more and more complex as the individual grows to maturity.
+
+=The World as Dynamic.= The view of the world outlined above, and held by
+all scientific men of the present time, may be termed the _dynamic_
+view. Man formerly looked upon the world as static, a world where
+everything was fixed and final. Each thing existed in itself and for
+itself, and in large measure independent of all other things. We now
+look upon things and events as related and dependent. Each thing is
+dependent upon others, related to others.
+
+Man not only _lives in_ such a world, but is _part of_ such a world. In
+this world of constant and ceaseless change, man is most sensitive and
+responsive. Everything may affect him. To all of the constant changes
+about him he must adjust himself. He has been produced by this world,
+and to live in it he must meet its every condition and change. We must,
+then, look upon human nature as something coming out of the past and as
+being influenced every moment by the things and forces of the present.
+Man is not an independent being, unaffected by everything that happens;
+on the contrary, he is affected by all influences that act upon him.
+Among these influences may be mentioned weather, climate, food, and
+social forces.
+
+The condition of the various organs of a child's body determine, to some
+extent, the effect which these various forces have upon it. If a child's
+eyes are in any way defective, making vision poor, this tremendously
+influences his life. Not only is such a child unable to see the world as
+it really is, but the eyestrain resulting from poor vision has serious
+effects on the child, producing all sorts of disorders. If a child
+cannot hear well or is entirely deaf, many serious consequences follow.
+In fact, every condition or characteristic of a child that is in any way
+abnormal may lead on to other conditions and characteristics, often of a
+serious nature. The growth of adenoids, for example, may lead to a
+serious impairment of the mind. Poor vision may affect the whole life
+and character of the individual. The influence of a parent, teacher, or
+friend may determine the interest of a child and affect his whole life.
+The correct view of child life is that the child is affected, in greater
+or less degree, by every influence which acts upon him.
+
+=Significance of Development and Causality.= What are the consequences of
+the view just set forth? What is the significance of the facts that have
+been enumerated? It is of great consequence to our thinking when we come
+to recognize fully the idea of causality. We then fully accept the fact
+that man's body and mind are part of a causal and orderly world.
+
+Let us consider, for example, the movement of a muscle. Every such
+movement must be caused. The physiologist has discovered what this cause
+is. Ordinarily and normally, a muscle contracts only when stimulated by
+a nerve current. Tiny nerve fibrils penetrate every muscle, ending in
+the muscle fibers. The nerve-impulse passing into the fibers of the
+muscles causes them to contract. The nerve stimulus itself has a cause;
+it ordinarily arises directly or indirectly from the stimulation of a
+sense organ. And the sense organs are stimulated by outside influences,
+as was explained previously.
+
+Not only are our movements caused, but our sensations, our ideas, and
+our feelings follow upon or are dependent upon some definite bodily
+state or condition. The moment that we recognize this we see that our
+sensations, ideas, and feelings are subject to control. It is only
+because our minds are in a world of causality, and subject to its laws,
+that education is possible. We can bring causes to bear upon a child and
+change the child. It is possible to build up ideas, ideals, and habits.
+And ideas, ideals, and habits constitute the man. Training is possible
+only because a child is a being that can be influenced. What any child
+will be when grown depends upon what kind of child it was at the
+beginning and upon the influences that affect it during its early life
+while it is growing into maturity. We need have no doubt about the
+outcome of any particular child if we know, with some degree of
+completeness, the two sets of factors that determine his life--his
+inheritance and the forces that affect this inheritance. We can predict
+the future of a child to the extent that we know and understand the
+forces that will be effective in his life.
+
+The notion of causality puts new meaning into our view of the _training_
+of a child. The doctrine of development puts new meaning into our notion
+of the _nature_ of a child. We can understand man only when we view him
+genetically, that is, in the light of his origin. We can understand a
+child only in the light of what his ancestors have been.
+
+As these lines are being written, the greatest, the bloodiest war of
+history is in progress. Men are killing men by thousands and hundreds of
+thousands. How can we explain such actions? Observation of children
+shows that they are selfish, envious, and quarrelsome. They will fight
+and steal until they are taught not to do such things. How can we
+understand this? There is no way of understanding such actions until we
+come to see that the children and men of to-day are such as they are
+because of their ancestors. It has been only a few generations,
+relatively speaking, since our ancestors were naked savages, killing
+their enemies and eating their enemies' bodies. The civilized life of
+our ancestors covers a period of only a few hundred years. The
+pre-civilized life of our ancestors goes back probably thousands and
+thousands of years. In the relatively short period of civilization, our
+real, original nature has been little changed, perhaps none at all. The
+modern man is, at heart, the same old man of the woods.
+
+The improvements of civilization form what is called a social heritage,
+which must be impressed upon the original nature of each individual in
+order to have any effect. Every child has to learn to speak, to write,
+to dress, to eat with knife and fork; he must learn the various social
+customs, and to act morally as older people dictate. The child is by
+nature bad, in the sense that the nature which he inherits from the past
+fits him better for the original kind of life which man used to live
+than it does for the kind of life which we are trying to live now. This
+view makes us see that training a child is, in a very true sense,
+_making him over again_. The child must be trained to subdue and control
+his original impulses. Habits and ideals that will be suitable for life
+in civilized society _must be built up_. The doctrine of the Bible in
+regard to the original nature of man being sinful, and the necessity of
+regeneration, is fundamentally correct. But this regeneration is not so
+much a sudden process as it is the result of long and patient
+building-up of habits and ideals.
+
+One should not despair of this view of child-life. Neither should one
+use it as an excuse for being bad, or for neglecting the training of
+children. On the contrary, taking the genetic view of childhood should
+give us certain advantages. It makes us see more clearly the _necessity_
+of training. Every child must be trained, or he will remain very much a
+savage. In the absence of training, all children are much alike, and all
+alike bad from our present point of view. The chief differences in
+children in politeness and manners generally, in morals, in industry,
+etc., are due, in the main, to differences in training. It is a great
+help merely to know how difficult the task of training is, and that
+training there must be if we are to have a civilized child. We must take
+thought and plan for the education and training of our children. The
+task of education is in part one of changing human nature. This is no
+light task. It is one that requires, in the case of each child, some
+twenty years of hard, patient, persistent work.
+
+=Individual Development.= Heredity is a corollary of evolution. Individual
+development is intimately related to racial development. Indeed, racial
+development would be impossible without heredity in the individual. The
+individual must carry on and transmit what the race hands down to him.
+This will be evident when we explain what heredity means.
+
+By heredity we mean the likeness between parent and offspring. This
+likeness is a matter of form and structure as well as likeness of action
+or response. Animals and plants are like the parents in form and
+structure, and to a certain extent their responses are alike when the
+individuals are placed in the same situation. A robin is like the parent
+robins in size, shape, and color. It also hops like the parent birds,
+sings as they do, feeds as they do, builds a similar nest, etc. But the
+likeness in action is dependent upon likeness in structure. The young
+robin acts as does the old robin, because the nervous mechanism is the
+same, and therefore a similar stimulus brings about a similar response.
+
+Most of the scientific work in heredity has been done in the study of
+the transmission of physical characteristics. The main facts of heredity
+are evident to everybody, but not many people realize how far-reaching
+is the principle of resemblance between parent and offspring. From
+horses we raise horses. From cows we raise cows. The children of human
+beings are human. Not only is this true, but the offspring of horses are
+of the same stock as the parents. Not only are the colts of the same
+stock as the parents, but they resemble the parents in small details.
+This is also true of human beings. We expect a child to be not only of
+the same race as the parents, but to have family resemblances to the
+parents--the same color of hair, the same shape of head, the same kind
+of nose, the same color of eyes, and to have such resemblances as moles
+in the same places on the skin, etc. A very little investigation reveals
+likenesses between parent and offspring which we may not have expected
+before.
+
+However, if we start out to hunt for facts of heredity, we shall perhaps
+be as much impressed by differences between parent and child as we shall
+by the resemblances. In the first place, every child has two parents,
+and it is often impossible to resemble both. One cannot, for example, be
+both short and tall; one cannot be both fair and dark; one cannot be
+both slender and heavy; one cannot have both brown eyes and blue. In
+some cases, the child resembles one parent and not the other. In other
+cases, the child looks somewhat like both parents but not exactly like
+either. If one parent is white and the other black, the child is
+neither as white as the one parent nor as black as the other.
+
+The parents of a child are themselves different, but there are four
+grandparents, and each of them different from the others. There are
+eight great grandparents, and all of them different. If we go back only
+seven generations, covering a period of perhaps only a hundred and fifty
+years, we have one hundred and twenty-eight ancestors. If we go back ten
+generations, we have over a thousand ancestors in our line of descent.
+Each of these people was, in some measure, different from the others.
+Our inheritance comes from all of them and from each of them.
+
+How do all of these diverse characteristics work out in the child? In
+the first place, it seems evident that we do not inherit our bodies as
+wholes, but in parts or units. We may think of the human race as a whole
+being made up of a great number of unit characters. No one person
+possesses all of them. Every person is lacking in some of them. His
+neighbor may be lacking in quite different ones. Now one parent
+transmits to the child a certain combination of unit characters; the
+other parent, a different combination. These characteristics may not all
+appear in the child, but all are transmitted through it to the next
+generation, and they are transmitted purely. By being transmitted
+purely, we mean that the characteristic does not seem to lose its
+identity and disappear in fusions or mixtures. The essential point in
+this doctrine of heredity is known as Mendelism; it is the principle of
+inheritance through the pure transmission of unit characters.
+
+An illustration will probably make the Mendelian principle clear. Let us
+select our illustration from the plant world. It is found that if white
+and yellow corn are crossed, all the corn the first year, resulting from
+this crossing, will be yellow. Now, if this hybrid yellow corn is
+planted the second year, and freely cross-fertilized, it turns out that
+one fourth of it will be white and three fourths yellow. But this yellow
+consists of three parts: one part being pure yellow which will breed
+true, producing nothing but yellow; the other two parts transmit white
+and yellow in equal ratio. That is to say, these two parts are hybrids,
+the result of crossing white with yellow. It is not meant that one can
+actually distinguish these two kinds of yellow, the pure yellow and the
+hybrid yellow, but the results from planting it show that one third of
+the yellow is pure and that the other two thirds transmit white and
+yellow in equal ratio.
+
+The main point to notice in all this is that when two individuals having
+diverse characteristics are crossed, the characteristics do not fuse and
+disappear ultimately, but that the two characteristics are transmitted
+in equal ratio, and each will appear in succeeding generations, and will
+appear pure, just as if it had not been crossed with something
+different. The first offspring resulting from the cross--known as
+hybrids--may show either one or the other of the diverse
+characteristics, or, when such a thing is possible, even a blending of
+the two characteristics. But whatever the actual appearance of the first
+generation of offspring resulting from crossing parents having diverse
+characteristics, their germ-cells transmit the diverse characteristics
+in equal proportion, as explained above.
+
+When one of the diverse characteristics appears in the first generation
+of offspring and the other does not appear, or is not apparent, the one
+that appears is said to be _dominant_, while the one not appearing is
+said to be _recessive_. In our example of the yellow and white corn,
+yellow is dominant and white recessive. And it must be remembered that
+the white corn that appears in the second generation will breed true
+just as if it had never been crossed with the yellow corn. One third of
+the yellow of the second generation would also breed true if it could be
+separated from the other two thirds.
+
+It is not here claimed that Mendelism is a universal principle, that all
+characteristics are transmitted in this way. However, the results of the
+numerous experiments in heredity lead one to expect this to be the case.
+Most of the experiments have been with lower animals and with plants,
+but recent experiments and statistical studies show that Mendelism is an
+important factor in human heredity, in such characteristics as color of
+hair and eyes and skin, partial color blindness, defects of eye, ear,
+and other important organs.
+
+The studies that have been made of human heredity have been, for the
+most part, studies of the transmission of physical characteristics. Very
+little has been done that bears directly upon the transmission of mental
+characteristics. But our knowledge of the dependence of mind upon body
+should prepare us to infer mental heredity from physical heredity. Such
+studies as throw light on the question bear us out in making such an
+inference.
+
+The studies that have been more directly concerned with mental heredity
+are those dealing with the resemblances of twins, studies of heredity in
+royalty, studies of the inheritance of genius, and studies of the
+transmission of mental defects and defects of sense organs. The results
+of all these studies indicate the inheritance of mental characteristics
+in the same way that physical characteristics are transmitted. Not only
+are human mental characteristics transmitted from parent to offspring,
+but they seem to be transmitted in Mendelian fashion.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, for example, seems to be a Mendelian character and
+recessive. From the studies that have been made, it seems that two
+congenitally feeble-minded parents will have only feeble-minded
+children. Feeble-mindedness acts in heredity as does the white corn in
+the example given above. If one parent only is feeble-minded, the other
+being normal, all of the children will be normal, just as all of the
+corn, in the first generation after the crossing, was yellow. But these
+children whose parents are the one normal and the other feeble-minded,
+while themselves normal, transmit feeble-mindedness in equal ratio with
+normality. It works out as follows: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+person of sound mind and sound stock, the children will all be of sound,
+normal mind. If these children take as husbands and wives men and women
+who had for parents one normal and one feeble-minded person, their
+children will be one fourth feeble-minded and three fourths of them
+normal.
+
+To summarize the various conditions: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+feeble-minded person, all the children will be feeble-minded. If a
+feeble-minded person marry a sound, normal person (pure stock), all the
+children will be normal. If the children, in the last case, marry others
+like themselves as to origin, one fourth of their offspring will be
+feeble-minded. If such hybrid children marry feeble-minded persons, one
+half of the offspring will be feeble-minded. It is rash to prophesy, but
+future studies of heredity may show that Mendelism, or some
+modification of the principle, always holds true of mind as well as of
+body.
+
+Little can be said about the transmission of particular definite mental
+traits, such as the various aspects of memory, association, attention,
+temperament, etc. Before we can speak with any certainty here, we must
+make very careful experimental studies of these mental traits in parents
+and offspring. No such work has been done. All we have at the present
+time is the result of general observation.
+
+=Improvement of the Race.= Eugenics is the science of improvement of the
+human race by breeding. While we can train children and thereby make
+them much better than they would be without such training, this training
+does not improve the stock. The improvement of the stock can be
+accomplished only through breeding from the best and preventing the poor
+stock from leaving offspring. This is a well-known principle in the
+breeding of domestic animals.
+
+It is doubtless just as true in the case of human beings. The hygienic
+and scientific rearing of children is good for the children and makes
+their lives better, but probably does not affect their offspring. We
+should not forget that all the social and educational influences die
+with the generation that receives them. They must be impressed by
+training on the next generation or that generation will receive no
+influence from them. The characters which we acquire in our lifetime
+seem not to be transmitted to our children, except through what is known
+as social heredity, which is merely the taking on of characteristics
+through imitation. Our children must go through all the labor of
+learning to read, write, spell, add, multiply, subtract, and divide,
+which we went through. Moral traits, manners and customs, and other
+habits and ideals of social importance must be acquired by each
+successive generation.
+
+=Heredity _versus_ Environment.= The question is often asked whether
+heredity or the influence of environment has the most to do with the
+final outcome of one's life. It is a rather useless question to ask, for
+what a human being or anything else in the world does depends upon what
+it is itself and what the things and forces are that act upon it.
+Heredity sets a limitation for us, fixes the possibilities. The
+circumstances of life determine what we will do with our inherited
+abilities and characteristics. Hereditary influences incline us to be
+tall or short, fat or lean, light or dark. The characteristics of our
+memory, association, imagination, our learning capacity, etc., are
+determined by heredity. Of course, how far these various aspects develop
+is to some extent dependent upon the favorable or unfavorable influences
+of the environment. What is possible for us to do is settled by
+heredity; what we may actually do, what we may have the opportunity to
+do, is largely a matter of the circumstances of life.
+
+In certain parts of New England, the number of men who become famous in
+art, science, or literature is very great compared to the number in some
+other parts of our country. As far as we have any evidence, the native
+stocks are the same in the two cases, but in New England the influences
+turn men into the direction of science, art, and literature. Everything
+there is favorable. In other parts of the country, the influences turn
+men into other spheres of activity. They become large landowners, men of
+business and affairs.
+
+The question may be asked whether genius makes its way to the front in
+spite of unfavorable circumstances. Sometimes it doubtless does. But
+pugnacity and perseverance are not necessarily connected with
+intellectual genius. Genius may be as likely to be timid as belligerent.
+Therefore unfavorable circumstances may crush many a genius.
+
+The public schools ought to be on the watch for genius in any and all
+kinds of work. When a genius is found, proper training ought to be
+provided to develop this genius for the good of society as well as for
+the good of the individual himself. A few children show ability in
+drawing and painting, others in music, others in mechanical invention,
+some in literary construction. When it is found that this ability is
+undoubtedly a native gift and not a passing whim, special opportunity
+should be provided for its development and training. It will be better
+for the general welfare, as well as for individual happiness, if each
+does in life that for which he is by nature best fitted. For most of us,
+however, there is not much difference in our abilities. We can do one
+thing as well as we can many other things. But in a few there are
+undoubted special native gifts.
+
+  SUMMARY. This is an orderly world, in which everything has a cause.
+  All events are connected in a chain of causes and effects. Human
+  beings live in this world of natural law and are subject to it.
+  Human life is completely within this world of law and order and is a
+  part of it. Education is possible only because we can change human
+  beings by having influences act upon them.
+
+  Individuals receive their original traits from their ancestors,
+  probably as parts or units. Mendelism is the doctrine of the pure
+  transmission of unit characters. Eugenics is the science of
+  improving the human race by selective breeding. An individual's life
+  is the result of the interaction of his hereditary characteristics
+  and his environment.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Try to find rock containing the remains of animals. You can get
+information on such matters from a textbook on geology.
+
+2. Read in a geology about the different geological epochs in the
+history of the earth.
+
+3. Make a comparison of the length of infancy in the lower animals and
+in man. What is the significance of what you find? What advantage does
+it give man?
+
+4. What is natural selection? How does it lead to change in animals?
+Does natural selection still operate among human beings? (See a modern
+textbook on zoölogy.)
+
+5. By observation and from consulting a zoölogy, learn about the
+different classes of animal forms, from low forms to high forms.
+
+6. By studying domestic animals, see what you can learn about heredity.
+Enumerate all the points that you find bearing upon heredity.
+
+7. In a similar way, make a study of heredity in your family. Consider
+such characteristics as height, weight, shape of head, shape of nose,
+hair and eye color. Can you find any evidence of the inheritance of
+mental traits?
+
+8. Make a complete outline of Chapter II.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+DAVENPORT: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_.
+
+KELLICOTT: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MIND AND BODY
+
+
+=Gross Dependence.= The relation of mind to body has always been an
+interesting one to man. This is partly because of the connection of the
+question with that of life after death. An old idea of this relation,
+almost universally held till recently, was that the mind or spirit lived
+in the body but was more or less independent of the body. The body has
+been looked upon as a hindrance to the mind or spirit. Science knows
+nothing about the existence of spirits apart from bodies. The belief
+that after death the mind lives on is a matter of faith and not of
+science. Whether one believes in an existence of the mind after death of
+the body, depends on one's religious faith. There is no scientific
+evidence one way or the other. The only mind that science knows anything
+about is bound up very closely with body. This is not saying that there
+is no existence of spirit apart from body, but that at present such
+existence is beyond the realm of science.
+
+The dependence of mind upon body in a general way is evident to every
+one, upon the most general observation and thought. We know the effect
+on the mind of disease, of good health, of hunger, of fatigue, of
+overwork, of severe bodily injury, of blindness or deafness. We have,
+perhaps, seen some one struck upon the head by a club, or run over by an
+automobile, and have noted the tremendous consequences to the person's
+mind. In such cases it sometimes happens that, as far as we can see,
+there is no longer any mind in connection with that body. The most
+casual observation, then, shows that mind and body are in some way most
+intimately related.
+
+=Finer Dependence.= Let us note this relation more in detail, and, in
+particular, see just which part of the body it is that is connected with
+the mind. First of all, we note the dependence of mind upon sense
+organs. We see only with our eyes. If we close the eyelids, we cannot
+see. If we are born blind, or if injury or disease destroys the retinas
+of the eyes or makes the eyes opaque so that light cannot pass through
+to the retinas, then we cannot see.
+
+Similarly, we hear only by means of the ears. If we are born deaf, or if
+injury destroys some important part of the hearing mechanism, then we
+cannot hear. In like manner, we taste only by means of the taste organs
+in the mouth, and smell only with the organs of smell in the nose. In a
+word, our primary knowledge of the world comes only through the sense
+organs. We shall see presently just how this sensing or perceiving is
+accomplished.
+
+=Dependence of Mind on Nerves and Brain.= We have seen how in a general
+way the mind is dependent on the body. We have seen how in a more
+intimate way it is dependent on the special sense organs. But the part
+of the body to which the mind is most directly and intimately related is
+the nervous system. The sense organs themselves are merely modifications
+of the nerve ends together with certain mechanisms for enabling stimuli
+to act on the nerve ends. The eye is merely the optic nerve spread out
+to form the retina and modified in certain ways to make it sensitive to
+ether vibrations. In addition to this, there is, of course, the focusing
+mechanism of the eye. So for all the sense organs; they are, each of
+them, some sort of modification of nerve-endings which makes them
+sensitive to some particular force or substance.
+
+Let us make the matter clear by an illustration. Suppose I see a picture
+on the wall. My eyes are directed toward the picture. Light from the
+picture is refracted within the eyes, forming an image on each retina.
+The retina is sensitive to the light. The light produces chemical
+changes on the retina. These changes set up an excitation in the optic
+nerves, which is conducted to a certain place in the brain, causing an
+excitation in the brain. Now the important point is that when this
+excitation is going on in the brain, _we are conscious, we see the
+picture_.
+
+As far as science can determine, we do not see, nor hear, nor taste, nor
+smell, nor have any other sensation unless a sense organ is excited and
+produces the excitation in the brain. There can be no doubt about our
+primary, sensory experience. By primary, sensory experience is meant our
+immediate, direct knowledge of any aspect of the world. In this field of
+our conscious life, we are entirely dependent upon sense organs and
+nerves and brain. Injuries to the eyes destroying their power to perform
+their ordinary work, or injuries to the optic nerve or to the visual
+center in the brain, make it impossible for us to see.
+
+These facts are so self-evident that it seems useless to state them. One
+has but to hold his hands before his eyes to convince himself that the
+mind sees by means of eyes, which are physical sense organs. One has but
+to hold his hands tight over his ears to find out that he hears by
+means of ears--again, physical sense organs.
+
+But simple and self-evident as the facts are, their acceptance must have
+tremendous consequences to our thinking, and to our view of human
+nature. If the mind is dependent in every feature on the body with its
+sense organs, this must give to this body and its sense organs an
+importance in our thought and scheme of things that they did not have
+before. This close dependence of mind upon body must give to the body a
+place in our scheme of education that it would not have under any other
+view of the mind. We wish to emphasize here that this statement of the
+close relation of the mind and body is not a theory which one may accept
+or not. It is a simple statement of fact. It is a presupposition of
+psychology. By "presupposition" is meant a fundamental principle which
+the psychologist always has in mind. It is axiomatic, and has the same
+place in psychology that axioms have in mathematics. All explanations of
+the working of the mind must be stated in terms of nerve and brain
+action, and stimulation of sense organs.
+
+Since the sense organs are the primary and fundamental organs through
+which we get experience, and since the sensations are the elementary
+experiences out of which all mental life is built, it is necessary for
+us to have a clear idea of the sense organs, their structure and
+functions, and of the nature of sensations.
+
+=Vision.= _The Visual Sense Organs._ The details of the anatomy of the eye
+can be looked up in a physiological textbook. The essential principles
+are very simple. The eye is made on the principle of a photographer's
+camera. The retina corresponds to the sensitive plate of the camera. The
+light coming from objects toward which the eyes are directed is focused
+on the retina, forming there an image of the object. The light thus
+focused on the retina sets up a chemical change in the delicate nerve
+tissue; this excitation is transmitted through the optic nerve to the
+occipital (back) part of the brain, and sets up brain action there. Then
+we have visual sensation; we see the object.
+
+The different colors that we see are dependent upon the vibration
+frequency of the ether. The higher frequencies give us the colors blue
+and green, and the lower frequencies give us the colors yellow and red.
+The intermediate frequencies give us the intermediate colors blue-green
+and orange. By vibration frequencies is meant the rate at which the
+ether vibrates, the number of vibrations a second. If the reader wishes
+to know something about these frequencies, such information can be found
+in a textbook on physics.
+
+It will be found that the vibration rates of the ether are very great.
+It is only within a certain range of vibration frequency that sunlight
+affects the retina. Slower rates of vibration than that producing red do
+not affect the eye, and faster than that producing violet do not affect
+the eye. The lightness and darkness of a color are dependent upon the
+intensity of the vibration. Red, for example, is produced by a certain
+vibration frequency. The more intense the vibration, the brighter the
+red; the less intense, the darker the red.
+
+When all the vibration frequencies affect the eyes at the same time, we
+see no color at all but only brightness. This is due to the fact that
+certain vibration frequencies neutralize each other in their effect on
+the retina, so far as producing color is concerned. Red neutralizes
+green, blue neutralizes yellow, violet neutralizes yellowish green,
+orange neutralizes bluish green.
+
+All variations in vision as far as color and brightness are concerned
+are due to variations in the stimulus. Changes in vibration frequency
+give the different colors. Changes in intensity give the different
+brightnesses: black, gray, and white. All explanations of the many
+interesting phenomena of vision are to be sought in the physiological
+action of the eye.
+
+Besides the facts of color and light and shade, already mentioned, some
+further interesting visual phenomena may be mentioned here.
+
+_Visual Contrast._ Every color makes objects near it take on the
+antagonistic or complementary color. Red makes objects near appear
+green, green makes them appear red. Blue makes near objects appear
+yellow, while yellow makes them appear blue. Orange induces greenish
+blue, and greenish blue induces orange. Violet induces yellowish green,
+and yellowish green induces violet. These color-pairs are known as
+antagonistic or complementary colors. Each one of a pair enhances the
+effect of its complementary when the two colors are brought close
+together. In a similar way, light and dark tints act as complementaries.
+Light objects make dark objects near appear darker, and dark objects
+make light objects near seem lighter.
+
+These universal principles of contrast are of much practical
+significance. They must be taken account of in all arrangements of
+colors and tints, for example, in dress, in the arrangement of flowers
+and shrubs, in painting.
+
+_Color-Mixture._ If, on a rotating motor, disks of different colors--say
+red and yellow--are placed and rotated, one sees on looking at them not
+red or yellow but orange. This phenomenon is known as _color-mixture_.
+The result is due to the simultaneous stimulation of the retina by two
+kinds of ether vibration. If the colors used are a certain red and a
+certain green, they neutralize each other and produce only gray. All the
+pairs of complementary colors mentioned above act in the same way,
+producing, if mixed in the right proportion, no color, but gray. If
+colored disks not complementary are mixed by rotation on a motor, they
+produce an intermediate color. Red and yellow give orange. Blue and
+green give bluish green. Yellow and green give yellowish green. Red and
+blue give violet or purple, depending on the proportion. Mixing pigments
+gives, in general, the same results as mixing by means of rotating the
+disks. The ordinary blue and yellow pigments give green when mixed,
+because each of the two pigments contains green. The blue and yellow
+neutralize each other, leaving green.
+
+_Visual After-Images._ The stimulation of the retina has interesting
+after effects. We shall mention here only the one known as _negative
+after-images_. If one will place on the table a sheet of white paper,
+and on this white paper lay a small piece of colored paper, and if he
+will then gaze steadily at the colored paper for a half-minute, it will
+be found that if the colored paper is removed one sees its complementary
+color. If the head is not moved, this complementary color has the same
+size and shape as the original colored piece of paper. The negative
+after-image can be projected on a background at different distances, its
+size depending on the distance of the background. The after-image will
+be found to mix with an objective color in accordance with the
+principles of color-mixture mentioned above.
+
+After-image phenomena have some practical consequences. If one has been
+looking at a certain color for some time, a half-minute or more, then
+looks at some other color, the after-image of the first color mixes with
+the second color.
+
+_Adaptation._ The fact last mentioned leads us to the subject of
+adaptation. If the eyes are stimulated by the same kind of light for
+some time, the eyes become adapted to that light. If the light is
+yellow, at first objects seem yellow, but after a time they look as if
+they were illuminated with white light, losing the yellow aspect. But if
+one then goes out into white light, everything looks bluish. The
+negative after-image of the yellow being cast upon everything makes the
+surroundings look blue, for the after-image of yellow is blue. All the
+other colors act in a similar way, as do also black and white. If one
+has been for some time in a dark room and then goes out to a lighter
+place, it seems unusually light. And if one goes from the light to a
+dark room, it seems unusually dark.
+
+=Hearing or Audition.= Just as the eye is an organ sensitive to certain
+frequencies of ether vibration, so the ear is an organ sensitive to
+certain air vibrations. The reader should familiarize himself with the
+physiology of the ear by reference to physiologies. The drum-skin, the
+three little bones of the middle ear, and the cochlea of the inner ear
+are all merely mechanical means of making possible the stimulation of
+the specialized endings of the auditory nerve by vibrations of air.
+
+As the different colors are due to different vibration frequencies of
+the ether, so different pitches of sound are due to differences in the
+rates of the air vibrations. The low bass notes are produced by the low
+vibration frequencies. The high notes are produced by the high
+vibration frequencies. The lowest notes that we can hear are produced by
+about twenty vibrations a second, and the highest by about forty
+thousand vibrations a second.
+
+=Other Sense Organs.= We need not give a detailed statement of the facts
+concerning the other senses. In each case the sense organ is some
+special adaptation of the nerve-endings with appropriate apparatus in
+connection to enable it to be affected by some special thing or force in
+the environment.
+
+In the case of taste, we find in the mouth, chiefly on the back and
+edges of the tongue, organs sensitive to sweet, sour, salt, and bitter.
+In the nose we have an organ that is sensitive to the tiny particles of
+substances that float in the air which we breathe in through the nose.
+
+In the skin we find several kinds of sense organs that give us the
+sensations of cold and warmth, of pressure and pain. These are all
+special and definite sensations produced by different kinds of organs.
+The sense of warmth is produced by different organs from those which
+produce the sense of cold. These organs can be detected and localized on
+the skin. So, also, pain and touch or pressure have each its particular
+organ.
+
+Within the body itself we have sense organs also, particularly in the
+joints and tendons and in the muscles. These give us the sensations
+which are the basis of our perception of motion, and of the position of
+the body and its members. In the semicircular canals of the inner ear
+are organs that give us the sense of dizziness, and enable us to
+maintain our equilibrium and to know up from down.
+
+The general nature of the sense organs and of sensation should now be
+apparent. The nervous system reaches out its myriad fingers to every
+portion of the surface of the body, and within the body as well. These
+nerve-endings are specially adapted to receive each its particular form
+of stimulation. This stimulation of our sense organs is the basis or
+cause of our sensations. And our sensations are the elementary stuff of
+all our experience. Whatever thoughts we have, whatever ideas or images
+we have, they come originally from our sensations. They are built up out
+of our sensations or from these sensations as they exist in memory.
+
+=Defects of Sense Organs.= The organs of sight and hearing are now by far
+the most important of our sense organs. They enable us to sense things
+that are at a distance. We shall therefore discuss defects of these two
+organs only. Since sensations are the primary stuff out of which mind is
+made, and since sight and hearing are the most important sense organs,
+it is evident that our lives are very much dependent on these organs. If
+they cannot do their work well, then we are handicapped. And this is
+often the case.
+
+The making of the human eye is one of the most remarkable achievements
+of nature. But the making of a perfect eye is too big a task for nature.
+She never makes a perfect eye. There is always some defect, large or
+small. To take plastic material and make lenses and shutters and
+curtains is a great task. The curvature of the front of the eye and of
+the front and back of the crystalline lens is never quite perfect, but
+in the majority of cases it is nearly enough perfect to give us good
+vision. However, in about one third of school children the defect is
+great enough to need to be corrected by glasses.
+
+The principle of the correction of sight by means of glasses is merely
+this:[1] When the focusing apparatus of the eye is not perfect, it can
+be made so by putting in front of the eye the proper kind of lens. There
+is nothing strange or mysterious about it. In some cases, the eye
+focuses the light before it reaches the retina. Such cases are known as
+nearsightedness and are corrected by having placed in front of the eyes
+concave lenses of the proper strength. These lenses diverge the rays and
+make them focus on the retina. In other cases, the eye is not able to
+focus the rays by the time they reach the retina. In these cases, the
+eyes need the help of convex lenses of the proper strength to make the
+focus fall exactly on the retina.
+
+[1] The teacher should explain these principles and illustrate by
+drawings. Consult a good text in physiology. Noyes' University of
+Missouri Extension Bulletin on eye and ear defects will be found most
+useful.
+
+Another defect of the eye, known as astigmatism, is due to the fact that
+the eye does not always have a perfectly spherical front (cornea). The
+curvature in one direction is different from that in others. For
+example, the vertical curvature may be more convex than the horizontal.
+Such a condition produces a serious defect of vision. It can be
+corrected by means of cylindrical lenses of the proper strength so
+placed before the eye as to correct the defect in curvature.
+
+Still another defect of vision is known as presbyopia or farsightedness
+due to old age. It has the following explanation: In early life, when we
+look at near objects, the crystalline lens automatically becomes
+thicker, more convex. This adjustment brings the rays to a focus on the
+retina, which is required for good vision. As we get old, the
+crystalline lens loses its power to change its adjustment for near
+objects, although the eye may see at a distance as well as ever. The
+old person, therefore, must wear convex glasses when looking at near
+objects, as in reading and sewing.
+
+Another visual defect of a different nature is known as partial color
+blindness. The defects described above are due to misshapen eyes.
+Partial color blindness is due to a defect of the retina which makes it
+unable to be affected by light waves producing red and green. A person
+with this defect confuses red and green. While only a small percentage
+of the population has this defect, it is nevertheless very important
+that those having it be detected. People having the defect should not be
+allowed to enter occupations in which the seeing of red and green is
+important. It was recently brought to the author's attention that a
+partially color-blind man was selling stamps in a post office. Since two
+denominations of stamps are distinguished by red and green colors, this
+man made frequent mistakes. He was doing one of the things for which he
+was specially unfitted. It is easy to detect color blindness by simple
+tests.
+
+So great is the importance of good vision in school work and the later
+work of life, that every teacher should know how to make simple tests to
+determine visual defects. Children showing any symptoms of eyestrain
+should be required to have their visual defects corrected by a competent
+oculist, and should be warned not to have the correction made by a
+quack. There is great popular ignorance and even prejudice concerning
+visual defects, and it is very important that teachers have a clear
+understanding of the facts.
+
+=Defects of Hearing.= Hearing defects are only about half as frequent as
+those of sight. They are nearly all due to catarrhal infection of the
+middle ear through the Eustachian tube. The careful and frequent
+medical examination of school children cannot, therefore, be too
+strongly emphasized. The deafness or partial deafness that comes from
+this catarrhal infection can seldom be cured; it must be prevented by
+the early treatment of the troubles which cause it.
+
+  SUMMARY. The mind is closely related to the body. Especially is it
+  dependent upon the brain, nerves, and sense organs. The sense organs
+  are special adaptations of the nerve-ends for receiving impressions.
+  Each sense organ receives only its particular type of impression.
+
+  The main visual phenomena are those of color-mixture, after-images,
+  adaptation, and contrast. Since sensation is the basis of mental
+  life, defects of the sense organs are serious handicaps and should
+  be corrected if possible. Visual defects are usually due to a
+  misshapen eyeball and can be corrected by proper glasses, which
+  should be fitted by an oculist. Hearing defects usually arise from
+  catarrhal trouble in the middle ear.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a study of the relation of the mind to the body. Enumerate the
+different lines of evidence which you may find indicating their close
+relationship.
+
+2. Can you find any evidence tending to show that the mind is
+independent of the body?
+
+3. _Color-Mixture._ Colored disks can be procured from C. H. Stoelting
+Company, Chicago. If a small motor is available, the disks can be
+rotated on the motor and the colors mixed. Mix pairs of complementary
+colors, also pairs of non-complementary colors, and note the result. A
+simple device can be made for mixing colors, as follows: On a board
+stand a pane of glass. On one side of the glass put a colored paper and
+on the other side of the glass put a different color. By looking through
+the glass you can see one color through transmitted light and the other
+color through reflected light. By inclining the glass at different
+angles you can get different proportions of the mixture, now more of one
+color, now more of the other.
+
+4. _Negative After-Images._ Cut out pieces of colored paper a half inch
+square. Put one of these on a white background on the table. With elbows
+on the table, hold the head in the hands and gaze at the colored paper
+for about a half-minute, then blow the paper away and continue to gaze
+at the white background. Note the color that appears. Use different
+colors and tabulate the results. Try projecting the after-images at
+different distances. Project the after-images on different colored
+papers. Do the after-images mix with the colors of the papers?
+
+5. An interesting experiment with positive after-images can be performed
+as follows: Shut yourself in a dark closet for fifteen or twenty minutes
+to remove all trace of stimulation of the retina. With the eyes covered
+with several folds of thick black cloth go to a window, uncover the eyes
+and take a momentary look at the landscape, immediately covering the
+eyes again. The landscape will appear as a positive after-image, with
+the positive colors and lights and shades. The experiment is best
+performed on a bright day.
+
+6. _Adaptation._ Put on colored glasses or hold before the eyes a large
+piece of colored glass. Note that at first everything takes on the color
+of the glass. What change comes over objects after the glasses have been
+worn for fifteen or twenty minutes? Describe your experience after
+removing the glasses. Plan and perform other experiments showing
+adaptation. For illustration, go from a very bright room into a dark
+room. Go from a very dark room to a light one. Describe your experience.
+
+7. _Contrast._ Take a medium gray paper and lay it on white and various
+shades of gray and black paper. Describe and explain what you find.
+
+8. _Color Contrast._ Darken a room by covering all the windows except
+one window pane. Cover it with cardboard. In the cardboard cut two
+windows six inches long and one inch wide. Over one window put colored
+glass or any other colored material through which some light will pass.
+By holding up a pencil you can cast two shadows on a piece of paper.
+What color are the shadows? One is a contrast color induced by the
+other; which one? Explain the results.
+
+9. Make a study of the way in which women dress. What do you learn about
+color effects?
+
+10. From the Stoelting Company you can obtain the Holmgren worsteds for
+studying color blindness.
+
+11. _Defective Vision._ Procure a Snellen's test chart and determine the
+visual acuity of the members of the class. Seat the subject twenty feet
+from the chart, which should be placed in a good light. While testing
+one eye, cover the other with a piece of cardboard. Above each row of
+letters on the chart is a number which indicates the distance at which
+it can be read by a normal eye. If the subject can read only the
+thirty-foot line, his vision is said to be 20/30; if only the forty-foot
+line, the vision is 20/40. If the subject can read above the twenty-foot
+line and complains of headache from reading, farsightedness is
+indicated. If the subject cannot read up to the twenty-foot line,
+nearsightedness or astigmatism is indicated.
+
+12. _Hearing._ By consultation with the teacher of physics, plan an
+experiment to show that the pitch of tones depends on vibration
+frequency. Such an experiment can be very simply performed by rotating a
+wheel having spokes. Hold a light stick against the spokes so that it
+strikes each spoke. If the wheel is rotated so as to give twenty or
+thirty strokes a second, a very low tone will be heard. By rotating the
+wheel faster you get a higher tone. Other similar experiments can be
+performed.
+
+13. Acuity of hearing can be tested by finding the distance at which the
+various members of the class can hear a watch-tick. The teacher can plan
+an experiment using whispering instead of the watch-tick. (See the
+author's _Examination of School Children_.)
+
+14. By using the point of a nail, one can find the "cold spots" on the
+skin. Warm the nail to about 40 degrees Centigrade and you can find the
+"warm spots."
+
+15. By touching the hairs on the back of the hand, you can stimulate the
+"pressure spots."
+
+16. By pricking the skin with the point of a needle, you can stimulate
+the "pain spots."
+
+17. The sense of taste is sensitive only to solutions that are sweet,
+sour, salt, or bitter. Plan experiments to verify this point. What we
+call the "taste" of many things is due chiefly to odor. Therefore in
+experiments with taste, the nostrils should be stopped up with cotton.
+It will be found, for example, that quinine and coffee are
+indistinguishable if their odors be eliminated by stopping the nose. The
+student should compare the taste of many substances put into the mouth
+with the nostrils open with the taste of the same substances with the
+nostrils closed.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters VII and XII.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters III, IV, VI,
+and VII.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters II, III, and IV.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter II.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I, par. 3; also
+Chapter II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+INHERITED TENDENCIES
+
+
+=Stimulus and Response.= We have learned something about the sense organs
+and their functions. We have seen that it is through the sense organs
+that the world affects us, stimulates us. And we have said that we are
+stimulated in order that we may respond.
+
+We must now inquire into the nature of our responses. We are moving,
+active beings. But how do we move, how do we act when stimulated? Why do
+we do one thing rather than another? Why do we do one thing at one time
+and a different thing at another time?
+
+Before we answer these questions it will be necessary for us to get a
+more definite and complete idea of the nature of stimulus and response.
+We have already used these terms, but we must now give a more definite
+account of them. It was said in the preceding chapter that when a muscle
+contracts, it must first receive a nerve-impulse. Now, anything which
+starts this nerve-impulse is called the stimulus. The muscular movement
+which follows is, of course, the response. The nervous system forms the
+connection between the stimulus and response.
+
+The stimulus which brings about a response may be very simple. Or, on
+the other hand, it may be very complex. If one blows upon the eyelids of
+a baby, the lids automatically close. The blowing is the stimulus and
+the closing of the lids is the response. Both stimulus and response are
+here very simple.
+
+But sometimes the stimulus is more complex, not merely the simple
+excitation of one sense organ, but a complicated stimulation of an
+organ, or the simultaneous stimulation of several organs. In playing
+ball, the stimulus for the batter is the on-coming ball. The response is
+the stroke. This case is much more complex than the reflex closing of
+the eyelids. The ball may be pitched in many different ways and the
+response changes with these variations.
+
+In piano playing, the stimulus is the notes written in their particular
+places on the staff. Not only must the position of the notes on the
+staff be taken into account, but also many other things, such as sharps
+and flats, and various characters which give directions as to the manner
+in which the music is to be played. The striking of the notes in the
+proper order, in the proper time, and with the proper force, is the
+response.
+
+In typewriting, the stimulus is the copy, or the idea of what is to be
+written, and the response is the striking of the keys in the proper
+order. Speaking generally, we may say that the stimulus is the force or
+forces which excite the sense organs, and thereby, through the nervous
+system, bring about a muscular response.
+
+This is the ordinary type of action, but we have already indicated a
+different type. In speaking of typewriting we said the stimulus might be
+either the copy or ideas. One can write from copy or dictation, in which
+the stimulus is the written or spoken word, but one can also write as
+one thinks of what one wishes to write. The latter is known as
+_centrally initiated action_. That is to say, the stimulus comes from
+within, in the brain, rather than from without.
+
+Let us explain this kind of stimulation a little further. Suppose I am
+sitting in my chair reading. I finish a chapter and look at my watch. I
+notice that it is three o'clock, and recall that I was to meet a friend
+at that time. The stimulus in this case is in the brain itself; it is
+the nervous activity which corresponds to the idea of meeting my friend.
+If we disregard the distinction between mind and body, we may say that
+the stimulus for a response may be an idea as well as a perception, the
+perception arising from the immediate stimulation of a sense organ, and
+the idea arising from an excitation of the brain not caused by an
+immediate stimulation of a sense organ.
+
+=Instincts and Habits.= In human action it is evident that there is always
+a stimulus to start the nerve-impulse which causes the action. If we
+make inquiry concerning the connection between the stimulus and
+response; if we ask how it has come about that a particular stimulus
+causes a particular response rather than some other possible response,
+we find two kinds of causes. In one case the causal connection is
+established through heredity; in the other, the causal connection is
+established during a person's lifetime through training.
+
+A chicken, for example, hides under some cover the first time it hears
+the cry of a hawk; it scratches the first time its feet touch sand or
+gravel; it pecks the first time it sees an insect near by. An infant
+closes its eyes the first time it feels cold wind blow upon them; it
+cries the first time it feels pain; it clasps its fingers together the
+first time a touch is felt inside them. The child's nervous system is so
+organized that, in each of the cases named, the stimulus brings forth
+the particular, definite response. These acts do not have to be
+learned.
+
+But it is quite different in typewriting and piano playing. One _must
+learn_ what keys on the piano to strike in response to the various
+situations of the notes as written in the music. One must also learn the
+keys on the typewriter before he can operate a typewriter. And in the
+case of other habits, we find, for example, that one does not respond by
+saying "81" for 9 times 9; nor "13" for 6 plus 7; nor "8" for 15 minus
+7; nor "8" for the square root of 64; nor "144" for the square of 12,
+etc., until one has learned in each case.
+
+Some connections between stimulus and response we have through
+inheritance; all others are built up and established in one's lifetime,
+particularly in the first thirty years of one's life.
+
+We have spoken of bonds between stimulus and response, but have not
+explained just what can be meant by a _bond_. In what sense are stimulus
+and response bound together? A bond is a matter of greater permeability,
+of less resistance in one direction through the nervous system than in
+other directions. Nerves are conductors for nerve-currents. When a
+nerve-current is started in a sense organ, it passes on through the path
+of least resistance.
+
+Now, some nerves are so organized and connected through inheritance as
+to offer small resistance. This forms a ready-made connection between
+stimulus and response. Muscular responses that are connected with their
+stimuli through inherited bonds, by inherited nerve structure, are
+called instincts. Those that are connected by acquired bonds are called
+habits. Sucking, crying, laughing, are instinctive acts. Adding,
+typewriting, piano playing, are habits.
+
+The term _instinct_ may be given to the act depending upon inherited
+structure, an inherited bond, or it may be given to the inherited bond
+itself. Similarly, the term _habit_ may be given to an act that we have
+had to learn or to the bond which we ourselves establish between
+response and stimulus. In this book we shall usually mean by instinct an
+action depending upon inherited structure and by habit an act depending
+upon a bond established during lifetime. A good part of our early lives
+is spent in building up bonds between stimuli and responses. This
+establishing of bonds or connections is called _learning_.
+
+=Appearance of Inherited Tendencies.= Not all of our inherited tendencies
+are manifested immediately after birth, nor indeed in the earliest years
+of childhood, but appear at different stages of the child's growth. It
+has already been said that a child, soon after birth, will close its
+eyelids when they are blown upon. The lids do not close at this time if
+one strikes at them, but they will do this later. The proper working of
+an instinct or an inherited tendency, then, depends upon the child's
+having reached a certain state of development.
+
+The maturing of an instinct depends upon both age and use, that is to
+say, upon the age of the animal and the amount of use or exercise that
+the instinctive activity has had. The most important factor, however,
+seems to be age. While our knowledge of the dependence of an instinct
+upon the age of the animal is not quite so definite in the case of human
+instincts, the matter has been worked out in the case of chickens.
+
+The experiment was as follows: Chickens were taken at the time of
+hatching, and some allowed to peck from the first, while others were
+kept in a dark room and not allowed to peck. When the chickens were
+taken out of the dark room at the end of one, two, three, and four days,
+it was found that in a few hours they were pecking as well as those
+that had been pecking from birth. It seems probable, if we may judge
+from our limited knowledge, that in the human child, activities are for
+the most part dependent upon the age of the child, and upon the state of
+development of the nervous system and of the organs of the body.
+
+=Significance of Inherited Tendencies.= Although human nature is very
+complex, although human action nearly always has some element of habit
+in it, nevertheless, inborn tendencies are throughout life powerful
+factors in determining action. This will at once be apparent if we
+consider how greatly we are influenced by anger, jealousy, love, fear,
+and competition. Now we do not have to learn to be jealous, to hate, to
+love, to be envious, to fight, or to fear. These are emotions common to
+all members of the human race, and their expression is an inborn
+tendency. Throughout life no other influences are so powerful in
+determining our action as are these. So, although most of our detailed
+actions in life are habits which we learn or acquire, the fundamental
+influences which decide the course of our action are inherited
+tendencies.
+
+=Classification of Instincts.= For convenience in treatment the instincts
+are grouped in classes. Those instincts most closely related to
+individual survival are called _individualistic_ instincts. Those more
+closely related to the survival of the group are called _socialistic_.
+Those individualistic tendencies growing out of periodic changes of the
+environment may be called _environmental_ instincts. Those closely
+related to human infancy, adapting and adjusting the child to the world
+in which he lives, may be called _adaptive_. There is still another
+group of inherited tendencies connected with sex and reproduction, which
+are not discussed in this book.
+
+We shall give a brief discussion of the instincts falling under these
+various classes. It must be remembered, however, that the psychology of
+the instincts is indefinite and obscure. It is difficult to bring the
+instincts into the laboratory for accurate study. For our knowledge of
+the instincts we are dependent, for the most part, on general
+observation. We have had a few careful studies of the very earliest
+years of childhood. However, although from the theoretical point of view
+our knowledge of the instincts is incomplete, it is sufficient to be of
+considerable practical value.
+
+=The Individualistic Instincts.= Man's civilized life has covered but a
+short period of time, only a few hundred or a few thousand years. His
+pre-civilized life doubtless covered a period of millions of years. The
+inborn tendencies in us are such as were developed in the long period of
+savage life. During all of man's life in the time before civilization,
+he was always in danger. He had many enemies, and most of these enemies
+had the advantage of him in strength and natural means of defense.
+Unaided by weapons, he could hardly hold his own against any of the
+beasts of prey. So there were developed in man by the process of natural
+selection many inherited responses which we group under the head of
+_fear_ responses.
+
+Just what the various situations are that bring forth these responses
+has never been carefully worked out. But any situation that suddenly
+puts an individual in danger of losing his life brings about
+characteristic reactions. The most characteristic of the responses are
+shown in connection with circulation and respiration. Both of these
+processes are much interfered with. Sometimes the action is accelerated,
+at other times it is retarded, and in some cases the respiratory and
+circulatory organs are almost paralyzed. Also the small muscles of the
+skin are made to contract, producing the sensation of the hair standing
+on end. Just what the original use of all these responses was it is
+difficult now to work out, but doubtless each served some useful
+purpose.
+
+Whether any particular situations now call forth inherited fear
+responses in us is not definitely established. But among lower animals
+there are certain definite and particular situations which do call forth
+fear responses. On the whole, the evidence rather favors the idea of
+definite fear situations among children. It seems that certain
+situations do invariably arouse fear responses. To be alone in the dark,
+to be in a strange place, to hear loud and sudden noises, to see large,
+strange animals coming in threatening manner, seem universally to call
+forth fear responses in children.
+
+However, the whole situation must always be considered. A situation in
+which the father or mother is present is quite different from one in
+which they are both absent. But it is certain that these and other fears
+are closely related to the age and development of the child. In the
+earlier years of infancy, certain fears are not present that are present
+later. And it can be demonstrated that the fears that do arise as
+infancy passes on are natural and inherited and not the result of
+experience.
+
+Few of the original causes of fear now exist. The original danger was
+from wild animals chiefly. Seldom are we now in such danger. But of
+course this has been the case for only a short time. Our bodies are the
+same sort of bodies that our ancestors had, therefore we are full of
+needless fears. During the early years of a child's life, wise treatment
+causes most of the fear tendencies to disappear because of disuse. On
+the other hand, unwise treatment may accentuate and perpetuate them,
+causing much misery and unhappiness. Neither the home nor the school
+should play upon these ancestral fears. We should not try to get a child
+to be good by frightening him; nor should we often use fear of pain as
+an incentive to get a child to do his work.
+
+Man has always been afraid, but he has also always been a fighter. He
+has always had to fight for his life against the lower animals, and he
+has also fought his fellow man. The fighting response is connected with
+the emotions of anger, envy, and jealousy. A man is angered by anything
+that interferes with his life, with his purposes, with whatever he calls
+his own. We become angry if some one strikes our bodies, or attacks our
+beliefs, or the beliefs of our dear friends, particularly of our
+families. The typical responses connected with anger are such as faster
+heart-beat, irregular breathing, congestion of the blood in the face and
+head, tightening of the voluntary muscles, particularly a setting of the
+teeth and a clinching of the fists. These responses are preparatory to
+actual combat.
+
+Anger, envy, and jealousy, and the responses growing out of them, have
+always played a large part in the life of man. A great part of history
+is a record of the fights of nations, tribes, and individuals. If the
+records of wars and strifes, and the acts growing out of envy and
+jealousy and other similar emotions should be taken out of history,
+there would not be much left. Much of literature and art depict those
+actions of man which grew out of these individualistic aspects of his
+nature. Competition, which is an aspect of fighting, even to the present
+day, continues to be one of the main factors in business and in life
+generally. Briefly, fighting responses growing out of man's selfishness
+are as old as man himself, and the inherited tendencies connected with
+them are among the strongest of our natures.
+
+In the training of children, one of the most difficult tasks is to help
+them to get control over the fighting instinct and other selfish
+tendencies. These tendencies are so deeply rooted in our natures that it
+is hard to get control of them. In fact, the control which we do get
+over them is always relative. The best we can hope to do is to get
+control over our fighting tendencies in ordinary circumstances.
+
+It is doubtful whether it would be good for us if the fighting spirit
+should disappear from the race. It puts vim and determination into the
+life of man. But our fighting should not be directed against our fellow
+man. The fighting spirit can be retained and directed against evil and
+other obstacles. We can learn to attack our tasks in a fighting spirit.
+But surely the time has come when we should cease fighting against our
+neighbors.
+
+=Social Tendencies.= Over against our fighting tendencies we may set the
+socialistic tendencies. Coöperative and sympathetic actions grow out of
+original nature, just as truly as do the selfish acts. But the
+socialistic tendencies are not, in general, as strong as are the
+individualistic ones. What society needs is the strengthening of the
+socialistic tendencies by use, and a weakening of at least some of the
+individualistic tendencies, by control and disuse.
+
+Socialistic tendencies show themselves in gangs and clubs formed by
+children and adults. It is, therefore, a common practice now to speak of
+the "gang" instinct. Human beings are pleased and content when with
+other human beings and not content, not satisfied, when alone. Of course
+circumstances make a difference in the desires of men, but the general
+original tendency is as stated.
+
+The gang of the modern city has the following explanation: Boys like to
+be with other boys. Moreover, they like to be active; they want to be
+doing something. The city does not provide proper means for the desired
+activities, such as hunting, fishing, tramping, and boating. It does not
+provide experiences with animals, such as boys have on the farm. Much of
+the boy's day is spent in school in a kind of work not at all like what
+he would do by choice. There is not much home life. Usually there is not
+the proper parental control. Seldom do the parents interest themselves
+in planning for the activities of their children. The result is that the
+boys come together on the streets and form a club or gang. Through this
+organization the boy's nature expresses itself. Without proper guidance
+from older people, this expression takes a direction not good for the
+future character and usefulness of the boy.
+
+The social life of children should be provided for by the school in
+coöperation with the home. The school or the schoolroom should
+constitute a social unit. The teacher with the parents should plan the
+social life of the children. The actual work of the school can be very
+much socialized. There can be much more coöperation and much more group
+work can be done in the school than is the case at present. And many
+other social activities can be organized in connection with the school
+and its work. Excursions, pageants, shows, picnics, and all sorts of
+activities should be undertaken.
+
+The schoolhouse should be used by the community as the place for many of
+its social acts and performances. Almost every night, and throughout the
+summer as well as in the winter, the people, young and old, should meet
+at the school for some sort of social work or play. The Boy Scouts
+should be brought under the control of the school to help fulfill some
+of its main purposes.
+
+=Environmental Instincts.= In this class there are at least two tendencies
+which seem to be part of the original nature of man; namely, the
+_wandering_ and the _collecting_ tendencies.
+
+_Wandering._ The long life that our ancestors lived free and
+unrestrained in the woods has left its effect within us. One of the
+greatest achievements of civilization has been to overcome the inherited
+tendencies to roam and wander, to the extent that for the most part we
+live out our lives in one home, in one family, doing often but one kind
+of work all our lives. Originally, man had much more freedom to come and
+go and do whatever he wished.
+
+Truancies and runaways are the result of original tendencies and desires
+expressing themselves in spite of training, perhaps sometimes because of
+the lack of training. In childhood and youth these original tendencies
+should, to some extent, be satisfied in legitimate ways. Excursions and
+picnics can be planned both for work and for play. If the child's
+desires and needs can be satisfied in legitimate ways, then he will not
+have to satisfy them illegitimately. The teaching itself can be done
+better by following, to some extent, the lead of the child's nature.
+Much early education consists in learning the world. Now, most of the
+world is out of doors and the child must go out to find it. The teacher
+should make use of the natural desires of the children to wander and
+explore, as a means of educating them. The school work should be of such
+a nature that much outdoor work will need to be done.
+
+_Collecting._ It is in the nature of children to seize and, if possible,
+carry away whatever attracts attention. This tendency is the basis of
+what is called the collecting instinct. If one will take a walk with a
+child, one can observe the operation of the collecting tendency,
+particularly if the walk is in the fields and woods. The child will be
+observed to take leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, pebbles, and in
+fact everything that is loose or can be gotten loose. They are taken at
+first aimlessly, merely because they attract attention. The original,
+natural response of the child toward that which attracts attention is
+usually to get it, get possession of it and take it along. It is easy to
+see why such tendencies were developed in man. In his savage state it
+was highly useful for him to do this. He must always have been on the
+lookout for things which could be used as food or as weapons. He had to
+do this to live. But one need not take a child to the woods to observe
+this tendency. One can go to the stores. Till a child is trained not to
+do it, he seizes and takes whatever attracts attention.
+
+Just as the wandering tendencies can be used for the benefit of the
+child, so can the collecting tendencies. Not only should the children
+make expeditions to learn of the world, but specimens should be
+collected so that they can be used to form a museum at the school which
+will represent the surrounding locality. Geological, geographical,
+botanical, and zoölogical specimens should be collected. The children
+will learn much while making the collections, and much from the
+collections after they are made.
+
+"Education could profit greatly by making large demands upon the
+collecting instinct. It seems clear that in their childhood is the time
+when children should be sent forth to the fields and woods, to study
+what they find there and to gather specimens. The children can form
+naturalists' clubs for the purpose of studying the natural environment.
+Such study should embrace rocks, soils, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits,
+and specimens of the wood of the various trees. Birds and insects can be
+studied and collected. The work of such a club would have a twofold
+value. (1) The study and collecting acquaint the child with his natural
+environment, and in doing it, afford a sphere for the activity of many
+aspects of his nature. They take him out of doors and give an
+opportunity for exploring every nook and corner of the natural
+environment. The collecting can often be done in such a way as to appeal
+to the group instincts. For example, the club could hold meetings for
+exhibiting and studying the specimens, and sometimes the actual
+collecting could be done in groups. (2) The specimens collected should
+be put into the school museum, and the aim of this museum should be to
+represent completely the local environment, the natural and physical
+environment, and also the industrial, civil, and social environment. The
+museum should be completely illustrative of the child's natural,
+physical, and social surroundings. The museum would therefore be
+educative in its making, and when it is made, it would have immense
+value to the community, not only to the children but to all the people.
+In this museum, of course, should be found the minerals, rocks, soils,
+insects,--particularly those of economic importance,--birds, and also
+specimens of the wild animals of the locality. If proper appeal is made
+to the natural desire of the children, this instinct would soon be made
+of service in producing a very valuable collection. The school museum in
+which these specimens are placed should also include other classes of
+specimens. There should be specimens showing industrial evolution, the
+stages of manufacture of raw material, specimens of local historical
+interest, pictures, documents, books. The museum should be made of such
+a nature that parents would go there nearly as often as the children.
+The school should be for the instruction of all the people of the
+community. It should be the experiment station, the library, the
+debating club, the art gallery for the whole community."[2]
+
+[2] Pyle's _Outlines of Educational Psychology_, pp. 84-86.
+
+=Imitation.= One of the fundamental original traits of human nature is the
+tendency to imitate. Imitation is not instinctive in the strict meaning
+of the word. Seeing a certain act performed does not, apart from
+training and experience, serve as a stimulus to make a child perform a
+similar act. Hearing a certain sound does not serve as a stimulus for
+the production of the same sound. Nevertheless, there is in the human
+child a tendency or desire to do what it sees others doing.
+
+A few hours spent in observing children ought to convince any one of the
+universality and of the strength of this tendency. As our experience
+becomes organized, the idea of an act usually serves as the stimulus to
+call it forth. However, this is not because the idea of an act, of
+necessity, always produces the act. It is merely a matter of the
+stimulus and the response _becoming connected in that way_ as the result
+of experience. Our meaning is that an act can be touched off or prompted
+by any stimulus. Our nervous organization makes this possible. The
+particular stimulus that calls forth a particular response depends upon
+how we have been trained, how we have learned. In most cases our acts
+are coupled up with the ideas of the acts. We learn them that way.
+
+In early life particularly, the connection between stimulus and response
+is very close. When a child gets the idea of an act, he immediately
+performs the act, if he knows how. Now, seeing another perform an act
+brings the act clearly into the child's consciousness, and he proceeds
+to perform it. But the act must be one which the child already knows how
+to perform, otherwise his performance of it will be faulty and
+incomplete. If he has never performed the particular act, seeing another
+perform the act sets him to trying to do it and he may soon learn it. If
+he successfully performs an act when he sees it done by another, the act
+must be one which he already knows how to perform, and for whose
+performance the idea has already served as a stimulus. Now if imitation
+were instinctive in the strict sense, one could perform the act for the
+first time merely from seeing another do it, without any previous
+experience or learning. It is doubtful whether there are any such
+inherited connections. It is, however, true that human beings are of
+such a nature that, particularly in early life, they _like_ to do and
+_want_ to do what they see others doing. This is one of the most
+important aspects of human nature, as we shall see.
+
+=Function and Importance of Imitation in Life.= Natural selection has
+developed few aspects of human nature so important for survival as the
+tendency to imitate, for this tendency quickly leads to a successful
+adjustment of the child to the world in which he lives. Adult men and
+women are successfully adjusted to their environment. Their adjustment
+might be better, but it is good enough to keep them alive for a time.
+Now, if children do as they see their parents doing, they will reach a
+satisfactory adjustment. We may, therefore, say that the tendency to
+imitate serves to adjust the child to his environment. It is for this
+reason that imitation has been called an _adaptive instinct_. It would
+perhaps be better to say merely that the _tendency_ to imitate is part
+of the _original equipment of man_.
+
+Imitation is distinctively a human trait. While it occurs in lower
+animals it is probably not an important factor in adjusting them to
+their environment. But in the human race it is one of the chief factors
+in adjustment to environment. Imitation is one of the main factors in
+education. Usually the quickest way to teach a child to do a thing is to
+show him how.
+
+Through imitation we acquire our language, manners, and customs. Ideals,
+beliefs, prejudices, attitudes, we take on through imitation. The
+tendency to imitate others coupled with the desire to be thought well of
+by others is one of the most powerful factors in producing conformity.
+They are the whips which keep us within the bounds of custom and
+conventionality. The tendency to imitate is so strong that its results
+are almost as certain as are those of inherited tendencies. It is almost
+as certain that a child will be like his parents in speech, manners,
+customs, superstitions, etc., as it is that he will be like them in form
+of body. He not only walks and talks and acts like his parents, but he
+thinks as they do. We, therefore, have the term _social heredity_,
+meaning the taking on of all sorts of social habits and ideals through
+imitation.
+
+The part that imitation plays in the education of a child may be learned
+by going to a country home and noting how the boy learns to do all the
+many things about the farm by imitating his father, and how the girl
+learns to do all the housework by imitating her mother. Imitation is the
+basis of much of the play of children, in that their play consists in
+large part of doing what they see older people doing. This imitative
+play gives them skill and is a large factor in preparing for the work of
+life.
+
+=Dramatization.= Dramatization is an aspect of imitation, and is a means
+of making ideas more real than they would otherwise be. There is nothing
+that leads us so close to reality as action. We never completely know an
+act till we have done it. Dramatization is a matter of carrying an idea
+out into action. Ideas give to action its greatest fullness of meaning.
+
+Dramatic representation should, therefore, have a prominent place in the
+schools, particularly in the lower grades. If the child is allowed to
+mimic the characters in the reading lesson, the meaning of the lesson
+becomes fuller. Later on in the school course, dramatic representation
+of the characters in literature and history is a means of getting a
+better conception of these characters. In geography, the study of the
+manners and customs and occupations of foreign peoples can be much
+facilitated through dramatic representation. Children naturally have the
+dramatic tendency; it is one aspect of the tendency to imitate. We have
+only to encourage it and make use of it throughout the school course.
+
+=Imitation in Ideals.= Imitation is of importance not only in acquiring
+the actions of life but also in getting our ideals. Habits of thinking
+are no less an aspect of our lives than are habits of acting. Our
+attitudes, our prejudices, our beliefs, our moral, religious, and
+political ideals are in large measure copied from people about us. The
+family and social atmosphere in which one lives is a mold in which one's
+mind is formed and shaped. We cannot escape the influence of this
+atmosphere if we would. One takes on a belief that his father has, one
+clings to this belief and interprets the world in the light of it. This
+belief becomes a part of one's nature. It is a mental habit, a way of
+looking at the world. It is as much a part of one as red hair or big
+feet or a crooked nose. Probably no other influence has so much to do
+with making us what we are as social beings as the influence of
+imitation.
+
+=Play.= Play is usually considered to be a part of the original equipment
+of man. It is essentially an expression of the ripening instincts of
+children, and not a specific instinct itself. It is rather a sort of
+make-believe activity of all the instincts. Kittens and dogs may be seen
+in play to mimic fighting. They bite and chew each other as in real
+fighting, but still they are not fighting.
+
+As the structures and organs of children mature, they demand activity.
+This early activity is called play. It has several characteristics. The
+main one is that it is pleasurable. Play activity is pleasurable in
+itself. We do not play that we may get something else which we like, as
+is the case with the activity which we call work. Play is an end in
+itself. It is not a means to get something else which is intrinsically
+valuable.
+
+One of the chief values of play comes from its activity aspect. We are
+essentially motor beings. We grow and develop only through exercise. In
+early life we do not have to exert ourselves to get a living. Play is
+nature's means of giving our organs the exercise which they must have to
+bring them to maturity. Play is an expression of the universal tendency
+to action in early life. Without play, the child would not develop,
+would not become a normal human being.
+
+All day long the child is ceaselessly active. The value of this activity
+can hardly be overestimated. It not only leads to healthy growth, but is
+a means through which the child learns himself and the world. Everything
+that the child sees excites him to react to it or upon it. He gets
+possession of it. He bites it. He pounds it. He throws it. In this way
+he learns the properties of things and the characteristics of forces.
+Through play and imitation, in a very few years the child comes to a
+successful adjustment in his world.
+
+Play and imitation are the great avenues of activity in early life. Even
+in later life, we seldom accomplish anything great or worth while until
+the thing becomes play to us, until we throw our whole being into it as
+we do in play, until it is an expression of ourselves as play is in our
+childhood. The proper use of play gives us the solution of many of the
+problems of early education.
+
+Play has two functions in the school: (1) Motor play is necessary to
+growth, development, and health. The constant activity of the child is
+what brings about healthy growth.
+
+In the country it is not difficult for children to get plenty of the
+proper kind of exercise, but in the larger cities it is difficult.
+Nevertheless, opportunity for play should be provided for every child,
+no matter what the trouble or expense, for without play children cannot
+become normal human beings. Everywhere parents and teachers should plan
+for the play life of the children.
+
+(2) In the primary grades play can have a large place in the actual work
+of the school. The early work of education is to a large extent getting
+the tools of knowledge and thought and work--reading, spelling,
+writing, correct speech, correct writing, the elementary processes of
+arithmetic, etc. In many ways play can be used in acquiring these tools.
+
+One aspect of play particularly should have a large place in education;
+namely, the manipulative tendencies of children. This is essentially
+play. Children wish to handle and manipulate everything that attracts
+their attention. They wish to tear it to pieces and to put it together.
+This is nature's way of teaching, and by it children learn the
+properties and structures of things. They thereby learn what things do
+and what can be done with them. Teachers and parents should foster these
+manipulative tendencies and use them for the child's good. These
+tendencies are an aspect of curiosity. We want to know. We are unhappy
+as long as a thing is before us which we do not understand, which has
+some mystery about it. Nature has developed these tendencies in us, for
+without a knowledge of our surroundings we could not live. The child
+therefore has in his nature the basis of his education. We have but to
+know this nature and wisely use and manipulate it to achieve the child's
+education.
+
+  SUMMARY. Instincts are inherited tendencies to specific actions.
+  They fall under the heads: individualistic, socialistic,
+  environmental, adaptive, sexual or mating instincts. These inherited
+  tendencies are to a large extent the foundation on which we build
+  education. The educational problem is to control and guide them,
+  suppressing some, fostering others. In everything we undertake for a
+  child we must take into account these instincts.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a study of the instincts of several animals, such as dogs, cats,
+chickens. Make a list showing the stimuli and the inherited responses.
+
+2. Make a study of the instincts of a baby. See how many inherited
+responses you can observe. The simpler inherited responses are known as
+_reflexes_. The closing of the eyelids mentioned in the text is an
+example. How many such reflexes can you find in a child?
+
+3. Make a special study of the fears of very young children. How many
+definite situations can you find which excite fear responses in all
+children? Each member of the class can make a list of his own fears. It
+may then be seen whether any fears are common to all members of the
+class and whether there are any sex differences.
+
+4. Similarly, make a study of anger and fighting. What situations
+invariably arouse the fighting response? In what definite, inherited
+ways is anger shown? Do your studies and observations convince you that
+the fighting instinct and other inherited responses concerned with
+individual survival are among the strongest of inherited tendencies? Can
+the fighting instinct be eliminated from the human race? Is it desirable
+to eliminate it?
+
+5. Make a study of children's collections. Take one of the grades and
+find what collections the children have made. What different objects are
+collected?
+
+6. Outline a plan for using the collecting instinct in various school
+studies.
+
+7. With the help of the principal of the school make a study of some
+specific cases of truancy. What does your finding show?
+
+8. Make a study of play by watching children of various ages play. Make
+a list of the games that are universal for infancy, those for childhood,
+and those for youth. (Consult Johnson's _Plays and Games_.)
+
+9. What are the two main functions of play in education? Why should we
+play after we are mature?
+
+10. Study imitation in very young children. Do this by watching the
+spontaneous play of children under six. What evidences of imitation do
+you find?
+
+11. Outline the things we learn by imitation. What is your opinion of
+the place which imitation has in our education?
+
+12. Make a study of imitation as a factor in the lives of grown people.
+Consider styles, fashions, manners, customs, beliefs, prejudices,
+religious ideas, etc.
+
+13. On the whole, is imitation a good thing or a bad thing?
+
+14. Make a plan of the various ways in which dramatization can be
+profitably used in the schools.
+
+15. Make a study of your own ideals. What ideals do you have? Where did
+you get them? What ideals did you get from your parents? What from
+books? What from teachers? What from friends?
+
+16. Show that throughout life inherited tendencies are the fundamental
+bases from which our actions proceed, on which our lives are erected.
+
+17. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters III, VIII, IX, and X.
+
+KIRKPATRICK: _Fundamentals of Child Study_, Chapters IV-XIII.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 184-187.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter X.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters IV-IX.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FEELING AND ATTENTION
+
+
+=The Feelings.= Related to the instincts on one side and to habits on the
+other are the feelings. In Chapter III we discussed sensation, and in
+the preceding chapter, the instincts, but when we have described an act
+in terms of instinct and sensation, we have not told all the facts.
+
+For example, when a child sees a pretty red ball of yarn, he reaches out
+to get it, then puts it into his mouth, or unwinds it, and plays with it
+in various ways. It is all a matter of sensation and instinctive
+responses. The perception of the ball--seeing the ball--brings about the
+instinctive reaching out, grasping the ball, and bringing it to the
+mouth. But to complete our account, we must say that the child is
+_pleased_. We note a change in his facial expression. His eyes gleam
+with pleasure. His face is all smiles, showing pleasant contentment.
+Therefore we must say that the child not only sees, not only acts, but
+the seeing and acting are _pleasant_. The child continues to look, he
+continues to act, because the looking and acting bring joy.
+
+This is typical of situations that bring pleasure. We want them
+continued; we act in a way to make them continue. _We go out after the
+pleasure-giving thing._
+
+But let us consider a different kind of situation. A child sees on the
+hearth a glowing coal. It instinctively reaches out and grasps it,
+starts to draw the coal toward it, but instinctively drops it. This is
+not, however, the whole story. Instead of the situation being pleasant,
+it is decidedly unpleasant. The child fairly howls with pain. His face,
+instead of being wreathed in smiles, is covered with tears. He did not
+hold on to the coal. He did not try to continue the situation. On the
+contrary, he dropped the coal, and withdrew the hand. The body
+contracted and shrank away from the situation.
+
+These two cases illustrate the two simple feelings, pleasantness and
+unpleasantness. Most situations in life are either pleasant or
+unpleasant. Situations may sometimes be neutral; that is, may arouse
+neither the feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. But usually a
+conscious state is either pleasant or unpleasant. A situation brings us
+life, joy, happiness. We want it continued and act in a way to bring
+about its continuance. Or the situation tends to take away our life,
+brings pain, sorrow, grief, and we want it discontinued, and act in a
+way to discontinue it.
+
+These two simple forms of feeling perhaps arose in the beginning in
+connection with the act of taking food. It is known that if a drop of
+acid touches an amoeba, the animal shrinks, contracts, and tries to
+withdraw from the death-bringing acid. On the other hand, if a particle
+of a substance that is suitable for food touches the animal, it takes
+the particle within itself. The particle is life-giving and brings
+pleasure.
+
+=The Emotions.= Pleasure and displeasure are the simple feelings. Most
+situations in life bring about very complex feeling states known as
+_emotions_. The emotions are made up of pleasure or displeasure mixed
+or compounded with the sensations from the bodily reactions.
+
+The circulatory system, the respiratory system, and nearly all the
+involuntary organs of the body form a great sounding board which
+instantly responds in various ways to the situations of life. When the
+youth sees the pretty maiden and when he touches her hand, his heart
+pumps away at a great rate, his cheeks become flushed, his breathing is
+paralyzed, his voice trembles. He experiences the emotion of love. The
+state is complex indeed. There is pleasantness, of course, but there is
+in addition the feeling of all the bodily reactions.
+
+When the mother sees her dead child lying in its casket, her head falls
+over on her breast, her eyes fill with tears, her shoulders droop, her
+chest contracts, she sobs, her breathing is spasmodic. Nearly every
+organ of the body is affected in one way or another. The state is
+_unpleasant_, but there is also the feeling of the manifold bodily
+reactions.
+
+So it is always. The biologically important situations in life bring
+about, through hereditary connections in the nervous system, certain
+typical reactions. These reactions are largely the same for the same
+type of situation, and they give the particular coloring to each
+emotion. It is evident that the emotions are closely related to the
+instincts. The reflexes that take place in emotions are of the same
+nature as the instincts. Each instinctive act has its characteristic
+emotion. There are fear instincts and fear emotions. Fear is unpleasant.
+In addition to its unpleasantness there is a multitude of sensations
+that come from the body. The hair stands on end, the heart throbs, the
+circulation is hastened, breathing is interrupted, the muscles are
+tense. This peculiar mass of sensations, blended with the
+unpleasantness, gives the characteristic emotion of fear. But we need
+not go into an analysis of the various emotions of love, hate, envy,
+grief, jealousy, etc. The reader can do this for himself.[3]
+
+[3] See James' _Psychology, Briefer Course_, Chapter XXIV.
+
+Nearly every organ of the body plays its part in the emotions: the
+digestive organs, the liver, the kidneys, the throat and mouth, the
+salivary glands, the eyes and tear glands, the skin muscles, the facial
+muscles, etc. And every emotion is made up of pleasantness or
+unpleasantness and the sensations produced by some combination of bodily
+reactions.
+
+It is well for us to remember the part that bodily conditions and states
+play in the emotional life. The emotional state of a man depends upon
+whether he has had his dinner or is hungry, whether the liver is working
+normally, and upon the condition of the various secreting and excreting
+organs and glands. In a word, it is evident that our emotions fall
+within a world of cause and effect. _Our feeling states are caused._
+
+=Importance in Life.= Our feelings and emotions are the fountains from
+which nearly all our volitional actions flow. Feeling is the
+_mainspring_ of life. Nearly everything we do is prompted by love, or
+hate, or fear, or jealousy, or rivalry, or anger, or grief. If the
+feelings have such close relation to action, then the schools must take
+them into account, for by education we seek to control action. If the
+feelings control action, then we must try to control the feelings. We
+must get the child into a right state of mind toward the school, toward
+his teacher, and toward his work. The child must like the school, like
+the teacher, and _want_ to learn.
+
+Moreover, we must create the right state of mind in connection with
+each study, each task. The child must come to feel the need and
+importance of each individual task as well as of each subject. The task
+is then desirable, it is to be sought for and worked at, it is important
+for life.
+
+This is merely enlisting the child's nature in the interest of his
+education. For motive, we must always look to the child's nature. The
+two great forces which pull and drive are _pleasure_ and _pain_. Nature
+has no other methods. Formerly the school used pain as its motive almost
+exclusively. The child did his tasks to escape pain. For motive we now
+use more often the positive influences which give pleasure, which pull
+instead of drive. What will one not do _for_ the _loved_ one? What will
+one not do _to_ the _hated_ one? The child who does not love his teacher
+gets little good from school while under that teacher. Moreover, school
+work is often a failure because it is so unreal, has so little relation
+to an actual world, and seems foreign to any real needs of the child. No
+one is going to work very hard unless the work is prompted by desire.
+Our desires come from our needs. Therefore, if we are to enlist the
+child's feelings in the service of his education, we must make the
+school work vital and relate it, if possible, to the actual needs of the
+child.
+
+It must not be forgotten, however, that we must build up permanent
+attitudes of respect for authority, obedience, and reverence for the
+important things of life. Neither must it be forgotten that we can
+create needs in the child. If in the education of the child we follow
+only such needs as he has, we will make a fine savage of him but nothing
+else. It is the business of the school to create in the child the right
+kind of needs. As was pointed out in our study of the instincts, we
+must make the child over again into what he ought to be. But this
+cannot be a sudden process. One cannot arouse enthusiasm in a
+six-year-old child over the beauties of higher mathematics. It takes ten
+or fifteen years to do that, and it must be done little by little.
+
+=Control of the Emotions.= Without training, we remain at the mercy of our
+baser emotions. The child must be trained to control himself. Here is
+where habit comes in to modify primitive action. The child can be
+trained to inhibit or prevent the reactions that arise in hatred, envy,
+jealousy, anger, etc. For a fuller discussion of this point we must wait
+till we come to the discussion of habit and moral training.
+
+=Mood and Temperament.= A mood is a somewhat extended emotional state
+continuing for hours or days. It is due to a continuance of the factors
+which cause it. The state of the liver and digestive organs may throw
+one for days into a cross and ugly mood. When the body becomes normal,
+the mood changes or disappears. Similarly, one may for hours or days be
+overjoyed, or depressed, or morose, or melancholy. Parents and teachers
+should look well to the matter of creating and establishing continuous
+and permanent states of feeling that are favorable to work and
+development.
+
+Some people are permanently optimistic, others pessimistic. Some are
+always joyful, others as constantly see only the dark side of life. Some
+are always serious and solemn, others always gay, even giddy. These
+permanent emotional attitudes constitute temperament, and are due to
+fundamental differences within the body that are in some cases
+hereditary. Crossness and moroseness, for example, may be due to a
+dyspeptic condition and a chronically bad liver. The happy dispositions
+belong to bodies whose organs are functioning properly, in which
+assimilation is good--all the parts of the body doing their proper work.
+
+Poor eyes which are under a constant strain, through the reflex effects
+upon various organs of the body, are likely to develop a permanently
+cross and irritable disposition. Through the close sympathetic relation
+of the various organs, anything affecting one organ and interfering with
+its proper action is likely to affect many other organs and profoundly
+influence the emotional states of the body. In growing children
+particularly, there are many influences which affect their emotions,
+things of which we seldom think, such as the condition of vision and
+hearing, the condition of the teeth, nose, and throat, and the condition
+of all the important vital organs of the body. When a child's
+disposition is not what we think it ought to be, we should try to find
+out the causes.
+
+=Training the Emotions.= The emotions are subject to training. The child
+can be taught control. Moreover, he can be taught to appreciate and
+enjoy higher things than mere animal pleasure; namely, art, literature,
+nature, truth. The child thereby becomes a spiritual being instead of a
+mere pig. The ideal of the school should be to develop men and women
+whose baser passions are under control, who are calm, self-controlled,
+and self-directed, and who get their greatest pleasure from the finer
+and higher things of life, such as the various forms of music, the songs
+of birds, the beauties and intricate workings of nature.
+
+This is a wonderful world and a wonderful life, but the child may go
+through the world without seeing it, and live his life without knowing
+what it is to live. His eyes must be opened, he must be trained to see
+and to feel. It is not the place here to tell how this is to be done.
+This is not a book on methods of teaching. We can only indicate here
+that the business of the school is not merely to teach people how to
+make a living, but to teach them how to enjoy the living. There are many
+avenues from which we get the higher forms of pleasure. There are really
+many different worlds which we may experience: the world of animals, the
+world of plants, the mechanical world, the chemical world, the world of
+literature and of art, the world of music. It is the duty of the schools
+to open up these worlds to the children, and make them so many
+possibilities of joy and happiness.
+
+The emotions and feelings, then, are not lawless and causeless, but are
+a part of a world of law and order. They are themselves caused and
+therefore subject to control and modification.
+
+=Attention.= Attention, too, is related to inherited tendencies on the one
+side and to habits on the other. If one is walking in the woods and
+catches a glimpse of something moving in the trees, the eyes
+_instinctively_ turn so that the person can get a better view of the
+object. If one hears a sudden sound, the head is instinctively turned so
+that the person can hear better. One stops, the body is held still and
+rigid, breathing is slow and controlled--all to favor better hearing.
+
+The various acts of attention are reflex and instinctive. But what is
+attention? By attention we mean _sensory clearness_. When we say we are
+attentive to a thing or subject, we mean that perceptions or ideas of
+that thing or subject are _clear_ as compared to other perceptions and
+ideas that are in consciousness at the same time. The contents of one's
+consciousness, the perceptions and ideas that constitute one's mind at
+any one moment are always arranged in an _attentive_ pattern, some
+being clear, others unclear. The pattern constantly changes and shifts.
+What is now clear and in the focus of consciousness, presently is
+unclear and may in a moment disappear from consciousness altogether,
+while other perceptions or ideas take its place.
+
+The first question that arises in connection with attention is, What are
+the causes of attention? The first group of causes are hereditary and
+instinctive. The child attends to loud things, bright things, moving
+things, etc. But as we grow older, the basis of attention becomes more
+and more _habit_. An illustration will make this clear. I once spent a
+day at a great exposition with a machinist. He was constantly attending
+to things mechanical, when I would not even see them. He had spent many
+years working with machinery, and as a result, things mechanical at once
+attracted him. Similarly, if a man and a woman walk along a street
+together and look in at the shop windows, the woman sees only hats,
+dresses, ribbons, and other finery, while the man sees only cigars,
+pipes, and automobile supplies. Every day we live, we are building up
+habits of attending to certain types of things. What repeatedly comes
+into our experience, easily attracts our attention to the exclusion of
+other things.
+
+=The Function of Attention.= Attention is the unifying aspect of
+consciousness. There are always many things in consciousness, and we
+cannot respond to all at once. The part of consciousness that is clear
+and focal brings about action. The things to which we attend are the
+things that count.
+
+In later chapters we shall learn that in habit-formation, attention is
+an important factor. We must attend to the acts we are trying to
+make habitual. In getting knowledge, we must attend to what we are
+trying to learn. In committing to memory, we must attend to the ideas
+that we are trying to fix and make permanent. In thinking and reasoning,
+those ideas become associated together that are together in attention.
+
+Attention is therefore the controlling aspect of consciousness. It is
+the basis of what we call _will_. The ideas that are clear and focal and
+that persist in consciousness are the ideas that control our action.
+When one says he has made up his mind, he has made a choice; that merely
+means that a certain group of ideas persist in consciousness to the
+exclusion of others. These are the ideas which ultimately produce
+action. And it is our past experience that determines what ideas will
+become focal and persist.
+
+=Training the Attention.= There are two aspects of the training of
+attention. (1) We can learn to hold ourselves to a task. When we sit
+down to a table to study, there may be many things that tend to call us
+away. There lies a magazine which we might read, there is a play at the
+theater, there are noises outside, there is a friend calling across the
+street. But we must study. We have set ourselves to a task and we must
+hold fast to our purpose.
+
+The young child cannot do this. He must be trained to do it. The
+instruments used to train him are pleasure and pain, rewards and
+punishments that come from parents. Gradually, slowly, the child gains
+control over himself. No one ever amounts to anything till he can hold
+himself to a task, to a fixed purpose. One must learn to form plans
+extending over weeks, months, and years, and to hold unflinchingly to
+them, just as one must hold himself to his study table and allow nothing
+to distract or to interfere. No training a child can receive is more
+important than this, for it gives him control over his life, it gives
+him control over the ideas that are to become focal and determine
+action. It is for this reason that we call such training a training of
+attention. It might perhaps better be called a training of the will. But
+the will is only the attentive consciousness. The idea that is clear,
+that holds its own in consciousness, is the idea that produces action.
+When we say that we _will_ to do a certain thing, all we can mean is
+that the _idea of this act_ is clearest and holds its focal place in
+consciousness to the exclusion of other ideas. It therefore goes over
+into action.
+
+(2) The training just discussed may be called a general training of
+attention giving us a general power and control over our lives, but
+there is another type of training which is specific. As with the
+machinist mentioned above, so with all of us; we attend to the type of
+thing that we have formed a habit of attending to. Continued experience
+in a certain field makes it more and more easy to attend to things in
+that field. One can take a certain subject and work at it day after day,
+year after year. By and by, the whole world takes on the aspect of this
+chosen subject. The entomologist sees bugs everywhere, the botanist sees
+only plants, the mechanic sees only machines, the preacher sees only the
+moral and religious aspects of action, the doctor sees only disease, the
+mathematician sees always the quantitative aspect of things. Ideas and
+perceptions related to one's chosen work go at once and readily to the
+focus of consciousness; other things escape notice.
+
+It is for this reason that we become "crankier" every year that we live.
+We are attending to only one aspect of the world. While this blinds us
+to other aspects of the world, it brings mastery in our individual
+fields. We can, then, by training and practice, get a general control
+over attention, and by working in a certain field or kind of work, we
+make it easy to attend to things in that field or work. This to an
+extent gives us control of our lives, of our destiny.
+
+=Interest.= The essential elements of interest are attention and feeling.
+When a person is very attentive to a subject and gets pleasure from
+experience in that subject, we commonly say that he is _interested_ in
+that subject.
+
+Since the importance of attention and feeling in learning has already
+been shown and will be further developed in the chapters which follow in
+connection with the subjects of habit, memory, and thinking, little more
+need be said here.
+
+The key to all forms of learning is _attention_. The key to attention is
+_feeling_. Feeling depends upon the nature of the child, inherited and
+acquired. In our search for the means of arousing interest, we look
+first to the original nature of the child, to the instincts and the
+emotions. We look next to the acquired nature, the habits, the ideals,
+the various needs that have grown up in the individual's life.
+Educational writers have overemphasized the original nature of the child
+as a basis of interest and have not paid enough attention to acquired
+nature. We should not ask so much what a child's needs are, but what
+they _ought_ to be. Needs can be created. The child's nature to some
+extent can be changed. The problem of arousing interest is therefore one
+of finding in the child's nature a basis for attention and pleasure. If
+the basis is not to be found there, then it must be built up. How this
+can be done, how human nature can be changed, is to some extent the main
+problem of psychology. Every chapter in this book, it is hoped, will be
+found to throw some light on the problem.
+
+  SUMMARY. The two elementary feeling states are pleasantness and
+  unpleasantness. The emotions are complex mental states composed of
+  feeling and the sensations from bodily reactions to the situations.
+  Feeling and emotion are the motive forces of life, at the bottom of
+  all important actions. The bodily reactions of emotions are reflex
+  and instinctive. Attention is a matter of the relative clearness of
+  the contents of consciousness. The function of attention is to unify
+  thought and action. It is the important factor in all learning and
+  thinking, for it is only the attentive part of consciousness that is
+  effective.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make out a complete list of the more important emotions.
+
+2. Indicate the characteristic expression of each emotion in your list.
+
+3. Can you have an emotion without its characteristic expression? If,
+for example, when a situation arises which ordinarily arouses anger in
+you, you inhibit all the usual motor accompaniments of anger, are you
+really angry?
+
+4. Are the expressions of the same emotion the same for all people?
+
+5. Try to analyze some of your emotional states: anger, or fear, or
+grief. Can you detect the sensations that come from the bodily
+reactions?
+
+6. Try to induce an emotional state by producing its characteristic
+reactions.
+
+7. Try to change an emotional state to an opposite emotion; for example,
+grief to joy.
+
+8. Try to control and change emotional states in children.
+
+9. Name some sensations that for you are always pleasant, others that
+are always unpleasant--colors, sounds, tastes, odors, temperatures.
+
+10. Confirm by observation the statement of the text as to the
+importance of emotions in all the important actions of life.
+
+11. To what extent do you have control of your emotional states? What
+have you observed about differences in expression of deep emotions by
+different people? In case of death in the family, some people wail and
+moan and express their grief in the most extreme manner, while others do
+not utter a sound and show great control. Why the difference?
+
+12. Make an introspective study of your conscious states to note the
+difference in clearness of the different processes that are going on in
+consciousness. Do you find a constant shifting?
+
+13. Perform experiments to show the effects of attention in forming
+habits and acquiring knowledge.
+
+(1) Perform tests in learning, using substitution tests as described in
+Chapter X. Use several different keys. In some experiments have no
+distractions, in others, have various distracting noises. What
+differences do you find in the results?
+
+(2) Try learning nonsense syllables, some lists with distractions,
+others without distractions.
+
+(3) Try getting the ideas from stories read to you, as in the logical
+memory experiment described in Chapter X. Some stories should be read
+without distractions, others with distractions.
+
+14. Why are you unable to study well when under the influence of some
+strong emotion?
+
+15. Are you trained to the extent that you can concentrate on a task and
+hold yourself to it for a long time?
+
+16. Do you see that as far as will and attention and the emotions are
+concerned, your life and character are in large measure in your own
+hands?
+
+17. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters IV, V, and VI.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XIV, also
+pp. 187-192 and pp. 370-371.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters V and XI.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIV.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters IV, VIII, and XI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HABIT
+
+
+=The Nature of Habit.= We now turn from man's inherited nature to his
+acquired nature. Inherited tendencies to action we have called
+instincts; acquired tendencies to action we shall call habits. We can
+best form an idea of the nature of habit by considering some concrete
+cases.
+
+Let us take first the case of a man forming the habit of turning out the
+basement light. It usually happens that when a man has an electric light
+in the basement of his house, it is hard for him at first to think to
+turn out the light at night when he retires, and as a consequence the
+light often burns all night. This is expensive and unnecessary, so there
+is a strong incentive for the man to find a plan which will insure the
+regular turning-off of the light at bedtime. The plan usually hit upon
+is the following: The electric switch that controls the basement light
+is beside the basement stairway. The man learns to look at the switch as
+he comes up the stairs, after preparing the furnace fire for the night,
+and learns to take hold of the switch when he sees it and turn off the
+light. Coming up the stairs means to look at the switch. Seeing the
+switch means to turn it. Each step of the performance touches off the
+next. The man sees that in order to make sure that the light will always
+be turned off, the acts must all be made automatic, and each step must
+touch off the next in the series. At first, the man leaves the light
+burning about as often as he turns it off. After practicing for a time
+on the scheme, the different acts become so well connected that he
+seldom leaves the light burning. We say that he has formed the _habit_
+of turning off the light.
+
+For a second illustration, let us take the process of learning that nine
+times nine equals eighty-one. At first, one does not say or write
+"eighty-one" when one sees "nine times nine," but one can acquire the
+habit of doing so. It does not here concern us how the child learns what
+the product of nine times nine is. He may learn it by counting, by being
+told, or by reading it in a book. But however he first learns it, he
+fixes it and makes it automatic and habitual by _continuing_ to say or
+to write, "nine times nine equals eighty-one." The essential point is
+that at first the child does not know what to say when he hears or sees
+the expression "nine times nine," but after long practice he comes to
+give automatically and promptly the correct answer. For the definite
+problem "nine times nine" there comes the definite response
+"eighty-one."
+
+For a third illustration, let us take the case of a man tipping his hat
+when he meets a lady. A young boy does not tip his hat when he meets a
+lady until he has been taught to do so. After he learns this act of
+courtesy he does it quite automatically without thinking of it. For the
+definite situation, meeting a lady of his acquaintance, there comes to
+be established the definite response, tipping the hat. A similar habit
+is that of turning to the right when we meet a person. For the definite
+situation, meeting a person on the road or street or sidewalk, there is
+established the definite response, turning to the right. The response
+becomes automatic, immediate, certain.
+
+There is another type of habit that may properly be called an
+intellectual habit, such as voting a certain party ticket, say the
+Democratic. When one is a boy, one hears his father speak favorably of
+the Democratic party. His father says, "Hurrah for Bryan," so he comes
+to say, "Hurrah for Bryan." His father says, "I am a Democrat," so he
+says he is a Democrat. He takes the side that his father takes. In a
+similar way we take on the same religious notions that our parents have.
+It does not always happen this way, but this is the rule. But no matter
+how we come to do it, we do adopt the creed of some party or some
+church. We adopt a certain way of looking at public questions, and a
+certain way of looking at religious questions. For certain rather
+definite situations, we come to take definite stands. When we go to the
+booth to vote, we look at the top of the ballot to find the column
+marked "Democratic," and the definite response is to check the
+"Democrat" column. Of course, some of us form a different habit and
+check the "Republican" column, but the psychology of the act is the
+same. The point is that we form the Democratic habit or we form the
+Republican habit; and the longer we practice the habit, the harder it is
+to change it.
+
+In the presidential campaign of 1912, Roosevelt "bolted" from the
+Republican party. It was hard for the older Republicans to follow him.
+While one occasionally found a follower of Roosevelt who was gray, one
+usually found the old Republicans standing by the old party, the younger
+ones joining the Progressive party. It is said that when Darwin
+published "The Origin of Species," very few old men accepted the
+doctrine of evolution. The adherents of the new doctrine were nearly
+all young men. So there is such a thing as an intellectual habit. One
+comes to take a definite stand when facing certain definite intellectual
+situations.
+
+Similar to the type of habits which we have called intellectual is
+another type which may be called "moral." When we face the situation of
+reporting an occurrence, we can tell the truth or we can lie. We can
+build up the habit of meeting such situations by telling the truth on
+all occasions. We can learn to follow the maxim "Tell the truth at all
+times, at all hazards." We can come to do this automatically, certainly,
+and without thought of doing anything else.
+
+Most moral situations are fairly definite and clear-cut, and for them we
+can establish definite forms of response. We can form the habit of
+helping a person in distress, of helping a sick neighbor, of speaking
+well of a neighbor; we can form habits of industry, habits of
+perseverance. These and other similar habits are the basis of morality.
+
+The various kinds of habits which we have enumerated are alike in
+certain fundamental particulars. In all of them there is a definite
+situation followed by a definite response. One sees the switch and turns
+off the light; he sees the expression "nine times nine" and says
+"eighty-one"; he sees a lady he knows and tips his hat; in meeting a
+carriage on the road, he turns to the right; when he has to vote, he
+votes a certain ticket; when he has to report an occurrence, he tells it
+as it happened. There is, in every case, a definite situation followed
+by a definite response.
+
+Another characteristic is common to all the cases mentioned above,
+_i.e._ the response is acquired, it does not come at first. In every
+instance we might have learned to act differently. We could form the
+habit of always leaving the light burning; could just as easily say
+"nine times nine equals forty"; we could turn to the left; we could vote
+the Republican ticket. We can form bad moral habits as well as good
+ones, perhaps more easily. The point is, however, that we acquire
+definite ways of acting for the same situations, and these definite ways
+of acting are called habits.
+
+=Habit and Nerve-Path.= It has already been stated that a habit is a
+tendency toward a certain type of action in a certain situation. The
+basis of this tendency is in the nervous system. In order to understand
+it we must consider what the nervous system is like. Nerves terminate at
+one end in a sense organ and at the other end ultimately in a muscle.
+
+In Figure II, A is a sense organ, B a nerve going from the sense organ
+to the brain C. D, E, F, G, and H are motor nerves going from the brain
+to the muscles. Now, let us show from the diagram what organization
+means and what tendency means. At first when the child sees the
+expression "nine times nine," he does not say "eighty-one." The stimulus
+brings about no definite action. It is as likely to go out through E or
+F as through D. But suppose we can get the child to say "nine times nine
+equals eighty-one." We can write the expression on the blackboard and
+have the child look at it and say "nine times nine equals eighty-one."
+Suppose the act of saying "eighty-one" is brought about by the
+nerve-current going out through nerve-chain D. By repetition, we
+establish a bond. A stimulus of a particular kind comes through A, goes
+over B to C, and out over D, making muscles at M bring about a very
+definite action in saying "eighty-one."
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE II.--THE ORGANIZATION OF TENDENCIES]
+
+From the point of view of physiology, the process of habit-formation
+consists in securing a particular nerve coupling, establishing a
+particular nerve path, so that a definite form of stimulation will bring
+about a definite form of response. A nerve tendency is simply the
+likelihood that a stimulus will take a certain course rather than any
+other. This likelihood is brought about by getting the stimulus to take
+the desired route through the nervous system to a group of muscles and
+to continue following this route. The more times it passes the same way,
+the greater is the probability that at any given time the stimulus will
+take the accustomed route and bring about the usual response. At first
+any sort of action is possible. A nerve stimulus can take any one of the
+many routes to the different muscles. By chance or by conscious
+direction, the stimulus takes a certain path, and by repetition we fix
+and make permanent this particular route. This constitutes a nerve
+tendency or habit.
+
+=Plasticity.= Our discussion should have made it clear that habit is
+acquired nature, while instinct is inherited nature. Habit is acquired
+tendency while instinct is inherited tendency. The possibility of
+acquiring habits is peculiarly a human characteristic. While inanimate
+things have a definite nature, a definite way of reacting to forces
+which act upon them, they have little, if any, possibility of varying
+their way of acting. Water might be said to have habits. If one cools
+water, it turns to ice. If we heat it, it turns to steam. But it
+_invariably_ does this. We cannot teach it any different way of acting.
+Under the same conditions it always does the same thing.
+
+Plants are very much like inanimate things. Plants have definite ways of
+acting. A vine turns around a support. A leaf turns its upper surface to
+the light. But one cannot teach plants different ways of acting. The
+lower forms of animals are somewhat like plants and inanimate objects.
+But to a very slight extent they are variable and can form habits. Among
+the higher animals, such as dogs and other domestic animals, there is a
+greater possibility of forming habits. In man there are the greatest
+possibilities of habit-formation. In man the learned acts or habits are
+many as compared to the unlearned acts or instincts; while among the
+lower animals the opposite is the case--their instincts are many as
+compared to their habits.
+
+We may call this possibility of forming habits _plasticity_. Inanimate
+objects such as iron, rocks, sulphur, oxygen, etc., have no plasticity.
+Plants have very little possibility of forming habits. Lower animals
+have somewhat more, and higher animals still more, while man has the
+greatest possibility of forming habits. This great possibility of
+forming habits is one of the main characteristics of man. Let us
+illustrate the contrast between man and inanimate objects by an example.
+If sulphur is put into a test tube and heated, it at first melts and
+becomes quite thin like water. If it is heated still more, it becomes
+thick and will not run out of the tube. It also becomes dark. Sulphur
+_always_ does this when so treated. It cannot be taught to act
+differently. Now the action of sulphur when heated is like the action of
+a man when he turns to the right upon meeting a person in the street.
+But the man has to acquire this habit, while the sulphur does not have
+to learn its way of acting. Sulphur always acted in this way, while man
+did not perform his act at first, but had to learn it by slow
+repetition.
+
+Everything in the world has its own peculiar nature, but man is unique
+in that his nature can be very much changed. To a large extent, a man is
+_made_, his nature is _acquired_. After we become men and women, we have
+hundreds and thousands of tendencies to action, definite forms of
+action, that we did not have when young. Man's nature might be said to
+consist in his tendencies to action. Some of these tendencies he
+inherits; these are his instincts. Some of these he acquires; these are
+his habits.
+
+=What Habits Do for Us.= We have found out what habits are like; let us
+now see what they do for us. What good do they accomplish for us? How
+are we different after forming a habit from what we were before? We can
+best answer these questions by a consideration of concrete cases.
+Typewriting will serve very well the purpose of illustration. We shall
+give the result of an actual experiment in which ten university students
+took part. During their first half hour of practice, they wrote an
+average of 120 words. At the end of forty-five hours of practice, they
+were writing an average of 680 words in a half hour. This was an
+increase of speed of 560 per cent. An expert typist can write about
+3000 words in a half hour. Such a speed requires much more than
+forty-five hours practice, and is attained by the best operators only.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE III.--LEARNING CURVES
+The upper graph shows the improvement in speed of a group of students
+working two half hours a day. The lower curve shows the improvement of a
+group working ten half-hours a day.]
+
+In the foregoing experiment, the students improved in accuracy also. At
+the beginning of the work, they made 115 errors in the half hour. At the
+end of the practice, with much faster speed, they were making only
+327 errors in a half hour. The actual number of errors had increased
+280 per cent. The increase in errors was therefore exactly half as much
+as the increase in speed. This, of course, was a considerable increase
+in accuracy, for while the speed had increased to 5.6 times what it had
+been at the beginning, the errors had increased only 2.8 times. The
+subjects in this experiment paid much more attention to speed than they
+did to accuracy. If they had emphasized accuracy, they would have been
+doing almost perfect work at the end of the practice, and their speed
+would have been somewhat less. Practice, then, not only develops speed
+but also develops accuracy.
+
+There are also other results. At the beginning of work with the
+typewriter, there is much waste of energy and much fatigue. The waste of
+energy comes from using unnecessary muscles, and the fatigue is partly
+due to this waste of energy. But even apart from this waste of energy,
+an habituated act is performed with less fatigue. The various muscles
+concerned become better able to do their work. As a result of
+habituation there is, then, greater speed, greater accuracy, less waste
+of energy, and less fatigue.
+
+If we look not at the changes in our work but at the changes in
+ourselves, the changes in our minds due to the formation of habits, we
+find still other results. At the beginning of practice with the
+typewriter, the learner's whole attention is occupied with the work.
+When one is learning to do a new trick, the attention cannot be divided.
+The whole mind must be devoted to the work. But after one has practiced
+for several weeks, one can operate the typewriter while thinking about
+something else. We say that the habituated act sinks to a lower level of
+consciousness, meaning that as a habit becomes more and more fixed, less
+and less attention is devoted to the acts concerned.
+
+Increased skill gives us pleasure and also gives us confidence in our
+ability to do the thing. Corresponding to this inner confidence is outer
+certainty. There is greater objective certainty in our performance and a
+corresponding inner confidence. By objective certainty, we mean that a
+person watching our performance, becomes more and more sure of our
+ability to perform, and we ourselves feel confidence in our power of
+achievement.
+
+Now that we have shown the results of habituation let us consider
+additional illustrations. In piano playing, the stimuli are the notes as
+written in the music. We see the notes occupying certain places on the
+scale of the music. A note in a certain place means that we must strike
+a certain key. At first the response is slow, we have to hunt out each
+note on the keyboard. Moreover, we make many mistakes; we strike the
+wrong keys just as we do in typewriting. We are awkward, making many
+unnecessary movements, and the work is tiresome and fatiguing. After
+long practice, the speed with which we can manipulate the keys in
+playing the piano is wonderful. Our playing becomes accurate, perfect.
+We do it with ease, with no unnecessary movements. We can play the
+piano, after we become skilled, without paying attention to the actual
+movements of our hands. We can play the piano while concentrating upon
+the meaning of the music, or while carrying on a conversation, or while
+thinking about something else. As a rule, pleasure and confidence come
+with skill. Playing a difficult piece on the piano involves a skill
+which is one of the most complicated that man achieves. It is possible
+only through habituation of the piano-playing movements.
+
+Nailing shingles on a roof illustrates well the various aspects of
+habituation. The expert carpenter not only nails on many more shingles
+in a day than does the amateur, but he does it better and with more
+ease, and with much less fatigue. The carpenter knows exactly how much
+he can do in a day, and each particular movement is certain and sure.
+The carpenter has confidence in, and usually prides himself on, this
+ability, thus getting pleasure out of his work.
+
+The operations in arithmetic illustrate most of the results of
+habituation. Practice in addition makes for speed and accuracy. In a few
+weeks' time we can very much increase our speed and accuracy in adding,
+or in the other arithmetical operations.
+
+The foregoing examples are sufficient, although they could be multiplied
+indefinitely. Almost any habit one might name would show clearly most of
+the results enumerated. The most important aspects of habituation may be
+summed up in the one word _efficiency_. Habituation gives us speed and
+accuracy. Speed and accuracy mean skill. Skill means efficiency.
+
+=How Habits Are Formed.= It is clear from the foregoing discussion that
+the essential thing in a habit is the definiteness of the connection
+between the stimulus and the response, between the situation and the
+reaction to the situation. Our question now is, how is this definiteness
+of connection established? The answer is, _through repetition_. Let us
+work the matter out from a concrete case, such as learning to play the
+piano. In piano playing the stimulus comes from the music as printed on
+the staff. A note having a certain position on the staff indicates that
+a certain key is to be struck. We are told by our music teacher what
+keys on the piano correspond to the various notes on the staff, or we
+may learn these facts from the instruction book. It makes no difference
+how we learn them; but after we know these facts, we must have practice
+to give us skill. The mere knowledge will not make us piano players. In
+order to be skillful, we must have much practice not only in striking
+the keys indicated by the various note positions, but with the various
+combinations of notes. For example, a note on the second space indicates
+that the player must strike the key known as "A." But "A" may occur with
+any of the other notes, it may precede them or it may follow them. We
+must therefore have practice in striking "A" in all these situations. To
+have skill at the piano, we must mechanize many performances. We must be
+able to read the notes with accuracy and ease. We must practice so much
+that the instant we see a certain combination of notes on the staff, our
+hands immediately execute the proper strokes. Not only must we learn
+what keys on the piano correspond to the various notes of the music, but
+the notes have a temporal value which we must learn. Some are to be
+sounded for a short time, others for a longer time. We have eighth
+notes, quarter notes, half notes, etc. Moreover, the signature of the
+music as indicated by the sharps or flats changes the whole situation.
+If the music is written in "A sharp" then when "A" is indicated on the
+staff, we must not strike the white key known as "A," but the black key
+just above, known as "A sharp."
+
+Briefly, in piano playing, the stimulus comes from the characters
+printed on the staff. The movements which these characters direct are
+very complicated and require months and years of practice. We must
+emphasize the fact that practice alone gives facility, years of
+practice. But after these years of practice, one can play a piece of
+music at sight; that is, the first stimulus sets off perfectly a very
+complicated response. This sort of performance is one of the highest
+feats of skill that man accomplishes.
+
+To get skill, then, one must practice. But mere repetition is not
+sufficient. For practice to be most effective, one must put his whole
+mind on what he is doing. If he divides his attention between the acts
+which he is practicing and something else, the effect of the practice in
+fixing and perfecting the habit is slight. It seems that when we are
+building up a new nerve-path which is to be the basis of a new habit,
+the nervous energies should not be divided; that the whole available
+nervous energy should be devoted to the acts which we are repeating.
+This is only another way of saying that when we are practicing to
+establish a habit, we should attend to what we are doing and to nothing
+else. But after the habit-connection is once firmly established, we can
+attend to other things while performing the habitual act. The habitual
+action will go on of itself. We may say, then, that in order to be able
+to do a thing with little or no attention, we must give much attention
+to it at first.
+
+Another important factor in habit-formation is pleasure. The act which
+we are practicing must give us pleasure, either while we are doing it or
+as a result. Pleasurable results hasten habit-formation. When we
+practice an act in which we have no interest, we make slow progress or
+none at all. Now the elements of interest are attention and pleasure. If
+we voluntarily attend to a thing and its performance gives us pleasure,
+or pleasure results from it, we say we are interested in it. The secret
+of successful practice is interest. Repeatedly in laboratory experiments
+it happens that a student loses interest in the performance and
+subsequently makes little, if any, progress. One of the biggest problems
+connected with habit-formation is that of maintaining interest.
+
+A factor which prevents the formation of habits is that of exceptions.
+If a stimulus, instead of going over to the appropriate response,
+produces some other action, there is an interference in the formation of
+the desired habit. The effect of an exception is greater than the mere
+neglect of practice. The _exception opens up another path_ and tends to
+make future action uncertain. Particularly is this true in the case of
+moral habits. Forming moral habits is usually uphill work anyway, in
+that we have instincts to overcome. Allowing exceptions to enter, in the
+moral sphere, usually means a slipping back into an old way of acting,
+thereby weakening much the newly-made connection.
+
+In any kind of practice, when we become fatigued we make errors. If we
+continue to practice when fatigued, we form connections which we do not
+wish to make and which interfere with the desired habits.
+
+=Economy of Practice.= The principles which we have enumerated and
+illustrated are fairly general and of universal validity. There are
+certain other factors which we may discuss here under the head of
+economical procedure. To form a habit, we must practice. But how long
+should we practice at one time? This is an experimental problem and has
+been definitely solved. It has been proved by experiment that we can
+practice profitably for as long a time as we can maintain a high degree
+of attention, which is usually till we become fatigued. This time is not
+the same for all people. It varies with age, and in the case of the same
+person it varies at different times. If ordinary college students work
+at habit-formation at the highest point of concentration, they get the
+best return for a period of about a half hour. It depends somewhat on
+the amount of concentration required for the work and the stage of
+fixation of the habit, _i.e._ whether one has just begun to form the
+habit or whether it is pretty well fixed. For children, the period of
+successful practice is usually much less than a half hour--five, ten,
+fifteen, twenty minutes, depending upon the age of the child and the
+kind of work.
+
+The best interval between periods of practice is the day, twenty-four
+hours. If one practices in the morning for a half hour, one can practice
+again in the afternoon with nearly as much return as he would secure the
+next day, but not quite. In general, practice is better, gives more
+return, if spread out. To practice one day as long as one can work at a
+high point of efficiency, and then to postpone further practice till the
+next day, gives one the most return for the time put in. But if one is
+in a hurry to form a habit, one can afford to practice more each day
+even if the returns from the practice do diminish proportionately.
+
+This matter has been tried out on the typewriter. If one practices for
+ten half hours a day with half-hour rests between, one does not get so
+much return for his time as he would if he should spread it out at the
+rate of one or two half-hour practices a day. But by working ten half
+hours a day, one gets much more efficiency in the same number of days
+than if he should practice only one or two half hours a day. This point
+must not be misunderstood. We do not mean that one must not work at
+anything longer than a half hour a day. We mean that if one is forming a
+habit, his time counts for more in forming the habit if spread out at
+the rate of a half hour or an hour a day, than it does if put in at a
+faster rate. Therefore if one is in no hurry and can afford to spread
+out his time, he gets the best return by so doing, and the habit is more
+firmly fixed than if formed hurriedly. But if one is in a hurry, and has
+the time to devote to it, he can afford to concentrate his practice up
+to five hours or possibly more in a day, provided that rest intervals
+are interspersed between periods of practice.
+
+There is one time in habit-formation when concentrated practice is most
+efficient. That is at the beginning. In a process as complicated as
+typewriting, so little impression is made at the beginning by a short
+period of practice that progress is but slight. On the first day, one
+should practice about four or five times to secure the best returns, a
+half hour each time.
+
+=What the Teacher Can Do.= Now, let us see how the teacher can be of
+assistance to the pupil in habit-formation. The teacher should have a
+clear idea of the nature of the habit to be formed and should
+demonstrate the habit to the pupil. Suppose the habit is so simple a
+thing as long division. The teacher should explain each step in the
+process. She should go to the blackboard and actually solve a number of
+problems in long division, so that the pupils can see just how to do it.
+After this the pupils should go to the board and solve a problem
+themselves. The reason for this procedure is that it is most economical.
+If the children are left to get the method of doing long division from a
+book, they will not be able to do it readily and will make mistakes. A
+teacher can explain a process better than it can be explained in a book.
+By giving a full explanation and demonstration and then by requiring the
+children to work a few problems while she watches for mistakes,
+correcting them at once, the teacher secures economy of effort and time.
+The first step is to demonstrate the habit to the pupils; the second, to
+have them do the act, whatever it is, correcting their mistakes; the
+third, to require the pupils to practice till they have acquired skill.
+The teacher must make provision for practice.
+
+=What Parents Can Do.= Parents can be of very great assistance to children
+who are forming habits.
+
+(1) They can coöperate with the school, which is directing the child in
+the systematic formation of a great system of habits. The teacher should
+explain these habits to the parents so that they may know what the
+teacher is trying to do. Quite often the home and the school are working
+at cross purposes. The only way to prevent this is for them to work in
+the closest coöperation, with the fullest understanding of what is being
+undertaken for the child. Parents and teachers should often meet
+together and talk over the work of training the children of the
+community. Parents should have not merely a general understanding of the
+work of the school, but they should know the details undertaken. The
+school often assigns practice work to be done at home in reading,
+writing, arithmetic. Parents should always know of these assignments and
+should help the children get the necessary practice. They can do this by
+reminding the child of the work, by preparing a suitable place where the
+work may be done, and by securing quiet for the practice. Children like
+play and it is easy for them to forget their necessary work. Parents can
+be of the greatest service to childhood and youth by holding the
+children to their responsibilities and duties.
+
+Few parents take any thought of whether their children are doing all
+possible for their school progress. Few of those who do, make definite
+plans and arrangements for the children to accomplish the necessary
+practice and study. This is the parent's duty and responsibility.
+Moreover, parents are likely to feel that children have no rights, and
+think nothing of calling on them in the midst of their work to do some
+errand. Now, children should work about the house and help their
+parents, but there should be a time for this and a separate time for
+study and practice on school work.
+
+When a child sits down for serious practice on some work, his time
+should be sacred and inviolable. Instead of interfering with the child,
+the parents should do everything in their power to make this practice
+possible and efficient. In their relations with their children perhaps
+parents sin more in the matter of neglecting to plan for them than in
+any other way. They plan for everything else, but they let their
+children grow up, having taken no definite thought about helping them to
+form their life habits and to establish these habits by practice. When a
+child comes home from school, the mother should find out just what work
+is to be done before the next day and should plan the child's play and
+work in such a way as to include all necessary practice. If all parents
+would do this, the value to the work of the school and to the life of
+the child would be incalculable.
+
+(2) Just as one of the main purposes of the teacher is to help the child
+gain initiative, so it is one of the greatest of the parents' duties.
+Parents must help the children to keep their purposes before them.
+Children forget, even when they wish to remember. Often, they do not
+want to remember. The parents' duty is to get the child to _want_ to
+remember, and to help him to remember, whether he wants to or not. One
+of the main differences between childhood and maturity is that the child
+lives in the present, his purposes are all immediate ones. Habits always
+look forward, they are for future good and use. Mature people have
+learned to look forward and to plan for the future. They must,
+therefore, perform this function for the children. They must look
+forward and see what the child should learn to do, and then see that he
+learns to do it.
+
+(3) Parents must help children to plan their lives in general and in
+detail; _i.e._ in the sense of determining the ideals and habits that
+will be necessary for those lives. The parents must do this with the
+help of the child. The child must not be a blind follower, but as the
+child's mind becomes mature enough, the parent must explain the matter
+of forming life habits, and must show the child that life is a structure
+that he himself is to build. Life will be what he makes it, and the time
+for forming character is during early years. The parent must not only
+tell the child this but must help him to realize the truth of it, must
+help him continually, consistently.
+
+(4) Of course it is hardly necessary to say that the parent can help
+much, perhaps most, by example. The parent must not only tell the child
+what to do but must _show_ him how it should be done.
+
+(5) Parents can help in the ways mentioned above, but they can also help
+by coöperating among themselves in planning for the training of the
+children of the community. One parent cannot train his children
+independently of all the other people in the community. There must be a
+certain unity of ideals and aims. Therefore, not only is there need for
+coöperation between parents and teachers but among parents themselves.
+Although they coöperate in everything else, they seldom do in the
+training of their children. The people of a community should meet
+together occasionally to plan for this common work.
+
+=Importance of Habit in Education and Life.= A man is the sum of his
+habits and ideals. He has language habits; he speaks German, or French,
+or English. He has writing habits, spelling habits, reading habits,
+arithmetic habits. He has political habits, religious habits. He has
+various social habits, habitual attitudes which he takes toward his
+fellows. He has moral habits--he is honest and truthful, or he is
+dishonest and untruthful. He always looks on the bright side, or else on
+the dark side of events. All these habits and many more, he has. They
+are structures which he has built. One's life, then, is the sum of his
+tendencies, and these tendencies one establishes in early life.
+
+This view gives an importance to the work of the school which is derived
+from no other view. The school is not a place where we get this little
+bit of information, or the other. It is the place where we are molded,
+formed, and shaped into the beings we are to be. The school has not
+risen to see the real importance of its work. Its aims have been low and
+its achievements much lower than its aims. Teachers should rise to the
+importance of their calling. Their work is that of gods. They are
+creators. They do not make the child. They do not give it memory or
+attention or imagination. But they are creators of tendencies,
+prejudices, religions, politics, and other habits unnumbered. So that in
+a very real sense, the school, with all the other educational
+influences, makes the man. We do not give a child the capacity to learn,
+but we can determine what he shall learn. We do not give him memory, but
+we can select what he shall remember. We do not make the child as he is
+at the beginning, but we can, in large measure, determine the world of
+influences which complete the task of _making_.
+
+In the early part of life every day and every hour of the day
+establishes and strengthens tendencies. Every year these tendencies
+become stronger. Every year after maturity, we resist change. By
+twenty-five or thirty, "character has set like plaster." The general
+attitude and view of the world which we have at maturity, we are to hold
+throughout life. Very few men fundamentally change after this. It takes
+a tremendous influence and an unusual situation to break one up and make
+him an essentially different man after maturity. Every year a "crank"
+becomes "crankier."
+
+It is well that this is so. Everything in the world costs its price.
+Rigidity is the price we pay for efficiency. In order to be efficient,
+we must make habitual the necessary movements. After they are
+habituated, they resist change. But habit makes for regularity and
+order. We could not live in society unless there were regularity,
+order, fixity. Habit makes for conservatism. But conservatism is
+necessary for order. In a sense, habit works against progress. But
+permanent improvement without habit would be impossible, for permanent
+progress depends upon holding what we gain. It is well for society that
+we are conservative. We could not live in the chaos that would exist
+without habit. Public opinion resists change. People refuse to accept a
+view that is different from the one they have held. We could get nowhere
+if we continually changed, and it is well for us that we continue to do
+the old way to which we have become accustomed, till a new and better
+one is shown beyond doubt. Even then, it is probably better for an old
+person to continue to use the accustomed methods of a lifetime. Although
+better methods are developed, they will not be so good for the old
+person as those modes of action that he is used to. The possibility of
+progress is through new methods which come in with each succeeding
+generation.
+
+When we become old we are not willing to change, but the more reasonable
+of us are willing that our children should be taught a better way.
+Sometimes, of course, we find people who say that what was good enough
+for them is good enough for their children. Most of us think better, and
+wish to give our children a "better bringing up than ours has been."
+
+These considerations make clear the importance of habit in life. They
+should also make clear a very important corollary. If habits are
+important in life, then it is the duty of parents and teachers to make a
+careful selection of the habits that are to be formed by the children.
+The habits that will be necessary for the child to form in order to meet
+the various situations of his future life, should be determined. There
+should be no vagueness about it. Definite habits, social, moral,
+religious, intellectual, professional, etc., will be necessary for
+efficiency. We should know what these various habits are, and should
+then set about the work of establishing them with system and
+determination, just as we would the building of a house. Much school
+work and much home training is vague, indefinite, uncertain, done
+without a clear understanding of the needs or of the results. We
+therefore waste time, years of the child's life, and the results are
+unsatisfactory.
+
+=Drill in School Subjects.= In many school subjects, the main object is to
+acquire skill in certain processes. As previously explained, we can
+become skillful in an act only by repetition of the act. Therefore, in
+those subjects in which the main object is the acquiring of skill, there
+must be much repetition. This repetition is called drill. The matter of
+economical procedure in drill has already been considered, but there are
+certain problems connected with drill that must be further discussed.
+
+Drill is usually the hardest part of school work. It becomes monotonous
+and tiresome. Moreover, drill is always a means. It is the means by
+which we become efficient. Take writing, for example. It is not an end
+in itself; it is the means by which we convey thoughts. Reading is a
+means by which we are able to get the thought of another. In acquiring a
+foreign language, we have first to master the elementary tools that will
+enable us to make the thought of the foreign language our own.
+
+It seems that the hardest part of education always comes first, when we
+are least able to do it. It used to be that nearly all the work of the
+school was drill. There was little school work that was interesting in
+itself. In revolt against this kind of school, many modern educators
+have tried to plan a curriculum that would be interesting to the child.
+In schools that follow this idea, there is little or no drill, pure and
+simple. There is no work that is done for the sole purpose of acquiring
+skill. The work is so planned that, in pursuing it, the child will of
+necessity have to perform the necessary acts and will thereby gain
+efficiency. In arithmetic, there is no adding, subtracting, multiplying,
+or dividing, only as such things must be done in the performance of
+something else that is interesting in itself. For example, the child
+plays store and must add up the sales. The child plays bean bag and must
+add up the score. Practice gained in this indirect way is known as
+incidental drill. Direct drill consists in making a direct approach; we
+wish to be efficient at adding, so we practice adding as such and not
+merely as incidental to something else.
+
+This plan of incidental drill is in harmony with the principle of
+interest previously explained. There are several things, however, that
+must be considered. The proper procedure would seem to be to look
+forward and find out in what directions the child will need to acquire
+skill and then to help him acquire it in the most economical way and at
+the proper time. Nature has so made us that we like to do a new trick.
+When we have taught a child how to add and subtract, he likes to perform
+these operations because the operations themselves give pleasure.
+Therefore much repetition can be allowed and much skill acquired by a
+direct approach to the practice. When interest drags, incidental drill
+can be fallen back upon to help out the interest. Children should be
+taught that certain things must be done, certain skill must be acquired.
+They should accept some things on the authority of elders. They should
+be taught to apply themselves and to give their whole attention to a
+thing that must be done. A desire for efficiency can be developed in
+them. The spirit of competition can sometimes be effectively used to add
+interest to drill. Of course, interest and attention there must be, and
+if it cannot be secured in one way, it must be in another.
+
+Experiments have abundantly shown the value of formal drill, that is to
+say, drill for drill's sake. If an arithmetic class is divided, one half
+being given a few minutes' drill on the fundamental operations each day
+but otherwise doing exactly the same work as the other half of the
+class, the half receiving the drill acquires much more skill in the
+fundamental operations and, besides, is better at reasoning out problems
+than the half that had no drill. The explanation of the latter fact is
+doubtless that the pupils receiving the drill acquire such efficiency in
+the fundamental operations that these cause no trouble, leaving all the
+energies of the pupils for reasoning out the problems.
+
+It has been shown experimentally that a direct method of teaching
+spelling is more efficient than an indirect method. It is not to be
+wondered at that such turns out to be the case. For in a direct
+approach, the act that we are trying to habituate is brought more
+directly before consciousness, receiving that focal attention which is
+necessary for the most efficient practice in habit-formation. If one
+wishes to be a good ball pitcher, one begins to pitch balls, and
+continues pitching balls day after day, morning, noon, and night. One
+does not go about it indirectly. If one wishes to be a good shot with a
+rifle, one gets a rifle and goes to shooting. Similarly, if one wishes
+to be a good adder, the way to do is to begin adding, not to begin doing
+something else. Of course any method that will induce a child to realize
+that he ought to acquire a certain habit, is right and proper. We must
+do all we can to give a child a desire, an interest in the thing that he
+is trying to do. But there is no reason why the thing should not be
+faced directly.
+
+=Rules for Habit Formation.= In the light of the various principles which
+we have discussed, what rules can be given to one forming habits? The
+evident answer is, to proceed in accordance with established principles.
+We may, however, bring the most important of these principles together
+in the form of rules which can serve as a guide and help to one forming
+habits.
+
+(1) _Get initiative._ By this is meant that a person forming a habit
+should have some sustaining reason for doing it, some end that is being
+sought. This principle will be of very little use to young children,
+only to those old enough to appreciate reasons and ends. In arithmetic,
+for example, a child should be shown what can be accomplished if he
+possesses certain skill in addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It
+is not always possible for a young person to see why a certain habit
+should be formed. For the youngest children, the practice must be in the
+form of play. But when a child is old enough to think, to have ideals
+and purposes, reasons and explanations should be worked out.
+
+(2) _Get practice._ If you are to have skill, you must practice.
+Practice regularly, practice hard while you are doing it. Throw your
+whole life into it, as if what you are doing is the most important
+thing in the world. Practice under good conditions. Do not think that
+just any kind of practice will do. Try to make conditions such that they
+will enable you to do your best work. Such conditions will not happen by
+chance. You must make them happen. You must make conditions favorable.
+You must seek opportunities to practice. You must realize that your life
+is in the making, that _you_ are making it, that it is to a large extent
+composed of habits. These habits you are building. They are built only
+by practice. Get practice. When practicing, fulfill the psychological
+conditions. Work under the most favorable circumstances as to length of
+periods, intervals, etc.
+
+(3) _Allow no exceptions._ You should fully realize the great influence
+of exceptions. When you start in to form a habit, allow nothing to turn
+you from your course. Whether the habit is some fundamental moral habit
+or the multiplication table, be consistent, do not vacillate. Nothing is
+so strong as consistent action, nothing so weak as doubtful, wavering,
+uncertain action. Have the persistence of a bull dog and the regularity
+of planetary motion.
+
+=Transfer of Training.= Our problem now is to find out whether forming one
+habit helps one to form another. In some cases it does. The results of a
+recent experiment performed in the laboratory of educational psychology
+in the University of Missouri, will show what is meant. It was found
+that if a person practiced distributing cards into pigeon holes till
+great proficiency was attained, and then the numbering of the boxes or
+pigeon holes was changed, the person could learn the new numbering and
+gain proficiency in distributing the cards in the new way more quickly
+than was the case at first. Similarly, if one learns to run a
+typewriter with a certain form of keyboard, one can learn to operate a
+different keyboard much more quickly than was the case in learning the
+first keyboard.
+
+It is probable that the explanation of this apparent transfer is that
+there are common elements in the two cases. Certain bonds established in
+the first habit are available in the second. In the case of distributing
+the cards, many such common elements can be made out. One gains facility
+in reading the numbering of the cards. The actual movement of the hand
+in getting to a particular box is the same whatever the number of the
+box. One acquires schemes of associating and locating the boxes, schemes
+that will work in both cases. But suppose that one spends fifteen days
+in distributing cards according to one scheme of numbering, and then
+changes the numbering and practices for fifteen days with the new
+numbering, at the end of the second fifteen days one has more skill than
+at the close of the first fifteen days. In fact, in five days one has as
+much skill in the new method as was acquired in fifteen days in the
+first method. However, and this is an important point, the speed in the
+new way is not so great as the speed acquired in thirty days using one
+method or one scheme all the time. Direct practice on the specific habit
+involved is always most efficient.
+
+One should probably never learn one thing _just because_ it will help
+him in learning something else, for that something else could be more
+economically learned by direct practice. Learning one language probably
+helps in learning another. A year spent in learning German will probably
+help in learning French. But two years spent in learning French will
+give more efficiency in French than will be acquired by spending one
+year on German and then one year on French. If the only reason for a
+study is that it helps in learning something else, then this study
+should be left out of the curriculum. If the only reason for studying
+Latin, for example, is that it helps in studying English, or French, or
+helps in grammar, or gives one a larger vocabulary in English on account
+of a knowledge of the Latin roots, then the study of the language cannot
+be justified; for all of these results could be much more economically
+and better attained by a direct approach. Of course, if Latin has a
+justification in itself, then these by-products are not to be despised.
+
+The truth seems to be that habits are very specific things. A definite
+stimulus goes over to a definite response. We must decide what habits we
+need to have established, and then by direct and economical practice
+establish these habits. It is true that in pursuing some studies, we
+acquire habits that are of much greater applicability in the affairs of
+life than can be obtained from other studies. When one has acquired the
+various adding habits, he has kinds of skill that will be of use in
+almost everything that is undertaken later. So also speaking habits,
+writing habits, spelling habits, moral habits, etc., are of universal
+applicability. Whenever one undertakes to do a thing that involves some
+habit already formed, that thing is more easily done by virtue of that
+habit. One could not very well learn to multiply one number by another,
+such as 8,675,489 by 439,857, without first learning to add.
+
+This seems to be all there is to the idea of the transfer of training.
+One gets an act, or an idea, or an attitude, or a point of view that is
+available in a new thing, thereby making the new thing easier. The
+methods one would acquire in the study of zoölogy would be, many of
+them, directly applicable in the study of botany. But, just as truly,
+one can acquire habits in doing one thing that will be a direct
+hindrance in learning another thing. Knocking a baseball unfits one for
+knocking a tennis ball. The study of literature and philosophy probably
+unfits one for the study of an experimental science because the methods
+are so dissimilar, in some measure antagonistic.
+
+=Habit and Moral Training.= By moral training, we mean that training which
+prepares one to live among his fellows. It is a training that prepares
+us to act in our relations with our fellow men in such a way as to bring
+happiness to our neighbors as well as to ourselves. Specifically, it is
+a training in honesty, truthfulness, sympathy, and industry. There are
+other factors of morality but these are the most important. It is
+evident at once that moral training is the most important of all
+training. This is, at any rate, the view taken by society; for if a man
+falls short in his relations with his fellows, he is punished. If the
+extent of his falling is very great, his liberty is entirely taken away
+from him. In some cases, he is put to death. Moral training, in addition
+to being the most important, is also the most difficult. What the public
+schools can do in this field is quite limited. The training which the
+child gets on the streets and at home almost overshadows it.
+
+=Nature of Moral Training.= A good person is one who does the right social
+thing at the right time. The more completely and consistently one does
+this, the better one is. What kind of training can one receive that will
+give assurance of appropriate moral action? Two things can be done to
+give a child this assurance. The child can be led to form proper ideals
+of action and proper habits of action. By ideal of action, we mean that
+the child should know what the right action is, and have a desire to do
+it. Habits of action are acquired only through action. As has been
+pointed out in the preceding pages, continued action of a definite kind
+develops a tendency to this particular action. One's character is the
+sum of his tendencies to action. These tendencies can be developed only
+through practice, through repetition. Moral training, therefore, has the
+same basis as all other training, that is, in habits. The same procedure
+that we use in teaching the child the multiplication table is the one to
+use in developing honesty. In the case of the tables, we have the child
+say "fifty-six" for "eight times seven." We have him do this till he
+does it instantly, automatically. Honesty and truthfulness and the other
+moral virtues can be fixed in the same way.
+
+=Home and Moral Training.= The home is the most important factor in moral
+training. This is largely because of the importance of early habits and
+attitudes. Obedience to parents and respect for authority, which in a
+large measure underlie all other moral training, must be secured and
+developed in the early years of childhood. The child does not start to
+school till about six years old. At this age much of the foundation of
+morality is laid. Unless the child learns strict obedience in the first
+two or three years of life, it is doubtful whether he will ever learn it
+aright. Without the habit of implicit obedience, it is difficult to
+establish any other good habit.
+
+Parents should understand that training in morality consists, in large
+measure, in building up habits, and should go about it in a systematic
+way. As various situations arise in the early life of a child, the
+parents should obtain from him the appropriate responses. When the
+situations recur, the right responses should be again secured. Parents
+should continue to insist upon these responses till tendencies are
+formed for the right response to follow when the situation arises. After
+continued repetition, the response comes automatically. The good man or
+woman is the one who does the right thing as the situation presents
+itself, does it as a matter of course because it is his nature. He does
+not even think of doing the wrong thing.
+
+One of the main factors in child training is consistency. The parent
+must inflexibly require the right action in the appropriate situation.
+Good habits will not be formed if parents insist on proper action one
+day but on the next day allow the child to do differently.
+
+Parents must plan the habits which they wish their children to form and
+execute these plans systematically, exercising constant care. Parents,
+and children as well, would profit from reading the plan used by
+Franklin. Farseeing and clear-headed, Franklin saw that character is a
+structure which one builds, so he set about this building in a
+systematic way. For a certain length of time he practiced on one virtue,
+allowing no exceptions in this one virtue. When this aspect of his
+character had acquired strength, he added another virtue and then tried
+to keep perfect as to both.[4]
+
+[4] See _Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin_.
+
+=The School and Moral Training.= In this, as in all other forms of
+training, the school is supplementary to the home. The teacher should
+have well in mind the habits and ideals that the home has been trying to
+develop and should assist in strengthening the bonds. The school can do
+much in developing habits of kindness and sympathy among the children.
+It can develop civic and social ideals and habits. Just how it can best
+do this is a question. Should moral ideals be impressed systematically
+and should habits be formed at the time these ideals are impressed, or
+should the different ideals be instilled and developed as occasion
+demands? This is an experimental problem, and that method should be
+followed which produces the best results. It is possible that one
+teacher may use one method best while a different teacher will have
+better success with another method.
+
+More important than the question of a systematic or an incidental method
+is the question of making the matter vital when it is taken up. Nothing
+is more certain than that mere knowledge of right action will not insure
+right action. In a few hours one can teach a child, as matters of mere
+knowledge, what he should do in all the important situations of life;
+but this will not insure that he will henceforth do the right things.
+
+There are only two ways by which we can obtain any assurance that right
+action will come. The first way is to secure right habits of response.
+We must build up tendencies to action. Tendencies depend upon previous
+action. The second way is to help the child to analyze moral situations
+and see what results will follow upon the different kinds of action.
+There can be developed in a child a desire to do that which will bring
+joy and happiness to others, rather than pain and sorrow. But this
+analysis of moral situations is not enough to insure right moral action;
+there must be practice in doing the right thing. The situation must go
+over to the right response to insure its going there the next time. The
+first thing in moral training is to develop habits. Then, as soon as
+the child is old enough he can strengthen his habits by a careful
+analysis of the problem why one should act one way rather than another.
+This adds motive; and motive gives strength and assurance.
+
+  SUMMARY. Habits are acquired tendencies to specific actions in
+  definite situations. They are fixed through repetition. They give us
+  speed, accuracy, and certainty, they save energy and prevent
+  fatigue. They are performed with less attention and become
+  pleasurable. The main purpose of education is to form the
+  habits--moral, intellectual, vocational, cultural--necessary for
+  life. Habits and ideals are the basis of our mature life and
+  character. Moral training is essentially like other forms of
+  training, habit being the basis.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Practice on the formation of some habit until considerable skill is
+acquired. Draw a learning curve similar to the one on page 95, showing
+the increase in skill. A class experiment can be performed by the use of
+a substitution test. Take letters to represent the nine digits, then
+transcribe numbers into the letters as described on page 192. Keep a
+record of successive five-minute periods of practice till all have
+practiced an hour. This gives twelve practice periods for the
+construction of a learning curve. The individual experiments should be
+more difficult and cover a longer period. Suitable experiments for
+individual practice are: learning to operate a typewriter, pitching
+marbles into a hole, writing with the left hand, and mirror writing. The
+latter is performed by standing a mirror vertically on the table,
+placing the paper in front and writing in such a way that the letters
+have the proper form and appearance when seen in the mirror. The subject
+should not look at his hand but at its reflection in the mirror. A piece
+of cardboard can be supported just over the hand so that only the image
+of the hand in the mirror can be seen.
+
+2. A study of the interference of habit can be made as follows: Take
+eight small boxes and arrange them in a row. Number each box plainly. Do
+not number them consecutively, but as follows, 5, 7, 1, 8, 2, 3, 6, 4.
+Make eighty cards, ten of each number, and number them plainly. Practice
+distributing the cards into the boxes. Note the time required for each
+distribution. Continue to distribute them till considerable skill is
+acquired. Then rearrange the order of the boxes and repeat the
+experiment. What do the results show?
+
+3. Does the above experiment show any transfer of training? Compare the
+time for each distribution in the second part of the experiment, _i.e._
+after the rearrangement of the boxes, with the time for the
+corresponding distribution in the first part of the experiment. The
+question to be answered is: Are the results of the second part of the
+experiment better than they would have been if the first part had not
+been performed? State your results and conclusions and compare with the
+statements in the text.
+
+4. A study of the effects of spreading out learning periods can be made
+as follows: Divide the class into two equal divisions. Let one division
+practice on a substitution experiment as explained in Exercise 1, for
+five ten-minute periods of practice in immediate succession. Let the
+other division practice for five days, ten minutes a day. What do the
+results indicate? The divisions should be of equal ability. If the first
+ten-minute practice period shows the sections to be of unequal ability,
+this fact should be taken into account in making the comparisons. Test
+sheets can be prepared by the teacher, or they can be obtained from the
+Extension Division of the University of Missouri.
+
+5. An experiment similar to No. 4 can be performed by practicing adding
+or any other school exercise. Care must be taken to control the
+experiment and to eliminate disturbing factors.
+
+6. Try the card-distributing experiment with people of different ages,
+young children, old people, and various ages in between. What do you
+learn? Is it as easy for an old person to form a habit as it is for a
+young person? Why?
+
+7. If an old person has no old habits to interfere, can he form a new
+habit as readily as can a young person?
+
+8. Cite evidence from your own experience to prove that it is hard for
+an old person to break up old habits and form new ones which interfere
+with the old ones.
+
+9. Do you find that you are becoming "set in your ways?"
+
+10. What do we mean by saying that we are "plastic in early years"?
+
+11. Have you planned your life work? Are you establishing the habits
+that will be necessary in it?
+
+12. Is it an advantage or a disadvantage to choose one's profession or
+occupation early?
+
+13. Attention often interferes with the performance of a habitual act.
+Why is this?
+
+14. If a man removes his vest in the daytime, he is almost sure to wind
+his watch. On the other hand if he is up all night, he lets his watch
+run down. Why?
+
+15. Do you know of people who have radically changed their views late in
+life?
+
+16. Try to teach a dog or a cat a trick. What do you learn of importance
+about habit-formation?
+
+17. What branches taught in school involve the formation of habits that
+are useful throughout life?
+
+18. Make a list of the moral habits that should be formed in early
+years.
+
+19. Write an essay on _Habit and Life_.
+
+20. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XI and XVII.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, pp. 48-59; also Chapter XV.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters X, XI, and XII.
+
+ROWE: _Habit Formation_, Chapters V-XIII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, p. 169, par. 37.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MEMORY
+
+
+=Perceptions and Ideas.= In a previous chapter, brief mention was made of
+the difference between perceptions and ideas. This distinction must now
+be enlarged upon and made clearer. Perceptions arise out of our sensory
+life. We see things when these things are before our eyes. We hear
+things when these things produce air vibrations which affect our ears.
+We smell things when tiny particles from them come into contact with a
+small patch of sensitive membrane in our noses. We taste substances when
+these substances are in our mouths. Now, this seeing, hearing, smelling,
+tasting, etc., is _perceiving_. We perceive a thing when the thing is
+actually at the time affecting some one or more of our sense organs. A
+perception, then, results from the stimulation of a sense organ.
+Perception is the process of perceiving, sensing, objects in the
+external world.
+
+Ideas are our _seeming_ to see, hear, smell, taste things when these
+things are not present to the senses. This morning I saw, had a
+_perception_ of, a robin. To-night in my study, I have an _idea_ of a
+robin. This morning the robin was present. Light reflected from it
+stimulated my eye. To-night, as I have an idea of the robin, it is not
+here; I only seem to see it. The scene which was mine this morning is
+now revived, reproduced. We may say, therefore, that ideas are the
+conscious representatives of objects which are not present to the
+senses. Ideas are revived experiences.
+
+Revived experience is memory. Since it is memory that enables us to live
+our lives over again, brings the past up to the present, it is one of
+the most wonderful aspects of our natures. The importance of memory is
+at once apparent if we try to imagine what life would be without it. If
+our life were only perceptual, if it were only the sights and sounds and
+smells and tastes of the passing moment, it would have little meaning,
+it would be bare and empty. But instead of our perceptions being our
+whole life, they are only the starting points of life. Perceptions serve
+to arouse groups of memory images or ideas, and the groups of ideas
+enrich the passing moment and give meaning to the passing perceptions,
+which otherwise would have no meaning.
+
+Suppose I am walking along the street and meet a friend. I see him,
+speak to him, and pass on. But after I have passed on, I have ideas. I
+think of seeing my friend the day before. I think of what he said and of
+what he was doing, of what I said and of what I was doing. Perhaps for
+many minutes there come ideas from my past experience. These ideas were
+aroused by the perception of my friend. The perception was momentary,
+but it started a long train of memory ideas.
+
+I pass on down the street and go by a music store. Within the store, a
+victrola is playing _Jesus, Lover of My Soul_. The song starts another
+train of memory ideas. I think of the past, of my boyhood days and
+Sunday school, my early home and many scenes of my childhood. For
+several minutes I am so engrossed with the memory images that I
+scarcely notice anything along the street. Again, the momentary
+perception, this time of sounds, served to revive a great number of
+ideas, or memories, of the past.
+
+These illustrations are typical of our life. Every moment we have
+perceptions. These perceptions arouse ideas of our past life and
+experience. One of these ideas evokes another, and so an endless chain
+of images passes along. The older we become, the richer is our
+ideational life. While we are children, the perceptions constitute the
+larger part of our mental life, but as we become older, larger and
+larger becomes the part played by our memory images or ideas. A child is
+not content to sit down and reflect, giving himself up to the flow of
+ideas that come up from his past experience, but a mature person can
+spend hours in recalling past experience. This means that the older we
+grow, the more we live in the past, the less we are bound down by the
+present, and when we are old, instead of perceptions being the main part
+of mental life, they but give the initial push to our thoughts which go
+on in an endless chain as long as we live.
+
+=The Physiological Basis of Memory.= It will be remembered that the basis
+of perception is the agitation of the brain caused by the stimulation of
+a sense organ by an external thing or force. If there is no stimulation
+of a sense organ, there is no sensation, no perception. Now, just as the
+basis of sensation and perception is brain activity, so it is also the
+basis of ideas. In sensation, the brain activity is set up from without.
+In memory, when we have ideas, the brain activity is set up from within
+and is a fainter revival of the activity originally caused by the
+stimulation of the sense organ. Our ideas are just as truly conditioned
+or caused by brain activity as are our sensations.
+
+Memory presents many problems, and psychologists have been trying for
+many years to solve them. We shall now see what they have discovered and
+what is the practical significance of the facts.
+
+=Relation of Memory to Age and Sex.= It is a common notion that memory is
+best when we are young, but such is not the case. Numerous experiments
+have shown that all aspects of memory improve with age. Some aspects of
+memory improve more than others, and they improve at different times and
+rates; but all aspects do improve. From the beginning of school age to
+about fourteen years of age the improvement of most aspects of memory is
+rapid.
+
+If we pronounce a number of digits to a child of six, it can reproduce
+but few of them, a child of eight or ten can reproduce more, a child of
+twelve can reproduce still more, and an adult still more. If we read a
+sentence to children of different ages, we find that the older children
+can reproduce a longer sentence. If we read a short story to children of
+different ages, and then require them to reproduce the story in their
+own words, the older children reproduce more of the story than do the
+young children.[5]
+
+[5] See age and sex graphs, pp. 184, 188, 189.
+
+Girls excel boys in practically all the aspects of memory.
+
+In rote memory, that is, memory for lists of unrelated words, there is
+not much difference; but the girls are somewhat better. However, in the
+ability to remember the ideas of a story, girls excel boys at every age.
+This superiority of girls over boys is not merely a matter of memory. A
+girl is superior to a boy of the same age in nearly every way. This is
+merely a fact of development. A girl develops faster than a boy, she
+reaches maturity more quickly, in mind as well as in body. Although a
+girl is lighter than a boy at birth, on the average she gains in weight
+faster and is heavier at twelve than a boy of the same age. She also
+gains faster in height, and for a few years in early adolescence is
+taller than a boy of the same age. Of course, boys catch up and finally
+become much taller and heavier than girls. Similarly, a girl's mind
+develops faster than the mind of a boy, as shown in memory and other
+mental functions.
+
+=The Improvement of Memory by Practice.= All aspects of memory can be
+improved by practice, some aspects much, other aspects little. The
+memory span for digits, or letters, or words, or for objects cannot be
+much improved, but memory for ideas that are related, as the ideas of a
+story, can be considerably improved. In extensive experiments conducted
+in the author's laboratory, it was found that a person who at first
+required an hour to memorize the ideas in a certain amount of material,
+could, after a few months' practice, memorize the same amount in fifteen
+minutes. And in the latter case the ideas would be better remembered
+than they were at the beginning of the experiment. Not only could a
+given number of ideas be learned in less time, but they would be better
+retained when learned in the shorter time. If a person comes to us for
+advice as to how to improve his memory, what should we tell him? In
+order to answer the question, we must consider the factors of a good
+memory.
+
+=Factors of a Good Memory.= (1) The first requirement is to get a good
+impression in the beginning. Memory is revived experience. The more
+vivid and intense the first experience, the more sure will be the later
+recall. So if we wish to remember an experience, we must experience it
+in the first place under the most favorable conditions. The thing must
+be seen clearly, it must be understood, it must be in the focus of
+consciousness.
+
+The best teaching is that which leads the child to get the clearest
+apprehension of what is taught. If we are teaching about some concrete
+thing, a plant, a machine, we should be sure that the child sees the
+essential points, should be sure that the main principles enter his
+consciousness. We should find out by questioning whether he really does
+clearly understand what we are trying to get him to understand. Often we
+think a pupil or student has forgotten, when the fact is that he never
+really knew the thing which we wished to have him remember.
+
+The first requisite to memory, then, is to _know in the first place_. If
+we wish to remember knowledge, the knowledge must be seen in the
+clearest light, really _be_ knowledge, at the outset. Few people ever
+really learn how to learn. They never see anything clearly, they never
+stick to a point till it is apprehended in all its relations and
+bearings; consequently they forget, largely because they never really
+knew in the fullest sense.
+
+Most teaching is too abstract. The teacher uses words that have no
+meaning to the pupil. Too much teaching deals with things indirectly. We
+study _about_ things instead of studying things. In geography, for
+example, we study about the earth, getting our information from a book.
+We read about land formations, river courses, erosion, etc., when
+instead we should study these objects and processes themselves. The
+first thing in memory, then, is clear apprehension, clear understanding,
+vivid and intense impression.
+
+(2) The second thing necessary to memory is to repeat the experience.
+First we must get a clear impression, then we must repeat the experience
+if we would retain it. It is a mistake to believe that if we have once
+understood a thing, we will always thereafter remember it. We must think
+our experiences over again if we wish to fix them for permanent
+retention.
+
+We must organize our experience. To organize experience means to think
+it over in its helpful relations. In memory, one idea arouses another.
+When we have one idea, what other idea will this arouse? It depends on
+what connections this idea has had in our minds in the past. It depends
+on the associations that it has, and associations depend on our thinking
+the ideas over together.
+
+Teachers and parents should help children to think over their
+experiences in helpful, practical relations. Then in the future, when an
+idea comes to mind, it brings along with it other ideas that have these
+helpful, practical relations. We must not, then, merely repeat our
+experiences, but must repeat them in helpful connections or
+associations. In organizing our experience, we must systematize and
+classify our knowledge.
+
+One of the chief differences in men is in the way they organize their
+knowledge. Most of us have experiences abundant enough, but we differ in
+the way we work over and organize these experiences. Organization not
+only enables us to remember our experience, but brings our experience
+back in the right connections.
+
+The advice that should be given to a student is the following: Make sure
+that you understand. If the matter is a lesson in a book, go through it
+trying to get the main facts; then go through it again, trying to see
+the relation of all the facts. Then try to see the facts in relation to
+your wider experience. If it is a history lesson, think of the facts of
+the lesson in their relation to previous chapters. Think of the details
+in their bearing on wider and larger movements.
+
+A teacher should always hold in mind the facts in regard to memory, and
+should make her teaching conform to them. She should carefully plan the
+presentation of a new topic so as to insure a clear initial impression.
+A new topic should be presented orally by the teacher, with abundant
+illustration and explanation. It cannot be made too concrete, it cannot
+be made too plain and simple.
+
+Then after the teacher has introduced and made plain the new topic, the
+pupil reads and studies further. At the next recitation of the class,
+the first thing in order should be a discussion, on the part of the
+pupils. This will help the pupils to get the facts cleared up and will
+help the teacher to find out whether the pupils have the facts right.
+
+The first part of the recitation should also be a time for questions.
+Everything should now be made clear, if there are any errors or
+misunderstandings on the pupil's part. Of course any procedure in a
+recitation should depend upon the nature of the material and to some
+extent on the stage of advancement of the pupil; but in general such a
+procedure as that just outlined will be most satisfactory and
+economical: first clear initial presentation by the teacher; then
+reading and study on the part of the pupil, and third, discussions on
+the following day.
+
+Teachers should also endeavor to show students how to study to the best
+advantage. Pupils do not know how to study. They do not know what to
+look for, and do not know how to find it after they know what they are
+looking for. They should be shown. Of course, some of them learn without
+help how to study. But some never learn, and it would be a great saving
+of time to help all of them master the arts of study and memorizing.
+
+A very important factor in connection with memory is the matter of
+meaning. If a person will try to memorize a list of nonsense words, he
+will find that it is much more difficult than to memorize words that
+have meaning. This is a significant fact. It means that as material
+approaches nonsense, it is difficult to memorize. Therefore we should
+always try to grasp the meaning of a thing, its significance. In
+science, let us always ask, what is the meaning of this fact? What
+bearing does it have on other facts? How does it affect the meaning of
+other facts?
+
+=Kinds of Memories.= We should not speak of memory as if it were some sort
+of power like muscular strength. We should always speak of _memories_.
+Memories may be classified from several different points of view: A
+classification may be based on the kind of material, as memory for
+concrete things, the actual objects of experience, on the one hand, and
+memory for abstract material, such as names of things, their attributes
+and relations, on the other. Again, we can base a classification on the
+type of ideation to which the material appeals, as auditory memory,
+visual memory, motor memory. We can also base a classification on the
+principle of _meaning_. This principle of classification would give us
+at least three classes: memory for ideas as expressed in sentences,
+logical memory; memory for series of meaningful words not logically
+related in sentences, rote memory; memory for series of meaningless
+words, a form of rote memory. This classification is not meant to be
+complete, but only suggestive. With every change in the kind of
+material, the method of presenting the material to the subject, or the
+manner in which the subject deals with the material, there may be a
+change in the effectiveness of memory.
+
+While these different kinds or aspects of memory may have some relation
+to one another, they are to some extent independent. One may have a good
+rote memory and a poor logical memory, or a poor rote memory and a good
+logical memory. That is to say, one may be very poor at remembering the
+exact words of a book, but be good at remembering the meaning, the
+ideas, of the book. One may be good at organizing meaningful material
+but poor at remembering mere words. On the other hand, these conditions
+may be reversed; one may remember the words but never get the meaning.
+It is of course possible that much of this difference is due to habit
+and experience, but some of the difference is beyond doubt due to
+original differences in the nervous system and brain. These differences
+should be determined in the case of all children. It is quite a common
+thing to find a feeble-minded person with a good rote memory, but such a
+person never has a good logical memory. One can have a good rote memory
+without understanding, one cannot have a good logical memory without
+understanding.
+
+Let us now ask the question, why can one remember better words that are
+connected by logical relations than words that have no such connection?
+If we read to a person a list of twenty nonsense words, the person can
+remember only two or three; but if a list of twenty words connected in a
+sentence were read to a person, in most cases, all of them would be
+reproduced. The reason is that the words in the latter case are not new.
+We already know the words. They are already a part of our experience. We
+have had days, perhaps years, of experience with them. All that is now
+new about them is perhaps a slightly new relation.
+
+Moreover, the twenty words may contain but one, or at most only a few,
+ideas, and in this case it is the ideas that we remember. The ideas hold
+the words together. If the twenty words contain a great number of ideas,
+then we cannot remember all of them from one reading. If I say, "I have
+a little boy who loves his father and mother very much, and this boy
+wishes to go to the river to catch some fish," one can easily remember
+all these words after one reading. But if I say, "The stomach in all the
+Salmonidæ is syphonal and at the pylorus are fifteen to two hundred
+comparatively large pyloric coeca"; although this sentence is shorter,
+one finds it more difficult to remember, and the main reason is that the
+words are not so familiar.
+
+=Memory and Thinking.= What is the relation of memory to thinking and the
+other mental functions? One often hears a teacher say that she does not
+wish her pupils to depend on memory, but wishes them to reason things
+out. Such a statement shows a misunderstanding of the facts; for
+reasoning itself is only the recall of ideas in accordance with the laws
+of association. Without memory, there would be no reasoning, for the
+very material of thought is found to be the revived experiences which we
+call ideas, memories.
+
+One of the first requisites of good thinking is a reliable memory. One
+must have facts to reason, and these facts must come to one in memory to
+be available for thought. If one wishes to become a great thinker in a
+certain field, he must gain experience in that field and organize that
+experience in such a way as to remember it and to recall it when it is
+wanted.
+
+What one does deplore is memory for the mere words with no understanding
+of the meaning. In geometry, for example, a student sometimes commits to
+memory the words of a demonstration, with no understanding of the
+meaning. Of course, that is worse than useless. One should remember the
+meaning of the demonstration. If one has memorized the words only, he
+cannot solve an original problem in geometry. But if he has understood
+the meaning of the demonstration, then he recalls it, and is enabled to
+solve the problem. If one does not remember the various facts about the
+relationships in a triangle, he cannot solve a problem of the triangle
+until he has worked out and discovered the necessary facts. Then memory
+would make them available for the solution of the problem.
+
+=Memory and School Standing.= That memory plays a large part in our life
+is evident; and, of course, it is an important factor in all school
+work. It matters not what we learn, if we do not remember it. The author
+has made extensive experiments to determine the relation that memory has
+to a child's progress in school.
+
+The method used was to give logical memory tests to all the children in
+a school and then rank the children in accordance with their abilities
+to reproduce the story used in the test. Then they were ranked according
+to their standing in their studies. A very high correlation was found.
+On the whole, the pupils standing highest in the memory tests were found
+to stand highest in their studies. It is true, of course, that they did
+not stand highest merely because they had good memories, but because
+they were not only better in memory, but were better in most other
+respects too. Pupils that are good in logical memory are usually good in
+other mental functions.
+
+A test of logical memory is one of the best to give us an idea of the
+school standing of pupils. Not only is the retention of ideas of very
+great importance itself, but the acquiring of ideas, and the organizing
+of them in such a way as to remember them involves nearly all the mental
+functions. The one who remembers well ideas logically related, is the
+one who pays the closest attention, the one who sees the significance,
+the one who organizes, the one who repeats, the one who turns things
+over in his mind. A logical memory test is therefore, to some extent, a
+test of attention, association, power of organization as well as of
+memory; in a word, it is a test of mental power.
+
+Other things being equal, a person whose power of retention is good has
+a great advantage over his fellows who have poor ability to remember.
+Suppose we consider the learning of language. The pupil who can look up
+the meaning of a word just once and remember it has an advantage over
+the person who has to look up the meaning of the word several times
+before it is retained. So in any branch of study, the person who can
+acquire the facts in less time than another person, has the extra time
+for learning something else or for going over the same material and
+organizing it better. The scientist who remembers all the significant
+facts that he reads, and sees their bearing on his problems, has a great
+advantage over the person who does not remember so well.
+
+Of course, there are certain dangers in having a good memory, just as
+there is danger in being brilliant generally. The quick learner is in
+danger of forming slovenly habits. A person who learns quickly is likely
+to form the habit of waiting till the last minute to study his lesson
+and then getting a superficial idea of it. The slow learner must form
+good habits of study to get on at all.
+
+Teachers and parents should prevent the bright children from forming bad
+habits of study. The person who learns quickly and retains well should
+be taught to be thorough and to use the advantage that comes from
+repetition. The quick learner should not be satisfied with one attack on
+his lesson, but should study the lesson more than once, for even the
+brilliant learner cannot afford to neglect the advantages that come from
+repetition. A person with poor memory and only mediocre ability
+generally can make up very much by hard work and by work that takes
+advantage of all the laws of economical learning. But he can never
+compete successfully with the person who works as hard as he does and
+who has good powers of learning and retention.
+
+The author has found that in a large class of a hundred or more, there
+is usually a person who has good memory along with good mental ability
+generally, and is also a hard worker. Such a person always does the best
+work in the class. A person with poor memory and poor mental powers
+generally cannot hope to compete with a person of good memory, good
+mental powers generally, if that person is also a good worker.
+
+=Learning and Remembering.= A popular fallacy is expressed in the saying
+"Easy come, easy go." The person who is the best learner is also the
+best in retaining what is learned, provided all other conditions are the
+same. This matter was determined in the following way: A logical memory
+test was given to all the children in a city school system. A story was
+read to the pupils and then reproduced by them in writing. The papers
+were corrected and graded and nothing more was said about the test for
+one month. Then at the same time in every room, the teachers said, "You
+remember the story I read to you some time ago and which I asked you to
+reproduce. Well, I wish to see how much of the story you still
+remember." The pupils were then required to write down all the story
+that they could recall.
+
+It was found that, in general, the children who write the most when the
+story is first read to them, write the most after the lapse of a month,
+and the poorest ones at first are the poorest ones at the end of the
+month. Of course, the correspondence is not perfect, but in some cases,
+in some grades, it is almost so.
+
+The significance of this experiment is very great. It means that the
+pupil who gets the most facts from a lesson will have the most facts at
+any later time. This is true, of course, only if other things are equal.
+If one pupil studies about the matter more, reflects upon it, repeats it
+in his mind, of course this person will remember more, other things
+being equal. But if neither reviews the matter, or if both do it to an
+equal extent, then the one who learns the most in the first place,
+remembers the most at a later time.
+
+I have also tested the matter out in other ways. I have experimented
+with a group of men and women, by reading a passage of about a page in
+length, repeating the reading till the subject could reproduce all the
+facts. It was found that the person who acquired all the facts from the
+fewest readings remembered more of the facts later. It must be said that
+there is less difference between the subjects later than at first.
+
+In the laboratory of Columbia University a similar experiment was
+performed, but in a somewhat different way. Students were required to
+commit to memory German vocabularies and were later tested for their
+retention of the words learned. It was found that those who learned the
+most words in a given time, also retained the largest percentage of what
+had been learned. It should not be surprising that this is the case. The
+quick learner is the one who makes the best use of all the factors of
+retention, the factors mentioned in the preceding paragraph--good
+attention, association, organization, etc.
+
+Another experiment performed in the author's laboratory bears out the
+above conclusions. A group of students were required to commit to memory
+at one sitting a long list of nonsense syllables. The number of
+repetitions necessary to enable each student to reproduce them was
+noted. One day later, the students attempted to reproduce the syllables.
+Of course they could not, and they were then required to say them over
+again till they could just repeat them from memory. The number of
+repetitions was noted. The number of repetitions was much less than on
+the first day. On the third day, the process was repeated. The number of
+repetitions was fewer still. This relearning was kept up each day till
+each person could repeat the syllables from memory without any study.
+It was found that the person who learned the syllables in the fewest
+repetitions the first time, relearned them in the fewest repetitions on
+succeeding days. All the experiments bearing on the subject point to the
+same conclusion; namely, that the quick learner, if other things are
+equal, retains at least as well as the slow learner, and usually retains
+better.
+
+=Transfer of Memory Training.= We have said above that there are many
+kinds or aspects of memory. It has also been said that we can improve
+memory by practice. Now, the question arises, if we improve one aspect
+of memory, does this improve all aspects? This is an important question;
+moreover, it is one to be settled by experiment and not by argument.
+
+The most extensive and thorough experiment was performed by an English
+psychologist, Sleight. The experiment was essentially as follows: He
+took a large number of pupils and tested the efficiency of the various
+aspects of their memory. He then took half of them and trained one
+aspect of their memory until there was considerable improvement. The
+other section had no memory training meanwhile. After the training, both
+groups again had all aspects of their memory tested. Both groups showed
+improvement in all aspects because the first tests gave them some
+practice, but the group that had been receiving the training was no
+better in those aspects not trained than was the group receiving no
+training at all. Aspects of memory much like the one trained showed some
+improvement, but other aspects did not.
+
+The conclusion is that memory training is specific, that it affects only
+the kind of memory trained, and related memories. This is in harmony
+with what we learned about habit. When we receive training, it affects
+only the parts of us trained and other closely related parts.
+
+=Learning by Wholes.= We do not often have to commit to memory verbatim,
+but when we do, it is important that we should know the most economical
+way. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that the most economical way
+is to read the entire selection through from beginning to end and
+continue to read it through in this way till the matter is learned by
+heart.
+
+In long selections, the saving by this method is considerable. A pupil
+is not likely to believe this because if he spends a few minutes
+learning in this manner, he finds that he cannot repeat a single line,
+while if he had concentrated on one line, he could have repeated at
+least that much. This is true; but although he cannot repeat a single
+line by the whole procedure, he has learned nevertheless. It would be a
+good thing to demonstrate this fact to a class; then the pupils would be
+satisfied to use the most economical procedure. The plan holds good
+whether the matter be prose or poetry.
+
+But experiments have been carried on only with verbatim learning. The
+best procedure for learning the facts so that one can give them in one's
+own words has not yet been experimentally determined.
+
+=Cramming.= An important practical question is whether it pays to go over
+a great amount of material in a very short time, as students often do
+before examinations. From all that has been said above, one could infer
+the solution to this problem. Learning and memorizing are to some extent
+a growth, and consequently involve time.
+
+There is an important law of learning and memory known as Jost's law,
+which may be stated as follows: If we repeat or renew associations, the
+repetitions have most value for the old associations. Therefore when we
+learn, we should learn and then later relearn. This will make for
+permanent retention. Of course, if we wish to get together a great mass
+of facts for a temporary purpose and do not care to retain them
+permanently, cramming is the proper method. If we are required to pass
+an examination in which a knowledge of many details is expected and
+these details have no important permanent value, cramming is justified.
+When a lawyer is preparing a case to present to a court, the actual,
+detail evidence is of no permanent value, and cramming is justified.
+
+But if we wish to acquire and organize facts for their permanent value,
+cramming is not the proper procedure. The proper procedure is for a
+student to go over his work faithfully as the term of school proceeds,
+then occasionally review. At the end of the term, a rapid review of the
+whole term's work is valuable. After one has studied over matter and
+once carefully worked it out, a quick view again of the whole subject is
+most valuable, and assists greatly in making the acquisition permanent.
+But if the matter has not been worked out before, the hasty view of the
+material of the course, while it may enable one to pass the examination,
+has no permanent value.
+
+=Function of the Teacher in Memory Work.= The function of a teacher is
+plainly to get the pupils to learn in accordance with the laws of memory
+above set forth; but there are certain things that a teacher can do that
+may not have become evident to the reader. It has been learned in
+experiments in logical memory that when a story is read to a subject and
+the subject attempts to reproduce it, certain mistakes are made. When
+the story is read again, it is common for the same mistakes to be made
+in the recall. Certain ideas were apprehended in a certain way; and,
+when the piece is read again, the subject pays no more attention to the
+ideas already acquired and reported, and they are therefore reported
+wrongly as they were in the first place. Often the subject does not
+notice the errors till his attention is called to them.
+
+This suggests an important function of the teacher in connection with
+the memory work of the pupils. This function is to correct mistakes in
+the early stages of learning. A teacher should always be on the watch to
+find the errors of the pupils and to correct them before they are fixed
+by repetition.
+
+A teacher should, also, consider it her duty to test the memory
+capacities of the pupils and to give each the advice that the case
+demands.
+
+=Some Educational Inferences.=--There are certain consequences to
+education that follow from the facts of memory above set forth that are
+of considerable significance. Many things have been taught to children
+on the assumption that they could learn them better in childhood than
+later, because it was thought that memory and the learning capacity were
+better in childhood. But both of these assumptions are false. As
+children grow older their learning capacity increases and their memories
+become better.
+
+It has particularly been held that rote memory is better in childhood
+and that therefore children should begin their foreign language study
+early. It is true that as far as _speaking_ a foreign language is
+concerned, the earlier a child begins it the better. But this is not
+true of learning to read the language. The sounds of the foreign
+language that we have not learned in childhood in speaking the mother
+tongue are usually difficult for us to make. The organs of speech become
+set in the way of their early exercise. In reading the foreign language,
+correct pronunciation is not important. We are concerned with _getting_
+the thought, and this is possible without pronouncing at all. Reference
+to graphs on pages 190 and 191 will show that rote memory steadily
+improves throughout childhood and youth. The author has performed
+numerous experiments to test this very point. He has had adults work
+side by side with children at building up new associations of the rote
+memory type and found that always the adult could learn faster than the
+child and retain better what was learned.
+
+The experience of language teachers in college and university does not
+give much comfort to those who claim that language study should be begun
+early. These teachers claim that the students who have had previous
+language study do no better than those who have had none. It seems,
+however, that there certainly ought to be _some_ advantage in beginning
+language study early and spreading the study out over the high school
+period. But what is gained does not offset the tremendous loss that
+follows from requiring _all_ high school students to study a foreign
+language merely to give an opportunity for early study to those who are
+to go on in the university with language courses. A mature university
+student that has a real interest in language and literature can begin
+his language study in the university and make rapid progress. Some of
+the best classical scholars whom the author knows began their language
+study in the university. While it would have been of some advantage to
+them to have begun their language study earlier, there are so few who
+should go into this kind of work that society cannot afford to make
+provision for their beginning the study in the high school.
+
+The selection and arrangement of the studies in the curriculum must be
+based on other grounds than the laws of memory. What children make most
+progress in and need most to know are the concrete things of their
+physical and social environment. Children must first learn the
+world--the woods and streams and birds and flowers and plants and
+animals, the earth, its rocks and soils and the wonderful forces at work
+in it. They must learn man,--what he is and what he does and how he does
+it; how he lives and does his work and how he governs himself. They
+should also learn to read and to write their mother tongue, and should
+learn something of that great store of literature written in the mother
+tongue.
+
+The few that are to be scholars in language and literature must wait
+till beginning professional study before taking up their foreign
+language; just as a person who is to be a lawyer or physician must also
+wait till time to enter a university before beginning special
+professional preparation. The child's memory for abstract conceptions is
+particularly weak in early years; hence studies should be so arranged as
+to acquaint the child with the concrete aspects of the world first, and
+later to acquaint him with the abstract relations of things. Mathematics
+should come late in the child's life, for the same reason. Mathematics
+deals with quantitative relations which the child can neither learn nor
+remember profitably and economically till he is more mature. The child
+should first learn the world in its descriptive aspects.
+
+=Memory and Habit.= The discussion up to this point should have made it
+clear to the reader that memory is much the same thing as habit. Memory
+considered as retention depends upon the permanence of the impression on
+the brain; but in its associative aspects depends on connections between
+brain centers, as is the case with habit. The association of ideas,
+which is the basis of their recall, is purely a matter of habit
+formation.
+
+When I think of George Washington, I also think of the Revolution, of
+the government, of the presidency, of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson,
+etc., because of the connections which these ideas have had in my mind
+many times before. There is a basis in the brain structure for these
+connections. There is nothing in any _idea_ that connects it with
+another idea. Ideas become connected because of the _way in which we
+experience them_, and the reason one idea calls up another idea is
+because the brain process that is the cause of one idea brings about
+another brain process that is the cause of a second idea. The whole
+thing is merely a matter of the way the brain activities become
+organized. Therefore the various laws of habit-formation have
+application to memory in so far as memory is a matter of the association
+of ideas, based on brain processes.
+
+One often has the experience of trying to recall a name or a fact and
+finds that he cannot. Presently the name or fact may come, or it may not
+come till the next day or the next week. What is the cause of this
+peculiar phenomenon? The explanation is to be found in the nervous
+system. When one tries to recall the name and it will not come to mind,
+there is some temporary block or hindrance in the nerve-path that leads
+from one center to the other and one cannot think of the name till the
+obstruction is removed. We go on thinking about other things, and in the
+meantime the activities going on in the brain remove the obstruction; so
+when the matter comes up again, the nerve current shoots through, and
+behold, the name comes to mind.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE IV--ASSOCIATIVE CONNECTIONS
+The diagram represents schematically the neural basis of the association
+of ideas.]
+
+Now the only preventive of such an occurrence is to be found in the law
+of habit, for the block ordinarily occurs in case of paths or bonds not
+well established. We must _think together_ the things we wish to have
+associated. Repetition is the key to the situation, repetition which is
+the significant thing in habit-formation, repetition which is the only
+way of coupling two things which we wish to have associated together.
+
+Of course, there is no absolute coupling of two ideas. One sometimes
+forgets his own name. When we are tired or ill, things which were the
+most closely associated may not hang together. But those ideas hold
+together in the firmest way that have been experienced together most
+often in a state of attention. The diagram on page 147 illustrates
+schematically the neural connections and cross-connections which are the
+bases of the association of ideas, the circles _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_,
+and _F_ represent brain processes which give rise to ideas, and the
+lines represent connecting paths. Note that there are both direct and
+indirect connections.
+
+  SUMMARY. Sensation and perception give us our first experience with
+  things; memory is revived experience. It enables us to live our
+  experience over again and is therefore one of the most important
+  human traits. The physiological basis of memory is in the brain and
+  nervous system. Memory improves with practice and up to a certain
+  point with the age of the person. It is better in girls than in
+  boys. Good memory depends on vivid experience in the first place and
+  on organization and repetition afterward. The person who learns
+  quickly usually retains well also. Memory training is specific. The
+  extension of the learning process over a long time is favorable to
+  memory. Memory ideas are the basis of thinking and reasoning.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. The teacher can test the auditory memory of the members of the class
+for rote material by using letters. It is better to omit the vowels,
+using only the consonants. Prepare five groups of letters with eight
+letters in a group. Read each group of letters to the class, slowly and
+distinctly. After reading a group, allow time for the students to write
+down what they recall, then read the next group and so proceed till the
+five groups have been read. Grade the work by finding the number of
+letters reproduced, taking no account of the position of the letters.
+
+2. In a similar way, test visual memory, using different combinations of
+letters. Write the letters plainly on five large squares of cardboard.
+Hold each list before the class for as long a time as it took to read a
+group in experiment No. 1.
+
+3. Test memory for words in a similar way. Use simple words of one
+syllable, making five lists with eight words in a list.
+
+4. Test memory for objects by fastening common objects on a large
+cardboard and holding the card before the class. Put eight objects on
+each card and prepare five cards. Expose them for the same length of
+time as in experiment No. 2.
+
+5. Test memory for _names_ of objects by preparing five lists of names,
+eight names in a list, and reading the names as in experiment No. 1.
+
+6. You now have data for the following study: Find the average grade of
+each student in the different experiments. Find the combined grade of
+each student in all the above experiments. Do the members of the class
+hold the same rank in all the tests? How do the boys compare with the
+girls? How does memory for objects compare with memory for names of
+objects? How does auditory memory compare with visual? What other points
+do you learn from the experiments?
+
+7. The teacher can make a study of the logical memory of the members of
+the class by using material as described on page 184. Make five separate
+tests, using stories that are well within the comprehension of the class
+and that will arouse their interest. Sufficient material will be found
+in the author's _Examination of School Children_ and Whipple's _Manual_.
+However, the teacher can prepare similar material.
+
+8. Do the students maintain the same rank in the separate tests of
+experiment No. 7? Rank all the students for their combined standing in
+all the first five tests. Rank them for their combined standing in the
+logical memory tests. Compare the two rankings. What conclusions are
+warranted?
+
+9. You have tested, in experiment No. 7, logical memory when the
+material was read to the students. It will now be interesting to compare
+the results of No. 7 with the results obtained by allowing the students
+to read the material of the test. For this purpose, select portions from
+the later chapters of this book. Allow just time enough for the
+selection to be read once slowly by the students, then have it
+reproduced as in the other logical memory experiment. Give several
+tests, if there is sufficient time. Find the average grade of each
+student, and compare the results with those obtained in No. 7. This will
+enable you to compare the relative standing of the members of the
+class, but will not enable you to compare the two ways of acquiring
+facts. For this purpose, the stories would have to be of equal
+difficulty. Let the members of the class plan an experiment that would
+be adequate for this purpose.
+
+10. A brief study of the improvement of memory can be made by practicing
+a few minutes each day for a week or two, as time permits, using
+material that can be easily prepared, such as lists of common words. Let
+the members of the class plan the experiment. Use the best plan.
+
+11. The class can make a study of the relation of memory to school
+standing in one of the grades below the high school. Give at least two
+tests for logical memory. Give also the rote memory tests described on
+page 189. Get the class standing of the pupils from the teacher. Make
+the comparison as suggested in Chapter I, page 15. Or, the correlation
+can be worked out accurately by following the directions given in the
+_Examination of School Children_, page 58, or in Whipple's _Manual_,
+page 38.
+
+12. Let the members of the class make a plan for the improvement of
+their memory for the material studied in school. Plan devices for
+learning the material better and for fixing it in memory. At the end of
+the course in psychology, have an _experience_ meeting and study the
+results reported.
+
+13. Prepare five lists of nonsense syllables, with eight in a list. Give
+them as in experiment No. 3, and compare the results with those of that
+experiment. What do the results indicate as to the value to memory of
+_meaningful_ material? What educational inferences can you make? In
+preparing the syllables, put a vowel between two consonants, and use no
+syllable that is a real word.
+
+14. A study of the effects of distractions on learning and memory can be
+made as follows: Let the teacher select two paragraphs in later chapters
+of this book, of equal length and difficulty. Let the students read one
+under quiet conditions and the other while an electric bell is ringing
+in the room. Compare the reproductions in the two cases.
+
+15. From the chapter and from the results of all the memory tests, let
+the students enumerate the facts that have educational significance.
+
+16. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapter XV.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 165-170.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and VIII.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THINKING
+
+
+In Chapter III we learned about sensation. We found that when a sense
+organ is stimulated by its appropriate type of stimulus, this
+stimulation travels through the sensory nerves and sets up an excitation
+in the brain. This excitation in the brain gives us sensation. We see if
+the eye is stimulated. We hear if the ear is stimulated, etc. In
+Chapter VII we learned that after the brain has had an excitation giving
+rise to sensation, it is capable of reviving this excitation later. This
+renewal or revival of a brain excitation gives us an experience
+resembling the original sensation, only usually fainter and less stable.
+This revived experience is called _image_ or _idea_. The general process
+of retention and revival of experience is, as we have seen, known as
+memory. An idea, then, is a bit of revived experience. A perception is a
+bit of immediate or primary experience. I am said to perceive a chair if
+the chair is present before me, if the light reflected from the chair is
+actually exciting my retinas. I have an _idea_ of the chair when I
+_seem_ to see it, when the chair is not before me or when my eyes are
+shut. These distinctions were pointed out in the preceding chapter. Let
+us now proceed to carry our study of ideas further.
+
+=Association of Ideas.= The subject of the association of ideas can best
+be introduced by an experiment. Take a paper and pencil, and think of
+the word "horse." Write this word down, and then write down other words
+that come to mind. Write them in the order in which they come to mind.
+Do this for three or four minutes, and try the experiment several times,
+beginning with a different word each time. Make a study of the lists of
+words. Compare the different lists and the lists written by different
+students.
+
+In the case of the writer, the following words came to mind in the first
+few seconds: horse, bridle, saddle, tail, harness, buggy, whip, man,
+sky, stars, sun, ocean. Why did these words come, and why did they come
+in that order? Why did the idea "horse" suggest the idea "bridle"? And
+why did "bridle" suggest "saddle"? Is there something in the nature of
+ideas that couples them with certain other ideas and makes them _always_
+suggest the other ideas? No, there is not. Ideas become coupled together
+in our experience, and the coupling is in accordance with our
+experience. Things that are together in our experience become coupled
+together as ideas. The idea "horse" may become coupled with any other
+idea. The general law of the association of ideas is this: Ideas are
+joined together in memory or revived experience as they were joined in
+the original or perceptive experience.
+
+But the matter is complicated by the fact that things are experienced in
+different connections in perceptive experience. I do not always
+experience "horse" together with "bridle." I sometimes see horses in a
+pasture eating clover. So, as far as this last experience is concerned,
+when I think "horse" I should also think "clover." I sometimes see a
+horse running when a train whistles, so "whistle" and "horse" should be
+coupled in my mind. A horse once kicked me on the shoulder, so "horse"
+and "shoulder" should be connected in my mind. And so they are. The very
+fact that these various experiences come back to me proves that they are
+connected in my mind in accordance with the original experiences. The
+revival of various horse experiences has come to me faster than I could
+write them down, and they are all bound together in my memory. If I
+should write them all out, it would take many hours, perhaps days.
+
+Not only are these "horse ideas" bound together with one another, but
+they are bound more or less directly, more or less closely, to
+everything else in my life. I can, therefore, pass in thought from the
+idea "horse" to any other idea, directly or indirectly. Now, in any
+given case, what idea will actually come first after I have the idea
+"horse"? This depends upon the tendencies established in the nervous
+system. The brain process underlying the idea "horse" has connections
+with many other processes and tends to excite these processes. The
+factors that strengthen these tendencies or connections are the
+frequency, recency, primacy, and vividness of experience. Let us
+consider, in some detail, each of these factors.
+
+=Primacy of Experience.= A strong factor in determining association is the
+_first experience_. The first, the original, coupling of ideas tends to
+persist. The first connection is nearly always a strong one, and is also
+strengthened by frequent repetition in memory. Our first experience with
+people and things persists with great strength, across the years, in
+spite of other associations and connections established later. Just now
+there comes to mind my first experience with a certain famous scientist.
+It was many years ago. I was a student in an eastern university. This
+man gave a public lecture at the opening of the session. I remember many
+details of the occurrence with great vividness. Although I studied under
+this man for three years, no other experience with him is more prominent
+than the first. First experiences give rise to such strong connections
+between ideas that these connections often persist and hold their own as
+against other connections depending upon other factors.
+
+The practical consequences of this factor in teaching are, of course,
+evident. Both teachers and parents should take great care in the matter
+of the first experiences of children. If the idea-connections of first
+experiences are likely to persist, then these connections should be
+desirable ones. They should not be useless connections, nor should they,
+ordinarily, be connections that will have to be radically undone later.
+Usually it is not economical to build up connections between ideas that
+will not serve permanently, except in cases in which the immaturity of
+the mind makes such a procedure necessary.
+
+=Recency of Experience.= The most recent connection of ideas is relatively
+strong, and is often the determining one. But the most recent connection
+must be very recent or it has no especial value. If I have seen a
+certain friend to-day, and his name is brought to mind now, to-day's
+experience with him will likely be brought to mind _first_. But if my
+last seeing him was some days or months ago, the idea-connection of the
+last meeting has no great value. Of course, circumstances always alter
+the matter. Perhaps we should say in the last instance that, other
+things being equal, the last experience has no special value. If the
+last experience was an unusual one, such as a death or a marriage, then
+it has a value due to its vividness and intensity and its emotional
+aspects. These factors not only add strength to the connections made at
+the time but are the cause of frequent revivals of this last experience
+in memory in the succeeding days. All these factors taken together often
+give a last experience great associative strength, even though the last
+experience is not recent.
+
+=Frequency of Experience.= The most frequent connection of ideas is
+probably the most important factor of all in determining future
+associations. The first connection is but one, and the last connection
+is but one, while repeated connections may be many in number.
+Connections which recur frequently usually overcome all other
+connections. Hence frequency is the dominant factor in association. Most
+of the strength of first connections is due to repetitions in memory
+later. The first experience passes through the mind again and again as
+memory, and thereby becomes strengthened. The fact that repetition of
+connections establishes these connections is, of course, the
+justification of drill and review in school studies. The practical needs
+of life demand that certain ideas be associated so that one calls up the
+other. Teachers and parents, knowing these desirable connections,
+endeavor to fix them in the minds of children by repetition. The
+important facts of history, literature, civics, and science we endeavor,
+by means of repetition, to fasten in the child's mind.
+
+=Vividness and Intensity of Experience.= A vivid experience is one that
+excites and arouses us, strongly stimulating our feelings. Such
+experiences establish strong bonds of connection. When I think of a
+railroad wreck, I think of one in which I participated. The experience
+was vivid, intense, and aroused my emotions. I hardly knew whether I was
+dead or alive. Then, secondly, I usually think of a wreck which I
+witnessed in childhood. A train plunged through a bridge and eighteen
+cars were piled up in the ravine. The experience was vivid and produced
+a deep and lasting impression on me.
+
+The practical significance of this factor is, of course, great. When
+ideas are presented to pupils these ideas should be made clear. Every
+conceivable device should be used to clarify and explain,--concrete
+demonstration, the use of objects and diagrams, pictures and drawings,
+and abundant oral illustration. We must be sure that the one taught
+understands, that the ideas become focal in consciousness and take hold
+of the individual. This is the main factor in what is known as
+"interest." An interesting thing is one that takes hold of us and
+possesses us so that we cannot get away from it. Such experiences are
+vivid and have rich emotional connections or accompaniments. Ideas that
+are experienced together at such times are strongly connected.
+
+=Mental Set or Attitude.= Another influence always operative in
+determining the association of ideas is mental set. By mental set we
+mean the mood or attitude one is in,--whether one is sad or glad, well
+or ill, fresh or fatigued, etc. What one has just been thinking about,
+what one has just been doing, are always factors that determine the
+direction of association. One often notices the effects of mental set in
+reading newspapers. If one's mind has been deeply occupied with some
+subject and one then starts to read a newspaper, one may actually
+miscall many of the words in the article he is reading; the words are
+made to fit in with what is in his mind. For example, if one is all
+wrought up over a wedding, many words beginning with "w" and having
+about the same length as the word "wedding," will be read as "wedding."
+
+Mental set may be permanent or temporary. By permanent we mean the
+strong tendencies that are built up by continued thought in a certain
+direction. One becomes a Methodist, a Democrat, a conservative, a
+radical, a pessimist, an optimist, etc., by continuity of similar
+experiences and similar reactions to these experiences. Germans, French,
+Irish, Italians, Chinese, have characteristic sets or ways of reacting
+to typical situations that may be called racial. These prejudicial ways
+of reacting may be called racial sets or attitudes. Religious,
+political, and social prejudices may all be called sets or attitudes.
+
+Temporary sets or attitudes are leanings and prejudices that are due to
+temporary states of mind. The fact that one has headache, or
+indigestion, or is in a hurry, or is angry, or is hungry, or is
+emotionally excited over something will, for the time, be a factor in
+determining the direction of association.
+
+One of the tasks of education is to build up sets or attitudes,
+permanent prejudices, to be constant factors in guiding association and,
+consequently, action. We wish to build up permanent attitudes toward
+truth, honesty, industry, sympathy, zeal, persistence, etc. It is
+evident that attitude is merely an aspect of habit. It is an habitual
+way of reacting to a definite and typical situation. This habitual way
+is strengthened by repetition, so that set or attitude finally, after
+years of repetition, becomes a part of our nature. Our prejudices become
+as strong, seemingly, as our instinctive tendencies. After a man has
+thought in a particular groove for years, it is about as sure that he
+will come to certain definite conclusions on matters in the line of his
+thought as that he would give typical instinctive or even reflex
+reactions. We know the direction association will take for a
+Presbyterian in religious matters, for a Democrat in political matters,
+with about as much certainty as we know what their actions will be in
+situations that evoke instinctive reactions.
+
+=Thinking and Reasoning.= Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind.
+This flow of ideas is in accordance with the laws of association above
+discussed. The order in which the ideas come is the order fixed by
+experience, the order as determined by the various factors above
+enumerated.
+
+In early life, one's mind is chiefly perceptual, it is what we see and
+hear and taste and smell. As one grows older his mind grows more and
+more ideational. With increasing age, a larger and larger percentage of
+our mental life is made up of ideas, of memories. The child lives in the
+present, in a world of perceptions. A man is not so much tied down to
+the present; he lives in memory and anticipation. He thinks more than
+does the child. A man is content to sit down in his chair and think for
+hours at a time, a child is not. This thinking is the passing of ideas,
+now one, then another and another. These ideas are the survivals or
+revivals of our past experience. The order of their coming depends on
+our past experience.
+
+As I sit here and write, there surge up out of my past, ideas of creeks
+and rivers and hills, horses and cows and dogs, boys and girls, men and
+women, work and play, school days, friends,--an endless chain of ideas.
+This "flow" of ideas is often started by a perception. For
+illustration, I see a letter on the table, a letter from my brother. I
+then have a visual image of my brother. I think of him as I saw him
+last. I think of what he said. I think of his children, of his home, of
+his boyhood, and our early life together. Then I think of our mother and
+the old home, and so on and on. Presently I glance at a history among my
+books, and immediately think of Greece and Athens and the Acropolis,
+Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, schoolmates and teachers, and friends
+connected in one way or another with my college study of Greek.
+
+In this description of the process of thinking, I have repeatedly used
+the words "think of." I might have said instead, "there came to mind
+ideas of Athens, ideas of friends," etc. Thinking, then, is a general
+term for our idea-life.
+
+Reasoning is a form of thinking. Reasoning, too, is a flow of ideas. But
+while reasoning is thinking, it is a special form of thinking; it is
+thinking to a purpose. In thinking as above described and illustrated,
+no immediate ends of the person are served; while in reasoning some end
+is always sought. In reasoning, the flow of ideas must reach some
+particular idea that will serve the need of the moment, the need of the
+problem at hand. Reasoning, then, is controlled thinking, thinking
+centering about a problem, about a situation that one must meet.
+
+The statement that reasoning is _controlled_ thinking needs some
+explanation, for the reader at once is likely to want to know what does
+the controlling. There is not some special faculty or power that does
+the controlling. The control is exercised by the set into which one is
+thrown by the situation which confronts one. The set puts certain
+nerve-tracts into readiness to conduct, or in other words, makes
+certain groups of ideas come into mind, and makes one satisfied only if
+the right ideas come. As long as ideas come that do not satisfy, the
+flow keeps on, taking one direction and then another, in accordance with
+the way our ideas have become organized. An idea finally comes that
+satisfies. We are then said to have reached a conclusion, to have made
+up our mind, to have solved our problem.
+
+But the fact that we are satisfied is no sure sign that the problem is
+correctly solved. It means only that our past experiences, available at
+the time through association, say that the conclusion is right. Or, in
+more scientific terms, that the conclusion is in harmony with our past
+experience, as it has been organized and made available through
+association. There is not within us a little being, a reasoner, that
+sits and watches ideas file by and passes judgment upon them. The real
+judge is our nervous system with its organized bonds or connections.
+
+An illustration may make the matter clearer: A boy walking along in the
+woods comes to a stream too wide for him to jump across. He wishes to be
+on the other side, so here is a situation that must be met, a problem
+that must be solved. A flow of ideas is started centering about the
+problem. The flow is entirely determined and directed by past experience
+and the present situation. The boy pauses, looks about, and sees on the
+bank a pole and several large stones. He has walked on poles and on
+fences, he therefore sees himself putting the pole across the stream and
+walking on it. This may be in actual visual imagery, or it may be in
+words. He may merely say, "I will put the pole across and walk on it."
+But, before having time to do it, he may recall walking on poles that
+turned. He is not then satisfied with the pole idea. The perception of
+stones may next become clear in his mind, and if no inhibiting or
+hindering idea comes up, the stone idea carries him into action. He
+piles the stones into the stream and walks across.
+
+As was mentioned above, the flow of ideas may take different forms. The
+imagery may take any form but is usually visual, auditory, motor, or
+verbal.
+
+Further discussion of the point that reasoning is determined by past
+experience may be necessary. Suppose the teacher ask the class a number
+of different questions, moral, religious, political. Many different
+answers to the questions will be received, in some cases as many answers
+to the questions as there are pupils. Ask whether it is ever right to
+steal, whether it is ever right to lie, whether it is ever right to
+fight, whether it is ever right to disobey a parent or teacher, whether
+oak is stronger than maple, whether iron expands more when heated than
+does copper, whether one should always feed beggars, etc. The answers
+received, in each case, depend on the previous experience of the pupils.
+The more nearly alike the experiences of the pupils, the more nearly
+alike will be the answers. The more divergent the experiences, the more
+different will be the answers.
+
+The basis of reasoning is ultimately the same sort of thing as the basis
+of habit. We have repeated experiences of the same kind. The ideas of
+these experiences become welded together in a definite way. Association
+between certain groups of ideas becomes well fixed. Later situations
+involving these groups of ideas set up definite trains of association.
+We come always to definite conclusions from the same situations
+provided that we are in the same mental set and the factors involved are
+the same.
+
+Throughout early life we have definite moral and religious ideas
+presented to us. We come to think in definite ways about them or with
+them. It therefore comes about that every day we live, we are
+determining the way we shall in the future reason about things. We are
+each day getting the material for the solution of the problems that will
+be presented to us by future situations. And the reason that one of us
+will solve those problems in a different way from another is because of
+having somewhat different experiences, and of organizing them in a
+different way.
+
+=Meaning and the Organization of Ideas.= In the preceding paragraphs we
+have several times spoken of the organization of ideas. Let us now see
+just what is meant by this expression. Intimately connected with the
+organization of ideas is _meaning_. What is the meaning of an idea? The
+meaning of an idea is another idea or group of ideas that are very
+closely associated with it. When there comes to mind an idea that has
+arisen out of repeated experience, there come almost immediately with it
+other ideas, perhaps vivid images which have been connected with the
+same experience. Suppose the idea is of a horse. If one were asked,
+"What is a horse?" ideas of a horse in familiar situations would present
+themselves. One may see in imagination a horse being driven, ridden,
+etc., and he would then answer, "Why, a horse is to ride," or "A horse
+is to drive," or "A horse is a domestic animal," etc.
+
+Again, "What is a cloud? What is the sun? What is a river? What is
+justice? What is love?" One says, "A cloud is that from which rain
+falls," or "A cloud is partially condensed vapor. The sun is a round
+thing in the sky that shines by day. A river is water flowing along in a
+low place through the land. Justice is giving to people what they
+deserve. Love is that feeling one has for a person which makes him be
+kind to that person." The answer that one gives depends on age and
+experience.
+
+But it is evident that when a person is asked what a thing is or what is
+the meaning of a thing, he has at once ideas that have been most closely
+associated with the idea in question. Now, since the most important
+aspect of a thing is what we can do with it, what use it can be to us,
+usually meaning centers about _use_. A chair is to sit in, bread is to
+eat, water is to drink, clothes are to wear, a hat is a thing to be worn
+on one's head, a shovel is to dig with, a car is to ride in, etc.
+
+Use is not quite so evident in such cases as the following: "Who was
+Cæsar? Who was Homer? Who is Edison? What was the Inquisition? What were
+the Crusades?" However, one has, in these cases, very closely associated
+ideas, and these ideas do center about what we have done with these men
+and events in our thinking. "Cæsar was a warrior. Homer was a writer of
+epics. Edison is an inventor," etc. These men and events have been
+presented to us in various situations as standing for various things in
+the history of the world. And when we think of them, we at once think of
+what they did, the place they fill in the world. This constitutes their
+meaning.
+
+It is evident that an idea may have many meanings. And the meaning that
+may come to us at any particular moment depends upon the situation. A
+chair, for example, in one situation, may come to mind as a thing to sit
+in; in another situation, as a thing to stand in the corner and look
+pretty; in another, a thing to stand on so that one may reach the top
+shelf in the pantry; in another, a thing to strike a burglar with; in
+another, a thing to knock to pieces to be used to make a fire.
+
+The meaning of a thing comes from our experience with it, and the thing
+usually comes to have more and more meanings as our experience with it
+increases. When we meet something new, it may have practically no
+meaning. Suppose we find a new plant in the woods. It has little
+meaning. We may be able to say only that it is a plant, or it is a small
+plant. We touch it and it pricks us, and it at once has more meaning. It
+is a plant that pricks. We bite into it and find it bitter. It is then a
+plant that is bitter, etc. In such a way, objects come to have meaning.
+They acquire meaning according to the connections in which we experience
+them and they may take on different meanings for different persons
+because of the different experiences of these persons. The chief
+interest we have in objects is in what use we can make of them, how we
+can make them serve our purposes, how we can make them contribute to our
+pleasure.
+
+The organization of experience is the connecting, through the process of
+association, of the ideas that arise out of our experience. Our ideas
+are organized not only in accordance with the way we experience them in
+the first place, but in accordance with the way we think them later in
+memory. Of course, ideas are recalled in accordance with the way we
+experience them, but since they are experienced in such a multitude of
+connections, they are recalled later in these various connections and it
+is possible in recall to repeat one connection to the exclusion of
+others.
+
+Organization can therefore be a selective process. Although "horse" is
+experienced in a great variety of situations or connections, for our
+purposes we can select some one or more of these connections and by
+repetition in recalling it, strengthen these connections to the
+exclusion of others. Herein lies one of the greatest possibilities in
+thinking and reasoning, which enables us, to an extent, to be
+independent of original experience. We must have had experience, of
+course, but the strength of bonds between ideas need not depend upon
+original experience, but rather upon the way in which these ideas are
+recalled later, and especially upon the number of times they are
+recalled.
+
+It is in the matter of the organization of experience that teachers and
+parents can be of great help to young people. Children do not know what
+connections of ideas will be most useful in the future. People who have
+had more experience know better and can, by direction and suggestion,
+lead the young to form, and strengthen by repetition, those connections
+of ideas that will be most useful later.
+
+In the various school studies, a mass of ideas is presented. These
+ideas, isolated or with random connections, will be of little service to
+the pupils. They must be organized with reference to future use. This
+organization must come about through thinking over these ideas in
+helpful connections. The teacher knows best what these helpful
+connections are and must help the pupil to make them.
+
+Suppose the topic studied in history is the Battle of Bunker Hill. The
+teacher should assist the child to think the battle over in many
+different connections. There are various geographical, historical, and
+literary aspects of the battle that are of importance. These aspects
+should be brought to mind and related by being thought of together.
+Thinking things together binds them together as ideas; and later when
+one idea comes, the others that have been joined with it in the past in
+thought, come also. Therefore, in studying the Battle of Bunker Hill,
+the pupil not only reads about it, but gets a map and studies the
+geography of it, works out the causes that led up to the battle, studies
+the consequences that followed, reads speeches and poems that have been
+made and written since concerning the battle, the monument, etc.
+
+Similarly, all the topics studied in school should be thought over and
+organized with reference to meaning and with reference to future use. As
+a result of such procedure, all the topics become organized and
+crystallized, with all related ideas closely bound together in
+association.
+
+One of the greatest differences in people is in the organization of
+their ideas. Of course, people differ in original experience, but they
+differ more in the way they organize this experience and prepare it for
+future needs. Just as in habit-formation we should by exercise and
+practice acquire those kinds of skill that will serve us best in the
+future, so in getting knowledge we should by repetition strengthen the
+connections between those ideas that we shall need to have connected in
+the future. All education looks forward and is preparatory. As a result
+of training in the organization of ideas, a pupil can learn how to
+organize his experience, in a measure, independent of the teacher. He
+learns to know, himself, what ideas are significant, and what
+connections of ideas will be most helpful. Such an outcome should be one
+of the ends of school training.
+
+=Training in Reasoning.= We have already mentioned ways in which a child
+can be helped in gaining power and facility in reasoning. In this
+paragraph we shall discuss the matter more fully. There are three
+aspects of training in reasoning, one with reference to original
+experience, one with reference to the organization of this experience as
+just discussed, and one with reference to certain habits of procedure in
+the recall and use of experience.
+
+(1) _Original experience._ Before reasoning in any field, one must have
+experience in that field. There is no substitute for experience. After
+having the experience, it can be organized in various ways, but
+experience there must be. Experience may be primary, with things
+themselves, or it may be secondary, received second hand through books
+or through spoken language. We cannot think without ideas, and ideas
+come only through perceptions of one kind or another.
+
+Originally, all experience arises out of sensations. Language makes it
+possible for us to profit through the perceptual experience of others.
+But even when we receive our experience second hand, our own primary
+experience must enable us to understand the meaning of what we read and
+hear about, else it is valueless to us. Therefore, if we wish to be able
+to reason in the field of physics, of botany, of chemistry, of medicine,
+of law, or of agriculture, we must get experience in those fields. The
+raw material of thought comes only through experience. In such a subject
+as physical geography, for example, the words of the book have little
+meaning unless the child has had original experience in the matter
+discussed. He must have seen hills and valleys and rivers and lakes and
+rocks and weathering, and all the various processes discussed in
+physical geography; otherwise, the reading of the text is almost
+valueless. The same thing is true of all subjects. To reason in any
+subject we must have had original experience in it.
+
+(2) _The organization of experience._ After experience comes its
+organization. This point has already been fully explained. It was
+pointed out that organization consists in thinking our experience over
+again in helpful relations. Here parents and teachers can be of very
+great service to children.
+
+(3) _Habits of thought._ There are certain habits of procedure in
+reasoning, apart from the association of the ideas. One can form the
+habit of putting certain questions to oneself when a problem is
+presented, so that certain types of relations are called up. If one is a
+scientist, one looks for causes. If one is a lawyer, one looks up the
+court decisions. If one is a physician, one looks for symptoms, etc.
+
+One of the most important habits in connection with reasoning is the
+habit of caution. Reasoning is waiting, waiting for ideas to come that
+will be adequate for the situation. One must form the habit of waiting a
+reasonable length of time for associations to run their course. If one
+act too soon, before his organized experience has had time to pass in
+review, he may act improperly. Therefore one must be trained to a proper
+degree of caution. Of course, caution may be overdone. One must act
+sometime, one cannot wait always.
+
+Another habit is that of testing out a conclusion before it is finally
+put into practice. It is often possible to put a conclusion to some sort
+of test before it is put to the real test, just as one makes a model and
+tries out an invention on a small scale. One should not have full
+confidence in a conclusion that is the result of reasoning, till the
+conclusion has been put to the final test of experiment, of trial.
+
+This last statement leads us to the real function of reasoning. Reason
+points the way to action in a new situation. After the situation is
+repeated for a sufficient number of times, action passes into the realm
+of habit.
+
+=Language and Thinking.= The fact that man has spoken and written language
+is of the greatest significance. It has already been pointed out that
+language is a means through which we can get experience secondhand. This
+proves to be a great advantage to man. But language gives us still
+another advantage. Without language, thinking is limited to the passing
+of sensory images that arise in accordance with the laws of association.
+But man can name things and the attributes of things, and these names
+become associated, so that thinking comes to be, in part at least, a
+matter of words. Thinking is talking to oneself. One cannot talk without
+language.
+
+The importance that attaches to language can hardly be overestimated.
+When the child acquires the use of language, he has acquired the use of
+a tool, the importance of which to thinking is greater than that of any
+other tool. Now, one can think without language, in the sense that
+memory images come and go,--we have defined thinking as the flow of
+imagery, the passing or succession of ideas. But after we have named
+things, thinking, particularly reasoning, becomes largely verbal, or as
+we said above, _talking to oneself_.
+
+Not only do we give names to concrete things but we give names to
+specific attributes and to relations. As we organize and analyze our
+experiences, there appear uniformities, principles, laws. To these we
+give names, such as white, black, red, weight, length, thickness,
+justice, truth, sin, crime, heat, cold, mortal, immortal, evolution,
+disintegration, love, hate, envy, jealousy, possible, impossible,
+probable, etc. We spoke above of meanings. To meanings we give names, so
+that a single word comes to stand for meanings broad and significant,
+the result of much experience. Such words as "evolution" and
+"gravitation," single words though they are, represent a wide range of
+experiences and bring these experiences together and crystallize them
+into a single expression, which we use as a unit in our thought.
+
+Language, therefore, makes thought easier and its accomplishment
+greater. After we have studied Cæsar for some years, the name comes to
+represent the epitome, the bird's-eye view of a great man. A similar
+thing is true of our study of other men and movements and things. Single
+words come to represent a multitude of experiences. Then these words
+become associated and organized in accordance with the principles of
+association discussed above, so that it comes about that the older we
+are, the more we come to think in words, and the more these words
+represent. The older we are, the more abstract our thinking becomes, the
+more do our words come to stand for meanings and attributes and laws
+that have come out of the organization of our experience.
+
+It is evident that the accuracy of our thinking depends upon these words
+standing for the _truth_, depends upon whether we have organized our
+experience in accordance with facts. If our word "Cæsar" does not stand
+for the real Cæsar, then all our thinking in which Cæsar enters will be
+incorrect. If our word "justice" does not stand for the real justice,
+then all our thinking in which justice enters will be incorrect.
+
+This discussion points to the tremendous importance of the organization
+of experience. Truth is the agreement of our thought with the thing,
+with reality. We must therefore help the young to see the world clearly
+and to organize what they see in accordance with the facts and with a
+view to future use. Then the units of this organized experience are to
+be tagged, labeled, by means of words, and these words or labels become
+the vehicles of thought, and the outcome of the thinking depends on the
+validity of the organization of our experience.
+
+  SUMMARY. Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind; its basis is
+  in the association of memory ideas. The basis of association is in
+  original experience, ideas becoming bound together in memory as
+  originally experienced. The factors of association are primacy,
+  recency, frequency, intensity, and mental set or attitude. Reasoning
+  is thinking to a purpose. We can be trained in reasoning by being
+  taught to get vivid experience in the first place and in organizing
+  this experience in helpful ways, having in mind future use.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. A series of experiments should be performed to make clear to the
+students that the basis of the association of ideas is in _experience_
+and not in the nature of the ideas themselves.
+
+(a) Let the students, starting with the same word, write down all the
+ideas that come to mind in one minute. The teacher should give the
+initial idea, as sky, hate, music, clock, table, or wind. The first ten
+ideas coming to each student might be written on the blackboard for
+study and comparison. Are any series alike? Is the tenth idea in one
+series the same as that in any other?
+
+(b) For a study of the various factors of association, perform the
+following experiment: Let the teacher prepare a list of fifty
+words--nouns and adjectives, such as wood, murder, goodness, bad, death,
+water, love, angel. Read the words to the class and let each student
+write down the first idea that comes to mind in each case. After the
+list is finished, let each student try to find out what the determining
+factor was in each case, whether primacy, frequency, recency, vividness,
+or mental set. When the study is completed, the student's paper should
+contain three columns, the first column showing the stimulus words, the
+second showing the response words, the third showing the determining
+factors. The first column should be dictated and copied after the
+response words have been written.
+
+(c) Study the data in (a) and (b), noting the variety of ideas
+that come to different students for the same stimulus word. It will be
+seen that they come from a great variety of experiences and from all
+parts of one's life from childhood to the present, showing that all our
+experiences are bound together and that we can go from one point to any
+other, directly or indirectly.
+
+2. Perform an experiment to determine how each member of the class
+thinks, _i.e._ in what kind of imagery. Let each plan a picnic in
+detail. How do they do it? Do they see it or hear it or seem to act it?
+Or does it happen in words merely?
+
+3. Think of the events of yesterday. How do they come to you? Do your
+images seem to be visual, auditory, motor, or verbal? Do you seem to
+have all kinds of imagery? Is one kind predominant?
+
+4. Test the class for speed of free association as described on
+page 193. Repeat the experiment at least five times and rank the members
+of the class from the results.
+
+5. Similarly, test speed for controlled association as described on
+page 195 and rank the members of the class.
+
+6. Compare the rankings in Nos. 4 and 5.
+
+7. The teacher can extend the controlled association tests by preparing
+lists that show different kinds of logical relations with one another,
+from genus to species, from species to genus, from verb to object, from
+subject to verb, etc. Do the students maintain the same rank in the
+various types of experiments? Do the ranks in these tests correspond to
+the students' ranks in thinking in the school subjects?
+
+8. At least two series of experiments in reasoning should be performed,
+one to show the nature of reasoning and the other to show the ability of
+the members of the class.
+
+(a) Put several problems to the class, similar to the following: What
+happens to a wet board laid out in the sunshine? Explain. Suppose corn
+is placed in three vessels, 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 is sealed up air tight
+and kept warm? Number 2 is kept open and warm? Number 3 is kept open and
+warm and moist. What happens in each case? Explain.
+
+Condensed milk does not sour as long as the can remains unopened. After
+the can is opened, the milk sours if allowed to become warm; it does not
+sour if kept frozen. Why? Two bars of metal are riveted together. One
+bar is lead, the other iron. What happens when the bars are heated to
+150 C? 500 C? 1000 C? 2000 C? Answer the following questions: Is it ever
+right to steal? To kill a person? To lie? Which are unwise and mistaken,
+Republicans or Democrats?
+
+In the above, do all come to the same conclusion? Why? Were any unable
+to come to a conclusion at all on some questions? Why? Do the
+experiments make it clear that reasoning is dependent upon experience?
+
+(b) Let the teacher prepare five problems in reasoning well within the
+experience of the class, and find the speed and accuracy of the students
+in solving them. Compare the results with those in the controlled
+association tests. Test the class with various kinds of mechanical
+puzzles.
+
+9. The students should study several people to ascertain how well those
+people have their experience organized. Is their experience available?
+Can they come to the point immediately, or, are they hazy, uncertain,
+and impractical?
+
+10. It is claimed that we have two types of people, theoretical and
+practical. This is to some extent true. What is the explanation?
+
+11. From the point of view of No. 10, compare teachers and engineers.
+
+12. If anything will work in theory, will it work in practice?
+
+13. From what you have learned in the chapter and from the experiments,
+write a paper on training in reasoning.
+
+14. What are the main defects of the schools with reference to training
+children to think?
+
+15. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XVI and XVIII.
+
+DEWEY: _How We Think_, Parts I and III.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters VIII and XII;
+also pp. 192-195.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and IX.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XV.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters V, VI, and X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
+
+
+=Physical Differences.= One never sees two people whose bodies are exactly
+alike. They differ in height or weight or color of the skin. They differ
+in the color of the hair or eyes, in the shape of the head, or in such
+details as size and shape of the ear, size and shape of the nose, chin,
+mouth, teeth, feet, hands, fingers, toes, nails, etc. The anatomist
+tells us that we differ internally just as we do externally. While the
+internal structure of one person has the same general plan as that of
+another, there being the same number of bones, muscles, organs, etc.,
+there are always differences in detail. We are built on the same plan,
+_i.e._ we are made after a common type. We vary, above and below this
+type or central tendency.
+
+Weight may be taken for illustration. If we should weigh the first
+thousand men we meet, we should find light men, heavy men, and men of
+medium weight. There would be few light men, few heavy men, but many men
+of medium weight. This fact is well shown in diagram by what is known as
+a curve of distribution or frequency surface, which is constructed as
+follows: Draw a base line A B, and on this line mark off equal distances
+to represent the various weights. At the left end put the number
+representing the lightest men and at the right the number representing
+the heaviest men; the other weights come in between in order. Then
+select a scale; we will say a millimeter in height above the base line
+represents one person of the weight represented on the base, and in
+drawing the upper part of the figure, A C B, we have but to measure up
+one millimeter for each person weighed, of the weight indicated below on
+the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE V--FREQUENCY SURFACE--WEIGHT
+The solid line represents men, the broken line, women.]
+
+A study of this frequency surface shows a tendency for people to be
+grouped about the central tendency or average. There are many people of
+average weight or nearly so, but few people who deviate widely from the
+average weight. If we measure people with reference to any other
+physical characteristic, or any mental characteristic, we get a similar
+result, we find them grouped about an average or central tendency.
+
+=Mental Differences.= Just as we differ physically, so also we differ
+mentally, and in the various aspects of our behavior. The accompanying
+diagram (Free Association) shows the distribution of a large number of
+men and women with respect to the speed of their flow of ideas. When men
+and women are measured with respect to any mental function, a similar
+distribution is found.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VI--FREQUENCY SURFACE--FREE ASSOCIATION
+Solid line, men; broken line, women. The numbers below the base
+represent the number of words written in the Free Association test, and
+the numbers at the left represent the number of people making the
+respective scores.]
+
+An interesting question is whether our mental differences have any
+relation or connection with one another. If one mental characteristic is
+of high order, are all the others of high order also? Does a good memory
+indicate a high order of attention, of association, of imagination, of
+learning capacity? Experiments show that mental characteristics have at
+least some degree of independence. But the rule is that they generally
+go together, a high order of ability in one mental function indicating a
+high order of ability in at least some others, and a low order of
+ability in one function indicating a low order in other functions.
+
+However, it seems that abilities that are very much specialized, such as
+musical ability, artistic ability, etc., may exist in high order while
+other mental functions may be only mediocre. It is a common thing for a
+musical person to be of rather poor ability otherwise. To the extent
+that special abilities require specialized differences in the structure
+of brain, nervous system, or sense organ, they can exist in some degree
+of independence of other functions. Musical ability to some extent does
+require some such differences and may therefore be found either with a
+high or a low degree of ability in other characteristics.
+
+It is doubtless true that at maturity the unequal power of mental
+functions in the same person may be partly due to the fact that one
+function has been exercised and others neglected. A person having very
+strong musical tendencies is likely to have such a great interest in
+music that he will think other activities are not worth while, and will
+consequently neglect these other activities. It will therefore turn out
+that at maturity the great differences in mental functions in such a
+person are in part due to exercise of one function and neglect of
+others. But there can be no doubt that in many cases there are large
+original, inherited differences, the individual being poor in one aspect
+of mind and good in others. Feeble-minded people are usually poor in all
+important aspects of mind. However, one sometimes finds a feeble-minded
+person having musical or artistic ability, and often such a person has a
+good rote memory, sometimes a good verbal memory. However, the so-called
+higher mental functions--logical memory, controlled association, and
+constructive imagination--are all poor in a feeble-minded person.
+
+Each mental function may be looked upon as in some measure independent;
+each is found existing in people in varying degrees from zero ability up
+to what might be called genius ability. The frequency curves in Fig. VI
+show this. Take rote memory for example. Idiots are found with
+practically zero ability in rote memory. At the other extreme, we find
+mathematical prodigies who, after watching a long freight train pass and
+noting the numbers of the cars, can repeat correctly the number of each
+car. Rote memory abilities can be found representing every step between
+these two extremes. This principle of distribution holds true in the
+case of all mental functions. We find persons practically without them,
+and others possessing them in the highest order, but most people are
+grouped about the average ability.
+
+=Detecting Mental Differences.= It has already been said that mind has
+many different aspects and that people differ with respect to these
+aspects. Now let us ask how we can measure the degree of development of
+these aspects or functions of mind. We measure them just as we measured
+muscular speed as described in the first chapter. Each mental function
+means ability to do something--to learn, to remember, to form images,
+to reason, etc. To measure these different capacities or functions we
+have but to require that the person under consideration _do_ something,
+as learn, remember, etc., and measure how well and how fast he does it,
+just as we would measure how far he can jump, how fast he can run, etc.
+
+In such measurements, the question of practice is always involved. If we
+measure running ability, we find that some are in practice while others
+are not. Those in practice can run at very nearly their ultimate
+capacity. Those who are not in practice can be trained to run much
+faster than they do. To get a true measure of running capacity, we
+should practice the persons to be measured till each runs up to the
+limit of his capacity, and then measure each one's speed. The same thing
+is true, to some extent, when we come to measure mental functions
+proper. However, the life that children live gives exercise to all
+fundamental functions of the mind, and unless some of the children
+tested have had experience which would tend to develop some mental
+functions in a special way, tests of the various aspects of learning
+capacity, memory, association, imagination, etc., are a fairly good
+measure of original, inherited tendencies.
+
+Of course, it must be admitted that there are measurable differences in
+the influence of environment on children, and when these differences are
+extreme, no doubt the influence is shown in the development of the
+child's mind. A child reared in a home where all the influences favor
+its mental development, ought to show a measurable difference in such
+development when compared with a child reared in a home where all the
+influences are unfavorable. It is difficult to know to what extent this
+is true, for the hereditary and environmental influences are usually in
+harmony, the child of good hereditary stock having good environmental
+influences, and vice versa. When this is not the case, _i.e._ when a
+child of good stock is reared under poor environmental influences, or
+when a child of poor stock is reared under good influences, the results
+seem to show that the differences in environment have little effect on
+mental development, as far as the fundamental functions are concerned,
+except in the most extreme cases.
+
+Each mental function is capable of some development. It can be brought
+up to the limit of its possibilities. But recent experiments indicate
+that such development is not very great in the case of the elementary,
+fundamental functions. Training, however, has a much greater effect on
+complex mental activities that involve several functions. Rote memory is
+rather simple; it cannot be much affected by training. The memory for
+ideas is more complex; it can be considerably affected by training. The
+original and fundamental functions of the mind depend upon the nature of
+the nervous system which is bequeathed to us by heredity. This cannot be
+much changed. However, training has considerable effect on the
+coördinations and combinations of mental functions. Therefore, the more
+complex the mental activities which we are testing, the more likely they
+are to have been affected by differences in experience and training.
+
+If we should designate the logical memory capacity of one person by 10,
+and that of another by 15, by practice we might bring the first up to 15
+and the second to 22½, but we could not equalize them. We could never
+make the memory of the one equal to that of the other. In an extreme
+case, we might find one child whose experience had been such that his
+logical memory was working up to the limit of its capacity, while the
+other had had little practice in logical memory and was therefore far
+below his real capacity. In such a case, a test would not show the
+native difference, it would show only the present difference in
+functioning capacity.
+
+Fairly adequate tests for the most important mental functions have been
+worked out. A series of group tests with directions and norms follow.
+The members of the class can use these tests in studying the individual
+differences in other people. The teacher will find other tests in the
+author's _Examination of School Children_, and in Whipple's _Manual of
+Mental and Physical Tests_.
+
+
+=MENTAL TESTS=
+
+GENERAL DIRECTIONS
+
+The results of the mental tests in the school will be worse than useless
+unless the tests are given with the greatest care and scientific
+precision. Every test should be most carefully explained to the children
+so that they will know _exactly_ what they are to do. The matter must be
+so presented to them that they will put forth _all possible_ effort.
+They must take the tests seriously. Great care must be taken to see that
+there is no cheating. The work of each child should be his own work. In
+those tests in which time is an important element, the time must be
+_carefully kept_, with a stop watch if one is available. The papers
+should be distributed for the tests and turned face downward on the
+pupil's desk. The pupil, when all are ready to begin, should take the
+paper in his hand and at the signal "begin" turn it over and begin work,
+and when the signal "stop" is given, should quit work instantly and turn
+the paper over. Before the work begins, the necessary information should
+be placed on each paper. This information should be the pupil's name,
+age, grade, sex, and school. This should be on every paper. When the
+test is over the papers should be immediately collected.
+
+
+LOGICAL MEMORY
+
+=Object.= The purpose of this test is to determine the pupil's facility in
+remembering and reproducing ideas. A pupil's standing in the test may
+serve as an indication of his ability to remember the subject matter of
+the school studies.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VII--LOGICAL MEMORY "WILLIE JONES"]
+
+=Method.= The procedure in this test is for the teacher to read slowly and
+distinctly the story to be reproduced. Immediately after the reading the
+pupils are to write down all of the story that they can recall. They
+must not begin to write till _after_ the reading. Ten minutes should be
+allowed for the reproduction. This is ample time, and each pupil should
+be told to use the whole time in working on his reproduction. At the end
+of ten minutes, collect the papers. Care should be taken to see that
+each pupil does his own work, that there is no copying. Before reading
+the story, the teacher should give the following instructions:
+
+  I shall read to you a story entitled "Willie Jones and His Dog" (or
+  "A Farmer's Son," or "A Costly Temper," as the case may be). After I
+  have read the story you are to write down all you can remember of
+  it. You are not to use the exact words that I read unless you wish.
+  You are to use your own words. Try to recall as much as possible and
+  write all you recall. Try to get all the details, not merely the
+  main facts.
+
+=Material.= For grades three, four, and five, use "Willie Jones and His
+Dog"; for grades six, seven, and eight, use "A Farmer's Son"; for the
+high school, use "A Costly Temper." The norms for the latter are based
+on eighth grade and high school pupils.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WILLIE JONES AND HIS DOG
+
+Willie | Jones | was a little | boy | only | five years old. | He had a
+dog | whose name was Buster. | Buster was a large | dog | with long, |
+black, | curly | hair. | His fore | feet | and the tip | of his tail |
+were white. | One day | Willie's mother | sent him | to the store |
+which was only | a short | distance away. | Buster went with him, |
+following behind. | As Buster was turning | at the corner, | a car |
+struck him | and broke | one | hind | leg | and hurt | one | eye. |
+Willie was | very | sorry | and cried | a long | time. | Willie's
+father | came | and carried | the poor | dog | home. | The broken leg |
+got well | in five | weeks | but the eye | that was hurt | became blind.|
+
+
+A FARMER'S SON
+
+Will | was a farmer's | son | who attended school | in town. | His
+clothes | were poor and his boots | often smelled | of the farmyard |
+although he took great | care of them. | Since Will had not gone to
+school | as much | as his classmates, | he was often | at a
+disadvantage, | although his mind | was as good | as theirs,--| in fact,
+he was brighter | than most | of them. | James, | the wit | of the
+class, | never lost an opportunity | to ridicule | Will's mistakes, |
+his bright | red | hair, | and his patched | clothes. | Will | took the
+ridicule | in good part | and never | lost his temper. | One Saturday |
+as Will | was driving | his cows | to pasture, | he met James | teasing
+| a young | child, | a cripple. | Will's | indignation | was aroused |
+by the sight. | He asked | the bully | to stop, | but when he would not,
+| Will pounced | upon him | and gave him | a good | beating, | and he
+would not | let James go | until he promised | not to tease | the
+crippled | child | again. |
+
+
+A COSTLY TEMPER
+
+A man | named John | Murdock | had a servant | who worried him | much by
+his stupidity. | One day | when this servant was more | stupid | than
+usual, | the angry | master | of the house | threw a book | at his head.
+| The servant | ducked | and the book flew | out of the window. |
+
+"Now go | and pick that book up!" | ordered the master. | The servant |
+started | to obey, | but a passerby | had saved him | the trouble, | and
+had walked off | with the book. | The scientist | thereupon | began to
+wonder | what book | he had thrown away, | and to his horror, |
+discovered | that it was a quaint | and rare | little | volume | of
+poems, | which he had purchased | in London | for fifty | dollars. |
+
+But his troubles | were not over. | The weeks went by | and the man had
+almost | forgotten his loss, | when, strolling | into a secondhand |
+bookshop, | he saw, | to his great delight, | a copy of the book | he
+had lost. | He asked the price. |
+
+"Well," | said the dealer, | reflectively, | "I guess we can let you
+have it | for forty | dollars. | It is a very | rare book, | and I am
+sure | that I could get seventy-five | dollars for it | by holding on a
+while." |
+
+The man of science | pulled out his purse | and produced the money, |
+delighted at the opportunity of replacing | his lost | treasure. | When
+he reached home, | a card | dropped out | of the leaves. | The card was
+his own, | and further | examination | showed that he had bought back |
+his own property. |
+
+"Forty dollars' | worth of temper," | exclaimed the man. | "I think I
+shall mend my ways." | His disposition | afterward | became so | good |
+that | the servant became worried, | thinking the man | must be ill. |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VIII--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A FARMER'S SON"]
+
+=The Results.= The material for the test is divided into units as
+indicated by the vertical lines. The pupil's written reproduction should
+be compared unit by unit with the story as printed, and given one credit
+for each unit adequately reproduced. The norms for the three tests are
+shown in the accompanying Figures VII, VIII, and IX. In these and all
+the graphs which follow, the actual ages are shown in the first
+horizontal column. The norms for girls appear in the second horizontal
+column, the norms for boys in the column at the bottom. By the _norm_
+for an age is meant the average performance of all the pupils of that
+age examined. Age ten applies to those pupils who have passed their
+tenth birthday and have not reached their eleventh birthday, and the
+other ages are to be similarly interpreted. The vertical lines in the
+graphs indicate birthdays and the scores written on these lines indicate
+ability at these exact ages. The column marked ten, for example,
+includes all the children that are over ten and not yet eleven. The
+graphs show the development from age to age. In general, it will be
+noticed, there is an improvement of memory with age, but in the high
+school, in the "Costly Temper" test, there is a decline. This may not
+indicate a real decline in ability to remember ideas, but a change in
+attitude. The high school pupil probably acquires a habit of
+remembering only significant facts. His memory is selective, while in
+the earlier ages, the memory may be more parrot-like, one idea being
+reproduced with about as much fidelity as another. This statement is
+made not as a _fact_, but as a _probable_ explanation.
+
+
+ROTE MEMORY
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE IX--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A COSTLY TEMPER"]
+
+=Object.= The object of the rote memory tests is to determine the pupil's
+memory span for unrelated impressions--words that have no logical
+relations with one another. Much school work makes demands upon this
+ability. Therefore, the tests are of importance.
+
+=Method.= There are two lists of words, _concrete_ and _abstract_, with
+six groups in each list. The list of concrete words should be given
+first, then the abstract. The procedure is to pronounce the first group,
+_cat_, _tree_, _coat_, and then pause for the pupils to write these
+three words. Then pronounce the next group, _mule_, _bird_, _cart_,
+_glass_, and pause for the reproduction, and so on through the list.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE X--CONCRETE ROTE MEMORY]
+
+Give the following instructions:
+
+  We wish to see how well you can remember words. I shall pronounce
+  first a group of three words. _After_ I have pronounced them, you
+  are to write them down. I shall then pronounce a group of four
+  words, then one of five words, and so continue with a longer group
+  each time. You must pay very close attention for I shall pronounce
+  a group but once. You are not required to write the words in their
+  order, but just as you recall them.
+
+=Material.= The words for the test are given in the following lists:
+
+  _Concrete_                           _Abstract_
+
+  1. cat, tree, coat                   1. good, black, fast
+  2. mule, bird, cart, glass           2. clean, tall, round, hot
+  3. star, horse, dress, fence, man    3. long, wet, fierce, white, cold
+  4. fish, sun, head, door, shoe,      4. deep, soft, quick, dark, great,
+       block                                dead
+  5. train, mill, box, desk, oil,      5. sad, strong, hard, bright,
+       pup, bill                            fine, glad, plain
+  6. floor, car, pipe, bridge, hand,   6. sharp, late, sour, wide, rough,
+       dirt, cow, crank                     thick, red, tight
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XI--ABSTRACT ROTE MEMORY]
+
+=Results.= The papers are graded by determining the number of concrete
+words and the number of abstract words that are reproduced. No account
+is taken of whether the words are in the right position or not. A
+perfect score in each test would therefore be thirty-three. The norms
+are shown in Figures X and XI.
+
+
+THE SUBSTITUTION TEST
+
+=Object.= This test determines one's ability to build up new associations.
+It is a test of quickness of learning.
+
+=Method.= The substitution test-sheets are distributed to the pupils and
+turned face down on the desks. The teacher gives the following
+instructions:
+
+  We wish to see how fast you can learn. At the top of the sheet which
+  has been distributed to you there is a key. In nine circles are
+  written the nine digits and for each digit there is written a letter
+  which is to be used instead of the digit. Below the key are two
+  columns of numbers; each number contains five digits. In the five
+  squares which follow the number you are to write the letters which
+  correspond to the digits. Work as fast as you can and fill as many
+  of the squares as you can without making mistakes. When I say
+  "stop," quit work instantly and turn the paper over.
+
+Before beginning the test the teacher should explain on the blackboard
+the exact nature of the test. This can be done by using other letters
+instead of those used in the key. Make sure that the pupils understand
+what they are to do. Allow _eight_ minutes in grades three, four, and
+five, and _five_ minutes above the fifth grade.
+
+=Material.= For material, use the substitution test-sheets. This and the
+other test material can be obtained from the University of Missouri,
+Extension Division.
+
+=Results.= In grading the work, count each square correctly filled in as
+one point, and reduce the score to speed per minute by dividing by eight
+in grades three, four, and five, and by five in the grades above.
+
+The norms are shown in Figure XII.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XII--SUBSTITUTION TEST]
+
+
+FREE ASSOCIATION
+
+=Object.= This test determines the speed of the free flow of ideas. The
+result of the test is a criterion of the quickness of the flow of ideas
+when no restriction or limitation is put on this flow.
+
+=Method.= The procedure in this test is to give the pupils a word, and
+tell them to write this word down and all the other words that come into
+their minds. Make it clear to them that they are to write whatever word
+comes to mind, whether it has any relation to the word that is given
+them or not. Start them with the word "cloud." Give the following
+instructions:
+
+  I wish to see how many words you can think of and write down in
+  three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it down and then
+  all the other words that come into your minds. Do not write
+  sentences, merely the words that come into your minds. Work as fast
+  as you can.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIII--FREE ASSOCIATION TEST]
+
+=Results.= Score the work by counting the number of words that have been
+written. The norms are shown in Figure XIII.
+
+
+OPPOSITES
+
+=Object.= This is a test of controlled association. It tests one aspect of
+the association of ideas. All thinking is a matter of association of
+ideas. Reasoning is controlled association. The test may therefore be
+taken as a measure of speed in reasoning.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIV--OPPOSITES TEST--LISTS I AND II]
+
+=Method.= Distribute the lists of opposites to the pupils and turn them
+face down on the desks. Use List One in grades three, four, and five,
+and List Two in grades above. Allow two minutes in grades three, four,
+and five and one minute in grades above. Give the following
+instructions:
+
+  On the sheets that have been distributed to you are fifty words.
+  After each word you are to write a word that has the opposite
+  meaning. For example, if one word were "far," you could write
+  "near." Work as fast as you can, and when I say "stop" quit work
+  instantly and turn your paper over.
+
+=Results.= The score is the number of opposites correctly written. The
+norms are shown in Figure XIV.
+
+OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 1
+
+    1. good         18. up            35. before
+    2. big          19. thick         36. winter
+    3. rich         20. quick         37. ripe
+    4. out          21. pretty        38. night
+    5. sick         22. heavy         39. open
+    6. hot          23. late          40. first
+    7. long         24. wrong         41. over
+    8. wet          25. smooth        42. love
+    9. yes          26. strong        43. come
+    10. high        27. dark          44. east
+    11. hard        28. dead          45. top
+    12. sweet       29. wide          46. wise
+    13. clean       30. empty         47. front
+    14. sharp       31. above         48. girl
+    15. fast        32. north         49. sad
+    16. black       33. laugh         50. fat
+    17. old         34. man
+
+OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 2
+
+    1. strong         18. strange     35. fine
+    2. deep           19. wrong       36. plain
+    3. lazy           20. quickly     37. sharp
+    4. seldom         21. black       38. late
+    5. thin           22. good        39. sour
+    6. soft           23. fast        40. wide
+    7. many           24. clean       41. drunk
+    8. valuable       25. tall        42. tight
+    9. gloomy         26. hot         43. empty
+   10. rude           27. long        44. sick
+   11. dark           28. wet         45. friend
+   12. rough          29. fierce      46. above
+   13. pretty         30. great       47. loud
+   14. high           31. dead        48. war
+   15. foolish        32. cloudy      49. in
+   16. present        33. hard        50. yes
+   17. glad           34. bright
+
+
+THE WORD-BUILDING TEST
+
+=Object.= This is a test of a certain type of inventiveness, namely
+linguistic invention. Specifically, it tests the pupil's ability to
+construct words using certain prescribed letters.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XV--WORD-BUILDING TEST]
+
+=Method.= The pupils are given the letters, _a_, _e_, _o_, _m_, _n_, _r_,
+and told to make as many words as possible using only these letters.
+Give the following instructions:
+
+  I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes, using
+  only the letters which I give you. The words must be real English
+  words. You must use only the letters which I give you and must not
+  use the same letter more than once in the same word. You do not, of
+  course, have to use all the letters in the same word. A word may
+  contain one or more letters up to six.
+
+=Material.= The pupils need only sheets of blank paper.
+
+=Results.= The score is the number of words that do not violate the rules
+of the test as given in the instructions. The norms are shown in Figure XV.
+
+
+THE COMPLETION TEST
+
+=Object.= This is, to some extent, a test of reasoning capacity. Of
+course, it is only one particular aspect of reasoning. The pupil is
+given a story that has certain words omitted. He must read the story,
+see what it is trying to say, and determine what words, put into the
+blanks, will make the correct sense. The meaning of the word written in
+a particular blank must not only make the sentence read sensibly but
+must fit into the story _as a whole_. Filling in the blanks in this way
+demands considerable thought.
+
+=Method.= Distribute the test-sheets and turn them face down on the desks.
+Allow ten minutes in all the tests. Give the following instructions:
+
+  On the sheets which have been distributed is printed a story which
+  has certain words omitted. You are to put in the blanks the words
+  that are omitted. The words which you write in must give the proper
+  meaning so that the story reads correctly. Each word filled in must
+  not only give the proper meaning to the sentence but to the story as
+  a whole.
+
+=Material.= Use the completion test-sheets, "Joe and the Fourth of July,"
+for grades three, four, and five; "The Trout" for grades, six, seven,
+and eight; and "Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine" for the high school.
+
+=Results.= In scoring the papers, allow one credit for each blank
+correctly filled. The norms are shown in Figures XVI, XVII, and XVIII.
+It will be noticed that the boys excel in the "Trout" story. This is
+doubtless because the story is better suited to them on the ground of
+their experience and interest.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVI--COMPLETION TEST--"JOE AND THE FOURTH OF
+JULY"]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+JOE AND THE FOURTH OF JULY
+
+Joe {ran}[6] errands for {his} mother and {took} care of the {baby}
+until by the Fourth of July his penny {grew} to be a dime. The day
+before the Fourth, he {went} down town all by {himself} to get his fire
+{works}. There were so {many} kinds he hardly knew which to {buy}. The
+clerk knew that it takes a {long} time to decide, for he had been a
+{boy} himself not very {long} ago. So he helped Joe to {select} the very
+best kinds. "When are you going to {fire} them off?" asked the clerk. "I
+will fire {them} very {early} to-morrow," said the boy. So that night
+Joe set the {alarm} clock, and the next {morning} got up {early} to fire
+his firecrackers.
+
+[6] The italicized words and letters are left blank in the test sheets.
+
+
+THE TROUT
+
+The trout is a fine fish. Once a big trout {lived} in a pool {close} by
+a spring. He used to {stay} under the bank with {only} his head showing.
+His wide-open {eyes} shone like jewels. I tried to {catch} him. I would
+{creep} up to the {edge} of the pool {where} I could see his {bright}
+eyes looking up.
+
+I {caught} a grasshopper and {threw} it over {to} him. Then there was a
+{splash} in the water and the grasshopper {was gone}. I {did} this {two}
+or three times. Each time I {saw} the rush and splash and saw the bait
+had been {taken}.
+
+So I put the sa{me} bait on my {hook} and {threw} it over into the
+{water}. But {all} was silent. The fish was an {old} one and had {grown}
+very wise. I did this {day} after day with the same luck. The trout
+{knew} there was a {hook} hidden in the bait.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVII--COMPLETION TEST--"THE TROUT"]
+
+
+DOCTOR GOLDSMITH'S MEDICINE
+
+This {is} a story of good medicine. Most medicine is {bad} to {take},
+but this was so good {that} the sick man {wished} for more.
+
+{One} day a poor woman {went} to Doctor Goldsmith and {asked} him to
+{go} to see her {sick} husband. "He {is} very sick," she said, "and I
+{can} not {get} him to eat anything."
+
+{So} Doctor Goldsmith {went} to {see} him. The doctor {saw} at once that
+the {reason} why the man {could} not eat was {because} he was {so} poor
+that he had {not} been {able} to buy good food.
+
+Then he {said} to the woman, "{Come} to my house this evening and I will
+{give you} some {medicine} for your {husband}."
+
+The woman {went} in the evening and the {doctor} gave {her} a small
+paper box tied {up} tight. "{It} is very heavy," {she} said. "May I
+{see} what it looks {like}?" "{No}," said the doctor, "{wait} until you
+get {home}." When she {got} home, and she and {her} husband {opened} the
+box so that he {could} take the first {dose} of medicine,--what do you
+think they {saw}? The box was {filled} with silver {money}. {This} was
+the {good} doctor's medicine.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+=Importance of Mental Differences.= (1) _In school work._ One of the
+important results that come from a knowledge of the mental differences
+in children is that we are able to classify them better. When a child
+enters school he should be allowed to proceed through the course as fast
+as his development warrants. Some children can do an eight-year course
+in six years; others require ten years; still others can never do it.
+The great majority, of course, can do it in eight years.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVIII--COMPLETION TEST--"DR. GOLDSMITH'S
+MEDICINE"]
+
+Norms for adults, as obtained from university students, are:
+
+  TEST                                       MEN      WOMEN
+  Substitution Test                          29.1     32.2
+  Rote Memory, Concrete                      28.5     28.6
+  Rote Memory, Abstract                      28.4     27.9
+  Free Association                           51.5     49.3
+  Completion, _Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine_     48.1     49.0
+  Word Building                              20.5     20.1
+  Logical Memory, _Costly Temper_            64.0     69.6
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIX--FREQUENCY SURFACES--COMPARING FOURTH GRADE
+WITH HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The numbers along the base represent mental age; those at the left, the
+number of pupils of the respective ages.]
+
+It may be thought that a child's success in school branches is a
+sufficient measure of his ability and that no special mental
+measurements are needed. This is a mistake. Many factors contribute to
+success in school work. Ability is only one of these factors, and should
+be specially and independently determined by suitable tests. Children
+may fail in school branches because of being poorly started or started
+at the wrong time, because of poor teaching, sickness, moving from one
+school to another, etc. On the other hand, children of poor ability may
+succeed at school because of much help at home. Therefore special mental
+tests will help in determining to what extent original mental ability
+is a factor in the success or failure of the different pupils.
+
+As far as possible, the children of the same grade should have about the
+same ability; but such is seldom the case. In a recent psychological
+study of a school system, the author found wide differences in ability
+in the same grade. The distribution of abilities found in the fourth
+grade and in the high school are shown in Figure XIX. It will be seen
+that in the fourth grade pupils are found with ability equal to that of
+some in the high school. Of course to some extent such a condition is
+unavoidable, for a pupil must establish certain habits and acquire
+certain knowledge before passing from one grade to another. However,
+much of the wide variation in ability now found in the same grade of a
+school could be avoided if the teacher had accurate knowledge of the
+pupils' abilities. When a teacher learns that a child who is doing
+poorly in school really has ability, she is often able to get from that
+pupil the work of which he is capable. It has been demonstrated by
+experience that accurate measures of children's abilities are a great
+help in gradation and classification.
+
+A knowledge of mental differences is also an aid in the actual teaching
+of the children. The instance mentioned at the close of the last
+paragraph is an example. A knowledge of the differences among the mental
+functions of the same pupil is especially helpful. It has been pointed
+out that the different mental functions in the same pupil are sometimes
+unequally developed. Sometimes considerable differences exist in the
+same pupil with respect to learning capacity, the different aspects of
+memory, association, imagination, and attention. When a teacher knows of
+these differences, she can better direct the work of the pupils.
+
+For example, if a pupil have a very poor memory, the teacher can help
+him by aiding him to secure the advantage that comes from close and
+concentrated attention, frequent repetitions, logical organization, etc.
+On the other hand, she can help the brilliant student by preventing him
+from being satisfied with hastily secured, superficial knowledge, and by
+encouraging him to make proper use of his unusual powers in going deeper
+and more extensively into the school subjects than is possible for the
+ordinary student. In many ways a teacher can be helpful to her pupils if
+she has an accurate knowledge of their mental abilities.
+
+(2) _In life occupations._ Extreme variations in ability should
+certainly be considered in choosing one's life work. Only persons of the
+highest ability should go into science, law, medicine, or teaching. Many
+occupations demand special kinds of ability, special types of reaction,
+of attention, imagination, etc. For example, the operation of a
+telephone exchange demands a person of quick and steady reaction. The
+work of a motorman on a street car demands a person having the broad
+type of attention, the type of attention that enables one to keep in
+mind many details at the same time. Scientific work demands the type of
+concentrated attention. As far as it is possible, occupations demanding
+special types of ability should be filled by people possessing these
+abilities. It is best for all concerned if each person is doing what he
+can do best. It is true that many occupations do not call for special
+types of ability. And therefore, as far as ability is concerned, a
+person could do as well in one of these occupations as in another. The
+time will sometime come when we shall know the special abilities
+demanded by the different occupations and professions, and by suitable
+tests shall be able to determine what people possess the required
+qualifications.
+
+The schools should always be on the lookout for unusual ability.
+Children that are far superior to others of the same age should be
+allowed to advance as fast as their superior ability makes possible, and
+should be held up to a high order of work. Such superior people should
+be, as far as possible, in the same classes, so that they can the more
+easily be given the kind and amount of work that they need. The schools
+should find the children of unusual special ability, such as ability in
+drawing, painting, singing, playing musical instruments, mechanical
+invention, etc. Some provision should be made for the proper development
+and training of these unusual abilities. Society cannot afford to lose
+any spark of genius wherever found. Moreover, the individual will be
+happier if developed and trained along the line of his special ability.
+
+=Subnormal Children.= A small percentage of children are of such low
+mentality that they cannot do the ordinary school work. As soon as such
+children can be picked out with certainty, they should be taken out of
+the regular classes and put into special classes. It is a mistake to try
+to get them to do the regular school work. They cannot do it, and they
+only waste the teacher's time and usually give her much trouble.
+Besides, they waste their own time; for while they cannot do the
+ordinary school work, they can do other things, perhaps work of a manual
+nature. The education of such people should, therefore, be in the
+direction of simple manual occupations.
+
+For detecting such children, in addition to the tests given above,
+elaborate tests for individual examination have been devised. The most
+widely used is a series known as the Binet-Simon tests. A special group
+of tests is provided for the children of each age. If a child can pass
+the tests for his age, he is considered normal. If he can pass only the
+tests three years or more below his age, he is usually considered
+subnormal. But a child's fate should not depend solely upon any number
+or any kind of tests. We should always give the child a trial and see
+what he is able to achieve. This trial should cover as many months or
+years as are necessary to determine beyond doubt the child's mental
+status.
+
+  SUMMARY. Just as we differ in the various aspects of body, so also
+  we differ in the various aspects of mind. These differences can be
+  measured by tests. A knowledge of these differences should aid us in
+  grading, classifying, and teaching children, as well as in the
+  selection of occupation and professions for them. Mental traits have
+  some degree of independence; as a result a high degree of one trait
+  may be found with low degree of some others.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Many of the tests and experiments already described should have shown
+many of the individual differences of the members of the class. The
+teacher will find in the author's _Examination of School Children_ a
+series of group tests with norms which can be used for a further study
+of individual differences.
+
+2. The tapping experiment described in the first chapter can now be
+repeated and the results taken as a measure of reaction time.
+
+3. You should now have available the records of all the tests and
+experiments so far given that show individual differences. Make out a
+table showing the rank of each student in the various tests. Compute the
+average rank of each student for all the tests. This average rank may be
+taken as a measure of the intelligence of the students, as far as such
+can be determined by the tests used. Correlate this ranking with
+standing in the high school classes. It will give a positive
+correlation, not perfect, however. Why not? If your measures of
+intelligence were absolutely correct, you still would not get a perfect
+correlation with high school standing. Why not?
+
+4. If you had a correct measure of intelligence of 100 mature people in
+your city, selected at random, would this measure give you an exact
+measure of their success in life? Give the reason for your answer.
+
+5. Of all the tests and experiments previously described in this book,
+which gives the best indication of success in high school?
+
+6. If the class in psychology is a large one, a graph should be prepared
+showing the distribution of abilities in the class. For this purpose,
+you will have to use the absolute measures instead of ranks. Find the
+average for each test used. Make these averages all the same by
+multiplying the low ones and dividing the high ones. Then all the grades
+of each student can be added. This will give each test the same weight
+in the average. The use of a slide rule will make this transference to a
+new average very easy. A more accurate method for this computation is
+described in the author's _Examination of School Children_, p. 65.
+
+The students should make a study of individual differences and the
+distribution of ability in some grade below the high school. The tests
+described in this chapter can be used for that purpose.
+
+7. Is it a good thing for high school students to find out how they
+compare with others in their various mental functions? If you have poor
+ability, is it a good thing for you to find it out? If the teacher and
+students think best, the results of all the various tests need not be
+made known except to the persons concerned. The data can be used in the
+various computations without the students' knowing whose measures they
+are.
+
+8. To what extent is ability a factor in life? You find people of only
+ordinary ability succeeding and brilliant people failing. Why is this?
+
+9. None of the tests so far used measures ideals or perseverance and
+persistence. These are important factors in life, and there is no very
+adequate measure for any of them. The students might plan some
+experiments to test physical and mental persistence and endurance. The
+tapping experiment, for example, might be continued for an hour and the
+records kept for each minute. Then from these records a graph could be
+plotted showing the course of efficiency for the hour. Mental adding or
+multiplying might be kept up continuously for several hours and the
+results studied as above.
+
+10. We have said that ideals and persistence are important factors in
+life. Are they inherited or acquired?
+
+11. Do you find it to be the rule or the exception for a person standing
+high in one mental function to stand high in the others also?
+
+12. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_. Chapter XVI.
+
+PYLE: _The Examination of School Children_.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Chapter XVII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, pp. 309-311.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
+
+
+=The General Field.= Psychology has now reached that stage in its
+development where it can be of use to humanity. It can be of use in
+those fields which demand a knowledge of human nature. As indicated in
+the first chapter, these fields are education, medicine, law, business,
+and industry. We may add another which has been called "culture." We
+cannot say that psychology is able yet to be of very great service
+except to education, law, and medicine. It has been of less service to
+the field of business and industry, but in the future, its contribution
+here will be as great as in the other fields. While the service of
+psychology in the various fields is not yet great, what it will
+eventually be able to do is very clear. It is the purpose of this
+chapter to indicate briefly, the nature and possibilities of this
+psychological service.
+
+=Education.= Throughout the preceding chapters, we have emphasized the
+educational importance of the facts discussed. There is little left to
+say here except to summarize the main facts. Since education is a matter
+of making a child over into what he ought to be, the science of
+education demands a knowledge of the original nature of children. This
+means that one must know the nature of instincts, their relations to one
+another, their order of development, and the possibilities of their
+being changed, modified, developed, suppressed. It means that one must
+know the nature of the child's mind in all its various functions, the
+development and significance of these functions,--memory, association,
+imagination, and attention. The science especially demands that we
+understand the principles of habit-formation, the laws of economical
+learning, and the laws of memory.
+
+This psychological knowledge must form the ground-work in the education
+of teachers for their profession. In addition to this general
+preparation of the teacher, psychology will render the schools a great
+service through the psycho-clinicist, who will be a psychological expert
+working under the superintendents of our school systems. His duty will
+be to supervise the work of mental testing, the work of diagnosis for
+feeble-mindedness and selection of the subnormal children, the teaching
+of such children. He will give advice in all cases which demand expert
+psychological knowledge.
+
+=Medicine.= In the first place, there is a department of medicine which
+deals with nervous diseases, such as insanity, double personality,
+severe nervous shock, hallucination, etc. This entire aspect of medicine
+is wholly psychological. But psychology can be of service to the general
+practitioner both in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A thorough
+psychological knowledge of human nature will assist a physician in
+diagnosis. Often the best way to find out what ails a patient's body is
+through the patient's mind, and the doctor must know how to get the
+truth from the patient's mind even in those cases in which the patient
+is actually trying to conceal the truth. A profound practical knowledge
+of human nature is necessary,--a knowledge which can be obtained only
+by long and careful technical study as well as practice and experience.
+
+Psychology can be of service in the treatment of disease. The physician
+must understand the peculiar mental characteristics of his patient in
+order to know how to deal with him. In some cases, hypnotism is a
+valuable aid in treatment, and in many cases, ordinary normal suggestion
+can be of considerable service. The state of mind of a sick person has
+much to do with his recovery. The physician must know this and must know
+how to induce the desired state of mind. Indeed, a patient's trouble is
+often imaginary, exists in the mind only; in such cases, the treatment
+should be wholly mental, _i.e._ through suggestion. Of course, the best
+physicians know these facts and make use of them in their practice, but
+preparation for this aspect of their work should be a regular part of
+their medical education. They should not be left to learn these facts
+from their practice as best they may, any more than they should be
+expected to learn their physiology and anatomy in this way.
+
+=Law.= The service of psychology to law can be very great, but owing to
+the necessary conservatism of the courts, it will be a long time before
+they will make much use of psychological knowledge. Perhaps the greatest
+service will be in determining the credibility of evidence. Psychology
+can now give the general principles in this matter. Witnesses go on the
+stand and swear to all sorts of things as to what they heard and saw and
+did, often months and even years previously. The expert clinical
+psychologist can tell the court the probability of such evidence being
+true. Experiments have shown that there is a large percentage of error
+in such evidence. The additional value that comes from the oath has been
+measured. The oath increases the liability of truth only a small
+percentage.
+
+Experiments have also shown that one's feeling of certainty is no
+guarantee of truth. Sometimes the point we feel surest about is the one
+farthest from the truth. In fact, feeling sure of a thing is no
+guarantee of truth.
+
+In a particular case in court, the psychologist can determine the
+reliability of the evidence of a particular witness and enable the judge
+and the jury to put the proper value on such witness's testimony. For
+example, a witness may swear to a certain point involving the estimation
+of time and distance. The psychologist can measure the witness's
+accuracy in such estimates, often showing that what the witness claims
+to be able to do is an impossibility. A case may hinge on whether an
+interval of time was ten minutes or twelve minutes, or whether a
+distance was three hundred or four hundred feet. A witness may swear
+positively to one or both of these points. The psychologist can show the
+court the limitations of the witness in making such estimates.
+
+Psychology can be of service in the examination of the criminal himself.
+Through association tests and in other ways, the guilt or innocence of
+the prisoner can often be determined, and his intellectual status can
+also be determined. The prisoner may be insane, or feeble-minded, or
+have some other peculiar mental disorder. Such matters fall within the
+realm of psychology. After a prisoner has been found guilty, the court
+should have the advice of the clinical psychologist in deciding what
+should be done with him.
+
+It should be added that the court and not the attorneys should make use
+of the psychologist. Whenever a psychologist can be of service in a case
+in court, the judge should summon such assistance, just as he should if
+expert chemical, physical, physiological, or anatomical knowledge should
+be desired.
+
+A knowledge of human nature can be of much service to society in the
+prevention of crime. This will come about from a better knowledge of the
+psychological principles of habit-formation and moral training, through
+a better knowledge of how to control human nature. A large percentage of
+all crime, perhaps as much as forty per cent, is committed by
+feeble-minded people. Now, if we can detect these people early, and give
+them the simple manual education which they are capable of receiving, we
+can keep them out of a life of crime.
+
+Studies of criminals in reform schools show that the history of many
+cases is as follows: The person, being of low mentality, could not get
+on well at school and therefore came to dislike school, and consequently
+became a truant. Truancy led to crime. Crime sent the person to the
+court, and the court sent the person to the state reformatory.
+
+The great duty of the state is the prevention of crime. Usually little
+can be done in the way of saving a mature criminal. We must save the
+children before they become criminals, save them by proper treatment.
+Society owes it to every child to do the right thing for him, the right
+thing, whether the child is an idiot or a genius. Merely from the
+standpoint of economy, it would be an immense saving to the state if it
+would prevent crime by the proper treatment of every child.
+
+=Business.= The contribution of psychology in this field, so far, is in
+the psychology of advertising and salesmanship, both having to do
+chiefly with the selling of goods. Students of the psychology of
+advertising have, by experiment, determined many principles that govern
+people when reading newspapers and magazines, principles having to do
+with size and kind of type, arrangement and form, the wording of an
+advertisement, etc. The object of an advertisement is to get the reader
+interested in the article advertised. The first thing is to get him to
+_read_ the advertisement. Here, various principles of attention are
+involved. The next thing is to have the _matter_ of the advertisement of
+such a nature that it creates interest and remains in memory, so that
+when the reader buys an article of that type he buys the particular kind
+mentioned in the advertisement.
+
+In salesmanship, many subtle psychological principles are involved. The
+problem of the salesman is to get the attention of the customer, and
+then to make him _want_ to buy his goods. To do this with the greatest
+success demands a profound knowledge of human nature. Other things being
+equal, that man can most influence people who has the widest knowledge
+of the nature of people, and of the factors that affect this nature. The
+successful salesman must understand human feelings and emotions,
+especially sympathy; also the laws of attention and memory, and the
+power of suggestion. A mastery of the important principles requires
+years of study, and a successful application of them requires just as
+many years of practice.
+
+The last paragraph leads us to a consideration of the general problem of
+influencing men. In all occupations and professions, one needs to know
+how to influence other men. We have already discussed the matter of
+influencing people to buy goods. People who employ labor need to know
+how to get laborers to do more and better work, how to make them loyal
+and happy. The minister needs to know how to induce the members of his
+congregation to do right. The statesman needs to know how to win his
+hearers and convince them of the justice and wisdom of his cause.
+Whatever our calling, there is scarcely a day when we could not do
+better if we knew more fully how to influence people.
+
+=Industry.= The service of psychology here is four-fold: (1) Finding what
+men are fitted for. (2) Finding what kinds of abilities are demanded by
+the various trades and occupations. (3) Helping the worker to understand
+the psychological aspects of his work. (4) Getting the best work out of
+the laborer.
+
+_Finding what men are fitted for._ In the preceding chapter, we
+discussed the individual variations of men. Some people are better
+fitted physically and mentally for certain types of work than they are
+for other types of work. The determination of what an individual is
+fitted for and what he is not fitted for is the business of psychology.
+In some cases, the verdict of psychology can be very specific; in
+others, it can be only general. Much misery and unhappiness come to
+people from trying to do what they are not fitted by nature to do. There
+are many professions and occupations which people should not enter
+unless they possess high general ability. Now, psychology is able to
+measure general ability. There are many other occupations and
+professions which people should not enter unless they possess some
+special ability. Music, art, and mechanics may be mentioned as examples
+of occupations and professions demanding specific kinds of ability. In
+industrial work, many aspects demand very special abilities, as quick
+reaction, quick perception, fine discrimination, calmness and
+self-control, ingenuity, quick adaptation to new situations. Psychology
+can aid in picking out the people who possess the required abilities.
+
+_The different abilities demanded._ It is the business of psychology to
+make a careful analysis of the specific abilities required in all the
+various works of life. There are hundreds of occupations and often much
+differentiation of work within an occupation. It is for the psychologist
+of the future to make this analysis and to classify the occupations with
+reference to the kinds of abilities demanded. Of course, many of them
+will be found to require the same kind of ability, but just as surely,
+many will be found to require very special abilities. It is a great
+social waste to have people trying to fill such positions unless they
+possess the specific abilities required.
+
+It should be the work of the high school and college to explain the
+possibilities, and the demands in the way of ability, of the various
+occupations of the locality. By possibilities and demands are meant the
+kinds of abilities required and the rewards that can be expected, the
+kind of life which the different fields offer. It is the further duty of
+the high school and college to find out, as far as possible, the
+specific abilities of the students. With this knowledge before them, the
+students should choose their careers, and then make specific preparation
+for them. The schools ought to work in close coöperation with the
+industries, the student working for a part of the day in school and a
+part in the industries. This would help much in leading the student to
+understand the industries and in ascertaining his own abilities and
+interests.
+
+_The psychological aspects of one's work._ All occupations have a
+psychological aspect. They involve some trick of attention, of
+association, of memory. Certain things must be looked for, certain
+habits must be formed, certain movements must be automatized. Workmen
+should be helped to master these psychological problems, to find the
+most convenient ways of doing their work. Workmen often do their work in
+the most uneconomical ways, having learned their methods through
+imitation, and never inquiring whether there is a more economical way.
+
+_Securing efficiency._ Securing efficiency is a matter of influencing
+men, a matter which we have already discussed. Securing efficiency is
+quite a different matter from that treated in the preceding paragraph. A
+workman may have a complete knowledge of his work and be skilled in its
+performance, and still be a poor workman, because he does not have the
+right attitude toward his employer or toward his work. The employer must
+therefore meet the problem of making his men like their work and be
+loyal to their employer. The laborer must be happy and contented if he
+is to do good work. Moreover, there is _no use in working_, or in living
+either, if one cannot be happy and contented.
+
+We have briefly indicated the possibilities of psychology in the various
+occupations and professions. There is a further application that has no
+reference to the practical needs of life, but to enjoyment. A
+psychological knowledge of human nature adds a new interest to all our
+social experience. The ability to understand the actions and feelings
+of men puts new meaning into the world. The ability to understand
+oneself, to analyze one's actions, motives, feelings, and thoughts,
+makes life more worth living. A knowledge of the sensations and sense
+organs adds much pleasure to life in addition to its having great
+practical value. Briefly, a psychological knowledge of human nature adds
+much to the richness of life. It gives one the analytical attitude.
+Experiences that to others are wholes, to the psychologist fall apart
+into their elements. Such knowledge leads us to analyze and see clearly
+what otherwise we do not understand and see only darkly or not at all.
+Literature and art, and all other creations and products of man take on
+a wholly new interest to the psychologist.
+
+  SUMMARY. Psychology is of service to education in ascertaining the
+  nature of the child and the laws of learning; to law, in determining
+  the reliability of evidence and in the prevention of crime; to
+  medicine, in the work of diagnosis and treatment; to business, in
+  advertising and salesmanship; to the industries, in finding the man
+  for the place and the place for the man; to everybody, in giving a
+  keener insight into, and understanding of, human nature.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Visit a court room when a trial is in progress. Note wherein
+psychology could be of service to the jury, to the judge, and to the
+attorneys.
+
+2. To test the reliability of evidence, proceed as follows: Take a large
+picture, preferably one in color and having many details; hold it before
+the class in a good light where all can see it. Let them look at it for
+ten or fifteen seconds, the time depending on the complexity of the
+picture. The students should then write down what they saw in the
+picture, underscoring all the points to which they would be willing to
+make oath. Then the students should answer a list of questions prepared
+by the teacher, on various points in the picture. Some of these
+questions should be suggestive, such as, "What color is the dog?"
+supposing no dog to be in the picture. The papers giving the first
+written description should be graded on the number of items reported and
+on their accuracy. The answers to the questions should be graded on
+their accuracy. How do girls compare with boys in the various aspects of
+the report? What is the accuracy of the underlined points?
+
+3. Let the teacher, with the help of two or three students, perform
+before the class some act or series of acts, with some conversation, and
+then have the students who have witnessed the performance write an
+account of it, as in No. 2.
+
+4. Divide the class into two groups. Select one person from each to look
+at a picture as in No. 1. These two people are then to write a complete
+account of the picture. This account is then read to another person in
+the same group, who then writes from memory his account and reads to
+another. This is to be continued till all have heard an account and
+written their own. You will then have two series of accounts of the same
+picture proceeding from two sources. It will be well for the two who
+look at the picture to be of very different types, let us say, one
+imaginative, the other matter-of-fact.
+
+Do all the papers of one series have some characteristics that enable
+you to determine from which group they come? What conclusions and
+inferences do you draw from the experiment?
+
+5. Does the feeling of certainty make a thing true? See how many cases
+you can find in a week, of persons feeling sure a statement is true,
+when it is really false.
+
+6. In the following way, try to find out something which a person is
+trying to conceal. Prepare a list of words, inserting now and then words
+which have some reference to the vital point. Read the words one by one
+to the person and have him speak the first word suggested by those read.
+Note the time taken for the responses. A longer reaction time usually
+follows the incriminating words, and the subject is thrown into a
+visible confusion.
+
+7. Talk to successful physicians and find out what use they make of
+suggestion and other psychological principles.
+
+8. Spend several hours visiting different grades below the high school.
+In how many ways could the teachers improve their work by following
+psychological principles?
+
+9. Could the qualities of a good teacher--native and acquired--be
+measured by tests and experiments?
+
+10. Visit factories where men do skillful work and try to learn by
+observation what types of mind and body are required by the different
+kinds of work.
+
+11. Does the occupation which you have chosen for life demand any
+specific abilities? If so, do you possess them in a high degree?
+
+12. Could parents better train their children if they made use of
+psychological principles?
+
+13. In how many ways will the facts learned in this course be of
+economic use to you in your life? In what ways will they make life more
+pleasurable?
+
+14. Make a complete outline of this chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XXVII-XXXIII.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_.
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+
+COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. C.: _Human Behavior_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1913.
+
+DAVENPORT, C. B.: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_. Henry Holt &
+Company, 1911.
+
+DEWEY, J.: _How We Think_. D. C. Heath & Company, 1910.
+
+KELLICOTT, W. E.: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_. D. Appleton
+& Company, 1911.
+
+KIRKPATRICK, E. A.: _The Fundamentals of Child Study_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1912.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG, H.: _Psychology, General and Applied_. D. Appleton &
+Company, 1914.
+
+MÜNSTERBERG, H.: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_. Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1913.
+
+PILLSBURY, W. B.: _Essentials of Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,
+1916.
+
+PYLE, W. H.: _Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Warwick and York,
+1912.
+
+PYLE, W. H.: _The Examination of School Children_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1913.
+
+ROWE, S. H.: _Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching_. Longmans,
+Green, & Company, 1911.
+
+TITCHENER, E. B.: _A Beginner's Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,
+1916.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+Most of the terms given below are explained in the text, but it is hoped
+that this alphabetical list with brief definitions will prove helpful.
+It is a difficult task to make the definitions scientific and at the
+same time brief, simple, and clear.
+
+_Abnormal._ Having mental or physical characteristics widely different
+from those commonly found in ordinary people.
+
+_Acquired nature._ Those aspects of habit, skill, knowledge, ideas, and
+ideals that come from experience and are due to experience.
+
+_Action._ Muscular contractions usually producing motion of the body or
+of some part of the body.
+
+_Adaptation._ Adjustment to one's surroundings.
+
+_Adaptive._ Readily changing one's responses and acquiring such new
+responses as enable one to meet successfully new situations; also having
+tendencies or characteristics which enable one to be readily adjustable.
+
+_After-images._ Images that follow immediately after stimulation of a
+sense organ, and resulting from this stimulation.
+
+_Association._ Binding together ideas through experiencing them
+together.
+
+_Attention._ Relative clearness of perceptions and ideas.
+
+_Attitude._ The tendency toward a particular type of response in action
+or a particular idea or association in thought.
+
+_Bond._ The connection established in the nervous system which makes a
+certain response follow a certain stimulus or a certain idea follow
+another idea or perception.
+
+_Capacity._ The possibility of learning, achieving, etc.
+
+_Color blindness._ Inability to experience certain colors, usually red
+and green.
+
+_Complementary color._ Complementary colors are those which, mixed in
+the right proportion, produce gray.
+
+_Congenital._ Inborn.
+
+_Connection._ The nerve-path through which a stimulus produces a
+response or through which one idea produces or evokes another.
+
+_Conscious._ Having consciousness, or accompanying consciousness or
+producing consciousness.
+
+_Consciousness._ The mental states--perceptions, ideas, feelings--which
+one has at any moment.
+
+  _Low level of consciousness._ Conscious processes not so clear as
+  others existing at the same time.
+
+  _High level of consciousness._ Conscious processes that are clear as
+  compared to others existing at the same time.
+
+_Contrast._ The enhancing or strengthening of a sensation by another of
+opposite quality.
+
+_Correlation._ The relation that exists between two functions,
+characteristics, or attributes that enables us, finding one, to predict
+the presence of the other.
+
+_Development._ The appearance, or growth, or strengthening of a
+characteristic.
+
+_Emotion._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus sensations from
+characteristic bodily reactions.
+
+_Environment._ The objects and forces about us which affect us through
+our senses.
+
+_Environmental instincts._ Instincts which have originated, at least in
+part, from the periodic changes in man's environment.
+
+_Eugenics._ The science of race improvement through selective breeding
+or proper marriages or in some cases through the prevention of marriage.
+
+_Experience._ What we learn of the world through sensation and
+perception.
+
+_Fatigue._ Inability to work produced by work and which only rest will
+cure.
+
+_Feeble-minded._ Having important mental traits only poorly developed or
+not at all.
+
+_Feeling._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience or of ideational
+states.
+
+_Function._ The use of a thing or process, also any mental process or
+combination of processes considered as a unit.
+
+_Genetic._ Having reference to origin and development.
+
+_Habits._ Definite responses to definite stimuli depending upon bonds
+established by use after birth.
+
+_Heredity._ Transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring.
+
+_Human nature._ The characteristics and tendencies which we have as
+human beings, with particular reference to mind and action.
+
+_Ideals._ Definite tendencies to act in definite ways. Ideas of definite
+types of action with tendency toward the actions; ideas of definite
+conditions, forms, and states together with a desire to experience or
+possess them.
+
+_Ideas._ Revived perceptions.
+
+_Images._ Revived sensations, simpler than ideas.
+
+_Imitation._ Acting as we see others act.
+
+_Impulse._ Tendency to action.
+
+_Individualistic instincts._ Those instincts which more immediately
+serve individual survival.
+
+_Individual differences._ The mental and physical differences between
+people.
+
+_Inherited nature._ Those aspects of one's nature due directly to
+heredity.
+
+_Instincts._ Definite responses produced by definite stimuli through
+hereditary connections in the nervous system.
+
+_Intellectual habits._ Definite fixed connections between ideas;
+definite ways of meeting typical thought situations.
+
+_Intensity._ The amount or strength of a sensation or image, how far it
+is from nothing.
+
+_Interest._ The aspect given to experience or thinking by attention and
+pleasure.
+
+_Learning._ Establishing new bonds or connections in the nervous system;
+acquiring habits; gaining knowledge.
+
+_Memory._ The retention of experience; retained and reproduced
+experience.
+
+_Mental set._ Mental attitude or disposition.
+
+_Mind._ The sum total of one's conscious states from birth to death.
+
+_Nerve-path._ The route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or excitation.
+
+_Original nature._ All those aspects of mind and body directly
+inherited.
+
+_Perceive._ To be aware of a thing through sensation.
+
+_Perception._ Awareness of a thing through sensation or a fusion of
+sensations.
+
+_Plasticity._ Modifiability, making easy the formation of new bonds or
+nerve-connections.
+
+_Presupposition._ A theory or hypothesis on which an argument or a
+system of arguments or principles is based.
+
+_Primary._ First, original, elementary, perceptive experience as
+distinguished from ideational experience.
+
+_Reaction._ The action immediately following a stimulus and produced by
+it.
+
+_Reasoning._ Thinking to a purpose; trying to meet a new situation.
+
+_Reflex._ A very simple act brought about by a stimulus through an
+hereditary nerve-path.
+
+_Response._ The act following a stimulus and produced by it.
+
+_Retention._ Memory; modification of the nervous system making possible
+the revival of experience.
+
+_Science._ Knowledge classified and systematized.
+
+_Sensation._ Primary experience; consciousness directly due to the
+stimulation of a sense organ.
+
+_Sense._ To sense is to have sensation, to perceive. A sense is a sense
+organ or the ability to have sensation through a sense organ.
+
+_Sense organ._ A modified nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or
+mechanism making possible a certain form of stimulation.
+
+_Sensitive._ Capable of giving rise to sensation, or transmitting a
+nerve-current.
+
+_Sensitivity._ Property of, or capacity for being sensitive.
+
+_Sensory._ Relating to a sense organ or to sensation.
+
+_Situation._ The total environmental influences of any one moment.
+
+_Socialistic instincts._ The instincts related more directly to the
+survival of a social group.
+
+_Stimulation._ The setting up of a nerve process in a sense organ or in
+a nerve tract.
+
+_Stimulus._ That which produces stimulation.
+
+_Subnormal._ Having characteristics considerably below the normal.
+
+_Tendency._ Probability of a nerve-current taking a certain direction
+due to nerve-organization.
+
+_Thinking._ The passing of images and ideas.
+
+_Thought._ Thinking; an idea or group of ideas.
+
+_Training._ Establishing nerve connection or bonds.
+
+_Vividness._ Clearness of sensations, perceptions, images, and ideas.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abilities, specialized, 179
+
+Ability, unusual, 206
+
+Adaptation of vision, 41
+
+After-images, visual, 40
+
+Ancestors, 22 f.
+
+Anger, 58
+
+Appearance of instincts, 54
+
+Applied psychology, 8-9, 210 ff.
+
+Association of ideas, 152
+
+Astigmatism, 44
+
+Attention, 80 ff.;
+  and will, 82.
+
+Attitude, 157
+
+
+Behavior, 7
+
+Bodily conditions, 76
+
+Brain, 7
+
+Brightness, sensation of, 38
+
+Business, 215
+
+
+Causality, 18, 21
+
+Centrally initiated action, 51
+
+Child, nature of, 11
+
+Cold, sense of, 42
+
+Collecting instinct, 62
+
+College, function of, 217
+
+Color blindness, 45
+
+Color mixture, 39
+
+Color, sensation of, 38
+
+Completion test, 198
+
+Concentrated practice, 102
+
+Consciousness, 7
+
+Conservatism, 109
+
+Costly Temper test, 186
+
+Cramming, 141
+
+Criminal, the, 213 f.
+
+Curriculum, 145
+
+
+Darwin, 89
+
+Defects of sense organs, 43
+
+Development, individual, 24 ff.;
+  racial, 18-21;
+  significance of and causality, 21-24
+
+Direct method, 112
+
+Dizziness, organs that give us sense of, 42
+
+Dramatization, 67
+
+Drill in school subjects, 110-112
+
+Dynamic, world as, 20
+
+
+Economical practice, 101 ff.
+
+Education, 210;
+  aim of, 10;
+  preparatory, 167;
+  science of, 9 ff.
+
+Educational inferences, 143
+
+Educational psychology, 9 ff.
+
+Efficiency, 98, 108
+
+Emotions, 74 ff.
+
+Environment, 31
+
+Environmental instincts, 61
+
+Envy, 58
+
+Evolution, 19 ff.
+
+Exceptions, 101, 114
+
+Excursions, 61
+
+Experience, 8;
+  organization of, 169
+
+Experiment, 13 ff.
+
+Eye, the, 37
+
+Eye defects, 43 ff.
+
+Eyestrain, 20
+
+
+Farsightedness, 44
+
+Fatigue, 101
+
+Fear, 56
+
+Feeble-mindedness, 29
+
+Feeling, 73 ff.
+
+Fighting instincts, 58
+
+Formal drill, III, 112
+
+Free association frequency surface, 178
+
+Free association test, 193
+
+Frequency of experience, 156
+
+
+Gang instinct, 60
+
+Genetic view of childhood, 24
+
+Genius, 31
+
+
+Habit, 87 ff.;
+  and nerve path, 91;
+  how formed, 98 ff.;
+  importance in life, 107;
+  intellectual, 89;
+  moral, 90;
+  of thought, 169;
+  results of, 94;
+  specific, 116
+
+Hearing, 41;
+  defects of, 45
+
+Heredity, 24 ff.
+
+Heredity _vs._ Environment, 31
+
+Heritage, social, 23
+
+High school and fourth grade abilities compared, 203
+
+High school, function of, 217
+
+Home and moral training, 118
+
+
+Idea, 52
+
+Ideas, 124
+
+Imitation, 64 ff.
+
+Imitation in ideals, 67
+
+Incidental drill, 111
+
+Individual development, 24 ff.
+
+Individual differences, 176 ff.
+
+Individualistic instincts, 56
+
+Industry, 216
+
+Influencing men, 215
+
+Inheritance, 22
+
+Inherited tendencies, 50 ff.
+
+Initiative, 113
+
+Instincts, 52 ff.;
+  classification of, 55;
+  significance of, 55
+
+Interest, 84
+
+Intervals between practice, 102
+
+
+Jealousy, 58
+
+Joints, sense organs in, 42
+
+Jost's law, 142
+
+
+Language and thinking, 170 ff.
+
+Language study, 144
+
+Latin, 116
+
+Law, service of psychology to, 212
+
+Learning and remembering, 138
+
+Learning by wholes, 141
+
+Life occupations, 205
+
+Logical memory, 184 ff.
+
+
+Meaning, 163 ff.
+
+Medicine, 211
+
+Memories, kinds of, 132
+
+Memory, 124 ff.;
+  and age and sex, 127;
+  and habit, 146;
+  and school standing, 135;
+  and thinking, 134;
+  factors of, 128 ff.;
+  good, dangers resulting from, 137;
+  kinds of, 132
+
+Mendelian principle, 26
+
+Mental development, 19
+
+Mental differences, 178;
+  detection of, 180;
+  importance of, 201 ff.
+
+Mental functions developed, 182
+
+Mental set, 157
+
+Mental tests, 183 ff.
+
+Mind and body, 34 ff.
+
+Mood, 78
+
+Moral training, 117 ff.
+
+Motive, 77
+
+Muscular speed, 14
+
+Museum, school, 62 ff.
+
+Musical ability, 179
+
+
+Nearsightedness, 44
+
+Needs of child, 77
+
+Nerve tendency, 92
+
+Norms in mental tests, 184 ff.
+
+
+Occupations, 205
+
+Opposites test, 195 ff.
+
+Organization of experience, 163 ff.
+
+
+Pain sense, 42
+
+Parents, and habit-formation of children, 104 ff., 119
+
+Perception, 124
+
+Physiological basis of memory, 126
+
+Piano playing, 51, 97
+
+Pitch, 41
+
+Plasticity, 93
+
+Play, 68
+
+Pleasure and habit, 101
+
+Pleasure, higher forms of, 80
+
+Practice, 99, 113
+
+Primary experience, 154
+
+Psychology and culture, 218
+
+Psychology defined, 5;
+  method of, 13;
+  problems of, 8
+
+
+Race, development of, 18 ff.;
+  improvement of, 30
+
+Ranking students, 15
+
+Reasoning, 159; training in, 168
+
+Recalling forgotten names, 146
+
+Recency of experience, 155
+
+Regeneration, 23
+
+Repetition, 99
+
+Respect for authority, 77
+
+Resemblance, 25
+
+Retina, the, 37 f.
+
+Revived experience, 125
+
+Rigidity, 108
+
+Rote memory, 189
+
+Rules for habit-formation, 113
+
+
+Salesmanship, 215
+
+School, and habit, 108;
+  and moral training, 119 f.
+
+Schoolhouse, community center, 60 f.
+
+Science, 1
+
+Scientific law, 3
+
+Scientist, 1 ff.
+
+Securing efficiency, 218
+
+Selecting habits, 109
+
+Sense organs, affects of stimulating, 6, 7;
+  knowledge through, 35
+
+Sleight's experiment, 140
+
+Smell, 42
+
+Social life of children, 60
+
+Social tendencies, 59
+
+Stimulation, 6
+
+Stimulus and response, 50
+
+Study, learning how to, 132
+
+Subnormal children, 206
+
+Substitution test, 192
+
+
+Taste, 42
+
+Teacher, function of in memory work, 142;
+  function of in habit-formation, 103
+
+Teaching too abstract, 129
+
+Temperament, 78
+
+Tendons, sense organs in, 42
+
+Thinking, 152 ff., 159
+
+Touch, 42
+
+Transfer of training, 114 ff., 140
+
+Truancies, 61
+
+Typewriting, 51, 94 ff.
+
+
+Vision, 37; importance of, 45
+
+Visual contrast, 39
+
+Vividness and intensity of experience, 156
+
+
+Wandering, 61
+
+Warmth, sense of, 42
+
+Weight, diagram showing frequency surface of, 177
+
+Word-building test, 197
+
+Work and psychology, 218
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
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+
+Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Science of Human Nature
+       A Psychology for Beginners
+
+Author: William Henry Pyle
+
+Release Date: May 31, 2006 [EBook #18477]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
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+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p class="title" style="border:thin solid black; padding:0.5em;"><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;i">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_i" id="Pg_i"></a>
+Teacher Training Series
+<br />
+<span style="font-size:x-small;">EDITED BY</span>
+<br />
+W.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;CHARTERS
+<br />
+<small><i>Professor of Education, Carnegie Institute of Technology</i></small>
+</p>
+<h1>
+<span style="letter-spacing:0.2em;">THE SCIENCE OF<br />
+HUMAN NATURE<br /></span>
+<br />
+<small><i>A PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS</i></small>
+</h1>
+<p class="title">BY
+<br />
+<big style="font-size:larger;">WILLIAM HENRY PYLE</big>
+<br />
+<small>PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY<br />
+UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI</small>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/logo.png" width="80" height="80" alt="Publisher logo" title="" />
+</div>
+<p class="title">SILVER, BURDETT &amp; COMPANY<br />
+BOSTON    NEW YORK    CHICAGO
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="title" style="margin:3em;"><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;ii">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_ii" id="Pg_ii"></a><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1917,<br />
+By SILVER, BURDETT &amp; COMPANY.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;iii">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_iii" id="Pg_iii"></a><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR&#8217;S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This book is written for young students in high schools and normal
+schools. No knowledge can be of more use to a young person than a
+knowledge of himself; no study can be more valuable to him than a study
+of himself. A study of the laws of human behavior,&mdash;that is the purpose
+of this book.</p>
+
+<p>What is human nature like? Why do we act as we do? How can we make
+ourselves different? How can we make others different? How can we make
+ourselves more efficient? How can we make our lives more worth while?
+This book is a manual intended to help young people to obtain such
+knowledge of human nature as will enable them to answer these questions.</p>
+
+<p>I have not attempted to write a complete text on psychology. There are
+already many such books, and good ones too. I have selected for
+treatment only such topics as young students can study with interest and
+profit. I have tried to keep in mind all the time the practical worth of
+the matters discussed, and the ability and experience of the intended
+readers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO THE TEACHER</h3>
+
+<p>This book can be only a guide to you. You are to help your students
+study human nature. You must, to some extent, be a psychologist yourself
+before you<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;iv">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_iv" id="Pg_iv"></a> can teach psychology. You must yourself be a close and
+scientific student of human nature. Develop in the students the spirit
+of inquiry and investigation. Teach them to look to their own minds and
+their neighbor&#8217;s actions for verification of the statements of the text.
+Let the students solve by observation and experiment the questions and
+problems raised in the text and the exercises. The exercises should
+prove to be the most valuable part of the book. The first two chapters
+are the most difficult but ought to be read before the rest of the book
+is studied. If you think best, merely read these two chapters with the
+pupils, and after the book is finished come back to them for careful
+study.</p>
+
+<p>In the references, I have given parallel readings, for the most part to
+Titchener, Pillsbury, and M&uuml;nsterberg. I have purposely limited the
+references, partly because a library will not be available to many who
+may use the book, and partly because the young student is likely to be
+confused by much reading from different sources before he has worked out
+some sort of system and a point of view of his own. Only the most
+capable members of a high school class will be able to profit much from
+the references given.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO THE STUDENT</h3>
+
+<p>You are beginning the study of human nature. You can not study human
+nature from a book, you must study yourself and your neighbors. This
+book may help you to know what to look for and to understand what you
+find, but it can do little more than this. It is true, this text gives
+you many facts learned by psychologists, but you must verify the
+statements,<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;v">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_v" id="Pg_v"></a> or at least see their significance to <i>you</i>, or they will
+be of no worth to you. However, the facts considered here, properly
+understood and assimilated, ought to prove of great value to you. But
+perhaps of greater value will be the psychological frame of mind or
+attitude which you should acquire. The psychological attitude is that of
+seeking to find and understand the <i>causes of human action, and the
+causes, consequences, and significance of the processes of the human
+mind</i>. If your first course in psychology teaches you to look for these
+things, gives you some skill in finding them and in using the knowledge
+after you have it, your study should be quite worth while.</p>
+
+<p class="quotsig">W.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;PYLE.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;vi">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_vi" id="Pg_vi"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR&#8217;S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>There are at least two possible approaches to the study of psychology by
+teacher-training students in high schools and by beginning students in
+normal schools.</p>
+
+<p>One of these is through methods of teaching and subject matter. The
+other aims to give the simple, concrete facts of psychology as the
+science of the mind. The former presupposes a close relationship between
+psychology and methods of teaching and assumes that psychology is
+studied chiefly as an aid to teaching. The latter is less complicated.
+The plan contemplates the teaching of the simple fundamentals at first
+and applying them incidentally as the occasion demands. This latter
+point of view is in the main the point of view taken in the text.</p>
+
+<p>The author has taught the material of the text to high school students
+to the end that he might present the fundamental facts of psychology in
+simple form.</p>
+
+<p class="quotsig">W.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;vii">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_vii" id="Pg_vii"></a><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="Table of contents">
+<col /><col /><col style="text-align:left;" /><col />
+<tr><th></th><th></th><th></th><th>page</th></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Introduction</td><td><a href="#Pg_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Development of the Race and of the Individual</td><td><a href="#Pg_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Mind and Body</td><td><a href="#Pg_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Inherited Tendencies</td><td><a href="#Pg_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Feeling and Attention</td><td><a href="#Pg_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Habit</td><td><a href="#Pg_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Memory</td><td><a href="#Pg_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Thinking</td><td><a href="#Pg_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Individual Differences</td><td><a href="#Pg_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th>Chapter</th><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td style="text-align:left;">Applied Psychology</td><td><a href="#Pg_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th style="padding-top:0.5em;"><a href="#GLOSSARY">Glossary</a></th><td></td><td></td><td style="padding-top:0.5em;"><a href="#Pg_223">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><th><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></th><td></td><td></td><td><a href="#Pg_227">227</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;viii">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_viii" id="Pg_viii"></a></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;1">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_1" id="Pg_1"></a><a name="THE_SCIENCE_OF_HUMAN_NATURE" id="THE_SCIENCE_OF_HUMAN_NATURE"></a>THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;I<br />
+INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Science.</b> Before attempting to define psychology, it will be helpful to
+make some inquiry into the nature of science in general. Science is
+knowledge; it is what we know. But mere knowledge is not science. For a
+bit of knowledge to become a part of science, its relation to other bits
+of knowledge must be found. In botany, for example, bits of knowledge
+about plants do not make a science of botany. To have a science of
+botany, we must not only know about leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, etc.,
+but we must know the relations of these parts and of all the parts of a
+plant to one another. In other words, in science, we must not only
+<i>know</i>, we must not only have <i>knowledge</i>, but we must know the
+significance of the knowledge, must know its <i>meaning</i>. This is only
+another way of saying that we must have knowledge and know its relation
+to other knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>A scientist is one who has learned to organize his knowledge. The main
+difference between a scientist and one who is not a scientist is that
+the scientist sees the significance of facts, while the non-scientific
+man<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;2">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_2" id="Pg_2"></a> sees facts as more or less unrelated things. As one comes to hunt
+for causes and inquire into the significance of things, one becomes a
+scientist. A thing or an event always points beyond itself to something
+else. This something else is what goes before it or comes after it,&mdash;is
+its cause or its effect. This causal relationship that exists between
+events enables a scientist to prophesy. By carefully determining what
+always precedes a certain event, a certain type of happening, a
+scientist is able to predict the event. All that is necessary to be able
+to predict an event is to have a clear knowledge of its true causes.
+Whenever, beyond any doubt, these causes are found to be present, the
+scientist knows the event will follow. Of course, all that he really
+<i>knows</i> is that such results have always followed similar causes in the
+past. But he has come to have faith in the uniformity and regularity of
+nature. The chemist does not find sulphur, or oxygen, or any other
+element acting one way one day under a certain set of conditions, and
+acting another way the next day under exactly the same conditions. Nor
+does the physicist find the laws of mechanics holding good one day and
+not the next.</p>
+
+<p>The scientist, therefore, in his thinking brings order out of chaos in
+the world. If we do not know the causes and relations of things and
+events, the world seems a very mixed-up, chaotic place, where anything
+and everything is happening. But as we come to know causes and
+relations, the world turns out to be a very orderly and systematic
+place. It is a lawful world; it is not a world of chance. Everything is
+related to everything else.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the non-scientific mind sees things as more or less unrelated. The
+far-reaching causal relations are<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;3">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_3" id="Pg_3"></a> only imperfectly seen by it, while
+the scientific mind not only sees things, but inquires into their causes
+and effects or consequences. The non-scientific man, walking over the
+top of a mountain and noticing a stone there, is likely to see in it
+only a stone and think nothing of how it came to be there; but the
+scientific man sees quite an interesting bit of history in the stone. He
+reads in the stone that millions of years ago the place where the rock
+now lies was under the sea. Many marine animals left their remains in
+the mud underneath the sea. The mud was afterward converted into rock.
+Later, the shrinking and warping earth-crust lifted the rock far above
+the level of the sea, and it may now be found at the top of the
+mountain. The one bit of rock tells its story to one who inquires into
+its causes. The scientific man, then, sees more significance, more
+meaning, in things and events than does the non-scientific man.</p>
+
+<p>Each science has its own particular field. Zo&ouml;logy undertakes to answer
+every reasonable question about animals; botany, about plants; physics,
+about motion and forces; chemistry, about the composition of matter;
+astronomy, about the heavenly bodies, etc. The world has many aspects.
+Each science undertakes to describe and explain some particular aspect.
+To understand all the aspects of the world, we must study all the
+sciences.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Scientific Law.</b> By <i>law</i> a scientist has reference to uniformities
+which he notices in things and events. He does not mean that necessities
+are imposed upon things as civil law is imposed upon man. He means only
+that in certain well-defined situations certain events always take
+place, according to all previous observations. The Law of Falling Bodies
+may be<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;4">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_4" id="Pg_4"></a> cited as an example. By this law, the physicist means that in
+observing falling bodies in the past, he has noticed that they fall
+about sixteen feet in the first second and acquire in this time a
+velocity of thirty-two feet. He has noted that, taking into account the
+specific gravity of the object and the resistance of the air, this way
+of falling holds true of all objects at about the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The more we carefully study the events of the world, the more strongly
+we come to feel that definite causes, under the same circumstances,
+always produce precisely the same result. The scientist has faith that
+events will continue to happen during all the future in the same order
+of cause and effect in which they have been happening during all the
+past.</p>
+
+<p>The astronomer, knowing the relations of the members of the solar
+system&mdash;the sun and planets&mdash;can successfully predict the occurrence of
+lunar and solar eclipses. In other fields, too, the scientist can
+predict with as much certainty as does the astronomer, provided his
+knowledge of the factors concerned is as complete as is the knowledge
+which the astronomer has of the solar system. Even in the case of human
+beings, uncertain as their actions seem to be, we can predict their
+actions when our knowledge of the factors is sufficiently complete. In a
+great many instances we do make such predictions. For example, if we
+call a person by name, we expect him to turn, or make some other
+movement in response. Our usual inability to make such predictions in
+the case of human beings is not because human beings are not subject to
+the law of cause and effect, it is not that their acts are due to
+chance, but that the factors involved are usually many, and it is
+difficult for us to find out all of them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;5">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_5" id="Pg_5"></a><b>The Science of Psychology.</b> Now, let us ask, what is the science of
+psychology? What kind of problems does it try to solve? What aspect of
+the world has it taken for its field of investigation?</p>
+
+<p>We have said that each science undertakes to describe some particular
+aspect of the world. Human psychology is the science of human nature.
+But human nature has many aspects. To some extent, our bodies are the
+subject matter for physiology, anatomy, zo&ouml;logy, physics, and chemistry.
+Our bodies may be studied in the same way that a rock or a table might
+be studied. But a human being presents certain problems that a rock or
+table does not present. If we consider the differences between a human
+being and a table, we shall see at once the special field of psychology.
+If we stick a pin into a leg of the table, we get no response. If we
+stick a pin into a leg of a man, we get a characteristic response. The
+man moves, he cries out. This shows two very great differences between a
+man and a table. The man is <i>sensitive</i> and has the power of action, the
+power of <i>moving himself</i>. The table is not sensitive, nor can it move
+itself. If the pin is thrust into one&#8217;s own leg, one has <i>pain</i>. Human
+beings, then, are sensitive, conscious, acting beings. And the study of
+sensitivity, action, and consciousness is the field of psychology. These
+three characteristics are not peculiar to man. Many, perhaps all,
+animals possess them. There is, therefore, an animal psychology as well
+as human psychology.</p>
+
+<p>A study of the human body shows us that the body-surface and many parts
+within the body are filled with sensitive nerve-ends. These sensitive
+nerve-ends are the sense organs, and on them the substances and forces
+of the world are constantly acting. In the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;6">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_6" id="Pg_6"></a> sense organs, the nerve-ends
+are so modified or changed as to be affected by some particular kind of
+force or substance. Vibrations of ether affect the eye. Vibrations of
+air affect the ear. Liquids and solutions affect the sense of taste.
+Certain substances affect the sense of smell. Certain organs in the skin
+are affected by low temperatures; others, by high temperatures; others,
+by mechanical pressure. Similarly, each sense organ in the body is
+affected by a definite kind of force or substance.</p>
+
+<p>This affecting of a sense organ is known technically as <i>stimulation</i>,
+and that which affects the organ is known as the <i>stimulus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two important consequences ordinarily follow the stimulation of a sense
+organ. One of these is movement. The purpose of stimulation is to bring
+about movement. To be alive is to respond to stimulation. When one
+ceases to respond to stimulation, he is dead. If we are to continue
+alive, we must constantly adjust ourselves to the forces of the world in
+which we live. Generally speaking, we may say that every nerve has one
+end in a sense organ and the other in a muscle. This arrangement of the
+nerves and muscles shows that man is essentially a sensitive-action
+machine. The problems connected with sensitivity and action and the
+relation of each to the other constitute a large part of the field of
+psychology.</p>
+
+<p>We said just now, that a nerve begins in a sense organ and ends in a
+muscle. This statement represents the general scheme well enough, but
+leaves out an important detail. The nerve does not extend directly to a
+muscle, but ordinarily goes by way of the brain. The brain is merely a
+great group of nerve cells and fibers which have developed as a central
+organ where a<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;7">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_7" id="Pg_7"></a> stimulation may pass from almost any sense organ to
+almost any muscle.</p>
+
+<p>But another importance attaches to the brain. When a sense organ is
+stimulated and this stimulation passes on to the brain and agitates a
+cell or group of cells there, <i>we are conscious</i>. Consciousness shifts
+and changes with every shift and change of the stimulation.</p>
+
+<p>The brain has still another important characteristic. After it has been
+stimulated through sense organ and nerve, a similar brain activity can
+be revived later, and this revival is the basis of <i>memory</i>. When the
+brain is agitated through the medium of a sense organ, we have
+<i>sensation</i>; when this agitation is revived later, we have a <i>memory
+idea</i>. A study of consciousness, or mind, the conditions under which it
+arises, and all the other problems involved, give us the other part of
+the field of psychology.</p>
+
+<p>We are not merely acting beings; we are <i>conscious</i> acting beings.
+Psychology must study human nature from both points of view. We must
+study man not only from the outside; that is, objectively, in the same
+way that we study a stone or a tree or a frog, but we must study him
+from the inside or subjectively. It is of importance to know not only
+how a man <i>acts</i>, but also how he <i>thinks and feels</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It must be clear now, that human action, human behavior, is the main
+field of psychology. For, even though our main interests in people were
+in their minds, we could learn of the minds only through the actions.
+But our interests in other human beings are not in their minds but in
+<i>what they do</i>. It is true that our interest in ourselves is in our
+minds, and we can know these minds directly; but we cannot know
+directly<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;8">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_8" id="Pg_8"></a> the mind of another person, we can only guess what it is from
+the person&#8217;s actions.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Problems of Psychology.</b> Let us now see, in some detail, what the
+various problems of psychology are. If we are to understand human
+nature, we must know something of man&#8217;s past; we must therefore treat of
+the origin and development of the human race. The relation of one
+generation to that preceding and to the one following makes necessary a
+study of heredity. We must find out how our thoughts, feelings,
+sensations, and ideas are dependent upon a physical body and its organs.
+A study of human actions shows that some actions are unlearned while
+others are learned or acquired. The unlearned acts are known as
+<i>instincts</i> and the acquired acts are known as <i>habits</i>. Our psychology
+must, therefore, treat of instincts and habits.</p>
+
+<p>How man gets experience, and retains and organizes this experience must
+be our problem in the chapters on sensations, ideas, memory, and
+thinking. Individual differences in human capacity make necessary a
+treatment of the different types and grades of intelligence, and the
+compilation of tests for determining these differences. We must also
+treat of the application of psychology to those fields where a knowledge
+of human nature is necessary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Applied Psychology.</b> At the beginning of a subject it is legitimate to
+inquire concerning the possibility of applying the principles studied to
+practical uses, and it is very proper to make this inquiry concerning
+psychology. Psychology, being the science of human nature, ought to be
+of use in all fields where one needs to know the causes of human action.
+And psychology is applicable in these fields to the extent that the
+psy<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;9">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_9" id="Pg_9"></a>chologist is able to work out the laws and principles of human
+action.</p>
+
+<p>In education, for example, we wish to influence children, and we must go
+to psychology to learn about the nature of children and to find out how
+we can influence them. Psychology is therefore the basis of the science
+of education.</p>
+
+<p>Since different kinds of work demand, in some cases, different kinds of
+ability, the psychology of individual differences can be of service in
+selecting people for special kinds of work. That is to say, we must have
+sometime, if we do not now, a psychology of professions and vocations.
+Psychological investigations of the reliability of human evidence make
+the science of service in the court room. The study of the laws of
+attention and interest give us the psychology of advertising. The study
+of suggestion and abnormal states make psychology of use in medicine. It
+may be said, therefore, that psychology, once abstract and unrelated to
+any practical interests, will become the most useful of all sciences, as
+it works out its problems and finds the laws of human behavior.</p>
+
+<p>At present, the greatest service of psychology is to education. So true
+is this that a department has grown up called &ldquo;educational psychology,&rdquo;
+which constitutes at the present time the most important subdivision of
+psychology. While in this book we treat briefly of the various
+applications of psychology, we shall have in mind chiefly its
+application to education.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Science of Education.</b> Owing to the importance which psychology has
+in the science of education, it will be well for us to make some inquiry
+into the nature of education. If the growth, development, and learning
+of children are all controlled and determined<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;10">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_10" id="Pg_10"></a> by definite causal
+factors, then a systematic statement of all these factors would
+constitute the science of education. In order to see clearly whether
+there is such a science, or whether there can be, let us inquire more
+definitely as to the kind of problems a science of education would be
+expected to solve.</p>
+
+<p>There are four main questions which the science of education must solve:
+(1) What is the aim of education? (2) What is the nature of education?
+(3) What is the nature of the child? (4) What are the most economical
+methods of changing the child from what it is into what it ought to be?</p>
+
+<p>The first question is a sociological question, and it is not difficult
+to find the answer. We have but to inquire what the people wish their
+children to become. There is a pretty general agreement, at least in the
+same community, that children should be trained in a way that will make
+them socially efficient. Parents generally wish their children to become
+honest, truthful, sympathetic, and industrious. It should be the aim of
+education to accomplish this social ideal. It should be the aim of the
+home and the school to subject children to such influences as will
+enable them to make a living when grown and to do their proper share of
+work for the community and state, working always for better things, and
+having a sympathetic attitude toward neighbors. Education should also do
+what it can to make people able to enjoy the world and life to the
+fullest and highest extent. Some such aim of education as this is held
+by all our people.</p>
+
+<p>The second question is also answered. Psychological analysis reveals the
+fact that education is a process of becoming adjusted to the world. It
+is the process of acquiring the habits, knowledge, and ideals suited to<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;11">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_11" id="Pg_11"></a>
+the life we are to live. The child in being educated learns what the
+world is and how to act in it&mdash;how to act in all the various situations
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>The third question&mdash;concerning the nature of the child&mdash;cannot be so
+briefly answered. In fact, it cannot be fully answered at the present
+time. We must know what the child&#8217;s original nature is. This means that
+we must know the instincts and all the other inherited capacities and
+tendencies. We must know the laws of building up habits and of acquiring
+knowledge, the laws of retention and the laws of attention. These
+problems constitute the subject matter of educational psychology, and at
+present can be only partially solved. We have, however, a very
+respectable body of knowledge in this field, though it is by no means
+complete.</p>
+
+<p>The answer to the fourth question is in part dependent upon the progress
+in answering the third. Economical methods of training children must be
+dependent upon the nature of children. But in actual practice, we are
+trying to find out the best procedure of doing each single thing in
+school work; we are trying to find out by experimentation. The proper
+way to teach children to read, to spell, to write, etc., must be
+determined in each case by independent investigation, until our
+knowledge of the child becomes sufficient for us to infer from general
+laws of procedure what the procedure in a particular case should be. We
+venture to infer what ought to be done in some cases, but generally we
+feel insecure till we have proved our inference correct by trying out
+different methods and measuring the results.</p>
+
+<p>Education will not be fully scientific till we have definite knowledge
+to guide us at every step. What<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;12">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_12" id="Pg_12"></a> should we teach? When should we teach
+it? How should we teach it? How poorly we answer these questions at the
+present time! How inefficient and uneconomical our schools, because we
+cannot fully answer them! But they are answerable. We can answer them in
+part now, and we know how to find out the answer in full. It is just a
+matter of patient and extensive investigation. We must say, then, that
+we have only the beginnings of a science of education. The problems
+which a science of education must solve are almost wholly psychological
+problems. They could not be solved till we had a science of psychology.
+Experimental psychology is but a half-century old; educational
+psychology, less than a quarter-century old. In the field of education,
+the science of psychology may expect to make its most important
+practical contribution. Let us, then, consider very briefly the problems
+of educational psychology.</p>
+
+<p><b>Educational Psychology.</b> Educational psychology is that division of
+psychology which undertakes to discover those aspects of human nature
+most closely related to education. These are (1) the original nature of
+the child&mdash;what it is and how it can be modified; (2) the problem of
+acquiring and organizing experience&mdash;habit-formation, memory, thinking,
+and the various factors related to these processes. There are many
+subordinate problems, such as the problem of individual differences and
+their bearing on the education of subnormal and supernormal children.
+Educational psychology is not, then, merely the application of
+psychology to education. It is a distinct science in itself, and its aim
+is the solving of those educational problems which for their solution
+depend upon a knowledge of the nature of the child.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;13">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_13" id="Pg_13"></a><b>The Method of Psychology.</b> We have enumerated the various problems of
+psychology, now how are they solved? The method of psychology is the
+same as that of all other sciences; namely, the method of observation
+and experiment. We learn human nature by observing how human beings act
+in all the various circumstances of life. We learn about the human mind
+by observing our own mind. We learn that we <i>see</i> under certain
+objective conditions, <i>hear</i> under certain objective conditions,
+<i>taste</i>, <i>smell</i>, <i>feel cold</i> and <i>warm</i> under certain objective
+conditions. In the case of ourselves, we can know both our <i>actions</i> and
+our <i>mind</i>. In the case of others, we can know only their <i>actions</i>, and
+must infer their mental states from our own in similar circumstances.
+With certain restrictions and precautions this inference is legitimate.</p>
+
+<p>We said the method of psychology is that of observation and experiment.
+The experiment is observation still, but observation subjected to exact
+methodical procedure. In a psychological experiment we set out to
+provide the necessary conditions, eliminating some and supplying others
+according to our object. The experiment has certain advantages. It
+enables us to isolate the phenomena to be studied, it enables us to vary
+the circumstances and conditions to suit our purposes, it enables us to
+repeat the observation as often as we like, and it enables us to measure
+exactly the factors of the phenomena studied.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Psychological Experiment.</b> Let us illustrate psychological method by a
+typical experiment. Suppose we wish to measure the individual
+differences among the members of a class with respect to a certain
+ability; namely, the muscular speed of the right hand. Psychological
+laboratories have delicate apparatus for<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;14">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_14" id="Pg_14"></a> making such a study. But let
+us see how we can do it, roughly at least, without any apparatus. Let
+each member of the class take a sheet of paper and a pencil, and make as
+many strokes as possible in a half-minute, as shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_I">I</a>. The
+instructor can keep the time with a stop watch, or less accurately with
+the second hand of an ordinary watch. Before beginning the experiment,
+the instructor should have each student taking the test try it for a
+second or two. This is to make sure that all understand what they are to
+do. When the instructor is sure that all understand, he should have the
+students hold their pencils in readiness above the paper, and at the
+signal, &ldquo;Begin,&rdquo; all should start at the same time and make as many
+marks as possible in the half-minute. The strokes can then be counted
+and the individual scores recorded. The experiment should be repeated
+several times, say six or eight, and the average score for each
+individual recorded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_I" id="fig_I"></a>
+<img src="images/fig01.png" width="400" height="119" alt="Figure&nbsp;I.&mdash;Strokes Made in Thirty Seconds. A test of muscular speed" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;I.&mdash;Strokes Made in Thirty Seconds.</p>
+<p class="caption" style="font-variant:normal;">
+A test of muscular speed</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether the result in such a performance as this varies from day to day,
+and is accidental, or whether it is constant and fundamental, can be
+determined by repeating the experiment from day to day. This repetition
+will also show whether improvement comes from practice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;15">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_15" id="Pg_15"></a>If it is decided to repeat the experiment in order to study these
+factors, constancy and the effects of practice, some method of studying
+and interpreting the results must be found. Elaborate methods of doing
+this are known to psychologists, but the beginner must use a simpler
+method. When the experiment is performed for the first time, the
+students can be ranked with reference to their abilities, the fastest
+one being called &ldquo;first,&rdquo; the second highest, &ldquo;second,&rdquo; and so on down
+to the slowest performer. Then after the experiment has been performed
+the second time, the students can be again ranked.</p>
+
+<p>A rough comparison can then be made as follows: Determine how many who
+were in the best half in the first experiment are among the best half in
+the second experiment. If most who were among the best half the first
+time are among the best half in the second experiment, constancy in this
+performance is indicated. Or we might determine how many change their
+ranks and how much they change. Suppose there are thirty in the class
+and only four improve their ranks and these to the extent of only two
+places each. This would indicate a high degree of constancy. Two
+different performances can be compared as above described. The abilities
+on successive days can be determined by taking the average rank of the
+first day and comparing it with the average rank of the second day.</p>
+
+<p>If the effects of practice are to be studied, the experiments must be
+kept up for many days, and each student&#8217;s work on the first day compared
+with his work on succeeding days. Then a graph can be plotted to show
+the improvement from day to day. The average daily speed of the class
+can be taken and a graph made<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;16">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_16" id="Pg_16"></a> to show the improvement of the class as a
+whole. This might be plotted in black ink, then each individual student
+could put on his improvement in red ink, for comparison. A group of
+thirty may be considered as furnishing a fair average or norm in this
+kind of performance.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this simple performance, making marks as fast as
+possible, it is evident that many problems arise. It would take several
+months to solve anything like all of them. It might be interesting, for
+example, to determine whether one&#8217;s speed in writing is related to this
+simple speed in marking. Each member of the class might submit a plan
+for making such a study.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing simple study illustrates the procedure of psychology in
+all experimentation. A psychological experiment is an attempt to find
+out the truth in regard to some aspect of human nature. In finding out
+this truth, we must throw about the experiment all possible safeguards.
+Every source of error must be discovered and eliminated. In the above
+experiment, for example, the work must be done at the same time of day,
+or else we must prove that doing it at different times of day makes no
+difference. Nothing must be taken for granted, and nothing must be
+assumed. Psychology, then, is like all the other sciences, in that its
+method of getting its facts is by observation and experiment.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Science is systematic, related knowledge. Each science has
+a particular field which it attempts to explore and describe. The
+field of psychology is the study of sensitivity, action, and
+consciousness, or briefly, human behavior. Its main problems are
+development, heredity, instincts, habits, sensation, memory,
+thinking, and individual differences. Its method is observation and
+experiment, the same as in all other sciences.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;17">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_17" id="Pg_17"></a></p>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Make out a list of things about human nature which you would like to
+know. Paste your list in the front of this book, and as you find your
+questions answered in this book, or in other books which you may read,
+check them off. At the end of the course, note how many remain
+unanswered. Find out whether those not answered can be answered at the
+present time.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Does everything you do have a cause? What kind of cause?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Human nature is shown in human action. Human action consists in
+muscular contraction. What makes a muscle contract?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Plan an experiment the object of which shall be to learn something
+about yourself.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Enumerate the professions and occupations in which a knowledge of
+some aspect of human nature would be valuable. State in what way it
+would be valuable.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a list of facts concerning a child, which a teacher ought to
+know.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, Chapters&nbsp;I, II, and V.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;I.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;I.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;I.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;18">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_18" id="Pg_18"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;II<br />
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Racial Development.</b> The purpose of this chapter is to make some inquiry
+concerning the origin of the race and of the individual. In doing this,
+it is necessary for us first of all to fix in our minds the idea of
+causality. According to the view of all modern science, everything has a
+cause. Nothing is uncaused. One event is the result of other previous
+events, and is in turn the cause of other events that follow. Yesterday
+flowed into to-day, and to-day flows into to-morrow. The world as it
+exists to-day is the result of the world as it existed yesterday. This
+is true not only of the inorganic world&mdash;the world of physics and
+chemistry&mdash;but it is true of living things as well. The animals and
+plants that exist to-day are the descendants of others that lived
+before. There is probably an unbroken line of descent from the first
+life that existed on the earth to the living forms of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Not only does the law of causality hold true in the case of our bodies,
+but of our minds as well. Our minds have doubtless developed from
+simpler minds just as our bodies have developed from simpler bodies.
+That different grades and types of minds are to be found among the
+various classes of animals now upon the earth, no one can doubt, for the
+different forms certainly show<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;19">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_19" id="Pg_19"></a> different degrees of mentality.
+According to the evidence of those scientists who have studied the
+remains of animals found in the earth&#8217;s crust, there is a gradual
+development of animal forms shown in successive epochs. In the very
+oldest parts of the earth&#8217;s crust, the remains of animal life found are
+very simple. In later formations, the remains show an animal life more
+complex. The highest forms of animals, the mammals, are found only in
+the more recent formations. The remains of man are found only in the
+latest formations.</p>
+
+<p>Putting these two facts together&mdash;(1) that the higher types of mind are
+found to-day only in the higher types of animals, and (2) that a gradual
+development of animal forms is shown by the remains in the earth&#8217;s
+crust&mdash;the conclusion is forced upon us that mind has passed through
+many stages of development from the appearance of life upon the earth to
+the present time. Among the lower forms of animals to-day one sees
+evidence of very simple minds. In am&oelig;bas, worms, insects, and fishes,
+mind is very simple. In birds, it is higher. In mammals, it is higher
+still. Among the highest mammals below man, we see manifestations of
+mind somewhat like our own. These grades of mentality shown in the
+animals of to-day represent the steps in the development of mind in the
+animals of the past.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot here go into the proof of the doctrine of development. For
+this proof, the reader must be referred to zo&ouml;logy. One further point,
+however, may be noted. If it is difficult for the reader to conceive of
+the development of mind on the earth similar to the development of
+animals in the past, let him think of the development of mind in the
+individual. There can certainly be no doubt of the development of mind
+in<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;20">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_20" id="Pg_20"></a> an individual human being. The infant, when born, shows little
+manifestation of mentality; but as its body grows, its mind develops,
+becoming more and more complex as the individual grows to maturity.</p>
+
+<p><b>The World as Dynamic.</b> The view of the world outlined above, and held by
+all scientific men of the present time, may be termed the <i>dynamic</i>
+view. Man formerly looked upon the world as static, a world where
+everything was fixed and final. Each thing existed in itself and for
+itself, and in large measure independent of all other things. We now
+look upon things and events as related and dependent. Each thing is
+dependent upon others, related to others.</p>
+
+<p>Man not only <i>lives in</i> such a world, but is <i>part of</i> such a world. In
+this world of constant and ceaseless change, man is most sensitive and
+responsive. Everything may affect him. To all of the constant changes
+about him he must adjust himself. He has been produced by this world,
+and to live in it he must meet its every condition and change. We must,
+then, look upon human nature as something coming out of the past and as
+being influenced every moment by the things and forces of the present.
+Man is not an independent being, unaffected by everything that happens;
+on the contrary, he is affected by all influences that act upon him.
+Among these influences may be mentioned weather, climate, food, and
+social forces.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the various organs of a child&#8217;s body determine, to some
+extent, the effect which these various forces have upon it. If a child&#8217;s
+eyes are in any way defective, making vision poor, this tremendously
+influences his life. Not only is such a child unable to see the world as
+it really is, but the eyestrain resulting from poor vision has serious
+effects on the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;21">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_21" id="Pg_21"></a> child, producing all sorts of disorders. If a child
+cannot hear well or is entirely deaf, many serious consequences follow.
+In fact, every condition or characteristic of a child that is in any way
+abnormal may lead on to other conditions and characteristics, often of a
+serious nature. The growth of adenoids, for example, may lead to a
+serious impairment of the mind. Poor vision may affect the whole life
+and character of the individual. The influence of a parent, teacher, or
+friend may determine the interest of a child and affect his whole life.
+The correct view of child life is that the child is affected, in greater
+or less degree, by every influence which acts upon him.</p>
+
+<p><b>Significance of Development and Causality.</b> What are the consequences of
+the view just set forth? What is the significance of the facts that have
+been enumerated? It is of great consequence to our thinking when we come
+to recognize fully the idea of causality. We then fully accept the fact
+that man&#8217;s body and mind are part of a causal and orderly world.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider, for example, the movement of a muscle. Every such
+movement must be caused. The physiologist has discovered what this cause
+is. Ordinarily and normally, a muscle contracts only when stimulated by
+a nerve current. Tiny nerve fibrils penetrate every muscle, ending in
+the muscle fibers. The nerve-impulse passing into the fibers of the
+muscles causes them to contract. The nerve stimulus itself has a cause;
+it ordinarily arises directly or indirectly from the stimulation of a
+sense organ. And the sense organs are stimulated by outside influences,
+as was explained previously.</p>
+
+<p>Not only are our movements caused, but our sensations, our ideas, and
+our feelings follow upon or are<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;22">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_22" id="Pg_22"></a> dependent upon some definite bodily
+state or condition. The moment that we recognize this we see that our
+sensations, ideas, and feelings are subject to control. It is only
+because our minds are in a world of causality, and subject to its laws,
+that education is possible. We can bring causes to bear upon a child and
+change the child. It is possible to build up ideas, ideals, and habits.
+And ideas, ideals, and habits constitute the man. Training is possible
+only because a child is a being that can be influenced. What any child
+will be when grown depends upon what kind of child it was at the
+beginning and upon the influences that affect it during its early life
+while it is growing into maturity. We need have no doubt about the
+outcome of any particular child if we know, with some degree of
+completeness, the two sets of factors that determine his life&mdash;his
+inheritance and the forces that affect this inheritance. We can predict
+the future of a child to the extent that we know and understand the
+forces that will be effective in his life.</p>
+
+<p>The notion of causality puts new meaning into our view of the <i>training</i>
+of a child. The doctrine of development puts new meaning into our notion
+of the <i>nature</i> of a child. We can understand man only when we view him
+genetically, that is, in the light of his origin. We can understand a
+child only in the light of what his ancestors have been.</p>
+
+<p>As these lines are being written, the greatest, the bloodiest war of
+history is in progress. Men are killing men by thousands and hundreds of
+thousands. How can we explain such actions? Observation of children
+shows that they are selfish, envious, and quarrelsome. They will fight
+and steal until they are taught not to do such things. How can we
+understand this? There<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;23">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_23" id="Pg_23"></a> is no way of understanding such actions until we
+come to see that the children and men of to-day are such as they are
+because of their ancestors. It has been only a few generations,
+relatively speaking, since our ancestors were naked savages, killing
+their enemies and eating their enemies&#8217; bodies. The civilized life of
+our ancestors covers a period of only a few hundred years. The
+pre-civilized life of our ancestors goes back probably thousands and
+thousands of years. In the relatively short period of civilization, our
+real, original nature has been little changed, perhaps none at all. The
+modern man is, at heart, the same old man of the woods.</p>
+
+<p>The improvements of civilization form what is called a social heritage,
+which must be impressed upon the original nature of each individual in
+order to have any effect. Every child has to learn to speak, to write,
+to dress, to eat with knife and fork; he must learn the various social
+customs, and to act morally as older people dictate. The child is by
+nature bad, in the sense that the nature which he inherits from the past
+fits him better for the original kind of life which man used to live
+than it does for the kind of life which we are trying to live now. This
+view makes us see that training a child is, in a very true sense,
+<i>making him over again</i>. The child must be trained to subdue and control
+his original impulses. Habits and ideals that will be suitable for life
+in civilized society <i>must be built up</i>. The doctrine of the Bible in
+regard to the original nature of man being sinful, and the necessity of
+regeneration, is fundamentally correct. But this regeneration is not so
+much a sudden process as it is the result of long and patient
+building-up of habits and ideals.</p>
+
+<p>One should not despair of this view of child-life.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;24">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_24" id="Pg_24"></a> Neither should one
+use it as an excuse for being bad, or for neglecting the training of
+children. On the contrary, taking the genetic view of childhood should
+give us certain advantages. It makes us see more clearly the <i>necessity</i>
+of training. Every child must be trained, or he will remain very much a
+savage. In the absence of training, all children are much alike, and all
+alike bad from our present point of view. The chief differences in
+children in politeness and manners generally, in morals, in industry,
+etc., are due, in the main, to differences in training. It is a great
+help merely to know how difficult the task of training is, and that
+training there must be if we are to have a civilized child. We must take
+thought and plan for the education and training of our children. The
+task of education is in part one of changing human nature. This is no
+light task. It is one that requires, in the case of each child, some
+twenty years of hard, patient, persistent work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Individual Development.</b> Heredity is a corollary of evolution. Individual
+development is intimately related to racial development. Indeed, racial
+development would be impossible without heredity in the individual. The
+individual must carry on and transmit what the race hands down to him.
+This will be evident when we explain what heredity means.</p>
+
+<p>By heredity we mean the likeness between parent and offspring. This
+likeness is a matter of form and structure as well as likeness of action
+or response. Animals and plants are like the parents in form and
+structure, and to a certain extent their responses are alike when the
+individuals are placed in the same situation. A robin is like the parent
+robins in size, shape, and color. It also hops like the parent birds,
+sings as they do, feeds as they do, builds a similar nest, etc. But the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;25">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_25" id="Pg_25"></a>
+likeness in action is dependent upon likeness in structure. The young
+robin acts as does the old robin, because the nervous mechanism is the
+same, and therefore a similar stimulus brings about a similar response.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the scientific work in heredity has been done in the study of
+the transmission of physical characteristics. The main facts of heredity
+are evident to everybody, but not many people realize how far-reaching
+is the principle of resemblance between parent and offspring. From
+horses we raise horses. From cows we raise cows. The children of human
+beings are human. Not only is this true, but the offspring of horses are
+of the same stock as the parents. Not only are the colts of the same
+stock as the parents, but they resemble the parents in small details.
+This is also true of human beings. We expect a child to be not only of
+the same race as the parents, but to have family resemblances to the
+parents&mdash;the same color of hair, the same shape of head, the same kind
+of nose, the same color of eyes, and to have such resemblances as moles
+in the same places on the skin, etc. A very little investigation reveals
+likenesses between parent and offspring which we may not have expected
+before.</p>
+
+<p>However, if we start out to hunt for facts of heredity, we shall perhaps
+be as much impressed by differences between parent and child as we shall
+by the resemblances. In the first place, every child has two parents,
+and it is often impossible to resemble both. One cannot, for example, be
+both short and tall; one cannot be both fair and dark; one cannot be
+both slender and heavy; one cannot have both brown eyes and blue. In
+some cases, the child resembles one parent and not the other. In other
+cases, the child looks somewhat like both parents but not exactly like
+either. If one<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;26">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_26" id="Pg_26"></a> parent is white and the other black, the child is
+neither as white as the one parent nor as black as the other.</p>
+
+<p>The parents of a child are themselves different, but there are four
+grandparents, and each of them different from the others. There are
+eight great grandparents, and all of them different. If we go back only
+seven generations, covering a period of perhaps only a hundred and fifty
+years, we have one hundred and twenty-eight ancestors. If we go back ten
+generations, we have over a thousand ancestors in our line of descent.
+Each of these people was, in some measure, different from the others.
+Our inheritance comes from all of them and from each of them.</p>
+
+<p>How do all of these diverse characteristics work out in the child? In
+the first place, it seems evident that we do not inherit our bodies as
+wholes, but in parts or units. We may think of the human race as a whole
+being made up of a great number of unit characters. No one person
+possesses all of them. Every person is lacking in some of them. His
+neighbor may be lacking in quite different ones. Now one parent
+transmits to the child a certain combination of unit characters; the
+other parent, a different combination. These characteristics may not all
+appear in the child, but all are transmitted through it to the next
+generation, and they are transmitted purely. By being transmitted
+purely, we mean that the characteristic does not seem to lose its
+identity and disappear in fusions or mixtures. The essential point in
+this doctrine of heredity is known as Mendelism; it is the principle of
+inheritance through the pure transmission of unit characters.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration will probably make the Mendelian principle clear. Let us
+select our illustration from the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;27">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_27" id="Pg_27"></a> plant world. It is found that if white
+and yellow corn are crossed, all the corn the first year, resulting from
+this crossing, will be yellow. Now, if this hybrid yellow corn is
+planted the second year, and freely cross-fertilized, it turns out that
+one fourth of it will be white and three fourths yellow. But this yellow
+consists of three parts: one part being pure yellow which will breed
+true, producing nothing but yellow; the other two parts transmit white
+and yellow in equal ratio. That is to say, these two parts are hybrids,
+the result of crossing white with yellow. It is not meant that one can
+actually distinguish these two kinds of yellow, the pure yellow and the
+hybrid yellow, but the results from planting it show that one third of
+the yellow is pure and that the other two thirds transmit white and
+yellow in equal ratio.</p>
+
+<p>The main point to notice in all this is that when two individuals having
+diverse characteristics are crossed, the characteristics do not fuse and
+disappear ultimately, but that the two characteristics are transmitted
+in equal ratio, and each will appear in succeeding generations, and will
+appear pure, just as if it had not been crossed with something
+different. The first offspring resulting from the cross&mdash;known as
+hybrids&mdash;may show either one or the other of the diverse
+characteristics, or, when such a thing is possible, even a blending of
+the two characteristics. But whatever the actual appearance of the first
+generation of offspring resulting from crossing parents having diverse
+characteristics, their germ-cells transmit the diverse characteristics
+in equal proportion, as explained above.</p>
+
+<p>When one of the diverse characteristics appears in the first generation
+of offspring and the other does not appear, or is not apparent, the one
+that appears is said<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;28">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_28" id="Pg_28"></a> to be <i>dominant</i>, while the one not appearing is
+said to be <i>recessive</i>. In our example of the yellow and white corn,
+yellow is dominant and white recessive. And it must be remembered that
+the white corn that appears in the second generation will breed true
+just as if it had never been crossed with the yellow corn. One third of
+the yellow of the second generation would also breed true if it could be
+separated from the other two thirds.</p>
+
+<p>It is not here claimed that Mendelism is a universal principle, that all
+characteristics are transmitted in this way. However, the results of the
+numerous experiments in heredity lead one to expect this to be the case.
+Most of the experiments have been with lower animals and with plants,
+but recent experiments and statistical studies show that Mendelism is an
+important factor in human heredity, in such characteristics as color of
+hair and eyes and skin, partial color blindness, defects of eye, ear,
+and other important organs.</p>
+
+<p>The studies that have been made of human heredity have been, for the
+most part, studies of the transmission of physical characteristics. Very
+little has been done that bears directly upon the transmission of mental
+characteristics. But our knowledge of the dependence of mind upon body
+should prepare us to infer mental heredity from physical heredity. Such
+studies as throw light on the question bear us out in making such an
+inference.</p>
+
+<p>The studies that have been more directly concerned with mental heredity
+are those dealing with the resemblances of twins, studies of heredity in
+royalty, studies of the inheritance of genius, and studies of the
+transmission of mental defects and defects of sense organs. The results
+of all these studies indicate the inheritance<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;29">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_29" id="Pg_29"></a> of mental characteristics
+in the same way that physical characteristics are transmitted. Not only
+are human mental characteristics transmitted from parent to offspring,
+but they seem to be transmitted in Mendelian fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Feeble-mindedness, for example, seems to be a Mendelian character and
+recessive. From the studies that have been made, it seems that two
+congenitally feeble-minded parents will have only feeble-minded
+children. Feeble-mindedness acts in heredity as does the white corn in
+the example given above. If one parent only is feeble-minded, the other
+being normal, all of the children will be normal, just as all of the
+corn, in the first generation after the crossing, was yellow. But these
+children whose parents are the one normal and the other feeble-minded,
+while themselves normal, transmit feeble-mindedness in equal ratio with
+normality. It works out as follows: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+person of sound mind and sound stock, the children will all be of sound,
+normal mind. If these children take as husbands and wives men and women
+who had for parents one normal and one feeble-minded person, their
+children will be one fourth feeble-minded and three fourths of them
+normal.</p>
+
+<p>To summarize the various conditions: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+feeble-minded person, all the children will be feeble-minded. If a
+feeble-minded person marry a sound, normal person (pure stock), all the
+children will be normal. If the children, in the last case, marry others
+like themselves as to origin, one fourth of their offspring will be
+feeble-minded. If such hybrid children marry feeble-minded persons, one
+half of the offspring will be feeble-minded. It is rash to prophesy, but
+future studies of heredity<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;30">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_30" id="Pg_30"></a> may show that Mendelism, or some
+modification of the principle, always holds true of mind as well as of
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Little can be said about the transmission of particular definite mental
+traits, such as the various aspects of memory, association, attention,
+temperament, etc. Before we can speak with any certainty here, we must
+make very careful experimental studies of these mental traits in parents
+and offspring. No such work has been done. All we have at the present
+time is the result of general observation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Improvement of the Race.</b> Eugenics is the science of improvement of the
+human race by breeding. While we can train children and thereby make
+them much better than they would be without such training, this training
+does not improve the stock. The improvement of the stock can be
+accomplished only through breeding from the best and preventing the poor
+stock from leaving offspring. This is a well-known principle in the
+breeding of domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless just as true in the case of human beings. The hygienic
+and scientific rearing of children is good for the children and makes
+their lives better, but probably does not affect their offspring. We
+should not forget that all the social and educational influences die
+with the generation that receives them. They must be impressed by
+training on the next generation or that generation will receive no
+influence from them. The characters which we acquire in our lifetime
+seem not to be transmitted to our children, except through what is known
+as social heredity, which is merely the taking on of characteristics
+through imitation. Our children must go through all the labor of
+learning to read, write, spell, add, multiply, subtract,<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;31">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_31" id="Pg_31"></a> and divide,
+which we went through. Moral traits, manners and customs, and other
+habits and ideals of social importance must be acquired by each
+successive generation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Heredity <i>versus</i> Environment.</b> The question is often asked whether
+heredity or the influence of environment has the most to do with the
+final outcome of one&#8217;s life. It is a rather useless question to ask, for
+what a human being or anything else in the world does depends upon what
+it is itself and what the things and forces are that act upon it.
+Heredity sets a limitation for us, fixes the possibilities. The
+circumstances of life determine what we will do with our inherited
+abilities and characteristics. Hereditary influences incline us to be
+tall or short, fat or lean, light or dark. The characteristics of our
+memory, association, imagination, our learning capacity, etc., are
+determined by heredity. Of course, how far these various aspects develop
+is to some extent dependent upon the favorable or unfavorable influences
+of the environment. What is possible for us to do is settled by
+heredity; what we may actually do, what we may have the opportunity to
+do, is largely a matter of the circumstances of life.</p>
+
+<p>In certain parts of New England, the number of men who become famous in
+art, science, or literature is very great compared to the number in some
+other parts of our country. As far as we have any evidence, the native
+stocks are the same in the two cases, but in New England the influences
+turn men into the direction of science, art, and literature. Everything
+there is favorable. In other parts of the country, the influences turn
+men into other spheres of activity. They become large landowners, men of
+business and affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The question may be asked whether genius makes its<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;32">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_32" id="Pg_32"></a> way to the front in
+spite of unfavorable circumstances. Sometimes it doubtless does. But
+pugnacity and perseverance are not necessarily connected with
+intellectual genius. Genius may be as likely to be timid as belligerent.
+Therefore unfavorable circumstances may crush many a genius.</p>
+
+<p>The public schools ought to be on the watch for genius in any and all
+kinds of work. When a genius is found, proper training ought to be
+provided to develop this genius for the good of society as well as for
+the good of the individual himself. A few children show ability in
+drawing and painting, others in music, others in mechanical invention,
+some in literary construction. When it is found that this ability is
+undoubtedly a native gift and not a passing whim, special opportunity
+should be provided for its development and training. It will be better
+for the general welfare, as well as for individual happiness, if each
+does in life that for which he is by nature best fitted. For most of us,
+however, there is not much difference in our abilities. We can do one
+thing as well as we can many other things. But in a few there are
+undoubted special native gifts.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> This is an orderly world, in which everything has a cause.
+All events are connected in a chain of causes and effects. Human
+beings live in this world of natural law and are subject to it.
+Human life is completely within this world of law and order and is a
+part of it. Education is possible only because we can change human
+beings by having influences act upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Individuals receive their original traits from their ancestors,
+probably as parts or units. Mendelism is the doctrine of the pure
+transmission of unit characters. Eugenics is the science of
+improving the human race by selective breeding. An individual&#8217;s life
+is the result of the interaction of his hereditary characteristics
+and his environment.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;33">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_33" id="Pg_33"></a>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Try to find rock containing the remains of animals. You can get
+information on such matters from a textbook on geology.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Read in a geology about the different geological epochs in the
+history of the earth.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a comparison of the length of infancy in the lower animals and
+in man. What is the significance of what you find? What advantage does
+it give man?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>What is natural selection? How does it lead to change in animals?
+Does natural selection still operate among human beings? (See a modern
+textbook on zo&ouml;logy.)</p></li>
+
+<li><p>By observation and from consulting a zo&ouml;logy, learn about the
+different classes of animal forms, from low forms to high forms.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>By studying domestic animals, see what you can learn about heredity.
+Enumerate all the points that you find bearing upon heredity.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>In a similar way, make a study of heredity in your family. Consider
+such characteristics as height, weight, shape of head, shape of nose,
+hair and eye color. Can you find any evidence of the inheritance of
+mental traits?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a>.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Davenport</span>: <i>Heredity in Relation to Eugenics</i>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Kellicott</span>: <i>The Social Direction of Human Evolution</i>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;34">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_34" id="Pg_34"></a><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;III<br />
+MIND AND BODY</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Gross Dependence.</b> The relation of mind to body has always been an
+interesting one to man. This is partly because of the connection of the
+question with that of life after death. An old idea of this relation,
+almost universally held till recently, was that the mind or spirit lived
+in the body but was more or less independent of the body. The body has
+been looked upon as a hindrance to the mind or spirit. Science knows
+nothing about the existence of spirits apart from bodies. The belief
+that after death the mind lives on is a matter of faith and not of
+science. Whether one believes in an existence of the mind after death of
+the body, depends on one&#8217;s religious faith. There is no scientific
+evidence one way or the other. The only mind that science knows anything
+about is bound up very closely with body. This is not saying that there
+is no existence of spirit apart from body, but that at present such
+existence is beyond the realm of science.</p>
+
+<p>The dependence of mind upon body in a general way is evident to every
+one, upon the most general observation and thought. We know the effect
+on the mind of disease, of good health, of hunger, of fatigue, of
+overwork, of severe bodily injury, of blindness or deafness. We have,
+perhaps, seen some one struck upon the head by a club, or run over by an
+automobile, and have noted<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;35">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_35" id="Pg_35"></a> the tremendous consequences to the person&#8217;s
+mind. In such cases it sometimes happens that, as far as we can see,
+there is no longer any mind in connection with that body. The most
+casual observation, then, shows that mind and body are in some way most
+intimately related.</p>
+
+<p><b>Finer Dependence.</b> Let us note this relation more in detail, and, in
+particular, see just which part of the body it is that is connected with
+the mind. First of all, we note the dependence of mind upon sense
+organs. We see only with our eyes. If we close the eyelids, we cannot
+see. If we are born blind, or if injury or disease destroys the retinas
+of the eyes or makes the eyes opaque so that light cannot pass through
+to the retinas, then we cannot see.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, we hear only by means of the ears. If we are born deaf, or if
+injury destroys some important part of the hearing mechanism, then we
+cannot hear. In like manner, we taste only by means of the taste organs
+in the mouth, and smell only with the organs of smell in the nose. In a
+word, our primary knowledge of the world comes only through the sense
+organs. We shall see presently just how this sensing or perceiving is
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dependence of Mind on Nerves and Brain.</b> We have seen how in a general
+way the mind is dependent on the body. We have seen how in a more
+intimate way it is dependent on the special sense organs. But the part
+of the body to which the mind is most directly and intimately related is
+the nervous system. The sense organs themselves are merely modifications
+of the nerve ends together with certain mechanisms for enabling stimuli
+to act on the nerve ends. The eye is merely the optic nerve spread out
+to form the retina and<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;36">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_36" id="Pg_36"></a> modified in certain ways to make it sensitive to
+ether vibrations. In addition to this, there is, of course, the focusing
+mechanism of the eye. So for all the sense organs; they are, each of
+them, some sort of modification of nerve-endings which makes them
+sensitive to some particular force or substance.</p>
+
+<p>Let us make the matter clear by an illustration. Suppose I see a picture
+on the wall. My eyes are directed toward the picture. Light from the
+picture is refracted within the eyes, forming an image on each retina.
+The retina is sensitive to the light. The light produces chemical
+changes on the retina. These changes set up an excitation in the optic
+nerves, which is conducted to a certain place in the brain, causing an
+excitation in the brain. Now the important point is that when this
+excitation is going on in the brain, <i>we are conscious, we see the
+picture</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As far as science can determine, we do not see, nor hear, nor taste, nor
+smell, nor have any other sensation unless a sense organ is excited and
+produces the excitation in the brain. There can be no doubt about our
+primary, sensory experience. By primary, sensory experience is meant our
+immediate, direct knowledge of any aspect of the world. In this field of
+our conscious life, we are entirely dependent upon sense organs and
+nerves and brain. Injuries to the eyes destroying their power to perform
+their ordinary work, or injuries to the optic nerve or to the visual
+center in the brain, make it impossible for us to see.</p>
+
+<p>These facts are so self-evident that it seems useless to state them. One
+has but to hold his hands before his eyes to convince himself that the
+mind sees by means of eyes, which are physical sense organs. One has but
+to hold his hands tight over his ears to find<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;37">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_37" id="Pg_37"></a> out that he hears by
+means of ears&mdash;again, physical sense organs.</p>
+
+<p>But simple and self-evident as the facts are, their acceptance must have
+tremendous consequences to our thinking, and to our view of human
+nature. If the mind is dependent in every feature on the body with its
+sense organs, this must give to this body and its sense organs an
+importance in our thought and scheme of things that they did not have
+before. This close dependence of mind upon body must give to the body a
+place in our scheme of education that it would not have under any other
+view of the mind. We wish to emphasize here that this statement of the
+close relation of the mind and body is not a theory which one may accept
+or not. It is a simple statement of fact. It is a presupposition of
+psychology. By &ldquo;presupposition&rdquo; is meant a fundamental principle which
+the psychologist always has in mind. It is axiomatic, and has the same
+place in psychology that axioms have in mathematics. All explanations of
+the working of the mind must be stated in terms of nerve and brain
+action, and stimulation of sense organs.</p>
+
+<p>Since the sense organs are the primary and fundamental organs through
+which we get experience, and since the sensations are the elementary
+experiences out of which all mental life is built, it is necessary for
+us to have a clear idea of the sense organs, their structure and
+functions, and of the nature of sensations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vision.</b> <i>The Visual Sense Organs.</i> The details of the anatomy of the eye
+can be looked up in a physiological textbook. The essential principles
+are very simple. The eye is made on the principle of a photographer&#8217;s
+camera. The retina corresponds to the sensitive plate of the camera. The
+light coming from objects toward<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;38">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_38" id="Pg_38"></a> which the eyes are directed is focused
+on the retina, forming there an image of the object. The light thus
+focused on the retina sets up a chemical change in the delicate nerve
+tissue; this excitation is transmitted through the optic nerve to the
+occipital (back) part of the brain, and sets up brain action there. Then
+we have visual sensation; we see the object.</p>
+
+<p>The different colors that we see are dependent upon the vibration
+frequency of the ether. The higher frequencies give us the colors blue
+and green, and the lower frequencies give us the colors yellow and red.
+The intermediate frequencies give us the intermediate colors blue-green
+and orange. By vibration frequencies is meant the rate at which the
+ether vibrates, the number of vibrations a second. If the reader wishes
+to know something about these frequencies, such information can be found
+in a textbook on physics.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found that the vibration rates of the ether are very great.
+It is only within a certain range of vibration frequency that sunlight
+affects the retina. Slower rates of vibration than that producing red do
+not affect the eye, and faster than that producing violet do not affect
+the eye. The lightness and darkness of a color are dependent upon the
+intensity of the vibration. Red, for example, is produced by a certain
+vibration frequency. The more intense the vibration, the brighter the
+red; the less intense, the darker the red.</p>
+
+<p>When all the vibration frequencies affect the eyes at the same time, we
+see no color at all but only brightness. This is due to the fact that
+certain vibration frequencies neutralize each other in their effect on
+the retina, so far as producing color is concerned. Red neutralizes
+green, blue neutralizes yellow, violet<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;39">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_39" id="Pg_39"></a> neutralizes yellowish green,
+orange neutralizes bluish green.</p>
+
+<p>All variations in vision as far as color and brightness are concerned
+are due to variations in the stimulus. Changes in vibration frequency
+give the different colors. Changes in intensity give the different
+brightnesses: black, gray, and white. All explanations of the many
+interesting phenomena of vision are to be sought in the physiological
+action of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the facts of color and light and shade, already mentioned, some
+further interesting visual phenomena may be mentioned <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a comma instead of a full-stop">here.</ins></p>
+
+<p><i>Visual Contrast.</i> Every color makes objects near it take on the
+antagonistic or complementary color. Red makes objects near appear
+green, green makes them appear red. Blue makes near objects appear
+yellow, while yellow makes them appear blue. Orange induces greenish
+blue, and greenish blue induces orange. Violet induces yellowish green,
+and yellowish green induces violet. These color-pairs are known as
+antagonistic or complementary colors. Each one of a pair enhances the
+effect of its complementary when the two colors are brought close
+together. In a similar way, light and dark tints act as complementaries.
+Light objects make dark objects near appear darker, and dark objects
+make light objects near seem lighter.</p>
+
+<p>These universal principles of contrast are of much practical
+significance. They must be taken account of in all arrangements of
+colors and tints, for example, in dress, in the arrangement of flowers
+and shrubs, in painting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Color-Mixture.</i> If, on a rotating motor, disks of different colors&mdash;say
+red and yellow&mdash;are placed and rotated, one sees on looking at them not
+red or yellow<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;40">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_40" id="Pg_40"></a> but orange. This phenomenon is known as <i>color-mixture</i>.
+The result is due to the simultaneous stimulation of the retina by two
+kinds of ether vibration. If the colors used are a certain red and a
+certain green, they neutralize each other and produce only gray. All the
+pairs of complementary colors mentioned above act in the same way,
+producing, if mixed in the right proportion, no color, but gray. If
+colored disks not complementary are mixed by rotation on a motor, they
+produce an intermediate color. Red and yellow give orange. Blue and
+green give bluish green. Yellow and green give yellowish green. Red and
+blue give violet or purple, depending on the proportion. Mixing pigments
+gives, in general, the same results as mixing by means of rotating the
+disks. The ordinary blue and yellow pigments give green when mixed,
+because each of the two pigments contains green. The blue and yellow
+neutralize each other, leaving green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Visual After-Images.</i> The stimulation of the retina has interesting
+after effects. We shall mention here only the one known as <i>negative
+after-images</i>. If one will place on the table a sheet of white paper,
+and on this white paper lay a small piece of colored paper, and if he
+will then gaze steadily at the colored paper for a half-minute, it will
+be found that if the colored paper is removed one sees its complementary
+color. If the head is not moved, this complementary color has the same
+size and shape as the original colored piece of paper. The negative
+after-image can be projected on a background at different distances, its
+size depending on the distance of the background. The after-image will
+be found to mix with an objective color in accordance with the
+principles of color-mixture mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;41">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_41" id="Pg_41"></a>After-image phenomena have some practical consequences. If one has been
+looking at a certain color for some time, a half-minute or more, then
+looks at some other color, the after-image of the first color mixes with
+the second color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adaptation.</i> The fact last mentioned leads us to the subject of
+adaptation. If the eyes are stimulated by the same kind of light for
+some time, the eyes become adapted to that light. If the light is
+yellow, at first objects seem yellow, but after a time they look as if
+they were illuminated with white light, losing the yellow aspect. But if
+one then goes out into white light, everything looks bluish. The
+negative after-image of the yellow being cast upon everything makes the
+surroundings look blue, for the after-image of yellow is blue. All the
+other colors act in a similar way, as do also black and white. If one
+has been for some time in a dark room and then goes out to a lighter
+place, it seems unusually light. And if one goes from the light to a
+dark room, it seems unusually dark.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hearing or Audition.</b> Just as the eye is an organ sensitive to certain
+frequencies of ether vibration, so the ear is an organ sensitive to
+certain air vibrations. The reader should familiarize himself with the
+physiology of the ear by reference to physiologies. The drum-skin, the
+three little bones of the middle ear, and the cochlea of the inner ear
+are all merely mechanical means of making possible the stimulation of
+the specialized endings of the auditory nerve by vibrations of air.</p>
+
+<p>As the different colors are due to different vibration frequencies of
+the ether, so different pitches of sound are due to differences in the
+rates of the air vibrations. The low bass notes are produced by the low
+vibration<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;42">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_42" id="Pg_42"></a> frequencies. The high notes are produced by the high
+vibration frequencies. The lowest notes that we can hear are produced by
+about twenty vibrations a second, and the highest by about forty
+thousand vibrations a second.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Sense Organs.</b> We need not give a detailed statement of the facts
+concerning the other senses. In each case the sense organ is some
+special adaptation of the nerve-endings with appropriate apparatus in
+connection to enable it to be affected by some special thing or force in
+the environment.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of taste, we find in the mouth, chiefly on the back and
+edges of the tongue, organs sensitive to sweet, sour, salt, and bitter.
+In the nose we have an organ that is sensitive to the tiny particles of
+substances that float in the air which we breathe in through the nose.</p>
+
+<p>In the skin we find several kinds of sense organs that give us the
+sensations of cold and warmth, of pressure and pain. These are all
+special and definite sensations produced by different kinds of organs.
+The sense of warmth is produced by different organs from those which
+produce the sense of cold. These organs can be detected and localized on
+the skin. So, also, pain and touch or pressure have each its particular
+organ.</p>
+
+<p>Within the body itself we have sense organs also, particularly in the
+joints and tendons and in the muscles. These give us the sensations
+which are the basis of our perception of motion, and of the position of
+the body and its members. In the semicircular canals of the inner ear
+are organs that give us the sense of dizziness, and enable us to
+maintain our equilibrium and to know up from down.</p>
+
+<p>The general nature of the sense organs and of sensa<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;43">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_43" id="Pg_43"></a>tion should now be
+apparent. The nervous system reaches out its myriad fingers to every
+portion of the surface of the body, and within the body as well. These
+nerve-endings are specially adapted to receive each its particular form
+of stimulation. This stimulation of our sense organs is the basis or
+cause of our sensations. And our sensations are the elementary stuff of
+all our experience. Whatever thoughts we have, whatever ideas or images
+we have, they come originally from our sensations. They are built up out
+of our sensations or from these sensations as they exist in memory.</p>
+
+<p><b>Defects of Sense Organs.</b> The organs of sight and hearing are now by far
+the most important of our sense organs. They enable us to sense things
+that are at a distance. We shall therefore discuss defects of these two
+organs only. Since sensations are the primary stuff out of which mind is
+made, and since sight and hearing are the most important sense organs,
+it is evident that our lives are very much dependent on these organs. If
+they cannot do their work well, then we are handicapped. And this is
+often the case.</p>
+
+<p>The making of the human eye is one of the most remarkable achievements
+of nature. But the making of a perfect eye is too big a task for nature.
+She never makes a perfect eye. There is always some defect, large or
+small. To take plastic material and make lenses and shutters and
+curtains is a great task. The curvature of the front of the eye and of
+the front and back of the crystalline lens is never quite perfect, but
+in the majority of cases it is nearly enough perfect to give us good
+vision. However, in about one third of school children the defect is
+great enough to need to be corrected by glasses.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the correction of sight by means of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;44">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_44" id="Pg_44"></a> glasses is merely
+this:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> When the focusing apparatus of the eye is not perfect, it can
+be made so by putting in front of the eye the proper kind of lens. There
+is nothing strange or mysterious about it. In some cases, the eye
+focuses the light before it reaches the retina. Such cases are known as
+nearsightedness and are corrected by having placed in front of the eyes
+concave lenses of the proper strength. These lenses diverge the rays and
+make them focus on the retina. In other cases, the eye is not able to
+focus the rays by the time they reach the retina. In these cases, the
+eyes need the help of convex lenses of the proper strength to make the
+focus fall exactly on the retina.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a></span> The teacher should explain these principles and illustrate
+by drawings. Consult a good text in physiology. Noyes&#8217; University of
+Missouri Extension Bulletin on eye and ear defects will be found most
+useful.</p></div>
+
+<p>Another defect of the eye, known as astigmatism, is due to the fact that
+the eye does not always have a perfectly spherical front (cornea). The
+curvature in one direction is different from that in others. For
+example, the vertical curvature may be more convex than the horizontal.
+Such a condition produces a serious defect of vision. It can be
+corrected by means of cylindrical lenses of the proper strength so
+placed before the eye as to correct the defect in curvature.</p>
+
+<p>Still another defect of vision is known as presbyopia or farsightedness
+due to old age. It has the following explanation: In early life, when we
+look at near objects, the crystalline lens automatically becomes
+thicker, more convex. This adjustment brings the rays to a focus on the
+retina, which is required for good vision. As we get old, the
+crystalline lens loses its power to change its adjustment for near
+objects, al<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;45">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_45" id="Pg_45"></a>though the eye may see at a distance as well as ever. The
+old person, therefore, must wear convex glasses when looking at near
+objects, as in reading and sewing.</p>
+
+<p>Another visual defect of a different nature is known as partial color
+blindness. The defects described above are due to misshapen eyes.
+Partial color blindness is due to a defect of the retina which makes it
+unable to be affected by light waves producing red and green. A person
+with this defect confuses red and green. While only a small percentage
+of the population has this defect, it is nevertheless very important
+that those having it be detected. People having the defect should not be
+allowed to enter occupations in which the seeing of red and green is
+important. It was recently brought to the author&#8217;s attention that a
+partially color-blind man was selling stamps in a post office. Since two
+denominations of stamps are distinguished by red and green colors, this
+man made frequent mistakes. He was doing one of the things for which he
+was specially unfitted. It is easy to detect color blindness by simple
+tests.</p>
+
+<p>So great is the importance of good vision in school work and the later
+work of life, that every teacher should know how to make simple tests to
+determine visual defects. Children showing any symptoms of eyestrain
+should be required to have their visual defects corrected by a competent
+oculist, and should be warned not to have the correction made by a
+quack. There is great popular ignorance and even prejudice concerning
+visual defects, and it is very important that teachers have a clear
+understanding of the facts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Defects of Hearing.</b> Hearing defects are only about half as frequent as
+those of sight. They are nearly all due to catarrhal infection of the
+middle ear through<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;46">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_46" id="Pg_46"></a> the Eustachian tube. The careful and frequent
+medical examination of school children cannot, therefore, be too
+strongly emphasized. The deafness or partial deafness that comes from
+this catarrhal infection can seldom be cured; it must be prevented by
+the early treatment of the troubles which cause it.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> The mind is closely related to the body. Especially is it
+dependent upon the brain, nerves, and sense organs. The sense organs
+are special adaptations of the nerve-ends for receiving impressions.
+Each sense organ receives only its particular type of impression.</p>
+
+<p>The main visual phenomena are those of color-mixture, after-images,
+adaptation, and contrast. Since sensation is the basis of mental
+life, defects of the sense organs are serious handicaps and should
+be corrected if possible. Visual defects are usually due to a
+misshapen eyeball and can be corrected by proper glasses, which
+should be fitted by an oculist. Hearing defects usually arise from
+catarrhal trouble in the middle ear.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Make a study of the relation of the mind to the body. Enumerate the
+different lines of evidence which you may find indicating their close
+relationship.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Can you find any evidence tending to show that the mind is
+independent of the body?</p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Color-Mixture.</i> Colored disks can be procured from C.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Stoelting
+Company, Chicago. If a small motor is available, the disks can be
+rotated on the motor and the colors mixed. Mix pairs of complementary
+colors, also pairs of non-complementary colors, and note the result. A
+simple device can be made for mixing colors, as follows: On a board
+stand a pane of glass. On one side of the glass put a colored paper and
+on the other side of the glass put a different color. By looking through
+the glass you can see one color through transmitted light and the other
+color through reflected light. By inclining the glass at different
+angles you can get different proportions of the mixture, now more of one
+color, now more of the other.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;47">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_47" id="Pg_47"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Negative After-Images.</i> Cut out pieces of colored paper a half inch
+square. Put one of these on a white background on the table. With elbows
+on the table, hold the head in the hands and gaze at the colored paper
+for about a half-minute, then blow the paper away and continue to gaze
+at the white background. Note the color that appears. Use different
+colors and tabulate the results. Try projecting the after-images at
+different distances. Project the after-images on different colored
+papers. Do the after-images mix with the colors of the papers?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>An interesting experiment with positive after-images can be performed
+as follows: Shut yourself in a dark closet for fifteen or twenty minutes
+to remove all trace of stimulation of the retina. With the eyes covered
+with several folds of thick black cloth go to a window, uncover the eyes
+and take a momentary look at the landscape, immediately covering the
+eyes again. The landscape will appear as a positive after-image, with
+the positive colors and lights and shades. The experiment is best
+performed on a bright day.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Adaptation.</i> Put on colored glasses or hold before the eyes a large
+piece of colored glass. Note that at first everything takes on the color
+of the glass. What change comes over objects after the glasses have been
+worn for fifteen or twenty minutes? Describe your experience after
+removing the glasses. Plan and perform other experiments showing
+adaptation. For illustration, go from a very bright room into a dark
+room. Go from a very dark room to a light one. Describe your experience.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Contrast.</i> Take a medium gray paper and lay it on white and various
+shades of gray and black paper. Describe and explain what you find.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Color Contrast.</i> Darken a room by covering all the windows except
+one window pane. Cover it with cardboard. In the cardboard cut two
+windows six inches long and one inch wide. Over one window put colored
+glass or any other colored material through which some light will pass.
+By holding up a pencil you can cast two shadows on a piece of paper.
+What color are the shadows? One is a contrast color induced by the
+other; which one? Explain the results.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of the way in which women dress. What do you learn about
+color effects?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>From the Stoelting Company you can obtain the Holmgren worsteds for
+studying color blindness.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;48">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_48" id="Pg_48"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Defective Vision.</i> Procure a Snellen&#8217;s test chart and determine the
+visual acuity of the members of the class. Seat the subject twenty feet
+from the chart, which should be placed in a good light. While testing
+one eye, cover the other with a piece of cardboard. Above each row of
+letters on the chart is a number which indicates the distance at which
+it can be read by a normal eye. If the subject can read only the
+thirty-foot line, his vision is said to be 20/30; if only the forty-foot
+line, the vision is 20/40. If the subject can read above the twenty-foot
+line and complains of headache from reading, farsightedness is
+indicated. If the subject cannot read up to the twenty-foot line,
+nearsightedness or astigmatism is indicated.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><i>Hearing.</i> By consultation with the teacher of physics, plan an
+experiment to show that the pitch of tones depends on vibration
+frequency. Such an experiment can be very simply performed by rotating a
+wheel having spokes. Hold a light stick against the spokes so that it
+strikes each spoke. If the wheel is rotated so as to give twenty or
+thirty strokes a second, a very low tone will be heard. By rotating the
+wheel faster you get a higher tone. Other similar experiments can be
+performed.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Acuity of hearing can be tested by finding the distance at which the
+various members of the class can hear a watch-tick. The teacher can plan
+an experiment using whispering instead of the watch-tick. (See the
+author&#8217;s <i>Examination of School Children</i>.)</p></li>
+
+<li><p>By using the point of a nail, one can find the &ldquo;cold spots&rdquo; on the
+skin. Warm the nail to about 40&nbsp;degrees Centigrade and you can find the
+&ldquo;warm spots.&rdquo;</p></li>
+
+<li><p>By touching the hairs on the back of the hand, you can stimulate the
+&ldquo;pressure spots.&rdquo;</p></li>
+
+<li><p>By pricking the skin with the point of a needle, you can stimulate
+the &ldquo;pain spots.&rdquo;</p></li>
+
+<li><p>The sense of taste is sensitive only to solutions that are sweet,
+sour, salt, or bitter. Plan experiments to verify this point. What we
+call the &ldquo;taste&rdquo; of many things is due chiefly to odor. Therefore in
+experiments with taste, the nostrils should be stopped up with cotton.
+It will be found, for example, that quinine and coffee are
+indistinguishable if their odors be eliminated by stopping the nose. The
+student should compare the taste of many substances put into the mouth
+with the nostrils open with the taste of the same substances with the
+nostrils closed.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;49">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_49" id="Pg_49"></a>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin and Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapters&nbsp;VII and XII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, Chapters&nbsp;III, IV, VI,
+and VII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;II, III, and IV.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;II.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;I, par.&nbsp;3; also
+Chapter&nbsp;<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original omitted the full-stop">II.</ins></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;50">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_50" id="Pg_50"></a><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;IV<br />
+INHERITED TENDENCIES</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Stimulus and Response.</b> We have learned something about the sense organs
+and their functions. We have seen that it is through the sense organs
+that the world affects us, stimulates us. And we have said that we are
+stimulated in order that we may respond.</p>
+
+<p>We must now inquire into the nature of our responses. We are moving,
+active beings. But how do we move, how do we act when stimulated? Why do
+we do one thing rather than another? Why do we do one thing at one time
+and a different thing at another time?</p>
+
+<p>Before we answer these questions it will be necessary for us to get a
+more definite and complete idea of the nature of stimulus and response.
+We have already used these terms, but we must now give a more definite
+account of them. It was said in the preceding chapter that when a muscle
+contracts, it must first receive a nerve-impulse. Now, anything which
+starts this nerve-impulse is called the stimulus. The muscular movement
+which follows is, of course, the response. The nervous system forms the
+connection between the stimulus and response.</p>
+
+<p>The stimulus which brings about a response may be very simple. Or, on
+the other hand, it may be very complex. If one blows upon the eyelids of
+a baby, the lids automatically close. The blowing is the stimu<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;51">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_51" id="Pg_51"></a>lus and
+the closing of the lids is the response. Both stimulus and response are
+here very simple.</p>
+
+<p>But sometimes the stimulus is more complex, not merely the simple
+excitation of one sense organ, but a complicated stimulation of an
+organ, or the simultaneous stimulation of several organs. In playing
+ball, the stimulus for the batter is the on-coming ball. The response is
+the stroke. This case is much more complex than the reflex closing of
+the eyelids. The ball may be pitched in many different ways and the
+response changes with these variations.</p>
+
+<p>In piano playing, the stimulus is the notes written in their particular
+places on the staff. Not only must the position of the notes on the
+staff be taken into account, but also many other things, such as sharps
+and flats, and various characters which give directions as to the manner
+in which the music is to be played. The striking of the notes in the
+proper order, in the proper time, and with the proper force, is the
+response.</p>
+
+<p>In typewriting, the stimulus is the copy, or the idea of what is to be
+written, and the response is the striking of the keys in the proper
+order. Speaking generally, we may say that the stimulus is the force or
+forces which excite the sense organs, and thereby, through the nervous
+system, bring about a muscular response.</p>
+
+<p>This is the ordinary type of action, but we have already indicated a
+different type. In speaking of typewriting we said the stimulus might be
+either the copy or ideas. One can write from copy or dictation, in which
+the stimulus is the written or spoken word, but one can also write as
+one thinks of what one wishes to write. The latter is known as
+<i>centrally initiated action</i>. That is to say, the stimulus comes from
+within, in the brain, rather than from without.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;52">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_52" id="Pg_52"></a>Let us explain this kind of stimulation a little further. Suppose I am
+sitting in my chair reading. I finish a chapter and look at my watch. I
+notice that it is three o&#8217;clock, and recall that I was to meet a friend
+at that time. The stimulus in this case is in the brain itself; it is
+the nervous activity which corresponds to the idea of meeting my friend.
+If we disregard the distinction between mind and body, we may say that
+the stimulus for a response may be an idea as well as a perception, the
+perception arising from the immediate stimulation of a sense organ, and
+the idea arising from an excitation of the brain not caused by an
+immediate stimulation of a sense organ.</p>
+
+<p><b>Instincts and Habits.</b> In human action it is evident that there is always
+a stimulus to start the nerve-impulse which causes the action. If we
+make inquiry concerning the connection between the stimulus and
+response; if we ask how it has come about that a particular stimulus
+causes a particular response rather than some other possible response,
+we find two kinds of causes. In one case the causal connection is
+established through heredity; in the other, the causal connection is
+established during a person&#8217;s lifetime through training.</p>
+
+<p>A chicken, for example, hides under some cover the first time it hears
+the cry of a hawk; it scratches the first time its feet touch sand or
+gravel; it pecks the first time it sees an insect near by. An infant
+closes its eyes the first time it feels cold wind blow upon them; it
+cries the first time it feels pain; it clasps its fingers together the
+first time a touch is felt inside them. The child&#8217;s nervous system is so
+organized that, in each of the cases named, the stimulus brings forth
+the particular, definite response. These acts do not have to be
+learned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;53">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_53" id="Pg_53"></a>But it is quite different in typewriting and piano playing. One <i>must
+learn</i> what keys on the piano to strike in response to the various
+situations of the notes as written in the music. One must also learn the
+keys on the typewriter before he can operate a typewriter. And in the
+case of other habits, we find, for example, that one does not respond by
+saying &ldquo;81&rdquo; for 9 times 9; nor &ldquo;13&rdquo; for 6 plus 7; nor &ldquo;8&rdquo; for 15 minus
+7; nor &ldquo;8&rdquo; for the square root of 64; nor &ldquo;144&rdquo; for the square of 12,
+etc., until one has learned in each case.</p>
+
+<p>Some connections between stimulus and response we have through
+inheritance; all others are built up and established in one&#8217;s lifetime,
+particularly in the first thirty years of one&#8217;s life.</p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of bonds between stimulus and response, but have not
+explained just what can be meant by a <i>bond</i>. In what sense are stimulus
+and response bound together? A bond is a matter of greater permeability,
+of less resistance in one direction through the nervous system than in
+other directions. Nerves are conductors for nerve-currents. When a
+nerve-current is started in a sense organ, it passes on through the path
+of least resistance.</p>
+
+<p>Now, some nerves are so organized and connected through inheritance as
+to offer small resistance. This forms a ready-made connection between
+stimulus and response. Muscular responses that are connected with their
+stimuli through inherited bonds, by inherited nerve structure, are
+called instincts. Those that are connected by acquired bonds are called
+habits. Sucking, crying, laughing, are instinctive acts. Adding,
+typewriting, piano playing, are habits.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>instinct</i> may be given to the act depending upon inherited
+structure, an inherited bond, or it may<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;54">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_54" id="Pg_54"></a> be given to the inherited bond
+itself. Similarly, the term <i>habit</i> may be given to an act that we have
+had to learn or to the bond which we ourselves establish between
+response and stimulus. In this book we shall usually mean by instinct an
+action depending upon inherited structure and by habit an act depending
+upon a bond established during lifetime. A good part of our early lives
+is spent in building up bonds between stimuli and responses. This
+establishing of bonds or connections is called <i>learning</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance of Inherited Tendencies.</b> Not all of our inherited tendencies
+are manifested immediately after birth, nor indeed in the earliest years
+of childhood, but appear at different stages of the child&#8217;s growth. It
+has already been said that a child, soon after birth, will close its
+eyelids when they are blown upon. The lids do not close at this time if
+one strikes at them, but they will do this later. The proper working of
+an instinct or an inherited tendency, then, depends upon the child&#8217;s
+having reached a certain state of development.</p>
+
+<p>The maturing of an instinct depends upon both age and use, that is to
+say, upon the age of the animal and the amount of use or exercise that
+the instinctive activity has had. The most important factor, however,
+seems to be age. While our knowledge of the dependence of an instinct
+upon the age of the animal is not quite so definite in the case of human
+instincts, the matter has been worked out in the case of chickens.</p>
+
+<p>The experiment was as follows: Chickens were taken at the time of
+hatching, and some allowed to peck from the first, while others were
+kept in a dark room and not allowed to peck. When the chickens were
+taken out of the dark room at the end of one, two, three, and four days,
+it was found that in a few hours they were peck<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;55">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_55" id="Pg_55"></a>ing as well as those
+that had been pecking from birth. It seems probable, if we may judge
+from our limited knowledge, that in the human child, activities are for
+the most part dependent upon the age of the child, and upon the state of
+development of the nervous system and of the organs of the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Significance of Inherited Tendencies.</b> Although human nature is very
+complex, although human action nearly always has some element of habit
+in it, nevertheless, inborn tendencies are throughout life powerful
+factors in determining action. This will at once be apparent if we
+consider how greatly we are influenced by anger, jealousy, love, fear,
+and competition. Now we do not have to learn to be jealous, to hate, to
+love, to be envious, to fight, or to fear. These are emotions common to
+all members of the human race, and their expression is an inborn
+tendency. Throughout life no other influences are so powerful in
+determining our action as are these. So, although most of our detailed
+actions in life are habits which we learn or acquire, the fundamental
+influences which decide the course of our action are inherited
+tendencies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classification of Instincts.</b> For convenience in treatment the instincts
+are grouped in classes. Those instincts most closely related to
+individual survival are called <i>individualistic</i> instincts. Those more
+closely related to the survival of the group are called <i>socialistic</i>.
+Those individualistic tendencies growing out of periodic changes of the
+environment may be called <i>environmental</i> instincts. Those closely
+related to human infancy, adapting and adjusting the child to the world
+in which he lives, may be called <i>adaptive</i>. There is still another
+group of inherited tendencies connected with sex and reproduction, which
+are not discussed in this book.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;56">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_56" id="Pg_56"></a>We shall give a brief discussion of the instincts falling under these
+various classes. It must be remembered, however, that the psychology of
+the instincts is indefinite and obscure. It is difficult to bring the
+instincts into the laboratory for accurate study. For our knowledge of
+the instincts we are dependent, for the most part, on general
+observation. We have had a few careful studies of the very earliest
+years of childhood. However, although from the theoretical point of view
+our knowledge of the instincts is incomplete, it is sufficient to be of
+considerable practical value.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Individualistic Instincts.</b> Man&#8217;s civilized life has covered but a
+short period of time, only a few hundred or a few thousand years. His
+pre-civilized life doubtless covered a period of millions of years. The
+inborn tendencies in us are such as were developed in the long period of
+savage life. During all of man&#8217;s life in the time before civilization,
+he was always in danger. He had many enemies, and most of these enemies
+had the advantage of him in strength and natural means of defense.
+Unaided by weapons, he could hardly hold his own against any of the
+beasts of prey. So there were developed in man by the process of natural
+selection many inherited responses which we group under the head of
+<i>fear</i> responses.</p>
+
+<p>Just what the various situations are that bring forth these responses
+has never been carefully worked out. But any situation that suddenly
+puts an individual in danger of losing his life brings about
+characteristic reactions. The most characteristic of the responses are
+shown in connection with circulation and respiration. Both of these
+processes are much interfered with. Sometimes the action is accelerated,
+at other times it is retarded, and in some cases the respiratory and
+cir<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;57">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_57" id="Pg_57"></a>culatory organs are almost paralyzed. Also the small muscles of the
+skin are made to contract, producing the sensation of the hair standing
+on end. Just what the original use of all these responses was it is
+difficult now to work out, but doubtless each served some useful
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Whether any particular situations now call forth inherited fear
+responses in us is not definitely established. But among lower animals
+there are certain definite and particular situations which do call forth
+fear responses. On the whole, the evidence rather favors the idea of
+definite fear situations among children. It seems that certain
+situations do invariably arouse fear responses. To be alone in the dark,
+to be in a strange place, to hear loud and sudden noises, to see large,
+strange animals coming in threatening manner, seem universally to call
+forth fear responses in children.</p>
+
+<p>However, the whole situation must always be considered. A situation in
+which the father or mother is present is quite different from one in
+which they are both absent. But it is certain that these and other fears
+are closely related to the age and development of the child. In the
+earlier years of infancy, certain fears are not present that are present
+later. And it can be demonstrated that the fears that do arise as
+infancy passes on are natural and inherited and not the result of
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>Few of the original causes of fear now exist. The original danger was
+from wild animals chiefly. Seldom are we now in such danger. But of
+course this has been the case for only a short time. Our bodies are the
+same sort of bodies that our ancestors had, therefore we are full of
+needless fears. During the early years of a child&#8217;s life, wise treatment
+causes most of the fear tendencies<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;58">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_58" id="Pg_58"></a> to disappear because of disuse. On
+the other hand, unwise treatment may accentuate and perpetuate them,
+causing much misery and unhappiness. Neither the home nor the school
+should play upon these ancestral fears. We should not try to get a child
+to be good by frightening him; nor should we often use fear of pain as
+an incentive to get a child to do his work.</p>
+
+<p>Man has always been afraid, but he has also always been a fighter. He
+has always had to fight for his life against the lower animals, and he
+has also fought his fellow man. The fighting response is connected with
+the emotions of anger, envy, and jealousy. A man is angered by anything
+that interferes with his life, with his purposes, with whatever he calls
+his own. We become angry if some one strikes our bodies, or attacks our
+beliefs, or the beliefs of our dear friends, particularly of our
+families. The typical responses connected with anger are such as faster
+heart-beat, irregular breathing, congestion of the blood in the face and
+head, tightening of the voluntary muscles, particularly a setting of the
+teeth and a clinching of the fists. These responses are preparatory to
+actual combat.</p>
+
+<p>Anger, envy, and jealousy, and the responses growing out of them, have
+always played a large part in the life of man. A great part of history
+is a record of the fights of nations, tribes, and individuals. If the
+records of wars and strifes, and the acts growing out of envy and
+jealousy and other similar emotions should be taken out of history,
+there would not be much left. Much of literature and art depict those
+actions of man which grew out of these individualistic aspects of his
+nature. Competition, which is an aspect of fighting, even to the present
+day, continues to be one of the main factors in business and in life
+generally. Briefly, fighting re<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;59">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_59" id="Pg_59"></a>sponses growing out of man&#8217;s selfishness
+are as old as man himself, and the inherited tendencies connected with
+them are among the strongest of our natures.</p>
+
+<p>In the training of children, one of the most difficult tasks is to help
+them to get control over the fighting instinct and other selfish
+tendencies. These tendencies are so deeply rooted in our natures that it
+is hard to get control of them. In fact, the control which we do get
+over them is always relative. The best we can hope to do is to get
+control over our fighting tendencies in ordinary circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful whether it would be good for us if the fighting spirit
+should disappear from the race. It puts vim and determination into the
+life of man. But our fighting should not be directed against our fellow
+man. The fighting spirit can be retained and directed against evil and
+other obstacles. We can learn to attack our tasks in a fighting spirit.
+But surely the time has come when we should cease fighting against our
+neighbors.</p>
+
+<p><b>Social Tendencies.</b> Over against our fighting tendencies we may set the
+socialistic tendencies. Co&ouml;perative and sympathetic actions grow out of
+original nature, just as truly as do the selfish acts. But the
+socialistic tendencies are not, in general, as strong as are the
+individualistic ones. What society needs is the strengthening of the
+socialistic tendencies by use, and a weakening of at least some of the
+individualistic tendencies, by control and disuse.</p>
+
+<p>Socialistic tendencies show themselves in gangs and clubs formed by
+children and adults. It is, therefore, a common practice now to speak of
+the &ldquo;gang&rdquo; instinct. Human beings are pleased and content when with
+other human beings and not content, not satisfied, when alone. Of course
+circumstances make a differ<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;60">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_60" id="Pg_60"></a>ence in the desires of men, but the general
+original tendency is as stated.</p>
+
+<p>The gang of the modern city has the following explanation: Boys like to
+be with other boys. Moreover, they like to be active; they want to be
+doing something. The city does not provide proper means for the desired
+activities, such as hunting, fishing, tramping, and boating. It does not
+provide experiences with animals, such as boys have on the farm. Much of
+the boy&#8217;s day is spent in school in a kind of work not at all like what
+he would do by choice. There is not much home life. Usually there is not
+the proper parental control. Seldom do the parents interest themselves
+in planning for the activities of their children. The result is that the
+boys come together on the streets and form a club or gang. Through this
+organization the boy&#8217;s nature expresses itself. Without proper guidance
+from older people, this expression takes a direction not good for the
+future character and usefulness of the boy.</p>
+
+<p>The social life of children should be provided for by the school in
+co&ouml;peration with the home. The school or the schoolroom should
+constitute a social unit. The teacher with the parents should plan the
+social life of the children. The actual work of the school can be very
+much socialized. There can be much more co&ouml;peration and much more group
+work can be done in the school than is the case at present. And many
+other social activities can be organized in connection with the school
+and its work. Excursions, pageants, shows, picnics, and all sorts of
+activities should be undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>The schoolhouse should be used by the community as the place for many of
+its social acts and performances. Almost every night, and throughout the
+summer as<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;61">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_61" id="Pg_61"></a> well as in the winter, the people, young and old, should meet
+at the school for some sort of social work or play. The Boy Scouts
+should be brought under the control of the school to help fulfill some
+of its main purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Environmental Instincts.</b> In this class there are at least two tendencies
+which seem to be part of the original nature of man; namely, the
+<i>wandering</i> and the <i>collecting</i> tendencies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wandering.</i> The long life that our ancestors lived free and
+unrestrained in the woods has left its effect within us. One of the
+greatest achievements of civilization has been to overcome the inherited
+tendencies to roam and wander, to the extent that for the most part we
+live out our lives in one home, in one family, doing often but one kind
+of work all our lives. Originally, man had much more freedom to come and
+go and do whatever he wished.</p>
+
+<p>Truancies and runaways are the result of original tendencies and desires
+expressing themselves in spite of training, perhaps sometimes because of
+the lack of training. In childhood and youth these original tendencies
+should, to some extent, be satisfied in legitimate ways. Excursions and
+picnics can be planned both for work and for play. If the child&#8217;s
+desires and needs can be satisfied in legitimate ways, then he will not
+have to satisfy them illegitimately. The teaching itself can be done
+better by following, to some extent, the lead of the child&#8217;s nature.
+Much early education consists in learning the world. Now, most of the
+world is out of doors and the child must go out to find it. The teacher
+should make use of the natural desires of the children to wander and
+explore, as a means of educating them. The school work should be of such
+a nature that much outdoor work will need to be done.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;62">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_62" id="Pg_62"></a><i>Collecting.</i> It is in the nature of children to seize and, if possible,
+carry away whatever attracts attention. This tendency is the basis of
+what is called the collecting instinct. If one will take a walk with a
+child, one can observe the operation of the collecting tendency,
+particularly if the walk is in the fields and woods. The child will be
+observed to take leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, pebbles, and in
+fact everything that is loose or can be gotten loose. They are taken at
+first aimlessly, merely because they attract attention. The original,
+natural response of the child toward that which attracts attention is
+usually to get it, get possession of it and take it along. It is easy to
+see why such tendencies were developed in man. In his savage state it
+was highly useful for him to do this. He must always have been on the
+lookout for things which could be used as food or as weapons. He had to
+do this to live. But one need not take a child to the woods to observe
+this tendency. One can go to the stores. Till a child is trained not to
+do it, he seizes and takes whatever attracts attention.</p>
+
+<p>Just as the wandering tendencies can be used for the benefit of the
+child, so can the collecting tendencies. Not only should the children
+make expeditions to learn of the world, but specimens should be
+collected so that they can be used to form a museum at the school which
+will represent the surrounding locality. Geological, geographical,
+botanical, and zo&ouml;logical specimens should be collected. The children
+will learn much while making the collections, and much from the
+collections after they are made.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Education could profit greatly by making large demands upon the
+collecting instinct. It seems clear that in their childhood is the time
+when children should<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;63">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_63" id="Pg_63"></a> be sent forth to the fields and woods, to study
+what they find there and to gather specimens. The children can form
+naturalists&#8217; clubs for the purpose of studying the natural environment.
+Such study should embrace rocks, soils, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits,
+and specimens of the wood of the various trees. Birds and insects can be
+studied and collected. The work of such a club would have a twofold
+value. (1) The study and collecting acquaint the child with his natural
+environment, and in doing it, afford a sphere for the activity of many
+aspects of his nature. They take him out of doors and give an
+opportunity for exploring every nook and corner of the natural
+environment. The collecting can often be done in such a way as to appeal
+to the group instincts. For example, the club could hold meetings for
+exhibiting and studying the specimens, and sometimes the actual
+collecting could be done in groups. (2) The specimens collected should
+be put into the school museum, and the aim of this museum should be to
+represent completely the local environment, the natural and physical
+environment, and also the industrial, civil, and social environment. The
+museum should be completely illustrative of the child&#8217;s natural,
+physical, and social surroundings. The museum would therefore be
+educative in its making, and when it is made, it would have immense
+value to the community, not only to the children but to all the people.
+In this museum, of course, should be found the minerals, rocks, soils,
+insects,&mdash;particularly those of economic importance,&mdash;birds, and also
+specimens of the wild animals of the locality. If proper appeal is made
+to the natural desire of the children, this instinct would soon be made
+of service in producing a very valuable collection. The school museum in
+which these specimens are placed<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;64">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_64" id="Pg_64"></a> should also include other classes of
+specimens. There should be specimens showing industrial evolution, the
+stages of manufacture of raw material, specimens of local historical
+interest, pictures, documents, books. The museum should be made of such
+a nature that parents would go there nearly as often as the children.
+The school should be for the instruction of all the people of the
+community. It should be the experiment station, the library, the
+debating club, the art gallery for the whole community.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a></span> Pyle&#8217;s <i>Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, pp.&nbsp;84&ndash;86.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Imitation.</b> One of the fundamental original traits of human nature is the
+tendency to imitate. Imitation is not instinctive in the strict meaning
+of the word. Seeing a certain act performed does not, apart from
+training and experience, serve as a stimulus to make a child perform a
+similar act. Hearing a certain sound does not serve as a stimulus for
+the production of the same sound. Nevertheless, there is in the human
+child a tendency or desire to do what it sees others doing.</p>
+
+<p>A few hours spent in observing children ought to convince any one of the
+universality and of the strength of this tendency. As our experience
+becomes organized, the idea of an act usually serves as the stimulus to
+call it forth. However, this is not because the idea of an act, of
+necessity, always produces the act. It is merely a matter of the
+stimulus and the response <i>becoming connected in that way</i> as the result
+of experience. Our meaning is that an act can be touched off or prompted
+by any stimulus. Our nervous organization makes this possible. The
+particular stimulus that calls forth a particular response depends upon
+how we have been trained, how we have learned. In most cases our<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;65">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_65" id="Pg_65"></a> acts
+are coupled up with the ideas of the acts. We learn them that way.</p>
+
+<p>In early life particularly, the connection between stimulus and response
+is very close. When a child gets the idea of an act, he immediately
+performs the act, if he knows how. Now, seeing another perform an act
+brings the act clearly into the child&#8217;s consciousness, and he proceeds
+to perform it. But the act must be one which the child already knows how
+to perform, otherwise his performance of it will be faulty and
+incomplete. If he has never performed the particular act, seeing another
+perform the act sets him to trying to do it and he may soon learn it. If
+he successfully performs an act when he sees it done by another, the act
+must be one which he already knows how to perform, and for whose
+performance the idea has already served as a stimulus. Now if imitation
+were instinctive in the strict sense, one could perform the act for the
+first time merely from seeing another do it, without any previous
+experience or learning. It is doubtful whether there are any such
+inherited connections. It is, however, true that human beings are of
+such a nature that, particularly in early life, they <i>like</i> to do and
+<i>want</i> to do what they see others doing. This is one of the most
+important aspects of human nature, as we shall see.</p>
+
+<p><b>Function and Importance of Imitation in Life.</b> Natural selection has
+developed few aspects of human nature so important for survival as the
+tendency to imitate, for this tendency quickly leads to a successful
+adjustment of the child to the world in which he lives. Adult men and
+women are successfully adjusted to their environment. Their adjustment
+might be better, but it is good enough to keep them alive for a time.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;66">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_66" id="Pg_66"></a>
+Now, if children do as they see their parents doing, they will reach a
+satisfactory adjustment. We may, therefore, say that the tendency to
+imitate serves to adjust the child to his environment. It is for this
+reason that imitation has been called an <i>adaptive instinct</i>. It would
+perhaps be better to say merely that the <i>tendency</i> to imitate is part
+of the <i>original equipment of man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Imitation is distinctively a human trait. While it occurs in lower
+animals it is probably not an important factor in adjusting them to
+their environment. But in the human race it is one of the chief factors
+in adjustment to environment. Imitation is one of the main factors in
+education. Usually the quickest way to teach a child to do a thing is to
+show him how.</p>
+
+<p>Through imitation we acquire our language, manners, and customs. Ideals,
+beliefs, prejudices, attitudes, we take on through imitation. The
+tendency to imitate others coupled with the desire to be thought well of
+by others is one of the most powerful factors in producing conformity.
+They are the whips which keep us within the bounds of custom and
+conventionality. The tendency to imitate is so strong that its results
+are almost as certain as are those of inherited tendencies. It is almost
+as certain that a child will be like his parents in speech, manners,
+customs, superstitions, etc., as it is that he will be like them in form
+of body. He not only walks and talks and acts like his parents, but he
+thinks as they do. We, therefore, have the term <i>social heredity</i>,
+meaning the taking on of all sorts of social habits and ideals through
+imitation.</p>
+
+<p>The part that imitation plays in the education of a child may be learned
+by going to a country home and<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;67">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_67" id="Pg_67"></a> noting how the boy learns to do all the
+many things about the farm by imitating his father, and how the girl
+learns to do all the housework by imitating her mother. Imitation is the
+basis of much of the play of children, in that their play consists in
+large part of doing what they see older people doing. This imitative
+play gives them skill and is a large factor in preparing for the work of
+life.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dramatization.</b> Dramatization is an aspect of imitation, and is a means
+of making ideas more real than they would otherwise be. There is nothing
+that leads us so close to reality as action. We never completely know an
+act till we have done it. Dramatization is a matter of carrying an idea
+out into action. Ideas give to action its greatest fullness of meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Dramatic representation should, therefore, have a prominent place in the
+schools, particularly in the lower grades. If the child is allowed to
+mimic the characters in the reading lesson, the meaning of the lesson
+becomes fuller. Later on in the school course, dramatic representation
+of the characters in literature and history is a means of getting a
+better conception of these characters. In geography, the study of the
+manners and customs and occupations of foreign peoples can be much
+facilitated through dramatic representation. Children naturally have the
+dramatic tendency; it is one aspect of the tendency to imitate. We have
+only to encourage it and make use of it throughout the school course.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imitation in Ideals.</b> Imitation is of importance not only in acquiring
+the actions of life but also in getting our ideals. Habits of thinking
+are no less an aspect of our lives than are habits of acting. Our
+attitudes, our prejudices, our beliefs, our moral, religious, and
+political<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;68">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_68" id="Pg_68"></a> ideals are in large measure copied from people about us. The
+family and social atmosphere in which one lives is a mold in which one&#8217;s
+mind is formed and shaped. We cannot escape the influence of this
+atmosphere if we would. One takes on a belief that his father has, one
+clings to this belief and interprets the world in the light of it. This
+belief becomes a part of one&#8217;s nature. It is a mental habit, a way of
+looking at the world. It is as much a part of one as red hair or big
+feet or a crooked nose. Probably no other influence has so much to do
+with making us what we are as social beings as the influence of
+imitation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Play.</b> Play is usually considered to be a part of the original equipment
+of man. It is essentially an expression of the ripening instincts of
+children, and not a specific instinct itself. It is rather a sort of
+make-believe activity of all the instincts. Kittens and dogs may be seen
+in play to mimic fighting. They bite and chew each other as in real
+fighting, but still they are not fighting.</p>
+
+<p>As the structures and organs of children mature, they demand activity.
+This early activity is called play. It has several characteristics. The
+main one is that it is pleasurable. Play activity is pleasurable in
+itself. We do not play that we may get something else which we like, as
+is the case with the activity which we call work. Play is an end in
+itself. It is not a means to get something else which is intrinsically
+valuable.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief values of play comes from its activity aspect. We are
+essentially motor beings. We grow and develop only through exercise. In
+early life we do not have to exert ourselves to get a living. Play is
+nature&#8217;s means of giving our organs the exercise which they must have to
+bring them to maturity. Play<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;69">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_69" id="Pg_69"></a> is an expression of the universal tendency
+to action in early life. Without play, the child would not develop,
+would not become a normal human being.</p>
+
+<p>All day long the child is ceaselessly active. The value of this activity
+can hardly be overestimated. It not only leads to healthy growth, but is
+a means through which the child learns himself and the world. Everything
+that the child sees excites him to react to it or upon it. He gets
+possession of it. He bites it. He pounds it. He throws it. In this way
+he learns the properties of things and the characteristics of forces.
+Through play and imitation, in a very few years the child comes to a
+successful adjustment in his world.</p>
+
+<p>Play and imitation are the great avenues of activity in early life. Even
+in later life, we seldom accomplish anything great or worth while until
+the thing becomes play to us, until we throw our whole being into it as
+we do in play, until it is an expression of ourselves as play is in our
+childhood. The proper use of play gives us the solution of many of the
+problems of early education.</p>
+
+<p>Play has two functions in the school: (1) Motor play is necessary to
+growth, development, and health. The constant activity of the child is
+what brings about healthy growth.</p>
+
+<p>In the country it is not difficult for children to get plenty of the
+proper kind of exercise, but in the larger cities it is difficult.
+Nevertheless, opportunity for play should be provided for every child,
+no matter what the trouble or expense, for without play children cannot
+become normal human beings. Everywhere parents and teachers should plan
+for the play life of the children.</p>
+
+<p>(2) In the primary grades play can have a large place in the actual work
+of the school. The early work of education is to a large extent getting
+the tools of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;70">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_70" id="Pg_70"></a> knowledge and thought and work&mdash;reading, spelling,
+writing, correct speech, correct writing, the elementary processes of
+arithmetic, etc. In many ways play can be used in acquiring these tools.</p>
+
+<p>One aspect of play particularly should have a large place in education;
+namely, the manipulative tendencies of children. This is essentially
+play. Children wish to handle and manipulate everything that attracts
+their attention. They wish to tear it to pieces and to put it together.
+This is nature&#8217;s way of teaching, and by it children learn the
+properties and structures of things. They thereby learn what things do
+and what can be done with them. Teachers and parents should foster these
+manipulative tendencies and use them for the child&#8217;s good. These
+tendencies are an aspect of curiosity. We want to know. We are unhappy
+as long as a thing is before us which we do not understand, which has
+some mystery about it. Nature has developed these tendencies in us, for
+without a knowledge of our surroundings we could not live. The child
+therefore has in his nature the basis of his education. We have but to
+know this nature and wisely use and manipulate it to achieve the child&#8217;s
+education.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Instincts are inherited tendencies to specific actions.
+They fall under the heads: individualistic, socialistic,
+environmental, adaptive, sexual or mating instincts. These inherited
+tendencies are to a large extent the foundation on which we build
+education. The educational problem is to control and guide them,
+suppressing some, fostering others. In everything we undertake for a
+child we must take into account these instincts.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Make a study of the instincts of several animals, such as dogs, cats,
+chickens. Make a list showing the stimuli and the inherited responses.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;71">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_71" id="Pg_71"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of the instincts of a baby. See how many inherited
+responses you can observe. The simpler inherited responses are known as
+<i>reflexes</i>. The closing of the eyelids mentioned in the text is an
+example. How many such reflexes can you find in a child?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a special study of the fears of very young children. How many
+definite situations can you find which excite fear responses in all
+children? Each member of the class can make a list of his own fears. It
+may then be seen whether any fears are common to all members of the
+class and whether there are any sex differences.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Similarly, make a study of anger and fighting. What situations
+invariably arouse the fighting response? In what definite, inherited
+ways is anger shown? Do your studies and observations convince you that
+the fighting instinct and other inherited responses concerned with
+individual survival are among the strongest of inherited tendencies? Can
+the fighting instinct be eliminated from the human race? Is it desirable
+to eliminate it?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of children&#8217;s collections. Take one of the grades and
+find what collections the children have made. What different objects are
+collected?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Outline a plan for using the collecting instinct in various school
+studies.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>With the help of the principal of the school make a study of some
+specific cases of truancy. What does your finding show?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of play by watching children of various ages play. Make
+a list of the games that are universal for infancy, those for childhood,
+and those for youth. (Consult Johnson&#8217;s <i>Plays and Games</i>.)</p></li>
+
+<li><p>What are the two main functions of play in education? Why should we
+play after we are mature?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Study imitation in very young children. Do this by watching the
+spontaneous play of children under six. What evidences of imitation do
+you find?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Outline the things we learn by imitation. What is your opinion of
+the place which imitation has in our education?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of imitation as a factor in the lives of grown people.
+Consider styles, fashions, manners, customs, beliefs, prejudices,
+religious ideas, etc.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>On the whole, is imitation a good thing or a bad thing?<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;72">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_72" id="Pg_72"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a plan of the various ways in which dramatization can be
+profitably used in the schools.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a study of your own ideals. What ideals do you have? Where did
+you get them? What ideals did you get from your parents? What from
+books? What from teachers? What from friends?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Show that throughout life inherited tendencies are the fundamental
+bases from which our actions proceed, on which our lives are erected.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin</span> and <span class="smcap">Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapters&nbsp;III, VIII, IX, and X.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Kirkpatrick</span>: <i>Fundamentals of Child Study</i>, Chapters&nbsp;IV&ndash;XIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, pp.&nbsp;184&ndash;187.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;X.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;IV&ndash;IX.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;VIII.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;73">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_73" id="Pg_73"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;V<br />
+FEELING AND ATTENTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>The Feelings.</b> Related to the instincts on one side and to habits on the
+other are the feelings. In Chapter <a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a> we discussed sensation, and in
+the preceding chapter, the instincts, but when we have described an act
+in terms of instinct and sensation, we have not told all the facts.</p>
+
+<p>For example, when a child sees a pretty red ball of yarn, he reaches out
+to get it, then puts it into his mouth, or unwinds it, and plays with it
+in various ways. It is all a matter of sensation and instinctive
+responses. The perception of the ball&mdash;seeing the ball&mdash;brings about the
+instinctive reaching out, grasping the ball, and bringing it to the
+mouth. But to complete our account, we must say that the child is
+<i>pleased</i>. We note a change in his facial expression. His eyes gleam
+with pleasure. His face is all smiles, showing pleasant contentment.
+Therefore we must say that the child not only sees, not only acts, but
+the seeing and acting are <i>pleasant</i>. The child continues to look, he
+continues to act, because the looking and acting bring joy.</p>
+
+<p>This is typical of situations that bring pleasure. We want them
+continued; we act in a way to make them continue. <i>We go out after the
+pleasure-giving thing.</i></p>
+
+<p>But let us consider a different kind of situation. A<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;74">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_74" id="Pg_74"></a> child sees on the
+hearth a glowing coal. It instinctively reaches out and grasps it,
+starts to draw the coal toward it, but instinctively drops it. This is
+not, however, the whole story. Instead of the situation being pleasant,
+it is decidedly unpleasant. The child fairly howls with pain. His face,
+instead of being wreathed in smiles, is covered with tears. He did not
+hold on to the coal. He did not try to continue the situation. On the
+contrary, he dropped the coal, and withdrew the hand. The body
+contracted and shrank away from the situation.</p>
+
+<p>These two cases illustrate the two simple feelings, pleasantness and
+unpleasantness. Most situations in life are either pleasant or
+unpleasant. Situations may sometimes be neutral; that is, may arouse
+neither the feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. But usually a
+conscious state is either pleasant or unpleasant. A situation brings us
+life, joy, happiness. We want it continued and act in a way to bring
+about its continuance. Or the situation tends to take away our life,
+brings pain, sorrow, grief, and we want it discontinued, and act in a
+way to discontinue it.</p>
+
+<p>These two simple forms of feeling perhaps arose in the beginning in
+connection with the act of taking food. It is known that if a drop of
+acid touches an am&oelig;ba, the animal shrinks, contracts, and tries to
+withdraw from the death-bringing acid. On the other hand, if a particle
+of a substance that is suitable for food touches the animal, it takes
+the particle within itself. The particle is life-giving and brings
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Emotions.</b> Pleasure and displeasure are the simple feelings. Most
+situations in life bring about very complex feeling states known as
+<i>emotions</i>. The emotions are made up of pleasure or displeasure mixed<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;75">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_75" id="Pg_75"></a>
+or compounded with the sensations from the bodily reactions.</p>
+
+<p>The circulatory system, the respiratory system, and nearly all the
+involuntary organs of the body form a great sounding board which
+instantly responds in various ways to the situations of life. When the
+youth sees the pretty maiden and when he touches her hand, his heart
+pumps away at a great rate, his cheeks become flushed, his breathing is
+paralyzed, his voice trembles. He experiences the emotion of love. The
+state is complex indeed. There is pleasantness, of course, but there is
+in addition the feeling of all the bodily reactions.</p>
+
+<p>When the mother sees her dead child lying in its casket, her head falls
+over on her breast, her eyes fill with tears, her shoulders droop, her
+chest contracts, she sobs, her breathing is spasmodic. Nearly every
+organ of the body is affected in one way or another. The state is
+<i>unpleasant</i>, but there is also the feeling of the manifold bodily
+reactions.</p>
+
+<p>So it is always. The biologically important situations in life bring
+about, through hereditary connections in the nervous system, certain
+typical reactions. These reactions are largely the same for the same
+type of situation, and they give the particular coloring to each
+emotion. It is evident that the emotions are closely related to the
+instincts. The reflexes that take place in emotions are of the same
+nature as the instincts. Each instinctive act has its characteristic
+emotion. There are fear instincts and fear emotions. Fear is unpleasant.
+In addition to its unpleasantness there is a multitude of sensations
+that come from the body. The hair stands on end, the heart throbs, the
+circulation is hastened, breathing is interrupted, the muscles are<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;76">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_76" id="Pg_76"></a>
+tense. This peculiar mass of sensations, blended with the
+unpleasantness, gives the characteristic emotion of fear. But we need
+not go into an analysis of the various emotions of love, hate, envy,
+grief, jealousy, etc. The reader can do this for himself.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a></span> See James&#8217; <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XXIV.</p></div>
+
+<p>Nearly every organ of the body plays its part in the emotions: the
+digestive organs, the liver, the kidneys, the throat and mouth, the
+salivary glands, the eyes and tear glands, the skin muscles, the facial
+muscles, etc. And every emotion is made up of pleasantness or
+unpleasantness and the sensations produced by some combination of bodily
+reactions.</p>
+
+<p>It is well for us to remember the part that bodily conditions and states
+play in the emotional life. The emotional state of a man depends upon
+whether he has had his dinner or is hungry, whether the liver is working
+normally, and upon the condition of the various secreting and excreting
+organs and glands. In a word, it is evident that our emotions fall
+within a world of cause and effect. <i>Our feeling states are caused.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Importance in Life.</b> Our feelings and emotions are the fountains from
+which nearly all our volitional actions flow. Feeling is the
+<i>mainspring</i> of life. Nearly everything we do is prompted by love, or
+hate, or fear, or jealousy, or rivalry, or anger, or grief. If the
+feelings have such close relation to action, then the schools must take
+them into account, for by education we seek to control action. If the
+feelings control action, then we must try to control the feelings. We
+must get the child into a right state of mind toward the school, toward
+his teacher, and toward his work. The child must like the school, like
+the teacher, and <i>want</i> to learn.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, we must create the right state of mind in<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;77">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_77" id="Pg_77"></a> connection with
+each study, each task. The child must come to feel the need and
+importance of each individual task as well as of each subject. The task
+is then desirable, it is to be sought for and worked at, it is important
+for life.</p>
+
+<p>This is merely enlisting the child&#8217;s nature in the interest of his
+education. For motive, we must always look to the child&#8217;s nature. The
+two great forces which pull and drive are <i>pleasure</i> and <i>pain</i>. Nature
+has no other methods. Formerly the school used pain as its motive almost
+exclusively. The child did his tasks to escape pain. For motive we now
+use more often the positive influences which give pleasure, which pull
+instead of drive. What will one not do <i>for</i> the <i>loved</i> one? What will
+one not do <i>to</i> the <i>hated</i> one? The child who does not love his teacher
+gets little good from school while under that teacher. Moreover, school
+work is often a failure because it is so unreal, has so little relation
+to an actual world, and seems foreign to any real needs of the child. No
+one is going to work very hard unless the work is prompted by desire.
+Our desires come from our needs. Therefore, if we are to enlist the
+child&#8217;s feelings in the service of his education, we must make the
+school work vital and relate it, if possible, to the actual needs of the
+child.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten, however, that we must build up permanent
+attitudes of respect for authority, obedience, and reverence for the
+important things of life. Neither must it be forgotten that we can
+create needs in the child. If in the education of the child we follow
+only such needs as he has, we will make a fine savage of him but nothing
+else. It is the business of the school to create in the child the right
+kind of needs. As was pointed out in our study of the instincts, we
+must<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;78">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_78" id="Pg_78"></a> make the child over again into what he ought to be. But this
+cannot be a sudden process. One cannot arouse enthusiasm in a
+six-year-old child over the beauties of higher mathematics. It takes ten
+or fifteen years to do that, and it must be done little by little.</p>
+
+<p><b>Control of the Emotions.</b> Without training, we remain at the mercy of our
+baser emotions. The child must be trained to control himself. Here is
+where habit comes in to modify primitive action. The child can be
+trained to inhibit or prevent the reactions that arise in hatred, envy,
+jealousy, anger, etc. For a fuller discussion of this point we must wait
+till we come to the discussion of habit and moral training.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mood and Temperament.</b> A mood is a somewhat extended emotional state
+continuing for hours or days. It is due to a continuance of the factors
+which cause it. The state of the liver and digestive organs may throw
+one for days into a cross and ugly mood. When the body becomes normal,
+the mood changes or disappears. Similarly, one may for hours or days be
+overjoyed, or depressed, or morose, or melancholy. Parents and teachers
+should look well to the matter of creating and establishing continuous
+and permanent states of feeling that are favorable to work and
+development.</p>
+
+<p>Some people are permanently optimistic, others pessimistic. Some are
+always joyful, others as constantly see only the dark side of life. Some
+are always serious and solemn, others always gay, even giddy. These
+permanent emotional attitudes constitute temperament, and are due to
+fundamental differences within the body that are in some cases
+hereditary. Crossness and moroseness, for example, may be due to a
+dyspeptic condition and a chronically bad liver. The happy dispositions
+belong to bodies whose organs are func<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;79">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_79" id="Pg_79"></a>tioning properly, in which
+assimilation is good&mdash;all the parts of the body doing their proper work.</p>
+
+<p>Poor eyes which are under a constant strain, through the reflex effects
+upon various organs of the body, are likely to develop a permanently
+cross and irritable disposition. Through the close sympathetic relation
+of the various organs, anything affecting one organ and interfering with
+its proper action is likely to affect many other organs and profoundly
+influence the emotional states of the body. In growing children
+particularly, there are many influences which affect their emotions,
+things of which we seldom think, such as the condition of vision and
+hearing, the condition of the teeth, nose, and throat, and the condition
+of all the important vital organs of the body. When a child&#8217;s
+disposition is not what we think it ought to be, we should try to find
+out the causes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Training the Emotions.</b> The emotions are subject to training. The child
+can be taught control. Moreover, he can be taught to appreciate and
+enjoy higher things than mere animal pleasure; namely, art, literature,
+nature, truth. The child thereby becomes a spiritual being instead of a
+mere pig. The ideal of the school should be to develop men and women
+whose baser passions are under control, who are calm, self-controlled,
+and self-directed, and who get their greatest pleasure from the finer
+and higher things of life, such as the various forms of music, the songs
+of birds, the beauties and intricate workings of nature.</p>
+
+<p>This is a wonderful world and a wonderful life, but the child may go
+through the world without seeing it, and live his life without knowing
+what it is to live. His eyes must be opened, he must be trained to see
+and to feel. It is not the place here to tell how this is to be<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;80">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_80" id="Pg_80"></a> done.
+This is not a book on methods of teaching. We can only indicate here
+that the business of the school is not merely to teach people how to
+make a living, but to teach them how to enjoy the living. There are many
+avenues from which we get the higher forms of pleasure. There are really
+many different worlds which we may experience: the world of animals, the
+world of plants, the mechanical world, the chemical world, the world of
+literature and of art, the world of music. It is the duty of the schools
+to open up these worlds to the children, and make them so many
+possibilities of joy and happiness.</p>
+
+<p>The emotions and feelings, then, are not lawless and causeless, but are
+a part of a world of law and order. They are themselves caused and
+therefore subject to control and modification.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention.</b> Attention, too, is related to inherited tendencies on the one
+side and to habits on the other. If one is walking in the woods and
+catches a glimpse of something moving in the trees, the eyes
+<i>instinctively</i> turn so that the person can get a better view of the
+object. If one hears a sudden sound, the head is instinctively turned so
+that the person can hear better. One stops, the body is held still and
+rigid, breathing is slow and controlled&mdash;all to favor better hearing.</p>
+
+<p>The various acts of attention are reflex and instinctive. But what is
+attention? By attention we mean <i>sensory clearness</i>. When we say we are
+attentive to a thing or subject, we mean that perceptions or ideas of
+that thing or subject are <i>clear</i> as compared to other perceptions and
+ideas that are in consciousness at the same time. The contents of one&#8217;s
+consciousness, the perceptions and ideas that constitute one&#8217;s mind at
+any one moment are always arranged in an <i>attentive</i> pattern,<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;81">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_81" id="Pg_81"></a> some
+being clear, others unclear. The pattern constantly changes and shifts.
+What is now clear and in the focus of consciousness, presently is
+unclear and may in a moment disappear from consciousness altogether,
+while other perceptions or ideas take its place.</p>
+
+<p>The first question that arises in connection with attention is, What are
+the causes of attention? The first group of causes are hereditary and
+instinctive. The child attends to loud things, bright things, moving
+things, etc. But as we grow older, the basis of attention becomes more
+and more <i>habit</i>. An illustration will make this clear. I once spent a
+day at a great exposition with a machinist. He was constantly attending
+to things mechanical, when I would not even see them. He had spent many
+years working with machinery, and as a result, things mechanical at once
+attracted him. Similarly, if a man and a woman walk along a street
+together and look in at the shop windows, the woman sees only hats,
+dresses, ribbons, and other finery, while the man sees only cigars,
+pipes, and automobile supplies. Every day we live, we are building up
+habits of attending to certain types of things. What repeatedly comes
+into our experience, easily attracts our attention to the exclusion of
+other things.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Function of Attention.</b> Attention is the unifying aspect of
+consciousness. There are always many things in consciousness, and we
+cannot respond to all at once. The part of consciousness that is clear
+and focal brings about action. The things to which we attend are the
+things that count.</p>
+
+<p>In later chapters we shall learn that in habit-formation, attention is
+an important <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a comma instead of a full-stop">factor.</ins> We must attend to the acts we are trying to
+make habitual. In getting knowledge, we must attend to what we are
+trying<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;82">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_82" id="Pg_82"></a> to learn. In committing to memory, we must attend to the ideas
+that we are trying to fix and make permanent. In thinking and reasoning,
+those ideas become associated together that are together in attention.</p>
+
+<p>Attention is therefore the controlling aspect of consciousness. It is
+the basis of what we call <i>will</i>. The ideas that are clear and focal and
+that persist in consciousness are the ideas that control our action.
+When one says he has made up his mind, he has made a choice; that merely
+means that a certain group of ideas persist in consciousness to the
+exclusion of others. These are the ideas which ultimately produce
+action. And it is our past experience that determines what ideas will
+become focal and persist.</p>
+
+<p><b>Training the Attention.</b> There are two aspects of the training of
+attention. (1) We can learn to hold ourselves to a task. When we sit
+down to a table to study, there may be many things that tend to call us
+away. There lies a magazine which we might read, there is a play at the
+theater, there are noises outside, there is a friend calling across the
+street. But we must study. We have set ourselves to a task and we must
+hold fast to our purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The young child cannot do this. He must be trained to do it. The
+instruments used to train him are pleasure and pain, rewards and
+punishments that come from parents. Gradually, slowly, the child gains
+control over himself. No one ever amounts to anything till he can hold
+himself to a task, to a fixed purpose. One must learn to form plans
+extending over weeks, months, and years, and to hold unflinchingly to
+them, just as one must hold himself to his study table and allow nothing
+to distract or to interfere. No training a child can receive is more
+important than this, for it<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;83">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_83" id="Pg_83"></a> gives him control over his life, it gives
+him control over the ideas that are to become focal and determine
+action. It is for this reason that we call such training a training of
+attention. It might perhaps better be called a training of the will. But
+the will is only the attentive consciousness. The idea that is clear,
+that holds its own in consciousness, is the idea that produces action.
+When we say that we <i>will</i> to do a certain thing, all we can mean is
+that the <i>idea of this act</i> is clearest and holds its focal place in
+consciousness to the exclusion of other ideas. It therefore goes over
+into action.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The training just discussed may be called a general training of
+attention giving us a general power and control over our lives, but
+there is another type of training which is specific. As with the
+machinist mentioned above, so with all of us; we attend to the type of
+thing that we have formed a habit of attending to. Continued experience
+in a certain field makes it more and more easy to attend to things in
+that field. One can take a certain subject and work at it day after day,
+year after year. By and by, the whole world takes on the aspect of this
+chosen subject. The entomologist sees bugs everywhere, the botanist sees
+only plants, the mechanic sees only machines, the preacher sees only the
+moral and religious aspects of action, the doctor sees only disease, the
+mathematician sees always the quantitative aspect of things. Ideas and
+perceptions related to one&#8217;s chosen work go at once and readily to the
+focus of consciousness; other things escape notice.</p>
+
+<p>It is for this reason that we become &ldquo;crankier&rdquo; every year that we live.
+We are attending to only one aspect of the world. While this blinds us
+to other aspects of the world, it brings mastery in our individual<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;84">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_84" id="Pg_84"></a>
+fields. We can, then, by training and practice, get a general control
+over attention, and by working in a certain field or kind of work, we
+make it easy to attend to things in that field or work. This to an
+extent gives us control of our lives, of our destiny.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest.</b> The essential elements of interest are attention and feeling.
+When a person is very attentive to a subject and gets pleasure from
+experience in that subject, we commonly say that he is <i>interested</i> in
+that subject.</p>
+
+<p>Since the importance of attention and feeling in learning has already
+been shown and will be further developed in the chapters which follow in
+connection with the subjects of habit, memory, and thinking, little more
+need be said here.</p>
+
+<p>The key to all forms of learning is <i>attention</i>. The key to attention is
+<i>feeling</i>. Feeling depends upon the nature of the child, inherited and
+acquired. In our search for the means of arousing interest, we look
+first to the original nature of the child, to the instincts and the
+emotions. We look next to the acquired nature, the habits, the ideals,
+the various needs that have grown up in the individual&#8217;s life.
+Educational writers have overemphasized the original nature of the child
+as a basis of interest and have not paid enough attention to acquired
+nature. We should not ask so much what a child&#8217;s needs are, but what
+they <i>ought</i> to be. Needs can be created. The child&#8217;s nature to some
+extent can be changed. The problem of arousing interest is therefore one
+of finding in the child&#8217;s nature a basis for attention and pleasure. If
+the basis is not to be found there, then it must be built up. How this
+can be done, how human nature can be changed, is to some extent the main
+problem of psychology. Every chapter in<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;85">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_85" id="Pg_85"></a> this book, it is hoped, will be
+found to throw some light on the problem.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> The two elementary feeling states are pleasantness and
+unpleasantness. The emotions are complex mental states composed of
+feeling and the sensations from bodily reactions to the situations.
+Feeling and emotion are the motive forces of life, at the bottom of
+all important actions. The bodily reactions of emotions are reflex
+and instinctive. Attention is a matter of the relative clearness of
+the contents of consciousness. The function of attention is to unify
+thought and action. It is the important factor in all learning and
+thinking, for it is only the attentive part of consciousness that is
+effective.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Make out a complete list of the more important emotions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Indicate the characteristic expression of each emotion in your list.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Can you have an emotion without its characteristic expression? If,
+for example, when a situation arises which ordinarily arouses anger in
+you, you inhibit all the usual motor accompaniments of anger, are you
+really angry?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Are the expressions of the same emotion the same for all people?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try to analyze some of your emotional states: anger, or fear, or
+grief. Can you detect the sensations that come from the bodily
+reactions?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try to induce an emotional state by producing its characteristic
+reactions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try to change an emotional state to an opposite emotion; for example,
+grief to joy.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try to control and change emotional states in children.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Name some sensations that for you are always pleasant, others that
+are always unpleasant&mdash;colors, sounds, tastes, odors, temperatures.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Confirm by observation the statement of the text as to the
+importance of emotions in all the important actions of life.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>To what extent do you have control of your emotional states? What
+have you observed about differences in expression of deep emotions by
+different people? In case of death in the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;86">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_86" id="Pg_86"></a> family, some people wail and
+moan and express their grief in the most extreme manner, while others do
+not utter a sound and show great control. Why the difference?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make an introspective study of your conscious states to note the
+difference in clearness of the different processes that are going on in
+consciousness. Do you find a constant shifting?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Perform experiments to show the effects of attention in forming
+habits and acquiring knowledge.</p>
+<ol>
+<li><p>Perform tests in learning, using substitution tests as described in
+Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X</a>. Use several different keys. In some experiments have no
+distractions, in others, have various distracting noises. What
+differences do you find in the results?</p></li>
+<li><p>Try learning nonsense syllables, some lists with distractions,
+others without distractions.</p></li>
+<li><p>Try getting the ideas from stories read to you, as in the logical
+memory experiment described in Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X</a>. Some stories should be read
+without distractions, others with distractions.</p></li></ol></li>
+
+<li><p>Why are you unable to study well when under the influence of some
+strong emotion?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Are you trained to the extent that you can concentrate on a task and
+hold yourself to it for a long time?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Do you see that as far as will and attention and the emotions are
+concerned, your life and character are in large measure in your own
+hands?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin</span> and <span class="smcap">Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapters&nbsp;IV, V, and VI.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XIV, also
+pp.&nbsp;187&ndash;192 and pp.&nbsp;370&ndash;371.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;V and XI.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XIV.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;IV, VIII, and XI.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;87">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_87" id="Pg_87"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;VI<br />
+HABIT</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>The Nature of Habit.</b> We now turn from man&#8217;s inherited nature to his
+acquired nature. Inherited tendencies to action we have called
+instincts; acquired tendencies to action we shall call habits. We can
+best form an idea of the nature of habit by considering some concrete
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take first the case of a man forming the habit of turning out the
+basement light. It usually happens that when a man has an electric light
+in the basement of his house, it is hard for him at first to think to
+turn out the light at night when he retires, and as a consequence the
+light often burns all night. This is expensive and unnecessary, so there
+is a strong incentive for the man to find a plan which will insure the
+regular turning-off of the light at bedtime. The plan usually hit upon
+is the following: The electric switch that controls the basement light
+is beside the basement stairway. The man learns to look at the switch as
+he comes up the stairs, after preparing the furnace fire for the night,
+and learns to take hold of the switch when he sees it and turn off the
+light. Coming up the stairs means to look at the switch. Seeing the
+switch means to turn it. Each step of the performance touches off the
+next. The man sees that in order to make sure that the light will always
+be turned off, the acts must all<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;88">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_88" id="Pg_88"></a> be made automatic, and each step must
+touch off the next in the series. At first, the man leaves the light
+burning about as often as he turns it off. After practicing for a time
+on the scheme, the different acts become so well connected that he
+seldom leaves the light burning. We say that he has formed the <i>habit</i>
+of turning off the light.</p>
+
+<p>For a second illustration, let us take the process of learning that nine
+times nine equals eighty-one. At first, one does not say or write
+&ldquo;eighty-one&rdquo; when one sees &ldquo;nine times nine,&rdquo; but one can acquire the
+habit of doing so. It does not here concern us how the child learns what
+the product of nine times nine is. He may learn it by counting, by being
+told, or by reading it in a book. But however he first learns it, he
+fixes it and makes it automatic and habitual by <i>continuing</i> to say or
+to write, &ldquo;nine times nine equals eighty-one.&rdquo; The essential point is
+that at first the child does not know what to say when he hears or sees
+the expression &ldquo;nine times nine,&rdquo; but after long practice he comes to
+give automatically and promptly the correct answer. For the definite
+problem &ldquo;nine times nine&rdquo; there comes the definite response
+&ldquo;eighty-one.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For a third illustration, let us take the case of a man tipping his hat
+when he meets a lady. A young boy does not tip his hat when he meets a
+lady until he has been taught to do so. After he learns this act of
+courtesy he does it quite automatically without thinking of it. For the
+definite situation, meeting a lady of his acquaintance, there comes to
+be established the definite response, tipping the hat. A similar habit
+is that of turning to the right when we meet a person. For the definite
+situation, meeting a person on the road or street or sidewalk, there is
+established the definite re<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;89">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_89" id="Pg_89"></a>sponse, turning to the right. The response
+becomes automatic, immediate, certain.</p>
+
+<p>There is another type of habit that may properly be called an
+intellectual habit, such as voting a certain party ticket, say the
+Democratic. When one is a boy, one hears his father speak favorably of
+the Democratic party. His father says, &ldquo;Hurrah for Bryan,&rdquo; so he comes
+to say, &ldquo;Hurrah for Bryan.&rdquo; His father says, &ldquo;I am a Democrat,&rdquo; so he
+says he is a Democrat. He takes the side that his father takes. In a
+similar way we take on the same religious notions that our parents have.
+It does not always happen this way, but this is the rule. But no matter
+how we come to do it, we do adopt the creed of some party or some
+church. We adopt a certain way of looking at public questions, and a
+certain way of looking at religious questions. For certain rather
+definite situations, we come to take definite stands. When we go to the
+booth to vote, we look at the top of the ballot to find the column
+marked &ldquo;Democratic,&rdquo; and the definite response is to check the
+&ldquo;Democrat&rdquo; column. Of course, some of us form a different habit and
+check the &ldquo;Republican&rdquo; column, but the psychology of the act is the
+same. The point is that we form the Democratic habit or we form the
+Republican habit; and the longer we practice the habit, the harder it is
+to change it.</p>
+
+<p>In the presidential campaign of 1912, Roosevelt &ldquo;bolted&rdquo; from the
+Republican party. It was hard for the older Republicans to follow him.
+While one occasionally found a follower of Roosevelt who was gray, one
+usually found the old Republicans standing by the old party, the younger
+ones joining the Progressive party. It is said that when Darwin
+published &ldquo;The Origin of Species,&rdquo; very few old men accepted the
+doc<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;90">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_90" id="Pg_90"></a>trine of evolution. The adherents of the new doctrine were nearly
+all young men. So there is such a thing as an intellectual habit. One
+comes to take a definite stand when facing certain definite intellectual
+situations.</p>
+
+<p>Similar to the type of habits which we have called intellectual is
+another type which may be called &ldquo;moral.&rdquo; When we face the situation of
+reporting an occurrence, we can tell the truth or we can lie. We can
+build up the habit of meeting such situations by telling the truth on
+all occasions. We can learn to follow the maxim &ldquo;Tell the truth at all
+times, at all hazards.&rdquo; We can come to do this automatically, certainly,
+and without thought of doing anything else.</p>
+
+<p>Most moral situations are fairly definite and clear-cut, and for them we
+can establish definite forms of response. We can form the habit of
+helping a person in distress, of helping a sick neighbor, of speaking
+well of a neighbor; we can form habits of industry, habits of
+perseverance. These and other similar habits are the basis of morality.</p>
+
+<p>The various kinds of habits which we have enumerated are alike in
+certain fundamental particulars. In all of them there is a definite
+situation followed by a definite response. One sees the switch and turns
+off the light; he sees the expression &ldquo;nine times nine&rdquo; and says
+&ldquo;eighty-one&rdquo;; he sees a lady he knows and tips his hat; in meeting a
+carriage on the road, he turns to the right; when he has to vote, he
+votes a certain ticket; when he has to report an occurrence, he tells it
+as it happened. There is, in every case, a definite situation followed
+by a definite response.</p>
+
+<p>Another characteristic is common to all the cases mentioned above,
+<i>i.e.</i> the response is acquired, it does not come at first. In every
+instance we might<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;91">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_91" id="Pg_91"></a> have learned to act differently. We could form the
+habit of always leaving the light burning; could just as easily say
+&ldquo;nine times nine equals forty&rdquo;; we could turn to the left; we could vote
+the Republican ticket. We can form bad moral habits as well as good
+ones, perhaps more easily. The point is, however, that we acquire
+definite ways of acting for the same situations, and these definite ways
+of acting are called habits.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit and Nerve-Path.</b> It has already been stated that a habit is a
+tendency toward a certain type of action in a certain situation. The
+basis of this tendency is in the nervous system. In order to understand
+it we must consider what the nervous system is like. Nerves terminate at
+one end in a sense organ and at the other end ultimately in a muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_II">II</a>, A is a sense organ, B a nerve going from the sense organ
+to the brain C. D, E, F, G, and H are motor nerves going from the brain
+to the muscles. Now, let us show from the diagram what organization
+means and what tendency means. At first when the child sees the
+expression &ldquo;nine times nine,&rdquo; he does not say &ldquo;eighty-one.&rdquo; The stimulus
+brings about no definite action. It is as likely to go out through E or
+F as through D. But suppose we can get the child to say &ldquo;nine times nine
+equals eighty-one.&rdquo; We can write the expression on the blackboard and
+have the child look at it and say &ldquo;nine times nine equals eighty-one.&rdquo;
+Suppose the act of saying &ldquo;eighty-one&rdquo; is brought about by the
+nerve-current going out through nerve-chain D. By repetition, we
+establish a bond. A stimulus of a particular kind comes through A, goes
+over B to C, and out over D, making muscles at M bring about a very
+definite action in saying &ldquo;eighty-one.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_II" id="fig_II"></a>
+<img src="images/fig02.png" width="400" height="338" alt="Figure&nbsp;II.&mdash;The Organization of Tendencies" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;II.&mdash;The Organization of Tendencies</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the point of view of physiology, the process of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;92">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_92" id="Pg_92"></a> habit-formation
+consists in securing a particular nerve coupling, establishing a
+particular nerve path, so that a definite form of stimulation will bring
+about a definite form of response. A nerve tendency is simply the
+likelihood that a stimulus will take a certain course rather than any
+other. This likelihood is brought about by getting the stimulus to take
+the desired route through the nervous system to a group of muscles and
+to continue following this route. The more times it passes the same way,
+the greater is the probability that at any given time the stimulus will
+take the accustomed route and bring about the usual response. At first
+any sort of action is possible. A nerve stimulus can take any one of the
+many routes to the different muscles. By chance or by conscious<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;93">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_93" id="Pg_93"></a>
+direction, the stimulus takes a certain path, and by repetition we fix
+and make permanent this particular route. This constitutes a nerve
+tendency or habit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plasticity.</b> Our discussion should have made it clear that habit is
+acquired nature, while instinct is inherited nature. Habit is acquired
+tendency while instinct is inherited tendency. The possibility of
+acquiring habits is peculiarly a human characteristic. While inanimate
+things have a definite nature, a definite way of reacting to forces
+which act upon them, they have little, if any, possibility of varying
+their way of acting. Water might be said to have habits. If one cools
+water, it turns to ice. If we heat it, it turns to steam. But it
+<i>invariably</i> does this. We cannot teach it any different way of acting.
+Under the same conditions it always does the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>Plants are very much like inanimate things. Plants have definite ways of
+acting. A vine turns around a support. A leaf turns its upper surface to
+the light. But one cannot teach plants different ways of acting. The
+lower forms of animals are somewhat like plants and inanimate objects.
+But to a very slight extent they are variable and can form habits. Among
+the higher animals, such as dogs and other domestic animals, there is a
+greater possibility of forming habits. In man there are the greatest
+possibilities of habit-formation. In man the learned acts or habits are
+many as compared to the unlearned acts or instincts; while among the
+lower animals the opposite is the case&mdash;their instincts are many as
+compared to their habits.</p>
+
+<p>We may call this possibility of forming habits <i>plasticity</i>. Inanimate
+objects such as iron, rocks, sulphur, oxygen, etc., have no plasticity.
+Plants have very little possibility of forming habits. Lower animals<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;94">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_94" id="Pg_94"></a>
+have somewhat more, and higher animals still more, while man has the
+greatest possibility of forming habits. This great possibility of
+forming habits is one of the main characteristics of man. Let us
+illustrate the contrast between man and inanimate objects by an example.
+If sulphur is put into a test tube and heated, it at first melts and
+becomes quite thin like water. If it is heated still more, it becomes
+thick and will not run out of the tube. It also becomes dark. Sulphur
+<i>always</i> does this when so treated. It cannot be taught to act
+differently. Now the action of sulphur when heated is like the action of
+a man when he turns to the right upon meeting a person in the street.
+But the man has to acquire this habit, while the sulphur does not have
+to learn its way of acting. Sulphur always acted in this way, while man
+did not perform his act at first, but had to learn it by slow
+repetition.</p>
+
+<p>Everything in the world has its own peculiar nature, but man is unique
+in that his nature can be very much changed. To a large extent, a man is
+<i>made</i>, his nature is <i>acquired</i>. After we become men and women, we have
+hundreds and thousands of tendencies to action, definite forms of
+action, that we did not have when young. Man&#8217;s nature might be said to
+consist in his tendencies to action. Some of these tendencies he
+inherits; these are his instincts. Some of these he acquires; these are
+his habits.</p>
+
+<p><b>What Habits Do for Us.</b> We have found out what habits are like; let us
+now see what they do for us. What good do they accomplish for us? How
+are we different after forming a habit from what we were before? We can
+best answer these questions by a consideration of concrete cases.
+Typewriting will serve very well the purpose of illustration. We shall<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;95">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_95" id="Pg_95"></a>
+give the result of an actual experiment in which ten university students
+took part. During their first half hour of practice, they wrote an
+average of 120&nbsp;words. At the end of forty-five hours of practice, they
+were<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;96">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_96" id="Pg_96"></a> writing an average of 680&nbsp;words in a half hour. This was an
+increase of speed of 560&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent. An expert typist can write about
+3000&nbsp;words in a half hour. Such a speed requires much more than
+forty-five hours practice, and is attained by the best operators only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_III" id="fig_III"></a>
+<img src="images/fig03.png" width="400" height="502" alt="Figure&nbsp;III.&mdash;Learning Curves" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;III.&mdash;Learning Curves</p>
+<p class="caption" style="font-variant:normal; text-align:justify;">
+The upper graph shows the improvement in speed of a group of students
+working two half hours a day. The lower curve shows the improvement of a
+group working ten half-hours a day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the foregoing experiment, the students improved in accuracy also. At
+the beginning of the work, they made 115&nbsp;errors in the half hour. At the
+end of the practice, with much faster speed, they were making only
+327&nbsp;errors in a half hour. The actual number of errors had increased
+280&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent. The increase in errors was therefore exactly half as much
+as the increase in speed. This, of course, was a considerable increase
+in accuracy, for while the speed had increased to 5.6 times what it had
+been at the beginning, the errors had increased only 2.8 times. The
+subjects in this experiment paid much more attention to speed than they
+did to accuracy. If they had emphasized accuracy, they would have been
+doing almost perfect work at the end of the practice, and their speed
+would have been somewhat less. Practice, then, not only develops speed
+but also develops accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>There are also other results. At the beginning of work with the
+typewriter, there is much waste of energy and much fatigue. The waste of
+energy comes from using unnecessary muscles, and the fatigue is partly
+due to this waste of energy. But even apart from this waste of energy,
+an habituated act is performed with less fatigue. The various muscles
+concerned become better able to do their work. As a result of
+habituation there is, then, greater speed, greater accuracy, less waste
+of energy, and less fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>If we look not at the changes in our work but at the changes in
+ourselves, the changes in our minds due<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;97">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_97" id="Pg_97"></a> to the formation of habits, we
+find still other results. At the beginning of practice with the
+typewriter, the learner&#8217;s whole attention is occupied with the work.
+When one is learning to do a new trick, the attention cannot be divided.
+The whole mind must be devoted to the work. But after one has practiced
+for several weeks, one can operate the typewriter while thinking about
+something else. We say that the habituated act sinks to a lower level of
+consciousness, meaning that as a habit becomes more and more fixed, less
+and less attention is devoted to the acts concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Increased skill gives us pleasure and also gives us confidence in our
+ability to do the thing. Corresponding to this inner confidence is outer
+certainty. There is greater objective certainty in our performance and a
+corresponding inner confidence. By objective certainty, we mean that a
+person watching our performance, becomes more and more sure of our
+ability to perform, and we ourselves feel confidence in our power of
+achievement.</p>
+
+<p>Now that we have shown the results of habituation let us consider
+additional illustrations. In piano playing, the stimuli are the notes as
+written in the music. We see the notes occupying certain places on the
+scale of the music. A note in a certain place means that we must strike
+a certain key. At first the response is slow, we have to hunt out each
+note on the keyboard. Moreover, we make many mistakes; we strike the
+wrong keys just as we do in typewriting. We are awkward, making many
+unnecessary movements, and the work is tiresome and fatiguing. After
+long practice, the speed with which we can manipulate the keys in
+playing the piano is wonderful. Our playing becomes accurate, perfect.
+We do it with ease, with no<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;98">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_98" id="Pg_98"></a> unnecessary movements. We can play the
+piano, after we become skilled, without paying attention to the actual
+movements of our hands. We can play the piano while concentrating upon
+the meaning of the music, or while carrying on a conversation, or while
+thinking about something else. As a rule, pleasure and confidence come
+with skill. Playing a difficult piece on the piano involves a skill
+which is one of the most complicated that man achieves. It is possible
+only through habituation of the piano-playing movements.</p>
+
+<p>Nailing shingles on a roof illustrates well the various aspects of
+habituation. The expert carpenter not only nails on many more shingles
+in a day than does the amateur, but he does it better and with more
+ease, and with much less fatigue. The carpenter knows exactly how much
+he can do in a day, and each particular movement is certain and sure.
+The carpenter has confidence in, and usually prides himself on, this
+ability, thus getting pleasure out of his work.</p>
+
+<p>The operations in arithmetic illustrate most of the results of
+habituation. Practice in addition makes for speed and accuracy. In a few
+weeks&#8217; time we can very much increase our speed and accuracy in adding,
+or in the other arithmetical operations.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing examples are sufficient, although they could be multiplied
+indefinitely. Almost any habit one might name would show clearly most of
+the results enumerated. The most important aspects of habituation may be
+summed up in the one word <i>efficiency</i>. Habituation gives us speed and
+accuracy. Speed and accuracy mean skill. Skill means efficiency.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Habits Are Formed.</b> It is clear from the foregoing discussion that
+the essential thing in a habit is the definiteness of the connection
+between the stimulus<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;99">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_99" id="Pg_99"></a> and the response, between the situation and the
+reaction to the situation. Our question now is, how is this definiteness
+of connection established? The answer is, <i>through repetition</i>. Let us
+work the matter out from a concrete case, such as learning to play the
+piano. In piano playing the stimulus comes from the music as printed on
+the staff. A note having a certain position on the staff indicates that
+a certain key is to be struck. We are told by our music teacher what
+keys on the piano correspond to the various notes on the staff, or we
+may learn these facts from the instruction book. It makes no difference
+how we learn them; but after we know these facts, we must have practice
+to give us skill. The mere knowledge will not make us piano players. In
+order to be skillful, we must have much practice not only in striking
+the keys indicated by the various note positions, but with the various
+combinations of notes. For example, a note on the second space indicates
+that the player must strike the key known as &ldquo;A.&rdquo; But &ldquo;A&rdquo; may occur with
+any of the other notes, it may precede them or it may follow them. We
+must therefore have practice in striking &ldquo;A&rdquo; in all these situations. To
+have skill at the piano, we must mechanize many performances. We must be
+able to read the notes with accuracy and ease. We must practice so much
+that the instant we see a certain combination of notes on the staff, our
+hands immediately execute the proper strokes. Not only must we learn
+what keys on the piano correspond to the various notes of the music, but
+the notes have a temporal value which we must learn. Some are to be
+sounded for a short time, others for a longer time. We have eighth
+notes, quarter notes, half notes, etc. Moreover, the signature of the
+music<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;100">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_100" id="Pg_100"></a> as indicated by the sharps or flats changes the whole situation.
+If the music is written in &ldquo;A sharp&rdquo; then when &ldquo;A&rdquo; is indicated on the
+staff, we must not strike the white key known as &ldquo;A,&rdquo; but the black key
+just above, known as &ldquo;A sharp.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Briefly, in piano playing, the stimulus comes from the characters
+printed on the staff. The movements which these characters direct are
+very complicated and require months and years of practice. We must
+emphasize the fact that practice alone gives facility, years of
+practice. But after these years of practice, one can play a piece of
+music at sight; that is, the first stimulus sets off perfectly a very
+complicated response. This sort of performance is one of the highest
+feats of skill that man accomplishes.</p>
+
+<p>To get skill, then, one must practice. But mere repetition is not
+sufficient. For practice to be most effective, one must put his whole
+mind on what he is doing. If he divides his attention between the acts
+which he is practicing and something else, the effect of the practice in
+fixing and perfecting the habit is slight. It seems that when we are
+building up a new nerve-path which is to be the basis of a new habit,
+the nervous energies should not be divided; that the whole available
+nervous energy should be devoted to the acts which we are repeating.
+This is only another way of saying that when we are practicing to
+establish a habit, we should attend to what we are doing and to nothing
+else. But after the habit-connection is once firmly established, we can
+attend to other things while performing the habitual act. The habitual
+action will go on of itself. We may say, then, that in order to be able
+to do a thing with little or no attention, we must give much attention
+to it at first.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;101">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_101" id="Pg_101"></a>Another important factor in habit-formation is pleasure. The act which
+we are practicing must give us pleasure, either while we are doing it or
+as a result. Pleasurable results hasten habit-formation. When we
+practice an act in which we have no interest, we make slow progress or
+none at all. Now the elements of interest are attention and pleasure. If
+we voluntarily attend to a thing and its performance gives us pleasure,
+or pleasure results from it, we say we are interested in it. The secret
+of successful practice is interest. Repeatedly in laboratory experiments
+it happens that a student loses interest in the performance and
+subsequently makes little, if any, progress. One of the biggest problems
+connected with habit-formation is that of maintaining interest.</p>
+
+<p>A factor which prevents the formation of habits is that of exceptions.
+If a stimulus, instead of going over to the appropriate response,
+produces some other action, there is an interference in the formation of
+the desired habit. The effect of an exception is greater than the mere
+neglect of practice. The <i>exception opens up another path</i> and tends to
+make future action uncertain. Particularly is this true in the case of
+moral habits. Forming moral habits is usually uphill work anyway, in
+that we have instincts to overcome. Allowing exceptions to enter, in the
+moral sphere, usually means a slipping back into an old way of acting,
+thereby weakening much the newly-made connection.</p>
+
+<p>In any kind of practice, when we become fatigued we make errors. If we
+continue to practice when fatigued, we form connections which we do not
+wish to make and which interfere with the desired habits.</p>
+
+<p><b>Economy of Practice.</b> The principles which we have enumerated and
+illustrated are fairly general and of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;102">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_102" id="Pg_102"></a> universal validity. There are
+certain other factors which we may discuss here under the head of
+economical procedure. To form a habit, we must practice. But how long
+should we practice at one time? This is an experimental problem and has
+been definitely solved. It has been proved by experiment that we can
+practice profitably for as long a time as we can maintain a high degree
+of attention, which is usually till we become fatigued. This time is not
+the same for all people. It varies with age, and in the case of the same
+person it varies at different times. If ordinary college students work
+at habit-formation at the highest point of concentration, they get the
+best return for a period of about a half hour. It depends somewhat on
+the amount of concentration required for the work and the stage of
+fixation of the habit, <i>i.e.</i> whether one has just begun to form the
+habit or whether it is pretty well fixed. For children, the period of
+successful practice is usually much less than a half hour&mdash;five, ten,
+fifteen, twenty minutes, depending upon the age of the child and the
+kind of work.</p>
+
+<p>The best interval between periods of practice is the day, twenty-four
+hours. If one practices in the morning for a half hour, one can practice
+again in the afternoon with nearly as much return as he would secure the
+next day, but not quite. In general, practice is better, gives more
+return, if spread out. To practice one day as long as one can work at a
+high point of efficiency, and then to postpone further practice till the
+next day, gives one the most return for the time put in. But if one is
+in a hurry to form a habit, one can afford to practice more each day
+even if the returns from the practice do diminish proportionately.</p>
+
+<p>This matter has been tried out on the typewriter.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;103">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_103" id="Pg_103"></a> If one practices for
+ten half hours a day with half-hour rests between, one does not get so
+much return for his time as he would if he should spread it out at the
+rate of one or two half-hour practices a day. But by working ten half
+hours a day, one gets much more efficiency in the same number of days
+than if he should practice only one or two half hours a day. This point
+must not be misunderstood. We do not mean that one must not work at
+anything longer than a half hour a day. We mean that if one is forming a
+habit, his time counts for more in forming the habit if spread out at
+the rate of a half hour or an hour a day, than it does if put in at a
+faster rate. Therefore if one is in no hurry and can afford to spread
+out his time, he gets the best return by so doing, and the habit is more
+firmly fixed than if formed hurriedly. But if one is in a hurry, and has
+the time to devote to it, he can afford to concentrate his practice up
+to five hours or possibly more in a day, provided that rest intervals
+are interspersed between periods of practice.</p>
+
+<p>There is one time in habit-formation when concentrated practice is most
+efficient. That is at the beginning. In a process as complicated as
+typewriting, so little impression is made at the beginning by a short
+period of practice that progress is but slight. On the first day, one
+should practice about four or five times to secure the best returns, a
+half hour each time.</p>
+
+<p><b>What the Teacher Can Do.</b> Now, let us see how the teacher can be of
+assistance to the pupil in habit-formation. The teacher should have a
+clear idea of the nature of the habit to be formed and should
+demonstrate the habit to the pupil. Suppose the habit is so simple a
+thing as long division. The teacher should explain each step in the
+process. She should go to the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;104">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_104" id="Pg_104"></a> blackboard and actually solve a number of
+problems in long division, so that the pupils can see just how to do it.
+After this the pupils should go to the board and solve a problem
+themselves. The reason for this procedure is that it is most economical.
+If the children are left to get the method of doing long division from a
+book, they will not be able to do it readily and will make mistakes. A
+teacher can explain a process better than it can be explained in a book.
+By giving a full explanation and demonstration and then by requiring the
+children to work a few problems while she watches for mistakes,
+correcting them at once, the teacher secures economy of effort and time.
+The first step is to demonstrate the habit to the pupils; the second, to
+have them do the act, whatever it is, correcting their mistakes; the
+third, to require the pupils to practice till they have acquired skill.
+The teacher must make provision for practice.</p>
+
+<p><b>What Parents Can Do.</b> Parents can be of very great assistance to children
+who are forming habits.</p>
+
+<p>(1) They can co&ouml;perate with the school, which is directing the child in
+the systematic formation of a great system of habits. The teacher should
+explain these habits to the parents so that they may know what the
+teacher is trying to do. Quite often the home and the school are working
+at cross purposes. The only way to prevent this is for them to work in
+the closest co&ouml;peration, with the fullest understanding of what is being
+undertaken for the child. Parents and teachers should often meet
+together and talk over the work of training the children of the
+community. Parents should have not merely a general understanding of the
+work of the school, but they should know the details undertaken. The
+school often assigns practice<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;105">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_105" id="Pg_105"></a> work to be done at home in reading,
+writing, arithmetic. Parents should always know of these assignments and
+should help the children get the necessary practice. They can do this by
+reminding the child of the work, by preparing a suitable place where the
+work may be done, and by securing quiet for the practice. Children like
+play and it is easy for them to forget their necessary work. Parents can
+be of the greatest service to childhood and youth by holding the
+children to their responsibilities and duties.</p>
+
+<p>Few parents take any thought of whether their children are doing all
+possible for their school progress. Few of those who do, make definite
+plans and arrangements for the children to accomplish the necessary
+practice and study. This is the parent&#8217;s duty and responsibility.
+Moreover, parents are likely to feel that children have no rights, and
+think nothing of calling on them in the midst of their work to do some
+errand. Now, children should work about the house and help their
+parents, but there should be a time for this and a separate time for
+study and practice on school work.</p>
+
+<p>When a child sits down for serious practice on some work, his time
+should be sacred and inviolable. Instead of interfering with the child,
+the parents should do everything in their power to make this practice
+possible and efficient. In their relations with their children perhaps
+parents sin more in the matter of neglecting to plan for them than in
+any other way. They plan for everything else, but they let their
+children grow up, having taken no definite thought about helping them to
+form their life habits and to establish these habits by practice. When a
+child comes home from school, the mother should find out just what work
+is to be done before the next day and should plan the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;106">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_106" id="Pg_106"></a> child&#8217;s play and
+work in such a way as to include all necessary practice. If all parents
+would do this, the value to the work of the school and to the life of
+the child would be incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Just as one of the main purposes of the teacher is to help the child
+gain initiative, so it is one of the greatest of the parents&#8217; duties.
+Parents must help the children to keep their purposes before them.
+Children forget, even when they wish to remember. Often, they do not
+want to remember. The parents&#8217; duty is to get the child to <i>want</i> to
+remember, and to help him to remember, whether he wants to or not. One
+of the main differences between childhood and maturity is that the child
+lives in the present, his purposes are all immediate ones. Habits always
+look forward, they are for future good and use. Mature people have
+learned to look forward and to plan for the future. They must,
+therefore, perform this function for the children. They must look
+forward and see what the child should learn to do, and then see that he
+learns to do it.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Parents must help children to plan their lives in general and in
+detail; <i>i.e.</i> in the sense of determining the ideals and habits that
+will be necessary for those lives. The parents must do this with the
+help of the child. The child must not be a blind follower, but as the
+child&#8217;s mind becomes mature enough, the parent must explain the matter
+of forming life habits, and must show the child that life is a structure
+that he himself is to build. Life will be what he makes it, and the time
+for forming character is during early years. The parent must not only
+tell the child this but must help him to realize the truth of it, must
+help him continually, consistently.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;107">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_107" id="Pg_107"></a>(4) Of course it is hardly necessary to say that the parent can help
+much, perhaps most, by example. The parent must not only tell the child
+what to do but must <i>show</i> him how it should be done.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Parents can help in the ways mentioned above, but they can also help
+by co&ouml;perating among themselves in planning for the training of the
+children of the community. One parent cannot train his children
+independently of all the other people in the community. There must be a
+certain unity of ideals and aims. Therefore, not only is there need for
+co&ouml;peration between parents and teachers but among parents themselves.
+Although they co&ouml;perate in everything else, they seldom do in the
+training of their children. The people of a community should meet
+together occasionally to plan for this common work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Importance of Habit in Education and Life.</b> A man is the sum of his
+habits and ideals. He has language habits; he speaks German, or French,
+or English. He has writing habits, spelling habits, reading habits,
+arithmetic habits. He has political habits, religious habits. He has
+various social habits, habitual attitudes which he takes toward his
+fellows. He has moral habits&mdash;he is honest and truthful, or he is
+dishonest and untruthful. He always looks on the bright side, or else on
+the dark side of events. All these habits and many more, he has. They
+are structures which he has built. One&#8217;s life, then, is the sum of his
+tendencies, and these tendencies one establishes in early life.</p>
+
+<p>This view gives an importance to the work of the school which is derived
+from no other view. The school is not a place where we get this little
+bit of information, or the other. It is the place where we are molded,
+formed, and shaped into the beings we are<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;108">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_108" id="Pg_108"></a> to be. The school has not
+risen to see the real importance of its work. Its aims have been low and
+its achievements much lower than its aims. Teachers should rise to the
+importance of their calling. Their work is that of gods. They are
+creators. They do not make the child. They do not give it memory or
+attention or imagination. But they are creators of tendencies,
+prejudices, religions, politics, and other habits unnumbered. So that in
+a very real sense, the school, with all the other educational
+influences, makes the man. We do not give a child the capacity to learn,
+but we can determine what he shall learn. We do not give him memory, but
+we can select what he shall remember. We do not make the child as he is
+at the beginning, but we can, in large measure, determine the world of
+influences which complete the task of <i>making</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of life every day and every hour of the day
+establishes and strengthens tendencies. Every year these tendencies
+become stronger. Every year after maturity, we resist change. By
+twenty-five or thirty, &ldquo;character has set like plaster.&rdquo; The general
+attitude and view of the world which we have at maturity, we are to hold
+throughout life. Very few men fundamentally change after this. It takes
+a tremendous influence and an unusual situation to break one up and make
+him an essentially different man after maturity. Every year a &ldquo;crank&rdquo;
+becomes &ldquo;crankier.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is well that this is so. Everything in the world costs its price.
+Rigidity is the price we pay for efficiency. In order to be efficient,
+we must make habitual the necessary movements. After they are
+habituated, they resist change. But habit makes for regularity and
+order. We could not live in society unless there<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;109">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_109" id="Pg_109"></a> were regularity,
+order, fixity. Habit makes for conservatism. But conservatism is
+necessary for order. In a sense, habit works against progress. But
+permanent improvement without habit would be impossible, for permanent
+progress depends upon holding what we gain. It is well for society that
+we are conservative. We could not live in the chaos that would exist
+without habit. Public opinion resists change. People refuse to accept a
+view that is different from the one they have held. We could get nowhere
+if we continually changed, and it is well for us that we continue to do
+the old way to which we have become accustomed, till a new and better
+one is shown beyond doubt. Even then, it is probably better for an old
+person to continue to use the accustomed methods of a lifetime. Although
+better methods are developed, they will not be so good for the old
+person as those modes of action that he is used to. The possibility of
+progress is through new methods which come in with each succeeding
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>When we become old we are not willing to change, but the more reasonable
+of us are willing that our children should be taught a better way.
+Sometimes, of course, we find people who say that what was good enough
+for them is good enough for their children. Most of us think better, and
+wish to give our children a &ldquo;better bringing up than ours has been.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These considerations make clear the importance of habit in life. They
+should also make clear a very important corollary. If habits are
+important in life, then it is the duty of parents and teachers to make a
+careful selection of the habits that are to be formed by the children.
+The habits that will be necessary for the child to form in order to meet
+the various situa<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;110">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_110" id="Pg_110"></a>tions of his future life, should be determined. There
+should be no vagueness about it. Definite habits, social, moral,
+religious, intellectual, professional, etc., will be necessary for
+efficiency. We should know what these various habits are, and should
+then set about the work of establishing them with system and
+determination, just as we would the building of a house. Much school
+work and much home training is vague, indefinite, uncertain, done
+without a clear understanding of the needs or of the results. We
+therefore waste time, years of the child&#8217;s life, and the results are
+unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>Drill in School Subjects.</b> In many school subjects, the main object is to
+acquire skill in certain processes. As previously explained, we can
+become skillful in an act only by repetition of the act. Therefore, in
+those subjects in which the main object is the acquiring of skill, there
+must be much repetition. This repetition is called drill. The matter of
+economical procedure in drill has already been considered, but there are
+certain problems connected with drill that must be further discussed.</p>
+
+<p>Drill is usually the hardest part of school work. It becomes monotonous
+and tiresome. Moreover, drill is always a means. It is the means by
+which we become efficient. Take writing, for example. It is not an end
+in itself; it is the means by which we convey thoughts. Reading is a
+means by which we are able to get the thought of another. In acquiring a
+foreign language, we have first to master the elementary tools that will
+enable us to make the thought of the foreign language our own.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that the hardest part of education always comes first, when we
+are least able to do it. It used<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;111">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_111" id="Pg_111"></a> to be that nearly all the work of the
+school was drill. There was little school work that was interesting in
+itself. In revolt against this kind of school, many modern educators
+have tried to plan a curriculum that would be interesting to the child.
+In schools that follow this idea, there is little or no drill, pure and
+simple. There is no work that is done for the sole purpose of acquiring
+skill. The work is so planned that, in pursuing it, the child will of
+necessity have to perform the necessary acts and will thereby gain
+efficiency. In arithmetic, there is no adding, subtracting, multiplying,
+or dividing, only as such things must be done in the performance of
+something else that is interesting in itself. For example, the child
+plays store and must add up the sales. The child plays bean bag and must
+add up the score. Practice gained in this indirect way is known as
+incidental drill. Direct drill consists in making a direct approach; we
+wish to be efficient at adding, so we practice adding as such and not
+merely as incidental to something else.</p>
+
+<p>This plan of incidental drill is in harmony with the principle of
+interest previously explained. There are several things, however, that
+must be considered. The proper procedure would seem to be to look
+forward and find out in what directions the child will need to acquire
+skill and then to help him acquire it in the most economical way and at
+the proper time. Nature has so made us that we like to do a new trick.
+When we have taught a child how to add and subtract, he likes to perform
+these operations because the operations themselves give pleasure.
+Therefore much repetition can be allowed and much skill acquired by a
+direct approach to the practice. When interest drags, incidental drill
+can be fallen back upon to help out the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;112">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_112" id="Pg_112"></a> interest. Children should be
+taught that certain things must be done, certain skill must be acquired.
+They should accept some things on the authority of elders. They should
+be taught to apply themselves and to give their whole attention to a
+thing that must be done. A desire for efficiency can be developed in
+them. The spirit of competition can sometimes be effectively used to add
+interest to drill. Of course, interest and attention there must be, and
+if it cannot be secured in one way, it must be in another.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have abundantly shown the value of formal drill, that is to
+say, drill for drill&#8217;s sake. If an arithmetic class is divided, one half
+being given a few minutes&#8217; drill on the fundamental operations each day
+but otherwise doing exactly the same work as the other half of the
+class, the half receiving the drill acquires much more skill in the
+fundamental operations and, besides, is better at reasoning out problems
+than the half that had no drill. The explanation of the latter fact is
+doubtless that the pupils receiving the drill acquire such efficiency in
+the fundamental operations that these cause no trouble, leaving all the
+energies of the pupils for reasoning out the problems.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown experimentally that a direct method of teaching
+spelling is more efficient than an indirect method. It is not to be
+wondered at that such turns out to be the case. For in a direct
+approach, the act that we are trying to habituate is brought more
+directly before consciousness, receiving that focal attention which is
+necessary for the most efficient practice in habit-formation. If one
+wishes to be a good ball pitcher, one begins to pitch balls, and
+continues pitching balls day after day, morning, noon, and night. One
+does not go about it indirectly. If one wishes to<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;113">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_113" id="Pg_113"></a> be a good shot with a
+rifle, one gets a rifle and goes to shooting. Similarly, if one wishes
+to be a good adder, the way to do is to begin adding, not to begin doing
+something else. Of course any method that will induce a child to realize
+that he ought to acquire a certain habit, is right and proper. We must
+do all we can to give a child a desire, an interest in the thing that he
+is trying to do. But there is no reason why the thing should not be
+faced directly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rules for Habit Formation.</b> In the light of the various principles which
+we have discussed, what rules can be given to one forming habits? The
+evident answer is, to proceed in accordance with established principles.
+We may, however, bring the most important of these principles together
+in the form of rules which can serve as a guide and help to one forming
+habits.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Get initiative.</i> By this is meant that a person forming a habit
+should have some sustaining reason for doing it, some end that is being
+sought. This principle will be of very little use to young children,
+only to those old enough to appreciate reasons and ends. In arithmetic,
+for example, a child should be shown what can be accomplished if he
+possesses certain skill in addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It
+is not always possible for a young person to see why a certain habit
+should be formed. For the youngest children, the practice must be in the
+form of play. But when a child is old enough to think, to have ideals
+and purposes, reasons and explanations should be worked out.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Get practice.</i> If you are to have skill, you must practice.
+Practice regularly, practice hard while you are doing it. Throw your
+whole life into it, as if what<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;114">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_114" id="Pg_114"></a> you are doing is the most important
+thing in the world. Practice under good conditions. Do not think that
+just any kind of practice will do. Try to make conditions such that they
+will enable you to do your best work. Such conditions will not happen by
+chance. You must make them happen. You must make conditions favorable.
+You must seek opportunities to practice. You must realize that your life
+is in the making, that <i>you</i> are making it, that it is to a large extent
+composed of habits. These habits you are building. They are built only
+by practice. Get practice. When practicing, fulfill the psychological
+conditions. Work under the most favorable circumstances as to length of
+periods, intervals, etc.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Allow no exceptions.</i> You should fully realize the great influence
+of exceptions. When you start in to form a habit, allow nothing to turn
+you from your course. Whether the habit is some fundamental moral habit
+or the multiplication table, be consistent, do not vacillate. Nothing is
+so strong as consistent action, nothing so weak as doubtful, wavering,
+uncertain action. Have the persistence of a bull dog and the regularity
+of planetary motion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transfer of Training.</b> Our problem now is to find out whether forming one
+habit helps one to form another. In some cases it does. The results of a
+recent experiment performed in the laboratory of educational psychology
+in the University of Missouri, will show what is meant. It was found
+that if a person practiced distributing cards into pigeon holes till
+great proficiency was attained, and then the numbering of the boxes or
+pigeon holes was changed, the person could learn the new numbering and
+gain proficiency in distributing the cards in the new way more quickly
+than<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;115">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_115" id="Pg_115"></a> was the case at first. Similarly, if one learns to run a
+typewriter with a certain form of keyboard, one can learn to operate a
+different keyboard much more quickly than was the case in learning the
+first keyboard.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the explanation of this apparent transfer is that
+there are common elements in the two cases. Certain bonds established in
+the first habit are available in the second. In the case of distributing
+the cards, many such common elements can be made out. One gains facility
+in reading the numbering of the cards. The actual movement of the hand
+in getting to a particular box is the same whatever the number of the
+box. One acquires schemes of associating and locating the boxes, schemes
+that will work in both cases. But suppose that one spends fifteen days
+in distributing cards according to one scheme of numbering, and then
+changes the numbering and practices for fifteen days with the new
+numbering, at the end of the second fifteen days one has more skill than
+at the close of the first fifteen days. In fact, in five days one has as
+much skill in the new method as was acquired in fifteen days in the
+first method. However, and this is an important point, the speed in the
+new way is not so great as the speed acquired in thirty days using one
+method or one scheme all the time. Direct practice on the specific habit
+involved is always most efficient.</p>
+
+<p>One should probably never learn one thing <i>just because</i> it will help
+him in learning something else, for that something else could be more
+economically learned by direct practice. Learning one language probably
+helps in learning another. A year spent in learning German will probably
+help in learning French. But two years spent in learning French will
+give more effi<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;116">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_116" id="Pg_116"></a>ciency in French than will be acquired by spending one
+year on German and then one year on French. If the only reason for a
+study is that it helps in learning something else, then this study
+should be left out of the curriculum. If the only reason for studying
+Latin, for example, is that it helps in studying English, or French, or
+helps in grammar, or gives one a larger vocabulary in English on account
+of a knowledge of the Latin roots, then the study of the language cannot
+be justified; for all of these results could be much more economically
+and better attained by a direct approach. Of course, if Latin has a
+justification in itself, then these by-products are not to be despised.</p>
+
+<p>The truth seems to be that habits are very specific things. A definite
+stimulus goes over to a definite response. We must decide what habits we
+need to have established, and then by direct and economical practice
+establish these habits. It is true that in pursuing some studies, we
+acquire habits that are of much greater applicability in the affairs of
+life than can be obtained from other studies. When one has acquired the
+various adding habits, he has kinds of skill that will be of use in
+almost everything that is undertaken later. So also speaking habits,
+writing habits, spelling habits, moral habits, etc., are of universal
+applicability. Whenever one undertakes to do a thing that involves some
+habit already formed, that thing is more easily done by virtue of that
+habit. One could not very well learn to multiply one number by another,
+such as 8,675,489 by 439,857, without first learning to add.</p>
+
+<p>This seems to be all there is to the idea of the transfer of training.
+One gets an act, or an idea, or an attitude, or a point of view that is
+available in a new<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;117">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_117" id="Pg_117"></a> thing, thereby making the new thing easier. The
+methods one would acquire in the study of zo&ouml;logy would be, many of
+them, directly applicable in the study of botany. But, just as truly,
+one can acquire habits in doing one thing that will be a direct
+hindrance in learning another thing. Knocking a baseball unfits one for
+knocking a tennis ball. The study of literature and philosophy probably
+unfits one for the study of an experimental science because the methods
+are so dissimilar, in some measure antagonistic.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit and Moral Training.</b> By moral training, we mean that training which
+prepares one to live among his fellows. It is a training that prepares
+us to act in our relations with our fellow men in such a way as to bring
+happiness to our neighbors as well as to ourselves. Specifically, it is
+a training in honesty, truthfulness, sympathy, and industry. There are
+other factors of morality but these are the most important. It is
+evident at once that moral training is the most important of all
+training. This is, at any rate, the view taken by society; for if a man
+falls short in his relations with his fellows, he is punished. If the
+extent of his falling is very great, his liberty is entirely taken away
+from him. In some cases, he is put to death. Moral training, in addition
+to being the most important, is also the most difficult. What the public
+schools can do in this field is quite limited. The training which the
+child gets on the streets and at home almost overshadows it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Moral Training.</b> A good person is one who does the right social
+thing at the right time. The more completely and consistently one does
+this, the better one is. What kind of training can one receive that will
+give assurance of appropriate moral action? Two things can be done to
+give a child this assurance.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;118">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_118" id="Pg_118"></a> The child can be led to form proper ideals
+of action and proper habits of action. By ideal of action, we mean that
+the child should know what the right action is, and have a desire to do
+it. Habits of action are acquired only through action. As has been
+pointed out in the preceding pages, continued action of a definite kind
+develops a tendency to this particular action. One&#8217;s character is the
+sum of his tendencies to action. These tendencies can be developed only
+through practice, through repetition. Moral training, therefore, has the
+same basis as all other training, that is, in habits. The same procedure
+that we use in teaching the child the multiplication table is the one to
+use in developing honesty. In the case of the tables, we have the child
+say &ldquo;fifty-six&rdquo; for &ldquo;eight times seven.&rdquo; We have him do this till he
+does it instantly, automatically. Honesty and truthfulness and the other
+moral virtues can be fixed in the same way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Home and Moral Training.</b> The home is the most important factor in moral
+training. This is largely because of the importance of early habits and
+attitudes. Obedience to parents and respect for authority, which in a
+large measure underlie all other moral training, must be secured and
+developed in the early years of childhood. The child does not start to
+school till about six years old. At this age much of the foundation of
+morality is laid. Unless the child learns strict obedience in the first
+two or three years of life, it is doubtful whether he will ever learn it
+aright. Without the habit of implicit obedience, it is difficult to
+establish any other good habit.</p>
+
+<p>Parents should understand that training in morality consists, in large
+measure, in building up habits, and should go about it in a systematic
+way. As various<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;119">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_119" id="Pg_119"></a> situations arise in the early life of a child, the
+parents should obtain from him the appropriate responses. When the
+situations recur, the right responses should be again secured. Parents
+should continue to insist upon these responses till tendencies are
+formed for the right response to follow when the situation arises. After
+continued repetition, the response comes automatically. The good man or
+woman is the one who does the right thing as the situation presents
+itself, does it as a matter of course because it is his nature. He does
+not even think of doing the wrong thing.</p>
+
+<p>One of the main factors in child training is consistency. The parent
+must inflexibly require the right action in the appropriate situation.
+Good habits will not be formed if parents insist on proper action one
+day but on the next day allow the child to do differently.</p>
+
+<p>Parents must plan the habits which they wish their children to form and
+execute these plans systematically, exercising constant care. Parents,
+and children as well, would profit from reading the plan used by
+Franklin. Farseeing and clear-headed, Franklin saw that character is a
+structure which one builds, so he set about this building in a
+systematic way. For a certain length of time he practiced on one virtue,
+allowing no exceptions in this one virtue. When this aspect of his
+character had acquired strength, he added another virtue and then tried
+to keep perfect as to both.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a></span> See <i>Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The School and Moral Training.</b> In this, as in all other forms of
+training, the school is supplementary to the home. The teacher should
+have well in mind the habits and ideals that the home has been trying to
+develop and should assist in strengthening the bonds. The school can do
+much in developing habits of kind<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;120">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_120" id="Pg_120"></a>ness and sympathy among the children.
+It can develop civic and social ideals and habits. Just how it can best
+do this is a question. Should moral ideals be impressed systematically
+and should habits be formed at the time these ideals are impressed, or
+should the different ideals be instilled and developed as occasion
+demands? This is an experimental problem, and that method should be
+followed which produces the best results. It is possible that one
+teacher may use one method best while a different teacher will have
+better success with another method.</p>
+
+<p>More important than the question of a systematic or an incidental method
+is the question of making the matter vital when it is taken up. Nothing
+is more certain than that mere knowledge of right action will not insure
+right action. In a few hours one can teach a child, as matters of mere
+knowledge, what he should do in all the important situations of life;
+but this will not insure that he will henceforth do the right things.</p>
+
+<p>There are only two ways by which we can obtain any assurance that right
+action will come. The first way is to secure right habits of response.
+We must build up tendencies to action. Tendencies depend upon previous
+action. The second way is to help the child to analyze moral situations
+and see what results will follow upon the different kinds of action.
+There can be developed in a child a desire to do that which will bring
+joy and happiness to others, rather than pain and sorrow. But this
+analysis of moral situations is not enough to insure right moral action;
+there must be practice in doing the right thing. The situation must go
+over to the right response to insure its going there the next time. The
+first thing in moral training is to develop habits. Then, as soon as
+the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;121">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_121" id="Pg_121"></a> child is old enough he can strengthen his habits by a careful
+analysis of the problem why one should act one way rather than another.
+This adds motive; and motive gives strength and assurance.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Habits are acquired tendencies to specific actions in
+definite situations. They are fixed through repetition. They give us
+speed, accuracy, and certainty, they save energy and prevent
+fatigue. They are performed with less attention and become
+pleasurable. The main purpose of education is to form the
+habits&mdash;moral, intellectual, vocational, cultural&mdash;necessary for
+life. Habits and ideals are the basis of our mature life and
+character. Moral training is essentially like other forms of
+training, habit being the basis.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Practice on the formation of some habit until considerable skill is
+acquired. Draw a learning curve similar to the one on page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_95">95</a>, showing
+the increase in skill. A class experiment can be performed by the use of
+a substitution test. Take letters to represent the nine digits, then
+transcribe numbers into the letters as described on page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_192">192</a>. Keep a
+record of successive five-minute periods of practice till all have
+practiced an hour. This gives twelve practice periods for the
+construction of a learning curve. The individual experiments should be
+more difficult and cover a longer period. Suitable experiments for
+individual practice are: learning to operate a typewriter, pitching
+marbles into a hole, writing with the left hand, and mirror writing. The
+latter is performed by standing a mirror vertically on the table,
+placing the paper in front and writing in such a way that the letters
+have the proper form and appearance when seen in the mirror. The subject
+should not look at his hand but at its reflection in the mirror. A piece
+of cardboard can be supported just over the hand so that only the image
+of the hand in the mirror can be seen.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>A study of the interference of habit can be made as follows: Take
+eight small boxes and arrange them in a row. Number each box plainly. Do
+not number them consecutively, but as follows, 5, 7, 1, 8, 2, 3, 6, 4.
+Make eighty cards, ten of each number, and number them plainly. Practice
+distributing the cards into the boxes. Note the time required for each
+distribution. Continue<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;122">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_122" id="Pg_122"></a> to distribute them till considerable skill is
+acquired. Then rearrange the order of the boxes and repeat the
+experiment. What do the results show?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Does the above experiment show any transfer of training? Compare the
+time for each distribution in the second part of the experiment, <i>i.e.</i>
+after the rearrangement of the boxes, with the time for the
+corresponding distribution in the first part of the experiment. The
+question to be answered is: Are the results of the second part of the
+experiment better than they would have been if the first part had not
+been performed? State your results and conclusions and compare with the
+statements in the text.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>A study of the effects of spreading out learning periods can be made
+as follows: Divide the class into two equal divisions. Let one division
+practice on a substitution experiment as explained in Exercise&nbsp;1, for
+five ten-minute periods of practice in immediate succession. Let the
+other division practice for five days, ten minutes a day. What do the
+results indicate? The divisions should be of equal ability. If the first
+ten-minute practice period shows the sections to be of unequal ability,
+this fact should be taken into account in making the comparisons. Test
+sheets can be prepared by the teacher, or they can be obtained from the
+Extension Division of the University of Missouri.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>An experiment similar to No.&nbsp;4 can be performed by practicing adding
+or any other school exercise. Care must be taken to control the
+experiment and to eliminate disturbing factors.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try the card-distributing experiment with people of different ages,
+young children, old people, and various ages in between. What do you
+learn? Is it as easy for an old person to form a habit as it is for a
+young person? Why?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>If an old person has no old habits to interfere, can he form a new
+habit as readily as can a young person?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Cite evidence from your own experience to prove that it is hard for
+an old person to break up old habits and form new ones which interfere
+with the old ones.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Do you find that you are becoming &ldquo;set in your ways?&rdquo;</p></li>
+
+<li><p>What do we mean by saying that we are &ldquo;plastic in early years&rdquo;?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Have you planned your life work? Are you establishing the habits
+that will be necessary in it?<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;123">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_123" id="Pg_123"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p>Is it an advantage or a disadvantage to choose one&#8217;s profession or
+occupation early?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Attention often interferes with the performance of a habitual act.
+Why is this?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>If a man removes his vest in the daytime, he is almost sure to wind
+his watch. On the other hand if he is up all night, he lets his watch
+run down. Why?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Do you know of people who have radically changed their views late in
+life?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Try to teach a dog or a cat a trick. What do you learn of importance
+about habit-formation?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>What branches taught in school involve the formation of habits that
+are useful throughout life?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a list of the moral habits that should be formed in early
+years.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Write an essay on <i>Habit and Life</i>.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin and Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapters&nbsp;XI and XVII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, pp.&nbsp;48&ndash;59; also Chapter&nbsp;XV.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;X, XI, and XII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Rowe</span>: <i>Habit Formation</i>, Chapters&nbsp;V&ndash;XIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, p.&nbsp;169, par.&nbsp;37.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;124">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_124" id="Pg_124"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;VII<br />
+MEMORY</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Perceptions and Ideas.</b> In a previous chapter, brief mention was made of
+the difference between perceptions and ideas. This distinction must now
+be enlarged upon and made clearer. Perceptions arise out of our sensory
+life. We see things when these things are before our eyes. We hear
+things when these things produce air vibrations which affect our ears.
+We smell things when tiny particles from them come into contact with a
+small patch of sensitive membrane in our noses. We taste substances when
+these substances are in our mouths. Now, this seeing, hearing, smelling,
+tasting, etc., is <i>perceiving</i>. We perceive a thing when the thing is
+actually at the time affecting some one or more of our sense organs. A
+perception, then, results from the stimulation of a sense organ.
+Perception is the process of perceiving, sensing, objects in the
+external world.</p>
+
+<p>Ideas are our <i>seeming</i> to see, hear, smell, taste things when these
+things are not present to the senses. This morning I saw, had a
+<i>perception</i> of, a robin. To-night in my study, I have an <i>idea</i> of a
+robin. This morning the robin was present. Light reflected from it
+stimulated my eye. To-night, as I have an idea of the robin, it is not
+here; I only seem to see it. The scene which was mine this morning is
+now revived,<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;125">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_125" id="Pg_125"></a> reproduced. We may say, therefore, that ideas are the
+conscious representatives of objects which are not present to the
+senses. Ideas are revived experiences.</p>
+
+<p>Revived experience is memory. Since it is memory that enables us to live
+our lives over again, brings the past up to the present, it is one of
+the most wonderful aspects of our natures. The importance of memory is
+at once apparent if we try to imagine what life would be without it. If
+our life were only perceptual, if it were only the sights and sounds and
+smells and tastes of the passing moment, it would have little meaning,
+it would be bare and empty. But instead of our perceptions being our
+whole life, they are only the starting points of life. Perceptions serve
+to arouse groups of memory images or ideas, and the groups of ideas
+enrich the passing moment and give meaning to the passing perceptions,
+which otherwise would have no meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose I am walking along the street and meet a friend. I see him,
+speak to him, and pass on. But after I have passed on, I have ideas. I
+think of seeing my friend the day before. I think of what he said and of
+what he was doing, of what I said and of what I was doing. Perhaps for
+many minutes there come ideas from my past experience. These ideas were
+aroused by the perception of my friend. The perception was momentary,
+but it started a long train of memory ideas.</p>
+
+<p>I pass on down the street and go by a music store. Within the store, a
+victrola is playing <i>Jesus, Lover of My Soul</i>. The song starts another
+train of memory ideas. I think of the past, of my boyhood days and
+Sunday school, my early home and many scenes of my childhood. For
+several minutes I am so engrossed<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;126">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_126" id="Pg_126"></a> with the memory images that I
+scarcely notice anything along the street. Again, the momentary
+perception, this time of sounds, served to revive a great number of
+ideas, or memories, of the past.</p>
+
+<p>These illustrations are typical of our life. Every moment we have
+perceptions. These perceptions arouse ideas of our past life and
+experience. One of these ideas evokes another, and so an endless chain
+of images passes along. The older we become, the richer is our
+ideational life. While we are children, the perceptions constitute the
+larger part of our mental life, but as we become older, larger and
+larger becomes the part played by our memory images or ideas. A child is
+not content to sit down and reflect, giving himself up to the flow of
+ideas that come up from his past experience, but a mature person can
+spend hours in recalling past experience. This means that the older we
+grow, the more we live in the past, the less we are bound down by the
+present, and when we are old, instead of perceptions being the main part
+of mental life, they but give the initial push to our thoughts which go
+on in an endless chain as long as we live.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Physiological Basis of Memory.</b> It will be remembered that the basis
+of perception is the agitation of the brain caused by the stimulation of
+a sense organ by an external thing or force. If there is no stimulation
+of a sense organ, there is no sensation, no perception. Now, just as the
+basis of sensation and perception is brain activity, so it is also the
+basis of ideas. In sensation, the brain activity is set up from without.
+In memory, when we have ideas, the brain activity is set up from within
+and is a fainter revival of the activity originally caused by the
+stimulation of the sense organ. Our ideas are just as truly condi<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;127">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_127" id="Pg_127"></a>tioned
+or caused by brain activity as are our sensations.</p>
+
+<p>Memory presents many problems, and psychologists have been trying for
+many years to solve them. We shall now see what they have discovered and
+what is the practical significance of the facts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Relation of Memory to Age and Sex.</b> It is a common notion that memory is
+best when we are young, but such is not the case. Numerous experiments
+have shown that all aspects of memory improve with age. Some aspects of
+memory improve more than others, and they improve at different times and
+rates; but all aspects do improve. From the beginning of school age to
+about fourteen years of age the improvement of most aspects of memory is
+rapid.</p>
+
+<p>If we pronounce a number of digits to a child of six, it can reproduce
+but few of them, a child of eight or ten can reproduce more, a child of
+twelve can reproduce still more, and an adult still more. If we read a
+sentence to children of different ages, we find that the older children
+can reproduce a longer sentence. If we read a short story to children of
+different ages, and then require them to reproduce the story in their
+own words, the older children reproduce more of the story than do the
+young children.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a></span> See age and sex graphs, pp.&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_184">184</a>, <a href="#Pg_188">188</a>, <a href="#Pg_189">189</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Girls excel boys in practically all the aspects of memory.</p>
+
+<p>In rote memory, that is, memory for lists of unrelated words, there is
+not much difference; but the girls are somewhat better. However, in the
+ability to remember the ideas of a story, girls excel boys at every age.
+This superiority of girls over boys is not merely a matter of memory. A
+girl is superior to<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;128">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_128" id="Pg_128"></a> a boy of the same age in nearly every way. This is
+merely a fact of development. A girl develops faster than a boy, she
+reaches maturity more quickly, in mind as well as in body. Although a
+girl is lighter than a boy at birth, on the average she gains in weight
+faster and is heavier at twelve than a boy of the same age. She also
+gains faster in height, and for a few years in early adolescence is
+taller than a boy of the same age. Of course, boys catch up and finally
+become much taller and heavier than girls. Similarly, a girl&#8217;s mind
+develops faster than the mind of a boy, as shown in memory and other
+mental functions.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Improvement of Memory by Practice.</b> All aspects of memory can be
+improved by practice, some aspects much, other aspects little. The
+memory span for digits, or letters, or words, or for objects cannot be
+much improved, but memory for ideas that are related, as the ideas of a
+story, can be considerably improved. In extensive experiments conducted
+in the author&#8217;s laboratory, it was found that a person who at first
+required an hour to memorize the ideas in a certain amount of material,
+could, after a few months&#8217; practice, memorize the same amount in fifteen
+minutes. And in the latter case the ideas would be better remembered
+than they were at the beginning of the experiment. Not only could a
+given number of ideas be learned in less time, but they would be better
+retained when learned in the shorter time. If a person comes to us for
+advice as to how to improve his memory, what should we tell him? In
+order to answer the question, we must consider the factors of a good
+memory.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factors of a Good Memory.</b> (1) The first requirement is to get a good
+impression in the beginning.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;129">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_129" id="Pg_129"></a> Memory is revived experience. The more
+vivid and intense the first experience, the more sure will be the later
+recall. So if we wish to remember an experience, we must experience it
+in the first place under the most favorable conditions. The thing must
+be seen clearly, it must be understood, it must be in the focus of
+consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>The best teaching is that which leads the child to get the clearest
+apprehension of what is taught. If we are teaching about some concrete
+thing, a plant, a machine, we should be sure that the child sees the
+essential points, should be sure that the main principles enter his
+consciousness. We should find out by questioning whether he really does
+clearly understand what we are trying to get him to understand. Often we
+think a pupil or student has forgotten, when the fact is that he never
+really knew the thing which we wished to have him remember.</p>
+
+<p>The first requisite to memory, then, is to <i>know in the first place</i>. If
+we wish to remember knowledge, the knowledge must be seen in the
+clearest light, really <i>be</i> knowledge, at the outset. Few people ever
+really learn how to learn. They never see anything clearly, they never
+stick to a point till it is apprehended in all its relations and
+bearings; consequently they forget, largely because they never really
+knew in the fullest sense.</p>
+
+<p>Most teaching is too abstract. The teacher uses words that have no
+meaning to the pupil. Too much teaching deals with things indirectly. We
+study <i>about</i> things instead of studying things. In geography, for
+example, we study about the earth, getting our information from a book.
+We read about land formations, river courses, erosion, etc., when
+instead we<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;130">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_130" id="Pg_130"></a> should study these objects and processes themselves. The
+first thing in memory, then, is clear apprehension, clear understanding,
+vivid and intense impression.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The second thing necessary to memory is to repeat the experience.
+First we must get a clear impression, then we must repeat the experience
+if we would retain it. It is a mistake to believe that if we have once
+understood a thing, we will always thereafter remember it. We must think
+our experiences over again if we wish to fix them for permanent
+retention.</p>
+
+<p>We must organize our experience. To organize experience means to think
+it over in its helpful relations. In memory, one idea arouses another.
+When we have one idea, what other idea will this arouse? It depends on
+what connections this idea has had in our minds in the past. It depends
+on the associations that it has, and associations depend on our thinking
+the ideas over together.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers and parents should help children to think over their
+experiences in helpful, practical relations. Then in the future, when an
+idea comes to mind, it brings along with it other ideas that have these
+helpful, practical relations. We must not, then, merely repeat our
+experiences, but must repeat them in helpful connections or
+associations. In organizing our experience, we must systematize and
+classify our knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief differences in men is in the way they organize their
+knowledge. Most of us have experiences abundant enough, but we differ in
+the way we work over and organize these experiences. Organization not
+only enables us to remember our experience, but brings our experience
+back in the right connections.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;131">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_131" id="Pg_131"></a>The advice that should be given to a student is the following: Make sure
+that you understand. If the matter is a lesson in a book, go through it
+trying to get the main facts; then go through it again, trying to see
+the relation of all the facts. Then try to see the facts in relation to
+your wider experience. If it is a history lesson, think of the facts of
+the lesson in their relation to previous chapters. Think of the details
+in their bearing on wider and larger movements.</p>
+
+<p>A teacher should always hold in mind the facts in regard to memory, and
+should make her teaching conform to them. She should carefully plan the
+presentation of a new topic so as to insure a clear initial impression.
+A new topic should be presented orally by the teacher, with abundant
+illustration and explanation. It cannot be made too concrete, it cannot
+be made too plain and simple.</p>
+
+<p>Then after the teacher has introduced and made plain the new topic, the
+pupil reads and studies further. At the next recitation of the class,
+the first thing in order should be a discussion, on the part of the
+pupils. This will help the pupils to get the facts cleared up and will
+help the teacher to find out whether the pupils have the facts right.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of the recitation should also be a time for questions.
+Everything should now be made clear, if there are any errors or
+misunderstandings on the pupil&#8217;s part. Of course any procedure in a
+recitation should depend upon the nature of the material and to some
+extent on the stage of advancement of the pupil; but in general such a
+procedure as that just outlined will be most satisfactory and
+economical: first clear initial presentation by the teacher; then<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;132">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_132" id="Pg_132"></a>
+reading and study on the part of the pupil, and third, discussions on
+the following day.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers should also endeavor to show students how to study to the best
+advantage. Pupils do not know how to study. They do not know what to
+look for, and do not know how to find it after they know what they are
+looking for. They should be shown. Of course, some of them learn without
+help how to study. But some never learn, and it would be a great saving
+of time to help all of them master the arts of study and memorizing.</p>
+
+<p>A very important factor in connection with memory is the matter of
+meaning. If a person will try to memorize a list of nonsense words, he
+will find that it is much more difficult than to memorize words that
+have meaning. This is a significant fact. It means that as material
+approaches nonsense, it is difficult to memorize. Therefore we should
+always try to grasp the meaning of a thing, its significance. In
+science, let us always ask, what is the meaning of this fact? What
+bearing does it have on other facts? How does it affect the meaning of
+other facts?</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Memories.</b> We should not speak of memory as if it were some sort
+of power like muscular strength. We should always speak of <i>memories</i>.
+Memories may be classified from several different points of view: A
+classification may be based on the kind of material, as memory for
+concrete things, the actual objects of experience, on the one hand, and
+memory for abstract material, such as names of things, their attributes
+and relations, on the other. Again, we can base a classification on the
+type of ideation to which the material appeals, as auditory memory,
+visual memory, motor memory. We can also base a classi<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;133">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_133" id="Pg_133"></a>fication on the
+principle of <i>meaning</i>. This principle of classification would give us
+at least three classes: memory for ideas as expressed in sentences,
+logical memory; memory for series of meaningful words not logically
+related in sentences, rote memory; memory for series of meaningless
+words, a form of rote memory. This classification is not meant to be
+complete, but only suggestive. With every change in the kind of
+material, the method of presenting the material to the subject, or the
+manner in which the subject deals with the material, there may be a
+change in the effectiveness of memory.</p>
+
+<p>While these different kinds or aspects of memory may have some relation
+to one another, they are to some extent independent. One may have a good
+rote memory and a poor logical memory, or a poor rote memory and a good
+logical memory. That is to say, one may be very poor at remembering the
+exact words of a book, but be good at remembering the meaning, the
+ideas, of the book. One may be good at organizing meaningful material
+but poor at remembering mere words. On the other hand, these conditions
+may be reversed; one may remember the words but never get the meaning.
+It is of course possible that much of this difference is due to habit
+and experience, but some of the difference is beyond doubt due to
+original differences in the nervous system and brain. These differences
+should be determined in the case of all children. It is quite a common
+thing to find a feeble-minded person with a good rote memory, but such a
+person never has a good logical memory. One can have a good rote memory
+without understanding, one cannot have a good logical memory without
+understanding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;134">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_134" id="Pg_134"></a>Let us now ask the question, why can one remember better words that are
+connected by logical relations than words that have no such connection?
+If we read to a person a list of twenty nonsense words, the person can
+remember only two or three; but if a list of twenty words connected in a
+sentence were read to a person, in most cases, all of them would be
+reproduced. The reason is that the words in the latter case are not new.
+We already know the words. They are already a part of our experience. We
+have had days, perhaps years, of experience with them. All that is now
+new about them is perhaps a slightly new relation.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the twenty words may contain but one, or at most only a few,
+ideas, and in this case it is the ideas that we remember. The ideas hold
+the words together. If the twenty words contain a great number of ideas,
+then we cannot remember all of them from one reading. If I say, &ldquo;I have
+a little boy who loves his father and mother very much, and this boy
+wishes to go to the river to catch some fish,&rdquo; one can easily remember
+all these words after one reading. But if I say, &ldquo;The stomach in all the
+Salmonid&aelig; is syphonal and at the pylorus are fifteen to two hundred
+comparatively large pyloric c&oelig;ca&rdquo;; although this sentence is shorter,
+one finds it more difficult to remember, and the main reason is that the
+words are not so familiar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Memory and Thinking.</b> What is the relation of memory to thinking and the
+other mental functions? One often hears a teacher say that she does not
+wish her pupils to depend on memory, but wishes them to reason things
+out. Such a statement shows a misunderstanding of the facts; for
+reasoning itself is only the recall of ideas in accordance with the laws
+of association. Without memory, there would be no<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;135">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_135" id="Pg_135"></a> reasoning, for the
+very material of thought is found to be the revived experiences which we
+call ideas, memories.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first requisites of good thinking is a reliable memory. One
+must have facts to reason, and these facts must come to one in memory to
+be available for thought. If one wishes to become a great thinker in a
+certain field, he must gain experience in that field and organize that
+experience in such a way as to remember it and to recall it when it is
+wanted.</p>
+
+<p>What one does deplore is memory for the mere words with no understanding
+of the meaning. In geometry, for example, a student sometimes commits to
+memory the words of a demonstration, with no understanding of the
+meaning. Of course, that is worse than useless. One should remember the
+meaning of the demonstration. If one has memorized the words only, he
+cannot solve an original problem in geometry. But if he has understood
+the meaning of the demonstration, then he recalls it, and is enabled to
+solve the problem. If one does not remember the various facts about the
+relationships in a triangle, he cannot solve a problem of the triangle
+until he has worked out and discovered the necessary facts. Then memory
+would make them available for the solution of the problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Memory and School Standing.</b> That memory plays a large part in our life
+is evident; and, of course, it is an important factor in all school
+work. It matters not what we learn, if we do not remember it. The author
+has made extensive experiments to determine the relation that memory has
+to a child&#8217;s progress in school.</p>
+
+<p>The method used was to give logical memory tests to all the children in
+a school and then rank the chil<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;136">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_136" id="Pg_136"></a>dren in accordance with their abilities
+to reproduce the story used in the test. Then they were ranked according
+to their standing in their studies. A very high correlation was found.
+On the whole, the pupils standing highest in the memory tests were found
+to stand highest in their studies. It is true, of course, that they did
+not stand highest merely because they had good memories, but because
+they were not only better in memory, but were better in most other
+respects too. Pupils that are good in logical memory are usually good in
+other mental functions.</p>
+
+<p>A test of logical memory is one of the best to give us an idea of the
+school standing of pupils. Not only is the retention of ideas of very
+great importance itself, but the acquiring of ideas, and the organizing
+of them in such a way as to remember them involves nearly all the mental
+functions. The one who remembers well ideas logically related, is the
+one who pays the closest attention, the one who sees the significance,
+the one who organizes, the one who repeats, the one who turns things
+over in his mind. A logical memory test is therefore, to some extent, a
+test of attention, association, power of organization as well as of
+memory; in a word, it is a test of mental power.</p>
+
+<p>Other things being equal, a person whose power of retention is good has
+a great advantage over his fellows who have poor ability to remember.
+Suppose we consider the learning of language. The pupil who can look up
+the meaning of a word just once and remember it has an advantage over
+the person who has to look up the meaning of the word several times
+before it is retained. So in any branch of study, the person who can
+acquire the facts in less time than another person, has the extra time
+for learning something else<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;137">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_137" id="Pg_137"></a> or for going over the same material and
+organizing it better. The scientist who remembers all the significant
+facts that he reads, and sees their bearing on his problems, has a great
+advantage over the person who does not remember so well.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, there are certain dangers in having a good memory, just as
+there is danger in being brilliant generally. The quick learner is in
+danger of forming slovenly habits. A person who learns quickly is likely
+to form the habit of waiting till the last minute to study his lesson
+and then getting a superficial idea of it. The slow learner must form
+good habits of study to get on at all.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers and parents should prevent the bright children from forming bad
+habits of study. The person who learns quickly and retains well should
+be taught to be thorough and to use the advantage that comes from
+repetition. The quick learner should not be satisfied with one attack on
+his lesson, but should study the lesson more than once, for even the
+brilliant learner cannot afford to neglect the advantages that come from
+repetition. A person with poor memory and only mediocre ability
+generally can make up very much by hard work and by work that takes
+advantage of all the laws of economical learning. But he can never
+compete successfully with the person who works as hard as he does and
+who has good powers of learning and retention.</p>
+
+<p>The author has found that in a large class of a hundred or more, there
+is usually a person who has good memory along with good mental ability
+generally, and is also a hard worker. Such a person always does the best
+work in the class. A person with poor memory and poor mental powers
+generally cannot hope to com<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;138">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_138" id="Pg_138"></a>pete with a person of good memory, good
+mental powers generally, if that person is also a good worker.</p>
+
+<p><b>Learning and Remembering.</b> A popular fallacy is expressed in the saying
+&ldquo;Easy come, easy go.&rdquo; The person who is the best learner is also the
+best in retaining what is learned, provided all other conditions are the
+same. This matter was determined in the following way: A logical memory
+test was given to all the children in a city school system. A story was
+read to the pupils and then reproduced by them in writing. The papers
+were corrected and graded and nothing more was said about the test for
+one month. Then at the same time in every room, the teachers said, &ldquo;You
+remember the story I read to you some time ago and which I asked you to
+reproduce. Well, I wish to see how much of the story you still
+remember.&rdquo; The pupils were then required to write down all the story
+that they could recall.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that, in general, the children who write the most when the
+story is first read to them, write the most after the lapse of a month,
+and the poorest ones at first are the poorest ones at the end of the
+month. Of course, the correspondence is not perfect, but in some cases,
+in some grades, it is almost so.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of this experiment is very great. It means that the
+pupil who gets the most facts from a lesson will have the most facts at
+any later time. This is true, of course, only if other things are equal.
+If one pupil studies about the matter more, reflects upon it, repeats it
+in his mind, of course this person will remember more, other things
+being equal. But if neither reviews the matter, or if both do it to an
+equal extent, then the one who learns the most in the first place,
+remembers the most at a later time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;139">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_139" id="Pg_139"></a>I have also tested the matter out in other ways. I have experimented
+with a group of men and women, by reading a passage of about a page in
+length, repeating the reading till the subject could reproduce all the
+facts. It was found that the person who acquired all the facts from the
+fewest readings remembered more of the facts later. It must be said that
+there is less difference between the subjects later than at first.</p>
+
+<p>In the laboratory of Columbia University a similar experiment was
+performed, but in a somewhat different way. Students were required to
+commit to memory German vocabularies and were later tested for their
+retention of the words learned. It was found that those who learned the
+most words in a given time, also retained the largest percentage of what
+had been learned. It should not be surprising that this is the case. The
+quick learner is the one who makes the best use of all the factors of
+retention, the factors mentioned in the preceding paragraph&mdash;good
+attention, association, organization, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Another experiment performed in the author&#8217;s laboratory bears out the
+above conclusions. A group of students were required to commit to memory
+at one sitting a long list of nonsense syllables. The number of
+repetitions necessary to enable each student to reproduce them was
+noted. One day later, the students attempted to reproduce the syllables.
+Of course they could not, and they were then required to say them over
+again till they could just repeat them from memory. The number of
+repetitions was noted. The number of repetitions was much less than on
+the first day. On the third day, the process was repeated. The number of
+repetitions was fewer still. This relearning was kept up each day till
+each person could<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;140">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_140" id="Pg_140"></a> repeat the syllables from memory without any study.
+It was found that the person who learned the syllables in the fewest
+repetitions the first time, relearned them in the fewest repetitions on
+succeeding days. All the experiments bearing on the subject point to the
+same conclusion; namely, that the quick learner, if other things are
+equal, retains at least as well as the slow learner, and usually retains
+better.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transfer of Memory Training.</b> We have said above that there are many
+kinds or aspects of memory. It has also been said that we can improve
+memory by practice. Now, the question arises, if we improve one aspect
+of memory, does this improve all aspects? This is an important question;
+moreover, it is one to be settled by experiment and not by argument.</p>
+
+<p>The most extensive and thorough experiment was performed by an English
+psychologist, Sleight. The experiment was essentially as follows: He
+took a large number of pupils and tested the efficiency of the various
+aspects of their memory. He then took half of them and trained one
+aspect of their memory until there was considerable improvement. The
+other section had no memory training meanwhile. After the training, both
+groups again had all aspects of their memory tested. Both groups showed
+improvement in all aspects because the first tests gave them some
+practice, but the group that had been receiving the training was no
+better in those aspects not trained than was the group receiving no
+training at all. Aspects of memory much like the one trained showed some
+improvement, but other aspects did not.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion is that memory training is specific, that it affects only
+the kind of memory trained, and related memories. This is in harmony
+with what we<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;141">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_141" id="Pg_141"></a> learned about habit. When we receive training, it affects
+only the parts of us trained and other closely related parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Learning by Wholes.</b> We do not often have to commit to memory verbatim,
+but when we do, it is important that we should know the most economical
+way. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that the most economical way
+is to read the entire selection through from beginning to end and
+continue to read it through in this way till the matter is learned by
+heart.</p>
+
+<p>In long selections, the saving by this method is considerable. A pupil
+is not likely to believe this because if he spends a few minutes
+learning in this manner, he finds that he cannot repeat a single line,
+while if he had concentrated on one line, he could have repeated at
+least that much. This is true; but although he cannot repeat a single
+line by the whole procedure, he has learned nevertheless. It would be a
+good thing to demonstrate this fact to a class; then the pupils would be
+satisfied to use the most economical procedure. The plan holds good
+whether the matter be prose or poetry.</p>
+
+<p>But experiments have been carried on only with verbatim learning. The
+best procedure for learning the facts so that one can give them in one&#8217;s
+own words has not yet been experimentally determined.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cramming.</b> An important practical question is whether it pays to go over
+a great amount of material in a very short time, as students often do
+before examinations. From all that has been said above, one could infer
+the solution to this problem. Learning and memorizing are to some extent
+a growth, and consequently involve time.</p>
+
+<p>There is an important law of learning and memory<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;142">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_142" id="Pg_142"></a> known as Jost&#8217;s law,
+which may be stated as follows: If we repeat or renew associations, the
+repetitions have most value for the old associations. Therefore when we
+learn, we should learn and then later relearn. This will make for
+permanent retention. Of course, if we wish to get together a great mass
+of facts for a temporary purpose and do not care to retain them
+permanently, cramming is the proper method. If we are required to pass
+an examination in which a knowledge of many details is expected and
+these details have no important permanent value, cramming is justified.
+When a lawyer is preparing a case to present to a court, the actual,
+detail evidence is of no permanent value, and cramming is justified.</p>
+
+<p>But if we wish to acquire and organize facts for their permanent value,
+cramming is not the proper procedure. The proper procedure is for a
+student to go over his work faithfully as the term of school proceeds,
+then occasionally review. At the end of the term, a rapid review of the
+whole term&#8217;s work is valuable. After one has studied over matter and
+once carefully worked it out, a quick view again of the whole subject is
+most valuable, and assists greatly in making the acquisition permanent.
+But if the matter has not been worked out before, the hasty view of the
+material of the course, while it may enable one to pass the examination,
+has no permanent value.</p>
+
+<p><b>Function of the Teacher in Memory Work.</b> The function of a teacher is
+plainly to get the pupils to learn in accordance with the laws of memory
+above set forth; but there are certain things that a teacher can do that
+may not have become evident to the reader. It has been learned in
+experiments in logical memory that when a story is read to a subject and
+the subject<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;143">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_143" id="Pg_143"></a> attempts to reproduce it, certain mistakes are made. When
+the story is read again, it is common for the same mistakes to be made
+in the recall. Certain ideas were apprehended in a certain way; and,
+when the piece is read again, the subject pays no more attention to the
+ideas already acquired and reported, and they are therefore reported
+wrongly as they were in the first place. Often the subject does not
+notice the errors till his attention is called to them.</p>
+
+<p>This suggests an important function of the teacher in connection with
+the memory work of the pupils. This function is to correct mistakes in
+the early stages of learning. A teacher should always be on the watch to
+find the errors of the pupils and to correct them before they are fixed
+by repetition.</p>
+
+<p>A teacher should, also, consider it her duty to test the memory
+capacities of the pupils and to give each the advice that the case
+demands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Some Educational Inferences.</b>&mdash;There are certain consequences to
+education that follow from the facts of memory above set forth that are
+of considerable significance. Many things have been taught to children
+on the assumption that they could learn them better in childhood than
+later, because it was thought that memory and the learning capacity were
+better in childhood. But both of these assumptions are false. As
+children grow older their learning capacity increases and their memories
+become better.</p>
+
+<p>It has particularly been held that rote memory is better in childhood
+and that therefore children should begin their foreign language study
+early. It is true that as far as <i>speaking</i> a foreign language is
+concerned, the earlier a child begins it the better. But this is not
+true of learning to read the language. The sounds of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;144">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_144" id="Pg_144"></a> the foreign
+language that we have not learned in childhood in speaking the mother
+tongue are usually difficult for us to make. The organs of speech become
+set in the way of their early exercise. In reading the foreign language,
+correct pronunciation is not important. We are concerned with <i>getting</i>
+the thought, and this is possible without pronouncing at all. Reference
+to graphs on pages&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_190">190</a> and <a href="#Pg_191">191</a> will show that rote memory steadily
+improves throughout childhood and youth. The author has performed
+numerous experiments to test this very point. He has had adults work
+side by side with children at building up new associations of the rote
+memory type and found that always the adult could learn faster than the
+child and retain better what was learned.</p>
+
+<p>The experience of language teachers in college and university does not
+give much comfort to those who claim that language study should be begun
+early. These teachers claim that the students who have had previous
+language study do no better than those who have had none. It seems,
+however, that there certainly ought to be <i>some</i> advantage in beginning
+language study early and spreading the study out over the high school
+period. But what is gained does not offset the tremendous loss that
+follows from requiring <i>all</i> high school students to study a foreign
+language merely to give an opportunity for early study to those who are
+to go on in the university with language courses. A mature university
+student that has a real interest in language and literature can begin
+his language study in the university and make rapid progress. Some of
+the best classical scholars whom the author knows began their language
+study in the university. While it would have been of some advantage to
+them<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;145">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_145" id="Pg_145"></a> to have begun their language study earlier, there are so few who
+should go into this kind of work that society cannot afford to make
+provision for their beginning the study in the high school.</p>
+
+<p>The selection and arrangement of the studies in the curriculum must be
+based on other grounds than the laws of memory. What children make most
+progress in and need most to know are the concrete things of their
+physical and social environment. Children must first learn the
+world&mdash;the woods and streams and birds and flowers and plants and
+animals, the earth, its rocks and soils and the wonderful forces at work
+in it. They must learn man,&mdash;what he is and what he does and how he does
+it; how he lives and does his work and how he governs himself. They
+should also learn to read and to write their mother tongue, and should
+learn something of that great store of literature written in the mother
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The few that are to be scholars in language and literature must wait
+till beginning professional study before taking up their foreign
+language; just as a person who is to be a lawyer or physician must also
+wait till time to enter a university before beginning special
+professional preparation. The child&#8217;s memory for abstract conceptions is
+particularly weak in early years; hence studies should be so arranged as
+to acquaint the child with the concrete aspects of the world first, and
+later to acquaint him with the abstract relations of things. Mathematics
+should come late in the child&#8217;s life, for the same reason. Mathematics
+deals with quantitative relations which the child can neither learn nor
+remember profitably and economically till he is more mature. The child
+should first learn the world in its descriptive aspects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;146">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_146" id="Pg_146"></a><b>Memory and Habit.</b> The discussion up to this point should have made it
+clear to the reader that memory is much the same thing as habit. Memory
+considered as retention depends upon the permanence of the impression on
+the brain; but in its associative aspects depends on connections between
+brain centers, as is the case with habit. The association of ideas,
+which is the basis of their recall, is purely a matter of habit
+formation.</p>
+
+<p>When I think of George Washington, I also think of the Revolution, of
+the government, of the presidency, of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson,
+etc., because of the connections which these ideas have had in my mind
+many times before. There is a basis in the brain structure for these
+connections. There is nothing in any <i>idea</i> that connects it with
+another idea. Ideas become connected because of the <i>way in which we
+experience them</i>, and the reason one idea calls up another idea is
+because the brain process that is the cause of one idea brings about
+another brain process that is the cause of a second idea. The whole
+thing is merely a matter of the way the brain activities become
+organized. Therefore the various laws of habit-formation have
+application to memory in so far as memory is a matter of the association
+of ideas, based on brain processes.</p>
+
+<p>One often has the experience of trying to recall a name or a fact and
+finds that he cannot. Presently the name or fact may come, or it may not
+come till the next day or the next week. What is the cause of this
+peculiar phenomenon? The explanation is to be found in the nervous
+system. When one tries to recall the name and it will not come to mind,
+there is some temporary block or hindrance in the nerve-<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;147">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_147" id="Pg_147"></a>path that leads
+from one center to the other and one cannot think of the name till the
+obstruction is removed. We go on thinking about other things, and in the
+meantime the activities going on in the brain remove the obstruction; so
+when the matter comes up again, the nerve current shoots through, and
+behold, the name comes to mind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_IV" id="fig_IV"></a>
+<img src="images/fig04.png" width="400" height="309" alt="Figure&nbsp;IV&mdash;Associative Connections" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;IV&mdash;Associative Connections</p>
+<p class="caption"><span style="font-variant:normal;">The diagram represents schematically the neural basis of the association
+of ideas.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now the only preventive of such an occurrence is to be found in the law
+of habit, for the block ordinarily occurs in case of paths or bonds not
+well established. We must <i>think together</i> the things we wish to have
+associated. Repetition is the key to the situation, repetition which is
+the significant thing in habit-formation, repetition which is the only
+way of coupling two things which we wish to have associated together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;148">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_148" id="Pg_148"></a>Of course, there is no absolute coupling of two ideas. One sometimes
+forgets his own name. When we are tired or ill, things which were the
+most closely associated may not hang together. But those ideas hold
+together in the firmest way that have been experienced together most
+often in a state of attention. The diagram on page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_147">147</a> illustrates
+schematically the neural connections and cross-connections which are the
+bases of the association of ideas, the circles <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>,
+and <i>F</i> represent brain processes which give rise to ideas, and the
+lines represent connecting paths. Note that there are both direct and
+indirect connections.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Sensation and perception give us our first experience with
+things; memory is revived experience. It enables us to live our
+experience over again and is therefore one of the most important
+human traits. The physiological basis of memory is in the brain and
+nervous system. Memory improves with practice and up to a certain
+point with the age of the person. It is better in girls than in
+boys. Good memory depends on vivid experience in the first place and
+on organization and repetition afterward. The person who learns
+quickly usually retains well also. Memory training is specific. The
+extension of the learning process over a long time is favorable to
+memory. Memory ideas are the basis of thinking and reasoning.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>The teacher can test the auditory memory of the members of the class
+for rote material by using letters. It is better to omit the vowels,
+using only the consonants. Prepare five groups of letters with eight
+letters in a group. Read each group of letters to the class, slowly and
+distinctly. After reading a group, allow time for the students to write
+down what they recall, then read the next group and so proceed till the
+five groups have been read. Grade the work by finding the number of
+letters reproduced, taking no account of the position of the letters.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>In a similar way, test visual memory, using different combinations of
+letters. Write the letters plainly on five large squares of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;149">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_149" id="Pg_149"></a> cardboard.
+Hold each list before the class for as long a time as it took to read a
+group in experiment No.&nbsp;1.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Test memory for words in a similar way. Use simple words of one
+syllable, making five lists with eight words in a list.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Test memory for objects by fastening common objects on a large
+cardboard and holding the card before the class. Put eight objects on
+each card and prepare five cards. Expose them for the same length of
+time as in experiment No.&nbsp;2.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Test memory for <i>names</i> of objects by preparing five lists of names,
+eight names in a list, and reading the names as in experiment No.&nbsp;1.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>You now have data for the following study: Find the average grade of
+each student in the different experiments. Find the combined grade of
+each student in all the above experiments. Do the members of the class
+hold the same rank in all the tests? How do the boys compare with the
+girls? How does memory for objects compare with memory for names of
+objects? How does auditory memory compare with visual? What other points
+do you learn from the experiments?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>The teacher can make a study of the logical memory of the members of
+the class by using material as described on page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_184">184</a>. Make five separate
+tests, using stories that are well within the comprehension of the class
+and that will arouse their interest. Sufficient material will be found
+in the author&#8217;s <i>Examination of School Children</i> and Whipple&#8217;s <i>Manual</i>.
+However, the teacher can prepare similar material.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Do the students maintain the same rank in the separate tests of
+experiment No.&nbsp;7? Rank all the students for their combined standing in
+all the first five tests. Rank them for their combined standing in the
+logical memory tests. Compare the two rankings. What conclusions are
+warranted?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>You have tested, in experiment No.&nbsp;7, logical memory when the
+material was read to the students. It will now be interesting to compare
+the results of No.&nbsp;7 with the results obtained by allowing the students
+to read the material of the test. For this purpose, select portions from
+the later chapters of this book. Allow just time enough for the
+selection to be read once slowly by the students, then have it
+reproduced as in the other logical memory experiment. Give several
+tests, if there is sufficient time. Find the average grade of each
+student, and compare the results with those obtained in No.&nbsp;7. This will
+enable you to compare the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;150">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_150" id="Pg_150"></a> relative standing of the members of the
+class, but will not enable you to compare the two ways of acquiring
+facts. For this purpose, the stories would have to be of equal
+difficulty. Let the members of the class plan an experiment that would
+be adequate for this purpose.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>A brief study of the improvement of memory can be made by practicing
+a few minutes each day for a week or two, as time permits, using
+material that can be easily prepared, such as lists of common words. Let
+the members of the class plan the experiment. Use the best plan.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>The class can make a study of the relation of memory to school
+standing in one of the grades below the high school. Give at least two
+tests for logical memory. Give also the rote memory tests described on
+page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_189">189</a>. Get the class standing of the pupils from the teacher. Make
+the comparison as suggested in Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a>, page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_15">15</a>. Or, the correlation
+can be worked out accurately by following the directions given in the
+<i>Examination of School Children</i>, page&nbsp;58, or in Whipple&#8217;s <i>Manual</i>,
+page&nbsp;38.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Let the members of the class make a plan for the improvement of
+their memory for the material studied in school. Plan devices for
+learning the material better and for fixing it in memory. At the end of
+the course in psychology, have an <i>experience</i> meeting and study the
+results reported.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Prepare five lists of nonsense syllables, with eight in a list. Give
+them as in experiment No.&nbsp;3, and compare the results with those of that
+experiment. What do the results indicate as to the value to memory of
+<i>meaningful</i> material? What educational inferences can you make? In
+preparing the syllables, put a vowel between two consonants, and use no
+syllable that is a real word.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>A study of the effects of distractions on learning and memory can be
+made as follows: Let the teacher select two paragraphs in later chapters
+of this book, of equal length and difficulty. Let the students read one
+under quiet conditions and the other while an electric bell is ringing
+in the room. Compare the reproductions in the two cases.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>From the chapter and from the results of all the memory tests, let
+the students enumerate the facts that have educational significance.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;151">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_151" id="Pg_151"></a>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin</span> and <span class="smcap">Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XV.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, pp.&nbsp;165&ndash;170.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;VI and VIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;VII.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;152">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_152" id="Pg_152"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;VIII<br />
+THINKING</h2>
+
+
+<p>In Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a> we learned about sensation. We found that when a sense
+organ is stimulated by its appropriate type of stimulus, this
+stimulation travels through the sensory nerves and sets up an excitation
+in the brain. This excitation in the brain gives us sensation. We see if
+the eye is stimulated. We hear if the ear is stimulated, etc. In
+Chapter&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a> we learned that after the brain has had an excitation giving
+rise to sensation, it is capable of reviving this excitation later. This
+renewal or revival of a brain excitation gives us an experience
+resembling the original sensation, only usually fainter and less stable.
+This revived experience is called <i>image</i> or <i>idea</i>. The general process
+of retention and revival of experience is, as we have seen, known as
+memory. An idea, then, is a bit of revived experience. A perception is a
+bit of immediate or primary experience. I am said to perceive a chair if
+the chair is present before me, if the light reflected from the chair is
+actually exciting my retinas. I have an <i>idea</i> of the chair when I
+<i>seem</i> to see it, when the chair is not before me or when my eyes are
+shut. These distinctions were pointed out in the preceding chapter. Let
+us now proceed to carry our study of ideas further.</p>
+
+<p><b>Association of Ideas.</b> The subject of the association of ideas can best
+be introduced by an experiment.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;153">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_153" id="Pg_153"></a> Take a paper and pencil, and think of
+the word &ldquo;horse.&rdquo; Write this word down, and then write down other words
+that come to mind. Write them in the order in which they come to mind.
+Do this for three or four minutes, and try the experiment several times,
+beginning with a different word each time. Make a study of the lists of
+words. Compare the different lists and the lists written by different
+students.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the writer, the following words came to mind in the first
+few seconds: horse, bridle, saddle, tail, harness, buggy, whip, man,
+sky, stars, sun, ocean. Why did these words come, and why did they come
+in that order? Why did the idea &ldquo;horse&rdquo; suggest the idea &ldquo;bridle&rdquo;? And
+why did &ldquo;bridle&rdquo; suggest &ldquo;saddle&rdquo;? Is there something in the nature of
+ideas that couples them with certain other ideas and makes them <i>always</i>
+suggest the other ideas? No, there is not. Ideas become coupled together
+in our experience, and the coupling is in accordance with our
+experience. Things that are together in our experience become coupled
+together as ideas. The idea &ldquo;horse&rdquo; may become coupled with any other
+idea. The general law of the association of ideas is this: Ideas are
+joined together in memory or revived experience as they were joined in
+the original or perceptive experience.</p>
+
+<p>But the matter is complicated by the fact that things are experienced in
+different connections in perceptive experience. I do not always
+experience &ldquo;horse&rdquo; together with &ldquo;bridle.&rdquo; I sometimes see horses in a
+pasture eating clover. So, as far as this last experience is concerned,
+when I think &ldquo;horse&rdquo; I should also think &ldquo;clover.&rdquo; I sometimes see a
+horse running when a train whistles, so &ldquo;whistle&rdquo; and &ldquo;horse&rdquo; should be
+coupled<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;154">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_154" id="Pg_154"></a> in my mind. A horse once kicked me on the shoulder, so &ldquo;horse&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;shoulder&rdquo; should be connected in my mind. And so they are. The very
+fact that these various experiences come back to me proves that they are
+connected in my mind in accordance with the original experiences. The
+revival of various horse experiences has come to me faster than I could
+write them down, and they are all bound together in my memory. If I
+should write them all out, it would take many hours, perhaps days.</p>
+
+<p>Not only are these &ldquo;horse ideas&rdquo; bound together with one another, but
+they are bound more or less directly, more or less closely, to
+everything else in my life. I can, therefore, pass in thought from the
+idea &ldquo;horse&rdquo; to any other idea, directly or indirectly. Now, in any
+given case, what idea will actually come first after I have the idea
+&ldquo;horse&rdquo;? This depends upon the tendencies established in the nervous
+system. The brain process underlying the idea &ldquo;horse&rdquo; has connections
+with many other processes and tends to excite these processes. The
+factors that strengthen these tendencies or connections are the
+frequency, recency, primacy, and vividness of experience. Let us
+consider, in some detail, each of these factors.</p>
+
+<p><b>Primacy of Experience.</b> A strong factor in determining association is the
+<i>first experience</i>. The first, the original, coupling of ideas tends to
+persist. The first connection is nearly always a strong one, and is also
+strengthened by frequent repetition in memory. Our first experience with
+people and things persists with great strength, across the years, in
+spite of other associations and connections established later. Just now
+there comes to mind my first experience with a certain famous scientist.
+It was many years ago.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;155">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_155" id="Pg_155"></a> I was a student in an eastern university. This
+man gave a public lecture at the opening of the session. I remember many
+details of the occurrence with great vividness. Although I studied under
+this man for three years, no other experience with him is more prominent
+than the first. First experiences give rise to such strong connections
+between ideas that these connections often persist and hold their own as
+against other connections depending upon other factors.</p>
+
+<p>The practical consequences of this factor in teaching are, of course,
+evident. Both teachers and parents should take great care in the matter
+of the first experiences of children. If the idea-connections of first
+experiences are likely to persist, then these connections should be
+desirable ones. They should not be useless connections, nor should they,
+ordinarily, be connections that will have to be radically undone later.
+Usually it is not economical to build up connections between ideas that
+will not serve permanently, except in cases in which the immaturity of
+the mind makes such a procedure necessary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Recency of Experience.</b> The most recent connection of ideas is relatively
+strong, and is often the determining one. But the most recent connection
+must be very recent or it has no especial value. If I have seen a
+certain friend to-day, and his name is brought to mind now, to-day&#8217;s
+experience with him will likely be brought to mind <i>first</i>. But if my
+last seeing him was some days or months ago, the idea-connection of the
+last meeting has no great value. Of course, circumstances always alter
+the matter. Perhaps we should say in the last instance that, other
+things being equal, the last experience has no special value. If the
+last experience was an unusual one, such as a<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;156">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_156" id="Pg_156"></a> death or a marriage, then
+it has a value due to its vividness and intensity and its emotional
+aspects. These factors not only add strength to the connections made at
+the time but are the cause of frequent revivals of this last experience
+in memory in the succeeding days. All these factors taken together often
+give a last experience great associative strength, even though the last
+experience is not recent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frequency of Experience.</b> The most frequent connection of ideas is
+probably the most important factor of all in determining future
+associations. The first connection is but one, and the last connection
+is but one, while repeated connections may be many in number.
+Connections which recur frequently usually overcome all other
+connections. Hence frequency is the dominant factor in association. Most
+of the strength of first connections is due to repetitions in memory
+later. The first experience passes through the mind again and again as
+memory, and thereby becomes strengthened. The fact that repetition of
+connections establishes these connections is, of course, the
+justification of drill and review in school studies. The practical needs
+of life demand that certain ideas be associated so that one calls up the
+other. Teachers and parents, knowing these desirable connections,
+endeavor to fix them in the minds of children by repetition. The
+important facts of history, literature, civics, and science we endeavor,
+by means of repetition, to fasten in the child&#8217;s mind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vividness and Intensity of Experience.</b> A vivid experience is one that
+excites and arouses us, strongly stimulating our feelings. Such
+experiences establish strong bonds of connection. When I think of a
+railroad wreck, I think of one in which I participated.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;157">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_157" id="Pg_157"></a> The experience
+was vivid, intense, and aroused my emotions. I hardly knew whether I was
+dead or alive. Then, secondly, I usually think of a wreck which I
+witnessed in childhood. A train plunged through a bridge and eighteen
+cars were piled up in the ravine. The experience was vivid and produced
+a deep and lasting impression on me.</p>
+
+<p>The practical significance of this factor is, of course, great. When
+ideas are presented to pupils these ideas should be made clear. Every
+conceivable device should be used to clarify and explain,&mdash;concrete
+demonstration, the use of objects and diagrams, pictures and drawings,
+and abundant oral illustration. We must be sure that the one taught
+understands, that the ideas become focal in consciousness and take hold
+of the individual. This is the main factor in what is known as
+&ldquo;interest.&rdquo; An interesting thing is one that takes hold of us and
+possesses us so that we cannot get away from it. Such experiences are
+vivid and have rich emotional connections or accompaniments. Ideas that
+are experienced together at such times are strongly connected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mental Set or Attitude.</b> Another influence always operative in
+determining the association of ideas is mental set. By mental set we
+mean the mood or attitude one is in,&mdash;whether one is sad or glad, well
+or ill, fresh or fatigued, etc. What one has just been thinking about,
+what one has just been doing, are always factors that determine the
+direction of association. One often notices the effects of mental set in
+reading newspapers. If one&#8217;s mind has been deeply occupied with some
+subject and one then starts to read a newspaper, one may actually
+miscall many of the words in the article he is reading; the words are<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;158">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_158" id="Pg_158"></a>
+made to fit in with what is in his mind. For example, if one is all
+wrought up over a wedding, many words beginning with &ldquo;w&rdquo; and having
+about the same length as the word &ldquo;wedding,&rdquo; will be read as &ldquo;wedding.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mental set may be permanent or temporary. By permanent we mean the
+strong tendencies that are built up by continued thought in a certain
+direction. One becomes a Methodist, a Democrat, a conservative, a
+radical, a pessimist, an optimist, etc., by continuity of similar
+experiences and similar reactions to these experiences. Germans, French,
+Irish, Italians, Chinese, have characteristic sets or ways of reacting
+to typical situations that may be called racial. These prejudicial ways
+of reacting may be called racial sets or attitudes. Religious,
+political, and social prejudices may all be called sets or attitudes.</p>
+
+<p>Temporary sets or attitudes are leanings and prejudices that are due to
+temporary states of mind. The fact that one has headache, or
+indigestion, or is in a hurry, or is angry, or is hungry, or is
+emotionally excited over something will, for the time, be a factor in
+determining the direction of association.</p>
+
+<p>One of the tasks of education is to build up sets or attitudes,
+permanent prejudices, to be constant factors in guiding association and,
+consequently, action. We wish to build up permanent attitudes toward
+truth, honesty, industry, sympathy, zeal, persistence, etc. It is
+evident that attitude is merely an aspect of habit. It is an habitual
+way of reacting to a definite and typical situation. This habitual way
+is strengthened by repetition, so that set or attitude finally, after
+years of repetition, becomes a part of our nature. Our prejudices become
+as strong, seemingly, as our instinctive tendencies. After a man has
+thought in<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;159">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_159" id="Pg_159"></a> a particular groove for years, it is about as sure that he
+will come to certain definite conclusions on matters in the line of his
+thought as that he would give typical instinctive or even reflex
+reactions. We know the direction association will take for a
+Presbyterian in religious matters, for a Democrat in political matters,
+with about as much certainty as we know what their actions will be in
+situations that evoke instinctive reactions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thinking and Reasoning.</b> Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind.
+This flow of ideas is in accordance with the laws of association above
+discussed. The order in which the ideas come is the order fixed by
+experience, the order as determined by the various factors above
+enumerated.</p>
+
+<p>In early life, one&#8217;s mind is chiefly perceptual, it is what we see and
+hear and taste and smell. As one grows older his mind grows more and
+more ideational. With increasing age, a larger and larger percentage of
+our mental life is made up of ideas, of memories. The child lives in the
+present, in a world of perceptions. A man is not so much tied down to
+the present; he lives in memory and anticipation. He thinks more than
+does the child. A man is content to sit down in his chair and think for
+hours at a time, a child is not. This thinking is the passing of ideas,
+now one, then another and another. These ideas are the survivals or
+revivals of our past experience. The order of their coming depends on
+our past experience.</p>
+
+<p>As I sit here and write, there surge up out of my past, ideas of creeks
+and rivers and hills, horses and cows and dogs, boys and girls, men and
+women, work and play, school days, friends,&mdash;an endless chain of ideas.
+This &ldquo;flow&rdquo; of ideas is often started by a<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;160">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_160" id="Pg_160"></a> perception. For
+illustration, I see a letter on the table, a letter from my brother. I
+then have a visual image of my brother. I think of him as I saw him
+last. I think of what he said. I think of his children, of his home, of
+his boyhood, and our early life together. Then I think of our mother and
+the old home, and so on and on. Presently I glance at a history among my
+books, and immediately think of Greece and Athens and the Acropolis,
+Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, schoolmates and teachers, and friends
+connected in one way or another with my college study of Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In this description of the process of thinking, I have repeatedly used
+the words &ldquo;think of.&rdquo; I might have said instead, &ldquo;there came to mind
+ideas of Athens, ideas of friends,&rdquo; etc. Thinking, then, is a general
+term for our idea-life.</p>
+
+<p>Reasoning is a form of thinking. Reasoning, too, is a flow of ideas. But
+while reasoning is thinking, it is a special form of thinking; it is
+thinking to a purpose. In thinking as above described and illustrated,
+no immediate ends of the person are served; while in reasoning some end
+is always sought. In reasoning, the flow of ideas must reach some
+particular idea that will serve the need of the moment, the need of the
+problem at hand. Reasoning, then, is controlled thinking, thinking
+centering about a problem, about a situation that one must meet.</p>
+
+<p>The statement that reasoning is <i>controlled</i> thinking needs some
+explanation, for the reader at once is likely to want to know what does
+the controlling. There is not some special faculty or power that does
+the controlling. The control is exercised by the set into which one is
+thrown by the situation which confronts one. The set puts certain
+nerve-tracts into readiness to<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;161">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_161" id="Pg_161"></a> conduct, or in other words, makes
+certain groups of ideas come into mind, and makes one satisfied only if
+the right ideas come. As long as ideas come that do not satisfy, the
+flow keeps on, taking one direction and then another, in accordance with
+the way our ideas have become organized. An idea finally comes that
+satisfies. We are then said to have reached a conclusion, to have made
+up our mind, to have solved our problem.</p>
+
+<p>But the fact that we are satisfied is no sure sign that the problem is
+correctly solved. It means only that our past experiences, available at
+the time through association, say that the conclusion is right. Or, in
+more scientific terms, that the conclusion is in harmony with our past
+experience, as it has been organized and made available through
+association. There is not within us a little being, a reasoner, that
+sits and watches ideas file by and passes judgment upon them. The real
+judge is our nervous system with its organized bonds or connections.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration may make the matter clearer: A boy walking along in the
+woods comes to a stream too wide for him to jump across. He wishes to be
+on the other side, so here is a situation that must be met, a problem
+that must be solved. A flow of ideas is started centering about the
+problem. The flow is entirely determined and directed by past experience
+and the present situation. The boy pauses, looks about, and sees on the
+bank a pole and several large stones. He has walked on poles and on
+fences, he therefore sees himself putting the pole across the stream and
+walking on it. This may be in actual visual imagery, or it may be in
+words. He may merely say, &ldquo;I will put the pole across and walk on it.&rdquo;
+But, before having<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;162">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_162" id="Pg_162"></a> time to do it, he may recall walking on poles that
+turned. He is not then satisfied with the pole idea. The perception of
+stones may next become clear in his mind, and if no inhibiting or
+hindering idea comes up, the stone idea carries him into action. He
+piles the stones into the stream and walks across.</p>
+
+<p>As was mentioned above, the flow of ideas may take different forms. The
+imagery may take any form but is usually visual, auditory, motor, or
+verbal.</p>
+
+<p>Further discussion of the point that reasoning is determined by past
+experience may be necessary. Suppose the teacher ask the class a number
+of different questions, moral, religious, political. Many different
+answers to the questions will be received, in some cases as many answers
+to the questions as there are pupils. Ask whether it is ever right to
+steal, whether it is ever right to lie, whether it is ever right to
+fight, whether it is ever right to disobey a parent or teacher, whether
+oak is stronger than maple, whether iron expands more when heated than
+does copper, whether one should always feed beggars, etc. The answers
+received, in each case, depend on the previous experience of the pupils.
+The more nearly alike the experiences of the pupils, the more nearly
+alike will be the answers. The more divergent the experiences, the more
+different will be the answers.</p>
+
+<p>The basis of reasoning is ultimately the same sort of thing as the basis
+of habit. We have repeated experiences of the same kind. The ideas of
+these experiences become welded together in a definite way. Association
+between certain groups of ideas becomes well fixed. Later situations
+involving these groups of ideas set up definite trains of association.
+We come always to definite conclusions from the same situations<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;163">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_163" id="Pg_163"></a>
+provided that we are in the same mental set and the factors involved are
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout early life we have definite moral and religious ideas
+presented to us. We come to think in definite ways about them or with
+them. It therefore comes about that every day we live, we are
+determining the way we shall in the future reason about things. We are
+each day getting the material for the solution of the problems that will
+be presented to us by future situations. And the reason that one of us
+will solve those problems in a different way from another is because of
+having somewhat different experiences, and of organizing them in a
+different way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meaning and the Organization of Ideas.</b> In the preceding paragraphs we
+have several times spoken of the organization of ideas. Let us now see
+just what is meant by this expression. Intimately connected with the
+organization of ideas is <i>meaning</i>. What is the meaning of an idea? The
+meaning of an idea is another idea or group of ideas that are very
+closely associated with it. When there comes to mind an idea that has
+arisen out of repeated experience, there come almost immediately with it
+other ideas, perhaps vivid images which have been connected with the
+same experience. Suppose the idea is of a horse. If one were asked,
+&ldquo;What is a horse?&rdquo; ideas of a horse in familiar situations would present
+themselves. One may see in imagination a horse being driven, ridden,
+etc., and he would then answer, &ldquo;Why, a horse is to ride,&rdquo; or &ldquo;A horse
+is to drive,&rdquo; or &ldquo;A horse is a domestic animal,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+
+<p>Again, &ldquo;What is a cloud? What is the sun? What is a river? What is
+justice? What is love?&rdquo; One says, &ldquo;A cloud is that from which rain
+falls,&rdquo; or &ldquo;A<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;164">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_164" id="Pg_164"></a> cloud is partially condensed vapor. The sun is a round
+thing in the sky that shines by day. A river is water flowing along in a
+low place through the land. Justice is giving to people what they
+deserve. Love is that feeling one has for a person which makes him be
+kind to that person.&rdquo; The answer that one gives depends on age and
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>But it is evident that when a person is asked what a thing is or what is
+the meaning of a thing, he has at once ideas that have been most closely
+associated with the idea in question. Now, since the most important
+aspect of a thing is what we can do with it, what use it can be to us,
+usually meaning centers about <i>use</i>. A chair is to sit in, bread is to
+eat, water is to drink, clothes are to wear, a hat is a thing to be worn
+on one&#8217;s head, a shovel is to dig with, a car is to ride in, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Use is not quite so evident in such cases as the following: &ldquo;Who was
+C&aelig;sar? Who was Homer? Who is Edison? What was the Inquisition? What were
+the Crusades?&rdquo; However, one has, in these cases, very closely associated
+ideas, and these ideas do center about what we have done with these men
+and events in our thinking. &ldquo;C&aelig;sar was a warrior. Homer was a writer of
+epics. Edison is an inventor,&rdquo; etc. These men and events have been
+presented to us in various situations as standing for various things in
+the history of the world. And when we think of them, we at once think of
+what they did, the place they fill in the world. This constitutes their
+meaning.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that an idea may have many meanings. And the meaning that
+may come to us at any particular moment depends upon the situation. A
+chair, for example, in one situation, may come to mind as a thing to sit
+in; in another situation, as a thing to stand<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;165">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_165" id="Pg_165"></a> in the corner and look
+pretty; in another, a thing to stand on so that one may reach the top
+shelf in the pantry; in another, a thing to strike a burglar with; in
+another, a thing to knock to pieces to be used to make a fire.</p>
+
+<p>The meaning of a thing comes from our experience with it, and the thing
+usually comes to have more and more meanings as our experience with it
+increases. When we meet something new, it may have practically no
+meaning. Suppose we find a new plant in the woods. It has little
+meaning. We may be able to say only that it is a plant, or it is a small
+plant. We touch it and it pricks us, and it at once has more meaning. It
+is a plant that pricks. We bite into it and find it bitter. It is then a
+plant that is bitter, etc. In such a way, objects come to have meaning.
+They acquire meaning according to the connections in which we experience
+them and they may take on different meanings for different persons
+because of the different experiences of these persons. The chief
+interest we have in objects is in what use we can make of them, how we
+can make them serve our purposes, how we can make them contribute to our
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of experience is the connecting, through the process of
+association, of the ideas that arise out of our experience. Our ideas
+are organized not only in accordance with the way we experience them in
+the first place, but in accordance with the way we think them later in
+memory. Of course, ideas are recalled in accordance with the way we
+experience them, but since they are experienced in such a multitude of
+connections, they are recalled later in these various connections and it
+is possible in recall to repeat one connection to the exclusion of
+others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;166">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_166" id="Pg_166"></a>Organization can therefore be a selective process. Although &ldquo;horse&rdquo; is
+experienced in a great variety of situations or connections, for our
+purposes we can select some one or more of these connections and by
+repetition in recalling it, strengthen these connections to the
+exclusion of others. Herein lies one of the greatest possibilities in
+thinking and reasoning, which enables us, to an extent, to be
+independent of original experience. We must have had experience, of
+course, but the strength of bonds between ideas need not depend upon
+original experience, but rather upon the way in which these ideas are
+recalled later, and especially upon the number of times they are
+recalled.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the matter of the organization of experience that teachers and
+parents can be of great help to young people. Children do not know what
+connections of ideas will be most useful in the future. People who have
+had more experience know better and can, by direction and suggestion,
+lead the young to form, and strengthen by repetition, those connections
+of ideas that will be most useful later.</p>
+
+<p>In the various school studies, a mass of ideas is presented. These
+ideas, isolated or with random connections, will be of little service to
+the pupils. They must be organized with reference to future use. This
+organization must come about through thinking over these ideas in
+helpful connections. The teacher knows best what these helpful
+connections are and must help the pupil to make them.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose the topic studied in history is the Battle of Bunker Hill. The
+teacher should assist the child to think the battle over in many
+different connections. There are various geographical, historical, and
+literary aspects of the battle that are of importance. These<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;167">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_167" id="Pg_167"></a> aspects
+should be brought to mind and related by being thought of together.
+Thinking things together binds them together as ideas; and later when
+one idea comes, the others that have been joined with it in the past in
+thought, come also. Therefore, in studying the Battle of Bunker Hill,
+the pupil not only reads about it, but gets a map and studies the
+geography of it, works out the causes that led up to the battle, studies
+the consequences that followed, reads speeches and poems that have been
+made and written since concerning the battle, the monument, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, all the topics studied in school should be thought over and
+organized with reference to meaning and with reference to future use. As
+a result of such procedure, all the topics become organized and
+crystallized, with all related ideas closely bound together in
+association.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest differences in people is in the organization of
+their ideas. Of course, people differ in original experience, but they
+differ more in the way they organize this experience and prepare it for
+future needs. Just as in habit-formation we should by exercise and
+practice acquire those kinds of skill that will serve us best in the
+future, so in getting knowledge we should by repetition strengthen the
+connections between those ideas that we shall need to have connected in
+the future. All education looks forward and is preparatory. As a result
+of training in the organization of ideas, a pupil can learn how to
+organize his experience, in a measure, independent of the teacher. He
+learns to know, himself, what ideas are significant, and what
+connections of ideas will be most helpful. Such an outcome should be one
+of the ends of school training.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;168">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_168" id="Pg_168"></a><b>Training in Reasoning.</b> We have already mentioned ways in which a child
+can be helped in gaining power and facility in reasoning. In this
+paragraph we shall discuss the matter more fully. There are three
+aspects of training in reasoning, one with reference to original
+experience, one with reference to the organization of this experience as
+just discussed, and one with reference to certain habits of procedure in
+the recall and use of experience.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Original experience.</i> Before reasoning in any field, one must have
+experience in that field. There is no substitute for experience. After
+having the experience, it can be organized in various ways, but
+experience there must be. Experience may be primary, with things
+themselves, or it may be secondary, received second hand through books
+or through spoken language. We cannot think without ideas, and ideas
+come only through perceptions of one kind or another.</p>
+
+<p>Originally, all experience arises out of sensations. Language makes it
+possible for us to profit through the perceptual experience of others.
+But even when we receive our experience second hand, our own primary
+experience must enable us to understand the meaning of what we read and
+hear about, else it is valueless to us. Therefore, if we wish to be able
+to reason in the field of physics, of botany, of chemistry, of medicine,
+of law, or of agriculture, we must get experience in those fields. The
+raw material of thought comes only through experience. In such a subject
+as physical geography, for example, the words of the book have little
+meaning unless the child has had original experience in the matter
+discussed. He must have seen hills and valleys and rivers and lakes and
+rocks and weathering, and all the various processes<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;169">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_169" id="Pg_169"></a> discussed in
+physical geography; otherwise, the reading of the text is almost
+valueless. The same thing is true of all subjects. To reason in any
+subject we must have had original experience in it.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>The organization of experience.</i> After experience comes its
+organization. This point has already been fully explained. It was
+pointed out that organization consists in thinking our experience over
+again in helpful relations. Here parents and teachers can be of very
+great service to children.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Habits of thought.</i> There are certain habits of procedure in
+reasoning, apart from the association of the ideas. One can form the
+habit of putting certain questions to oneself when a problem is
+presented, so that certain types of relations are called up. If one is a
+scientist, one looks for causes. If one is a lawyer, one looks up the
+court decisions. If one is a physician, one looks for symptoms, etc.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important habits in connection with reasoning is the
+habit of caution. Reasoning is waiting, waiting for ideas to come that
+will be adequate for the situation. One must form the habit of waiting a
+reasonable length of time for associations to run their course. If one
+act too soon, before his organized experience has had time to pass in
+review, he may act improperly. Therefore one must be trained to a proper
+degree of caution. Of course, caution may be overdone. One must act
+sometime, one cannot wait always.</p>
+
+<p>Another habit is that of testing out a conclusion before it is finally
+put into practice. It is often possible to put a conclusion to some sort
+of test before it is put to the real test, just as one makes a model and
+tries out an invention on a small scale. One should<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;170">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_170" id="Pg_170"></a> not have full
+confidence in a conclusion that is the result of reasoning, till the
+conclusion has been put to the final test of experiment, of trial.</p>
+
+<p>This last statement leads us to the real function of reasoning. Reason
+points the way to action in a new situation. After the situation is
+repeated for a sufficient number of times, action passes into the realm
+of habit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Language and Thinking.</b> The fact that man has spoken and written language
+is of the greatest significance. It has already been pointed out that
+language is a means through which we can get experience secondhand. This
+proves to be a great advantage to man. But language gives us still
+another advantage. Without language, thinking is limited to the passing
+of sensory images that arise in accordance with the laws of association.
+But man can name things and the attributes of things, and these names
+become associated, so that thinking comes to be, in part at least, a
+matter of words. Thinking is talking to oneself. One cannot talk without
+language.</p>
+
+<p>The importance that attaches to language can hardly be overestimated.
+When the child acquires the use of language, he has acquired the use of
+a tool, the importance of which to thinking is greater than that of any
+other tool. Now, one can think without language, in the sense that
+memory images come and go,&mdash;we have defined thinking as the flow of
+imagery, the passing or succession of ideas. But after we have named
+things, thinking, particularly reasoning, becomes largely verbal, or as
+we said above, <i>talking to oneself</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Not only do we give names to concrete things but we give names to
+specific attributes and to relations.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;171">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_171" id="Pg_171"></a> As we organize and analyze our
+experiences, there appear uniformities, principles, laws. To these we
+give names, such as white, black, red, weight, length, thickness,
+justice, truth, sin, crime, heat, cold, mortal, immortal, evolution,
+disintegration, love, hate, envy, jealousy, possible, impossible,
+probable, etc. We spoke above of meanings. To meanings we give names, so
+that a single word comes to stand for meanings broad and significant,
+the result of much experience. Such words as &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;gravitation,&rdquo; single words though they are, represent a wide range of
+experiences and bring these experiences together and crystallize them
+into a single expression, which we use as a unit in our thought.</p>
+
+<p>Language, therefore, makes thought easier and its accomplishment
+greater. After we have studied C&aelig;sar for some years, the name comes to
+represent the epitome, the bird&#8217;s-eye view of a great man. A similar
+thing is true of our study of other men and movements and things. Single
+words come to represent a multitude of experiences. Then these words
+become associated and organized in accordance with the principles of
+association discussed above, so that it comes about that the older we
+are, the more we come to think in words, and the more these words
+represent. The older we are, the more abstract our thinking becomes, the
+more do our words come to stand for meanings and attributes and laws
+that have come out of the organization of our experience.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the accuracy of our thinking depends upon these words
+standing for the <i>truth</i>, depends upon whether we have organized our
+experience in accordance with facts. If our word &ldquo;C&aelig;sar&rdquo; does not stand
+for the real C&aelig;sar, then all our think<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;172">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_172" id="Pg_172"></a>ing in which C&aelig;sar enters will be
+incorrect. If our word &ldquo;justice&rdquo; does not stand for the real justice,
+then all our thinking in which justice enters will be incorrect.</p>
+
+<p>This discussion points to the tremendous importance of the organization
+of experience. Truth is the agreement of our thought with the thing,
+with reality. We must therefore help the young to see the world clearly
+and to organize what they see in accordance with the facts and with a
+view to future use. Then the units of this organized experience are to
+be tagged, labeled, by means of words, and these words or labels become
+the vehicles of thought, and the outcome of the thinking depends on the
+validity of the organization of our experience.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind; its basis is
+in the association of memory ideas. The basis of association is in
+original experience, ideas becoming bound together in memory as
+originally experienced. The factors of association are primacy,
+recency, frequency, intensity, and mental set or attitude. Reasoning
+is thinking to a purpose. We can be trained in reasoning by being
+taught to get vivid experience in the first place and in organizing
+this experience in helpful ways, having in mind future use.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>A series of experiments should be performed to make clear to the
+students that the basis of the association of ideas is in <i>experience</i>
+and not in the nature of the ideas themselves.</p>
+<ol>
+<li><p>Let the students, starting with the same word, write down all the
+ideas that come to mind in one minute. The teacher should give the
+initial idea, as sky, hate, music, clock, table, or wind. The first ten
+ideas coming to each student might be written on the blackboard for
+study and comparison. Are any series alike? Is the tenth idea in one
+series the same as that in any other?</p></li>
+
+<li><p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;173">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_173" id="Pg_173"></a>For a study of the various factors of association, perform the
+following experiment: Let the teacher prepare a list of fifty
+words&mdash;nouns and adjectives, such as wood, murder, goodness, bad, death,
+water, love, angel. Read the words to the class and let each student
+write down the first idea that comes to mind in each case. After the
+list is finished, let each student try to find out what the determining
+factor was in each case, whether primacy, frequency, recency, vividness,
+or mental set. When the study is completed, the student&#8217;s paper should
+contain three columns, the first column showing the stimulus words, the
+second showing the response words, the third showing the determining
+factors. The first column should be dictated and copied after the
+response words have been written.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Study the data in (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>), noting the variety of ideas
+that come to different students for the same stimulus word. It will be
+seen that they come from a great variety of experiences and from all
+parts of one&#8217;s life from childhood to the present, showing that all our
+experiences are bound together and that we can go from one point to any
+other, directly or indirectly.</p></li></ol></li>
+
+<li><p>Perform an experiment to determine how each member of the class
+thinks, <i>i.e.</i> in what kind of imagery. Let each plan a picnic in
+detail. How do they do it? Do they see it or hear it or seem to act it?
+Or does it happen in words merely?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Think of the events of yesterday. How do they come to you? Do your
+images seem to be visual, auditory, motor, or verbal? Do you seem to
+have all kinds of imagery? Is one kind predominant?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Test the class for speed of free association as described on
+page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_193">193</a>. Repeat the experiment at least five times and rank the members
+of the class from the results.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Similarly, test speed for controlled association as described on
+page&nbsp;<a href="#Pg_195">195</a> and rank the members of the class.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Compare the rankings in Nos.&nbsp;4 and 5.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>The teacher can extend the controlled association tests by preparing
+lists that show different kinds of logical relations with one another,
+from genus to species, from species to genus, from verb to object, from
+subject to verb, etc. Do the students maintain the same rank in the
+various types of experiments? Do the ranks in these tests correspond to
+the students&#8217; ranks in thinking in the school subjects?<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;174">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_174" id="Pg_174"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p>At least two series of experiments in reasoning should be performed,
+one to show the nature of reasoning and the other to show the ability of
+the members of the class.</p>
+<ol>
+<li><p>Put several problems to the class, similar to the following: What
+happens to a wet board laid out in the sunshine? Explain. Suppose corn
+is placed in three vessels, 1, 2, and 3. Number&nbsp;1 is sealed up air tight
+and kept warm? Number&nbsp;2 is kept open and warm? Number&nbsp;3 is kept open and
+warm and moist. What happens in each case? Explain.</p>
+
+<p>Condensed milk does not sour as long as the can remains unopened. After
+the can is opened, the milk sours if allowed to become warm; it does not
+sour if kept frozen. Why? Two bars of metal are riveted together. One
+bar is lead, the other iron. What happens when the bars are heated to
+150&nbsp;C? 500&nbsp;C? 1000&nbsp;C? 2000&nbsp;C? Answer the following questions: Is it ever
+right to steal? To kill a person? To lie? Which are unwise and mistaken,
+Republicans or Democrats?</p>
+
+<p>In the above, do all come to the same conclusion? Why? Were any unable
+to come to a conclusion at all on some questions? Why? Do the
+experiments make it clear that reasoning is dependent upon experience?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Let the teacher prepare five problems in reasoning well within the
+experience of the class, and find the speed and accuracy of the students
+in solving them. Compare the results with those in the controlled
+association tests. Test the class with various kinds of mechanical
+puzzles.</p></li></ol></li>
+
+<li><p>The students should study several people to ascertain how well those
+people have their experience organized. Is their experience available?
+Can they come to the point immediately, or, are they hazy, uncertain,
+and impractical?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>It is claimed that we have two types of people, theoretical and
+practical. This is to some extent true. What is the explanation?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>From the point of view of No.&nbsp;10, compare teachers and engineers.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>If anything will work in theory, will it work in practice?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>From what you have learned in the chapter and from the experiments,
+write a paper on training in reasoning.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>What are the main defects of the schools with reference to training
+children to think?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;175">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_175" id="Pg_175"></a>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin</span> and <span class="smcap">Bagley</span>: <i>Human Behavior</i>, Chapters&nbsp;XVI and XVIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Dewey</span>: <i>How We Think</i>, Parts I and III.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, Chapters&nbsp;VIII and XII;
+also pp.&nbsp;192&ndash;195.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;VI and IX.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>, Chapter&nbsp;XV.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, Chapters&nbsp;V, VI, and X.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;176">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_176" id="Pg_176"></a><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;IX<br />
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Physical Differences.</b> One never sees two people whose bodies are exactly
+alike. They differ in height or weight or color of the skin. They differ
+in the color of the hair or eyes, in the shape of the head, or in such
+details as size and shape of the ear, size and shape of the nose, chin,
+mouth, teeth, feet, hands, fingers, toes, nails, etc. The anatomist
+tells us that we differ internally just as we do externally. While the
+internal structure of one person has the same general plan as that of
+another, there being the same number of bones, muscles, organs, etc.,
+there are always differences in detail. We are built on the same plan,
+<i>i.e.</i> we are made after a common type. We vary, above and below this
+type or central tendency.</p>
+
+<p>Weight may be taken for illustration. If we should weigh the first
+thousand men we meet, we should find light men, heavy men, and men of
+medium weight. There would be few light men, few heavy men, but many men
+of medium weight. This fact is well shown in diagram by what is known as
+a curve of distribution or frequency surface, which is constructed as
+follows: Draw a base line A&nbsp;B, and on this line mark off equal distances
+to represent the various weights. At the left end put the number
+representing the lightest men and at the right the number representing
+the heaviest<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;177">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_177" id="Pg_177"></a> men; the other weights come in between in order. Then
+select a scale; we will say a millimeter in height above the base line
+represents one person of the weight represented on the base, and in
+drawing the upper part of the figure, A&nbsp;C&nbsp;B, we have but to measure up
+one millimeter for each person weighed, of the weight indicated below on
+the base.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_V" id="fig_V"></a>
+<img src="images/fig05.png" width="400" height="331" alt="Figure&nbsp;V&mdash;Frequency Surface&mdash;Weight" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;V&mdash;Frequency Surface&mdash;Weight</p>
+<p class="caption" style="font-variant:normal;">
+The solid line represents men, the broken line, women.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A study of this frequency surface shows a tendency for people to be
+grouped about the central tendency or average. There are many people of
+average weight or nearly so, but few people who deviate widely from the
+average weight. If we measure people with refer<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;178">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_178" id="Pg_178"></a>ence to any other
+physical characteristic, or any mental characteristic, we get a similar
+result, we find them grouped about an average or central tendency.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mental Differences.</b> Just as we differ physically, so also we differ
+mentally, and in the various aspects of our behavior. The accompanying
+diagram (Free Association) shows the distribution of a large number of
+men and women with respect to the speed of their flow of ideas. When men
+and women are measured with respect to any mental function, a similar
+distribution is found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_VI" id="fig_VI"></a>
+<img src="images/fig06.png" width="400" height="308" alt="Figure&nbsp;VI&mdash;Frequency Surface&mdash;Free Association" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;VI&mdash;Frequency Surface&mdash;Free Association</p>
+<p class="caption" style="font-variant:normal; text-align:justify;">
+Solid line, men; broken line, women. The numbers below the base
+represent the number of words written in the Free Association test, and
+the numbers at the left represent the number of people making the
+respective scores.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An interesting question is whether our mental dif<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;179">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_179" id="Pg_179"></a>ferences have any
+relation or connection with one another. If one mental characteristic is
+of high order, are all the others of high order also? Does a good memory
+indicate a high order of attention, of association, of imagination, of
+learning capacity? Experiments show that mental characteristics have at
+least some degree of independence. But the rule is that they generally
+go together, a high order of ability in one mental function indicating a
+high order of ability in at least some others, and a low order of
+ability in one function indicating a low order in other functions.</p>
+
+<p>However, it seems that abilities that are very much specialized, such as
+musical ability, artistic ability, etc., may exist in high order while
+other mental functions may be only mediocre. It is a common thing for a
+musical person to be of rather poor ability otherwise. To the extent
+that special abilities require specialized differences in the structure
+of brain, nervous system, or sense organ, they can exist in some degree
+of independence of other functions. Musical ability to some extent does
+require some such differences and may therefore be found either with a
+high or a low degree of ability in other characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless true that at maturity the unequal power of mental
+functions in the same person may be partly due to the fact that one
+function has been exercised and others neglected. A person having very
+strong musical tendencies is likely to have such a great interest in
+music that he will think other activities are not worth while, and will
+consequently neglect these other activities. It will therefore turn out
+that at maturity the great differences in mental functions in such a
+person are in part due to exercise of one function and neglect of
+others. But there can be no doubt that<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;180">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_180" id="Pg_180"></a> in many cases there are large
+original, inherited differences, the individual being poor in one aspect
+of mind and good in others. Feeble-minded people are usually poor in all
+important aspects of mind. However, one sometimes finds a feeble-minded
+person having musical or artistic ability, and often such a person has a
+good rote memory, sometimes a good verbal memory. However, the so-called
+higher mental functions&mdash;logical memory, controlled association, and
+constructive imagination&mdash;are all poor in a feeble-minded person.</p>
+
+<p>Each mental function may be looked upon as in some measure independent;
+each is found existing in people in varying degrees from zero ability up
+to what might be called genius ability. The frequency curves in Fig. VI
+show this. Take rote memory for example. Idiots are found with
+practically zero ability in rote memory. At the other extreme, we find
+mathematical prodigies who, after watching a long freight train pass and
+noting the numbers of the cars, can repeat correctly the number of each
+car. Rote memory abilities can be found representing every step between
+these two extremes. This principle of distribution holds true in the
+case of all mental functions. We find persons practically without them,
+and others possessing them in the highest order, but most people are
+grouped about the average ability.</p>
+
+<p><b>Detecting Mental Differences.</b> It has already been said that mind has
+many different aspects and that people differ with respect to these
+aspects. Now let us ask how we can measure the degree of development of
+these aspects or functions of mind. We measure them just as we measured
+muscular speed as described in the first chapter. Each mental function
+means<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;181">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_181" id="Pg_181"></a> ability to do something&mdash;to learn, to remember, to form images,
+to reason, etc. To measure these different capacities or functions we
+have but to require that the person under consideration <i>do</i> something,
+as learn, remember, etc., and measure how well and how fast he does it,
+just as we would measure how far he can jump, how fast he can run, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In such measurements, the question of practice is always involved. If we
+measure running ability, we find that some are in practice while others
+are not. Those in practice can run at very nearly their ultimate
+capacity. Those who are not in practice can be trained to run much
+faster than they do. To get a true measure of running capacity, we
+should practice the persons to be measured till each runs up to the
+limit of his capacity, and then measure each one&#8217;s speed. The same thing
+is true, to some extent, when we come to measure mental functions
+proper. However, the life that children live gives exercise to all
+fundamental functions of the mind, and unless some of the children
+tested have had experience which would tend to develop some mental
+functions in a special way, tests of the various aspects of learning
+capacity, memory, association, imagination, etc., are a fairly good
+measure of original, inherited tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it must be admitted that there are measurable differences in
+the influence of environment on children, and when these differences are
+extreme, no doubt the influence is shown in the development of the
+child&#8217;s mind. A child reared in a home where all the influences favor
+its mental development, ought to show a measurable difference in such
+development when compared with a child reared in a home where all the
+influences are unfavorable. It is difficult to know to<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;182">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_182" id="Pg_182"></a> what extent this
+is true, for the hereditary and environmental influences are usually in
+harmony, the child of good hereditary stock having good environmental
+influences, and vice versa. When this is not the case, <i>i.e.</i> when a
+child of good stock is reared under poor environmental influences, or
+when a child of poor stock is reared under good influences, the results
+seem to show that the differences in environment have little effect on
+mental development, as far as the fundamental functions are concerned,
+except in the most extreme cases.</p>
+
+<p>Each mental function is capable of some development. It can be brought
+up to the limit of its possibilities. But recent experiments indicate
+that such development is not very great in the case of the elementary,
+fundamental functions. Training, however, has a much greater effect on
+complex mental activities that involve several functions. Rote memory is
+rather simple; it cannot be much affected by training. The memory for
+ideas is more complex; it can be considerably affected by training. The
+original and fundamental functions of the mind depend upon the nature of
+the nervous system which is bequeathed to us by heredity. This cannot be
+much changed. However, training has considerable effect on the
+co&ouml;rdinations and combinations of mental functions. Therefore, the more
+complex the mental activities which we are testing, the more likely they
+are to have been affected by differences in experience and training.</p>
+
+<p>If we should designate the logical memory capacity of one person by 10,
+and that of another by 15, by practice we might bring the first up to 15
+and the second to 22&frac12;, but we could not equalize them. We could never
+make the memory of the one equal to that of<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;183">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_183" id="Pg_183"></a> the other. In an extreme
+case, we might find one child whose experience had been such that his
+logical memory was working up to the limit of its capacity, while the
+other had had little practice in logical memory and was therefore far
+below his real capacity. In such a case, a test would not show the
+native difference, it would show only the present difference in
+functioning capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Fairly adequate tests for the most important mental functions have been
+worked out. A series of group tests with directions and norms follow.
+The members of the class can use these tests in studying the individual
+differences in other people. The teacher will find other tests in the
+author&#8217;s <i>Examination of School Children</i>, and in Whipple&#8217;s <i>Manual of
+Mental and Physical Tests</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MENTAL TESTS</h3>
+
+<h4>General Directions</h4>
+
+<p>The results of the mental tests in the school will be worse than useless
+unless the tests are given with the greatest care and scientific
+precision. Every test should be most carefully explained to the children
+so that they will know <i>exactly</i> what they are to do. The matter must be
+so presented to them that they will put forth <i>all possible</i> effort.
+They must take the tests seriously. Great care must be taken to see that
+there is no cheating. The work of each child should be his own work. In
+those tests in which time is an important element, the time must be
+<i>carefully kept</i>, with a stop watch if one is available. The papers
+should be distributed for the tests and turned face downward on the
+pupil&#8217;s desk. The pupil, when all are ready to begin, should take the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;184">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_184" id="Pg_184"></a>
+paper in his hand and at the signal &ldquo;begin&rdquo; turn it over and begin work,
+and when the signal &ldquo;stop&rdquo; is given, should quit work instantly and turn
+the paper over. Before the work begins, the necessary information should
+be placed on each paper. This information should be the pupil&#8217;s name,
+age, grade, sex, and school. This should be on every paper. When the
+test is over the papers should be immediately collected.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Logical Memory</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> The purpose of this test is to determine the pupil&#8217;s facility in
+remembering and reproducing ideas. A pupil&#8217;s standing in the test may
+serve as an indication of his ability to remember the subject matter of
+the school studies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 334px;"><a name="fig_VII" id="fig_VII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig07.png" width="334" height="600" alt="Figure&nbsp;VII&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;Willie Jones&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;VII&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;Willie Jones&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b> The procedure in this test is for the teacher to read slowly and
+distinctly the story to be reproduced. Immediately after the reading the
+pupils are to write down all of the story that they can recall.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;185">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_185" id="Pg_185"></a> They
+must not begin to write till <i>after</i> the reading. Ten minutes should be
+allowed for the reproduction. This is ample time, and each pupil should
+be told to use the whole time in working on his reproduction. At the end
+of ten minutes, collect the papers. Care should be taken to see that
+each pupil does his own work, that there is no copying. Before reading
+the story, the teacher should give the following instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I shall read to you a story entitled &ldquo;Willie Jones and His Dog&rdquo; (or
+&ldquo;A Farmer&#8217;s Son,&rdquo; or &ldquo;A Costly Temper,&rdquo; as the case may be). After I
+have read the story you are to write down all you can remember of
+it. You are not to use the exact words that I read unless you wish.
+You are to use your own words. Try to recall as much as possible and
+write all you recall. Try to get all the details, not merely the
+main facts.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Material.</b> For grades three, four, and five, use &ldquo;Willie Jones and His
+Dog&rdquo;; for grades six, seven, and eight, use &ldquo;A Farmer&#8217;s Son&rdquo;; for the
+high school, use &ldquo;A Costly Temper.&rdquo; The norms for the latter are based
+on eighth grade and high school pupils.</p>
+
+
+<h5>WILLIE JONES AND HIS DOG</h5>
+
+<p>Willie | Jones | was a little | boy | only | five years old. | He had a
+dog | whose name was Buster. | Buster was a large | dog | with long, |
+black, | curly | hair. | His fore | feet | and the tip | of his tail |
+were white. | One day | Willie&#8217;s mother | sent him | to the store |
+which was only | a short | distance away. | Buster went with him, |
+following behind. | As Buster was turning | at the corner, | a car |
+struck him | and broke | one | hind | leg | and hurt | one | eye. |
+Willie was | very | sorry | and cried | a long | time. | Willie&#8217;s<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;186">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_186" id="Pg_186"></a>
+father | came | and carried | the poor | dog | home. | The broken leg |
+got well | in five | weeks | but the eye | that was hurt | became blind.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+
+<h5>A FARMER&#8217;S SON</h5>
+
+<p>Will | was a farmer&#8217;s | son | who attended school | in town. | His
+clothes | were poor and his boots | often smelled | of the farmyard |
+although he took great | care of them. | Since Will had not gone to
+school | as much | as his classmates, | he was often | at a
+disadvantage, | although his mind | was as good | as theirs,&mdash;| in fact,
+he was brighter | than most | of them. | James, | the wit | of the
+class, | never lost an opportunity | to ridicule | Will&#8217;s mistakes, |
+his bright | red | hair, | and his patched | clothes. | Will | took the
+ridicule | in good part | and never | lost his temper. | One Saturday |
+as Will | was driving | his cows | to pasture, | he met James | teasing
+| a young | child, | a cripple. | Will&#8217;s | indignation | was aroused |
+by the sight. | He asked | the bully | to stop, | but when he would not,
+| Will pounced | upon him | and gave him | a good | beating, | and he
+would not | let James go | until he promised | not to tease | the
+crippled | child | again.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+
+<h5>A COSTLY TEMPER</h5>
+
+<p>A man | named John | Murdock | had a servant | who worried him | much by
+his stupidity. | One day | when this servant was more | stupid | than
+usual, | the angry | master | of the house | threw a book | at his head.
+| The servant | ducked | and the book flew | out of the window.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Now go | and pick that book up!&rdquo; | ordered the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;187">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_187" id="Pg_187"></a> master. | The servant |
+started | to obey, | but a passerby | had saved him | the trouble, | and
+had walked off | with the book. | The scientist | thereupon | began to
+wonder | what book | he had thrown away, | and to his horror, |
+discovered | that it was a quaint | and rare | little | volume | of
+poems, | which he had purchased | in London | for fifty | dollars.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+<p>But his troubles | were not over. | The weeks went by | and the man had
+almost | forgotten his loss, | when, strolling | into a secondhand |
+bookshop, | he saw, | to his great delight, | a copy of the book | he
+had lost. | He asked the price.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Well,&rdquo; | said the dealer, | reflectively, | &ldquo;I guess we can let you
+have it | for forty | dollars. | It is a very | rare book, | and I am
+sure | that I could get seventy-five | dollars for it | by holding on a
+while.&rdquo;&nbsp;|</p>
+
+<p>The man of science | pulled out his purse | and produced the money, |
+delighted at the opportunity of replacing | his lost | treasure. | When
+he reached home, | a card | dropped out | of the leaves. | The card was
+his own, | and further | examination | showed that he had bought back |
+his own property.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Forty dollars&#8217; | worth of temper,&rdquo; | exclaimed the man. | &ldquo;I think I
+shall mend my ways.&rdquo; | His disposition | afterward | became so | good |
+that | the servant became worried, | thinking the man | must be ill.&nbsp;|</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"><a name="fig_VIII" id="fig_VIII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig08.png" width="369" height="600" alt="Figure&nbsp;VIII&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;A Farmer&#8217;s Son&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;VIII&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;A Farmer&#8217;s Son&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Results.</b> The material for the test is divided into units as
+indicated by the vertical lines. The pupil&#8217;s written reproduction should
+be compared unit by unit with the story as printed, and given one credit
+for each unit adequately reproduced. The norms for the three tests are
+shown in the accompanying Figures <a href="#fig_VII">VII</a>, <a href="#fig_VIII">VIII</a>, and <a href="#fig_IX">IX</a>. In these and all
+the graphs which follow,<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;188">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_188" id="Pg_188"></a> the actual ages are shown in the first
+horizontal column. The norms for girls appear in the second horizontal
+column, the norms for boys in the column at the bottom. By the <i>norm</i>
+for an age is meant the average performance of all the pupils of that
+age examined. Age ten applies to those pupils who have passed their
+tenth birthday and have not reached their eleventh birthday, and the
+other ages are to be similarly interpreted. The vertical lines in the
+graphs indicate birthdays and the scores written on these lines indicate
+ability at these exact ages. The column marked ten, for example,
+includes all the children that are over ten and not yet eleven. The
+graphs show the development from age to age. In general, it will be
+noticed, there is an improvement of memory with age, but in the high
+school, in the &ldquo;Costly Temper&rdquo; test, there is a decline. This may not
+indicate a real decline in ability to remember ideas, but a change in
+attitude. The high school pupil probably acquires a habit of
+remembering<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;189">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_189" id="Pg_189"></a> only significant facts. His memory is selective, while in
+the earlier ages, the memory may be more parrot-like, one idea being
+reproduced with about as much fidelity as another. This statement is
+made not as a <i>fact</i>, but as a <i>probable</i> explanation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Rote Memory</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_IX" id="fig_IX"></a>
+<img src="images/fig09.png" width="400" height="434" alt="Figure&nbsp;IX&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;A Costly Temper&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;IX&mdash;Logical Memory&mdash;&ldquo;A Costly Temper&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> The object of the rote memory tests is to determine the pupil&#8217;s
+memory span for unrelated impressions&mdash;words that have no logical
+relations with one another. Much school work makes demands upon this
+ability. Therefore, the tests are of importance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;190">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_190" id="Pg_190"></a><b>Method.</b> There are two lists of words, <i>concrete</i> and <i>abstract</i>, with
+six groups in each list. The list of concrete words should be given
+first, then the abstract. The procedure is to pronounce the first group,
+<i>cat</i>, <i>tree</i>, <i>coat</i>, and then pause for the pupils to write these
+three words. Then pronounce the next group, <i>mule</i>, <i>bird</i>, <i>cart</i>,
+<i>glass</i>, and pause for the reproduction, and so on through the list.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_X" id="fig_X"></a>
+<img src="images/fig10.png" width="400" height="335" alt="Figure&nbsp;X&mdash;Concrete Rote Memory" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;X&mdash;Concrete Rote Memory</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Give the following instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>We wish to see how well you can remember words. I shall pronounce
+first a group of three words. <i>After</i> I have pronounced them, you
+are to write them down. I shall then pronounce a group of four
+words, then one of five words, and so continue with a longer group
+each time. You must pay very close attention<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;191">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_191" id="Pg_191"></a> for I shall pronounce
+a group but once. You are not required to write the words in their
+order, but just as you recall them.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Material.</b> The words for the test are given in the following lists:</p>
+
+<table summary="Twelve groups of between 3 and 8 words.  Six of the groups are abstract words, and six concrete">
+<tr><th><i>Concrete</i></th><th><i>Abstract</i></th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<ol>
+<li>cat, tree, coat</li>
+<li>mule, bird, cart, glass</li>
+<li>star, horse, dress, fence, man</li>
+<li>fish, sun, head, door, shoe, block</li>
+<li>train, mill, box, desk, oil, pup, bill </li>
+<li>floor, car, pipe, bridge, hand, dirt, cow, crank</li>
+</ol></td>
+<td><ol>
+<li>good, black, fast</li>
+<li>clean, tall, round, hot</li>
+<li>long, wet, fierce, white, cold</li>
+<li>deep, soft, quick, dark, great, dead</li>
+<li>sad, strong, hard, bright, fine, glad, plain</li>
+<li>sharp, late, sour, wide, rough, thick, red, tight</li>
+</ol></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XI" id="fig_XI"></a>
+<img src="images/fig11.png" width="400" height="370" alt="Figure&nbsp;XI&mdash;Abstract Rote Memory" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XI&mdash;Abstract Rote Memory</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;192">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_192" id="Pg_192"></a><b>Results.</b> The papers are graded by determining the number of concrete
+words and the number of abstract words that are reproduced. No account
+is taken of whether the words are in the right position or not. A
+perfect score in each test would therefore be thirty-three. The norms
+are shown in Figures <a href="#fig_X">X</a> and <a href="#fig_XI">XI</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>The Substitution Test</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> This test determines one&#8217;s ability to build up new associations.
+It is a test of quickness of learning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b> The substitution test-sheets are distributed to the pupils and
+turned face down on the desks. The teacher gives the following
+instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>We wish to see how fast you can learn. At the top of the sheet which
+has been distributed to you there is a key. In nine circles are
+written the nine digits and for each digit there is written a letter
+which is to be used instead of the digit. Below the key are two
+columns of numbers; each number contains five digits. In the five
+squares which follow the number you are to write the letters which
+correspond to the digits. Work as fast as you can and fill as many
+of the squares as you can without making mistakes. When I say
+&ldquo;stop,&rdquo; quit work instantly and turn the paper over.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Before beginning the test the teacher should explain on the blackboard
+the exact nature of the test. This can be done by using other letters
+instead of those used in the key. Make sure that the pupils understand
+what they are to do. Allow <i>eight</i> minutes in grades three, four, and
+five, and <i>five</i> minutes above the fifth grade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Material.</b> For material, use the substitution test-sheets. This and the
+other test material can be obtained from the University of Missouri,
+Extension Division.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;193">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_193" id="Pg_193"></a><b>Results.</b> In grading the work, count each square correctly filled in as
+one point, and reduce the score to speed per minute by dividing by eight
+in grades three, four, and five, and by five in the grades above.</p>
+
+<p>The norms are shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_XII">XII</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XII" id="fig_XII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig12.png" width="400" height="403" alt="Figure&nbsp;XII&mdash;Substitution Test" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XII&mdash;Substitution Test</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>Free Association</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> This test determines the speed of the free flow of ideas. The
+result of the test is a criterion of the quickness of the flow of ideas
+when no restriction or limitation is put on this flow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b> The procedure in this test is to give the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;194">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_194" id="Pg_194"></a> pupils a word, and
+tell them to write this word down and all the other words that come into
+their minds. Make it clear to them that they are to write whatever word
+comes to mind, whether it has any relation to the word that is given
+them or not. Start them with the word &ldquo;cloud.&rdquo; Give the following
+instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I wish to see how many words you can think of and write down in
+three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it down and then
+all the other words that come into your minds. Do not write
+sentences, merely the words that come into your minds. Work as fast
+as you can.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XIII" id="fig_XIII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig13.png" width="400" height="369" alt="Figure&nbsp;XIII&mdash;Free Association Test" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XIII&mdash;Free Association Test</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Results.</b> Score the work by counting the number of words that have been
+written. The norms are shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_XIII">XIII</a>.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;195">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_195" id="Pg_195"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>Opposites</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> This is a test of controlled association. It tests one aspect of
+the association of ideas. All thinking is a matter of association of
+ideas. Reasoning is controlled association. The test may therefore be
+taken as a measure of speed in reasoning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XIV" id="fig_XIV"></a>
+<img src="images/fig14.png" width="400" height="365" alt="Figure&nbsp;XIV&mdash;Opposites Test&mdash;Lists I and II" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XIV&mdash;Opposites Test&mdash;Lists I and II</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b> Distribute the lists of opposites to the pupils and turn them
+face down on the desks. Use List One in grades three, four, and five,
+and List Two in grades above. Allow two minutes in grades three, four,
+and five and one minute in grades above. Give the following
+instructions:<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;196">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_196" id="Pg_196"></a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>On the sheets that have been distributed to you are fifty words.
+After each word you are to write a word that has the opposite
+meaning. For example, if one word were &ldquo;far,&rdquo; you could write
+&ldquo;near.&rdquo; Work as fast as you can, and when I say &ldquo;stop&rdquo; quit work
+instantly and turn your paper over.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Results.</b> The score is the number of opposites correctly written. The
+norms are shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_XIV">XIV</a>.</p>
+
+<table summary="Two lists each of fifty adjectives">
+<tr><th style="padding-left:0em; padding-right:2em;"><h5>OPPOSITES&mdash;LIST NO.&nbsp;1</h5></th><th style="padding-left:0em; padding-right:2em;"><h5>OPPOSITES&mdash;LIST NO.&nbsp;2</h5></th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<ol>
+<li>good</li>
+<li>big</li>
+<li>rich</li>
+<li>out</li>
+<li>sick</li>
+<li>hot</li>
+<li>long</li>
+<li>wet</li>
+<li>yes</li>
+<li>high</li>
+<li>hard</li>
+<li>sweet</li>
+<li>clean</li>
+<li>sharp</li>
+<li>fast</li>
+<li>black</li>
+<li>old</li>
+<li>up</li>
+<li>thick</li>
+<li>quick</li>
+<li>pretty</li>
+<li>heavy</li>
+<li>late</li>
+<li>wrong</li>
+<li>smooth</li>
+<li>strong</li>
+<li>dark</li>
+<li>dead</li>
+<li>wide</li>
+<li>empty</li>
+<li>above</li>
+<li>north</li>
+<li>laugh</li>
+<li>man</li>
+<li>before</li>
+<li>winter</li>
+<li>ripe</li>
+<li>night</li>
+<li>open</li>
+<li>first</li>
+<li>over</li>
+<li>love</li>
+<li>come</li>
+<li>east</li>
+<li>top</li>
+<li>wise</li>
+<li>front</li>
+<li>girl</li>
+<li>sad</li>
+<li>fat</li>
+</ol></td>
+<td><ol>
+<li>strong</li>
+<li>deep</li>
+<li>lazy</li>
+<li>seldom</li>
+<li>thin</li>
+<li>soft</li>
+<li>many</li>
+<li>valuable</li>
+<li>gloomy</li>
+<li>rude</li>
+<li>dark</li>
+<li>rough</li>
+<li>pretty</li>
+<li>high</li>
+<li>foolish</li>
+<li>present</li>
+<li>glad</li>
+<li>strange</li>
+<li>wrong</li>
+<li>quickly</li>
+<li>black</li>
+<li>good</li>
+<li>fast</li>
+<li>clean</li>
+<li>tall</li>
+<li>hot</li>
+<li>long</li>
+<li>wet</li>
+<li>fierce</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;197">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_197" id="Pg_197"></a>great</li>
+<li>dead</li>
+<li>cloudy</li>
+<li>hard</li>
+<li>bright</li>
+<li>fine</li>
+<li>plain</li>
+<li>sharp</li>
+<li>late</li>
+<li>sour</li>
+<li>wide</li>
+<li>drunk</li>
+<li>tight</li>
+<li>empty</li>
+<li>sick</li>
+<li>friend</li>
+<li>above</li>
+<li>loud</li>
+<li>war</li>
+<li>in</li>
+<li>yes</li>
+</ol></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h4>The Word-Building Test</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> This is a test of a certain type of inventiveness, namely
+linguistic invention. Specifically, it tests the pupil&#8217;s ability to
+construct words using certain prescribed letters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XV" id="fig_XV"></a>
+<img src="images/fig15.png" width="400" height="368" alt="Figure&nbsp;XV&mdash;Word-Building Test" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XV&mdash;Word-Building Test</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;198">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_198" id="Pg_198"></a><b>Method.</b> The pupils are given the letters, <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>,
+and told to make as many words as possible using only these letters.
+Give the following instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes, using
+only the letters which I give you. The words must be real English
+words. You must use only the letters which I give you and must not
+use the same letter more than once in the same word. You do not, of
+course, have to use all the letters in the same word. A word may
+contain one or more letters up to six.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Material.</b> The pupils need only sheets of blank paper.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results.</b> The score is the number of words that do not violate the rules
+of the test as given in the instructions. The norms are shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_XV">XV</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>The Completion Test</h4>
+
+<p><b>Object.</b> This is, to some extent, a test of reasoning capacity. Of
+course, it is only one particular aspect of reasoning. The pupil is
+given a story that has certain words omitted. He must read the story,
+see what it is trying to say, and determine what words, put into the
+blanks, will make the correct sense. The meaning of the word written in
+a particular blank must not only make the sentence read sensibly but
+must fit into the story <i>as a whole</i>. Filling in the blanks in this way
+demands considerable thought.</p>
+
+<p><b>Method.</b> Distribute the test-sheets and turn them face down on the desks.
+Allow ten minutes in all the tests. Give the following instructions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>On the sheets which have been distributed is printed a story which
+has certain words omitted. You are to put in the blanks the words
+that are omitted. The words which you write in must give the proper
+meaning so that the story reads correctly. Each<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;199">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_199" id="Pg_199"></a> word filled in must
+not only give the proper meaning to the sentence but to the story as
+a whole.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Material.</b> Use the completion test-sheets, &ldquo;Joe and the Fourth of July,&rdquo;
+for grades three, four, and five; &ldquo;The Trout&rdquo; for grades, six, seven,
+and eight; and &ldquo;Dr. Goldsmith&#8217;s Medicine&rdquo; for the high school.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results.</b> In scoring the papers, allow one credit for each blank
+correctly filled. The norms are shown in Figures <a href="#fig_XVI">XVI</a>, <a href="#fig_XVII">XVII</a>, and <a href="#fig_XVIII">XVIII</a>.
+It will be noticed that the boys excel in the &ldquo;Trout&rdquo; story. This is
+doubtless because the story is better suited to them on the ground of
+their experience and interest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XVI" id="fig_XVI"></a>
+<img src="images/fig16.png" width="400" height="531" alt="Figure&nbsp;XVI&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;Joe and the Fourth of July&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XVI&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;Joe and the Fourth of July&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+
+<h5>JOE AND THE FOURTH OF JULY</h5>
+
+<p>Joe <i>ran</i><a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> errands for <i>his</i> mother and <i>took</i> care of the <i>baby</i>
+until by the Fourth of July his penny <i>grew</i> to be a dime. The day
+before the Fourth, he <i>went</i> down town all by <i>himself</i> to get his fire
+<i>works</i>. There were so <i>many</i> kinds he hardly knew which to <i>buy</i>. The
+clerk knew that it takes a <i>long</i> time to decide, for he had<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;200">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_200" id="Pg_200"></a> been a
+<i>boy</i> himself not very <i>long</i> ago. So he helped Joe to <i>select</i> the very
+best kinds. &ldquo;When are you going to <i>fire</i> them off?&rdquo; asked the clerk. &ldquo;I
+will fire <i>them</i> very <i>early</i> to-morrow,&rdquo; said the boy. So that night
+Joe set the <i>alarm</i> clock, and the next <i>morning</i> got up <i>early</i> to fire
+his firecrackers.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><span class="label"><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a></span> The italicized words and letters are left blank in the test
+sheets.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XVII" id="fig_XVII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig17.png" width="400" height="600" alt="Figure&nbsp;XVII&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;The Trout&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XVII&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;The Trout&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h5>THE TROUT</h5>
+
+<p>The trout is a fine fish. Once a big trout <i>lived</i> in a pool <i>close</i> by
+a spring. He used to <i>stay</i> under the bank with <i>only</i> his head showing.
+His wide-open <i>eyes</i> shone like jewels. I tried to <i>catch</i> him. I would
+<i>creep</i> up to the <i>edge</i> of the pool <i>where</i> I could see his <i>bright</i>
+eyes looking up.</p>
+
+<p>I <i>caught</i> a grasshopper and <i>threw</i> it over <i>to</i> him. Then there was a
+<i>splash</i> in the water and the grasshopper <i>was gone</i>. I <i>did</i> this <i>two</i>
+or three times. Each time I <i>saw</i> the rush and splash and saw the bait
+had been <i>taken</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So I put the sa<i>me</i> bait on my <i>hook</i> and <i>threw</i> it over into the
+<i>water</i>. But <i>all</i> was silent. The fish was an <i>old</i> one and had <i>grown</i>
+very wise. I did this <i>day</i> after<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;201">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_201" id="Pg_201"></a> day with the same luck. The trout
+<i>knew</i> there was a <i>hook</i> hidden in the bait.</p>
+
+
+<h5>DOCTOR GOLDSMITH&#8217;S MEDICINE</h5>
+
+<p>This <i>is</i> a story of good medicine. Most medicine is <i>bad</i> to <i>take</i>,
+but this was so good <i>that</i> the sick man <i>wished</i> for more.</p>
+
+<p><i>One</i> day a poor woman <i>went</i> to Doctor Goldsmith and <i>asked</i> him to
+<i>go</i> to see her <i>sick</i> husband. &ldquo;He <i>is</i> very sick,&rdquo; she said, &ldquo;and I
+<i>can</i> not <i>get</i> him to eat anything.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>So</i> Doctor Goldsmith <i>went</i> to <i>see</i> him. The doctor <i>saw</i> at once that
+the <i>reason</i> why the man <i>could</i> not eat was <i>because</i> he was <i>so</i> poor
+that he had <i>not</i> been <i>able</i> to buy good food.</p>
+
+<p>Then he <i>said</i> to the woman, &ldquo;<i>Come</i> to my house this evening and I will
+<i>give you</i> some <i>medicine</i> for your <i>husband</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The woman <i>went</i> in the evening and the <i>doctor</i> gave <i>her</i> a small
+paper box tied <i>up</i> tight. &ldquo;<i>It</i> is very heavy,&rdquo; <i>she</i> said. &ldquo;May I
+<i>see</i> what it looks <i>like</i>?&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>No</i>,&rdquo; said the doctor, &ldquo;<i>wait</i> until you
+get <i>home</i>.&rdquo; When she <i>got</i> home, and she and <i>her</i> husband <i>opened</i> the
+box so that he <i>could</i> take the first <i>dose</i> of medicine,&mdash;what do you
+think they <i>saw</i>? The box was <i>filled</i> with silver <i>money</i>. <i>This</i> was
+the <i>good</i> doctor&#8217;s medicine.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><b>Importance of Mental Differences.</b> (1) <i>In school work.</i> One of the
+important results that come from a knowledge of the mental differences
+in children is that we are able to classify them better. When a child
+enters school he should be allowed to proceed through the course as fast
+as his development warrants. Some<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;202">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_202" id="Pg_202"></a> children can do an eight-year course
+in six years; others require ten years; still others can never do it.
+The great majority, of course, can do it in eight years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig_XVIII" id="fig_XVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="400" height="501" alt="Figure&nbsp;XVIII&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;Dr. Goldsmith&#8217;s Medicine&rdquo;" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XVIII&mdash;Completion Test&mdash;&ldquo;Dr. Goldsmith&#8217;s
+Medicine&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Norms for adults, as obtained from university students, are:</p>
+
+<table summary="Average scores of men and women on all the tests described in this past section">
+<tr class="smcap"><th>Test</th><th>Men</th><th>Women</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Substitution Test</td><td>29.1</td><td>32.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rote Memory, Concrete</td><td>28.5</td><td>28.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rote Memory, Abstract</td><td>28.4</td><td>27.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Free Association</td><td>51.5</td><td>49.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Completion, <i>Dr. Goldsmith&#8217;s Medicine</i></td><td>48.1</td><td>49.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Word Building</td><td>20.5</td><td>20.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Logical Memory, <i>Costly Temper</i></td><td>64.0</td><td>69.6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;203">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_203" id="Pg_203"></a><a name="fig_XIX" id="fig_XIX"></a>
+<img src="images/fig19.png" width="400" height="316" alt="Figure&nbsp;XIX&mdash;Frequency Surfaces&mdash;Comparing Fourth Grade with High School" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Figure&nbsp;XIX&mdash;Frequency Surfaces&mdash;Comparing Fourth Grade
+with High School</p>
+<p class="caption" style="font-variant:normal;">
+The numbers along the base represent mental age; those at the left, the
+number of pupils of the respective ages.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be thought that a child&#8217;s success in school branches is a
+sufficient measure of his ability and that no special mental
+measurements are needed. This is a mistake. Many factors contribute to
+success in school work. Ability is only one of these factors, and should
+be specially and independently determined by suitable tests. Children
+may fail in school branches because of being poorly started or started
+at the wrong time, because of poor teaching, sickness, moving from one
+school to another, etc. On the other hand, children of poor ability may
+succeed at school because of much help at home. Therefore special mental
+tests will help<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;204">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_204" id="Pg_204"></a> in determining to what extent original mental ability
+is a factor in the success or failure of the different pupils.</p>
+
+<p>As far as possible, the children of the same grade should have about the
+same ability; but such is seldom the case. In a recent psychological
+study of a school system, the author found wide differences in ability
+in the same grade. The distribution of abilities found in the fourth
+grade and in the high school are shown in Figure&nbsp;<a href="#fig_XIX">XIX</a>. It will be seen
+that in the fourth grade pupils are found with ability equal to that of
+some in the high school. Of course to some extent such a condition is
+unavoidable, for a pupil must establish certain habits and acquire
+certain knowledge before passing from one grade to another. However,
+much of the wide variation in ability now found in the same grade of a
+school could be avoided if the teacher had accurate knowledge of the
+pupils&#8217; abilities. When a teacher learns that a child who is doing
+poorly in school really has ability, she is often able to get from that
+pupil the work of which he is capable. It has been demonstrated by
+experience that accurate measures of children&#8217;s abilities are a great
+help in gradation and classification.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of mental differences is also an aid in the actual teaching
+of the children. The instance mentioned at the close of the last
+paragraph is an example. A knowledge of the differences among the mental
+functions of the same pupil is especially helpful. It has been pointed
+out that the different mental functions in the same pupil are sometimes
+unequally developed. Sometimes considerable differences exist in the
+same pupil with respect to learning capacity, the different aspects of
+memory, association, imagination, and attention. When a teacher knows of
+these differences, she can better direct the work of the pupils.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;205">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_205" id="Pg_205"></a>For example, if a pupil have a very poor memory, the teacher can help
+him by aiding him to secure the advantage that comes from close and
+concentrated attention, frequent repetitions, logical organization, etc.
+On the other hand, she can help the brilliant student by preventing him
+from being satisfied with hastily secured, superficial knowledge, and by
+encouraging him to make proper use of his unusual powers in going deeper
+and more extensively into the school subjects than is possible for the
+ordinary student. In many ways a teacher can be helpful to her pupils if
+she has an accurate knowledge of their mental abilities.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>In life occupations.</i> Extreme variations in ability should
+certainly be considered in choosing one&#8217;s life work. Only persons of the
+highest ability should go into science, law, medicine, or teaching. Many
+occupations demand special kinds of ability, special types of reaction,
+of attention, imagination, etc. For example, the operation of a
+telephone exchange demands a person of quick and steady reaction. The
+work of a motorman on a street car demands a person having the broad
+type of attention, the type of attention that enables one to keep in
+mind many details at the same time. Scientific work demands the type of
+concentrated attention. As far as it is possible, occupations demanding
+special types of ability should be filled by people possessing these
+abilities. It is best for all concerned if each person is doing what he
+can do best. It is true that many occupations do not call for special
+types of ability. And therefore, as far as ability is concerned, a
+person could do as well in one of these occupations as in another. The
+time will sometime come when we shall know the special abilities
+demanded by the different occupations and professions, and by<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;206">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_206" id="Pg_206"></a> suitable
+tests shall be able to determine what people possess the required
+qualifications.</p>
+
+<p>The schools should always be on the lookout for unusual ability.
+Children that are far superior to others of the same age should be
+allowed to advance as fast as their superior ability makes possible, and
+should be held up to a high order of work. Such superior people should
+be, as far as possible, in the same classes, so that they can the more
+easily be given the kind and amount of work that they need. The schools
+should find the children of unusual special ability, such as ability in
+drawing, painting, singing, playing musical instruments, mechanical
+invention, etc. Some provision should be made for the proper development
+and training of these unusual abilities. Society cannot afford to lose
+any spark of genius wherever found. Moreover, the individual will be
+happier if developed and trained along the line of his special ability.</p>
+
+<p><b>Subnormal Children.</b> A small percentage of children are of such low
+mentality that they cannot do the ordinary school work. As soon as such
+children can be picked out with certainty, they should be taken out of
+the regular classes and put into special classes. It is a mistake to try
+to get them to do the regular school work. They cannot do it, and they
+only waste the teacher&#8217;s time and usually give her much trouble.
+Besides, they waste their own time; for while they cannot do the
+ordinary school work, they can do other things, perhaps work of a manual
+nature. The education of such people should, therefore, be in the
+direction of simple manual occupations.</p>
+
+<p>For detecting such children, in addition to the tests given above,
+elaborate tests for individual examination have been devised. The most
+widely used is a series<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;207">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_207" id="Pg_207"></a> known as the Binet-Simon tests. A special group
+of tests is provided for the children of each age. If a child can pass
+the tests for his age, he is considered normal. If he can pass only the
+tests three years or more below his age, he is usually considered
+subnormal. But a child&#8217;s fate should not depend solely upon any number
+or any kind of tests. We should always give the child a trial and see
+what he is able to achieve. This trial should cover as many months or
+years as are necessary to determine beyond doubt the child&#8217;s mental
+status.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Just as we differ in the various aspects of body, so also
+we differ in the various aspects of mind. These differences can be
+measured by tests. A knowledge of these differences should aid us in
+grading, classifying, and teaching children, as well as in the
+selection of occupation and professions for them. Mental traits have
+some degree of independence; as a result a high degree of one trait
+may be found with low degree of some others.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Many of the tests and experiments already described should have shown
+many of the individual differences of the members of the class. The
+teacher will find in the author&#8217;s <i>Examination of School Children</i> a
+series of group tests with norms which can be used for a further study
+of individual differences.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>The tapping experiment described in the first chapter can now be
+repeated and the results taken as a measure of reaction time.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>You should now have available the records of all the tests and
+experiments so far given that show individual differences. Make out a
+table showing the rank of each student in the various tests. Compute the
+average rank of each student for all the tests. This average rank may be
+taken as a measure of the intelligence of the students, as far as such
+can be determined by the tests used. Correlate this ranking with
+standing in the high school classes. It will give a positive
+correlation, not perfect, however.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;208">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_208" id="Pg_208"></a> Why not? If your measures of
+intelligence were absolutely correct, you still would not get a perfect
+correlation with high school standing. Why not?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>If you had a correct measure of intelligence of 100 mature people in
+your city, selected at random, would this measure give you an exact
+measure of their success in life? Give the reason for your answer.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Of all the tests and experiments previously described in this book,
+which gives the best indication of success in high school?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>If the class in psychology is a large one, a graph should be prepared
+showing the distribution of abilities in the class. For this purpose,
+you will have to use the absolute measures instead of ranks. Find the
+average for each test used. Make these averages all the same by
+multiplying the low ones and dividing the high ones. Then all the grades
+of each student can be added. This will give each test the same weight
+in the average. The use of a slide rule will make this transference to a
+new average very easy. A more accurate method for this computation is
+described in the author&#8217;s <i>Examination of School Children</i>, p.&nbsp;65.</p>
+
+<p>The students should make a study of individual differences and the
+distribution of ability in some grade below the high school. The tests
+described in this chapter can be used for that purpose.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Is it a good thing for high school students to find out how they
+compare with others in their various mental functions? If you have poor
+ability, is it a good thing for you to find it out? If the teacher and
+students think best, the results of all the various tests need not be
+made known except to the persons concerned. The data can be used in the
+various computations without the students&#8217; knowing whose measures they
+are.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>To what extent is ability a factor in life? You find people of only
+ordinary ability succeeding and brilliant people failing. Why is this?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>None of the tests so far used measures ideals or perseverance and
+persistence. These are important factors in life, and there is no very
+adequate measure for any of them. The students might plan some
+experiments to test physical and mental persistence and endurance. The
+tapping experiment, for example, might be continued for an hour and the
+records kept for each minute. Then from these records a graph could be
+plotted showing the course of efficiency for the hour. Mental adding or
+mul<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;209">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_209" id="Pg_209"></a>tiplying might be kept up continuously for several hours and the
+results studied as above.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>We have said that ideals and persistence are important factors in
+life. Are they inherited or acquired?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Do you find it to be the rule or the exception for a person standing
+high in one mental function to stand high in the others also?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of the chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>. Chapter&nbsp;XVI.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Examination of School Children</i>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>: <i>The Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>. Chapter&nbsp;XVII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>, pp.&nbsp;309&ndash;311.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;210">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_210" id="Pg_210"></a><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER&nbsp;X<br />
+APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>The General Field.</b> Psychology has now reached that stage in its
+development where it can be of use to humanity. It can be of use in
+those fields which demand a knowledge of human nature. As indicated in
+the first chapter, these fields are education, medicine, law, business,
+and industry. We may add another which has been called &ldquo;culture.&rdquo; We
+cannot say that psychology is able yet to be of very great service
+except to education, law, and medicine. It has been of less service to
+the field of business and industry, but in the future, its contribution
+here will be as great as in the other fields. While the service of
+psychology in the various fields is not yet great, what it will
+eventually be able to do is very clear. It is the purpose of this
+chapter to indicate briefly, the nature and possibilities of this
+psychological service.</p>
+
+<p><b>Education.</b> Throughout the preceding chapters, we have emphasized the
+educational importance of the facts discussed. There is little left to
+say here except to summarize the main facts. Since education is a matter
+of making a child over into what he ought to be, the science of
+education demands a knowledge of the original nature of children. This
+means that one must know the nature of instincts, their relations to one
+another, their order of development, and the<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;211">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_211" id="Pg_211"></a> possibilities of their
+being changed, modified, developed, suppressed. It means that one must
+know the nature of the child&#8217;s mind in all its various functions, the
+development and significance of these functions,&mdash;memory, association,
+imagination, and attention. The science especially demands that we
+understand the principles of habit-formation, the laws of economical
+learning, and the laws of memory.</p>
+
+<p>This psychological knowledge must form the ground-work in the education
+of teachers for their profession. In addition to this general
+preparation of the teacher, psychology will render the schools a great
+service through the psycho-clinicist, who will be a psychological expert
+working under the superintendents of our school systems. His duty will
+be to supervise the work of mental testing, the work of diagnosis for
+feeble-mindedness and selection of the subnormal children, the teaching
+of such children. He will give advice in all cases which demand expert
+psychological knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Medicine.</b> In the first place, there is a department of medicine which
+deals with nervous diseases, such as insanity, double personality,
+severe nervous shock, hallucination, etc. This entire aspect of medicine
+is wholly psychological. But psychology can be of service to the general
+practitioner both in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A thorough
+psychological knowledge of human nature will assist a physician in
+diagnosis. Often the best way to find out what ails a patient&#8217;s body is
+through the patient&#8217;s mind, and the doctor must know how to get the
+truth from the patient&#8217;s mind even in those cases in which the patient
+is actually trying to conceal the truth. A profound practical knowledge
+of human nature is neces<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;212">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_212" id="Pg_212"></a>sary,&mdash;a knowledge which can be obtained only
+by long and careful technical study as well as practice and experience.</p>
+
+<p>Psychology can be of service in the treatment of disease. The physician
+must understand the peculiar mental characteristics of his patient in
+order to know how to deal with him. In some cases, hypnotism is a
+valuable aid in treatment, and in many cases, ordinary normal suggestion
+can be of considerable service. The state of mind of a sick person has
+much to do with his recovery. The physician must know this and must know
+how to induce the desired state of mind. Indeed, a patient&#8217;s trouble is
+often imaginary, exists in the mind only; in such cases, the treatment
+should be wholly mental, <i>i.e.</i> through suggestion. Of course, the best
+physicians know these facts and make use of them in their practice, but
+preparation for this aspect of their work should be a regular part of
+their medical education. They should not be left to learn these facts
+from their practice as best they may, any more than they should be
+expected to learn their physiology and anatomy in this way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Law.</b> The service of psychology to law can be very great, but owing to
+the necessary conservatism of the courts, it will be a long time before
+they will make much use of psychological knowledge. Perhaps the greatest
+service will be in determining the credibility of evidence. Psychology
+can now give the general principles in this matter. Witnesses go on the
+stand and swear to all sorts of things as to what they heard and saw and
+did, often months and even years previously. The expert clinical
+psychologist can tell the court the probability of such evidence being
+true. Experiments have shown that there is a large per<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;213">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_213" id="Pg_213"></a>centage of error
+in such evidence. The additional value that comes from the oath has been
+measured. The oath increases the liability of truth only a small
+percentage.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have also shown that one&#8217;s feeling of certainty is no
+guarantee of truth. Sometimes the point we feel surest about is the one
+farthest from the truth. In fact, feeling sure of a thing is no
+guarantee of truth.</p>
+
+<p>In a particular case in court, the psychologist can determine the
+reliability of the evidence of a particular witness and enable the judge
+and the jury to put the proper value on such witness&#8217;s testimony. For
+example, a witness may swear to a certain point involving the estimation
+of time and distance. The psychologist can measure the witness&#8217;s
+accuracy in such estimates, often showing that what the witness claims
+to be able to do is an impossibility. A case may hinge on whether an
+interval of time was ten minutes or twelve minutes, or whether a
+distance was three hundred or four hundred feet. A witness may swear
+positively to one or both of these points. The psychologist can show the
+court the limitations of the witness in making such estimates.</p>
+
+<p>Psychology can be of service in the examination of the criminal himself.
+Through association tests and in other ways, the guilt or innocence of
+the prisoner can often be determined, and his intellectual status can
+also be determined. The prisoner may be insane, or feeble-minded, or
+have some other peculiar mental disorder. Such matters fall within the
+realm of psychology. After a prisoner has been found guilty, the court
+should have the advice of the clinical psychologist in deciding what
+should be done with him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;214">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_214" id="Pg_214"></a>It should be added that the court and not the attorneys should make use
+of the psychologist. Whenever a psychologist can be of service in a case
+in court, the judge should summon such assistance, just as he should if
+expert chemical, physical, physiological, or anatomical knowledge should
+be desired.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of human nature can be of much service to society in the
+prevention of crime. This will come about from a better knowledge of the
+psychological principles of habit-formation and moral training, through
+a better knowledge of how to control human nature. A large percentage of
+all crime, perhaps as much as forty per&nbsp;cent, is committed by
+feeble-minded people. Now, if we can detect these people early, and give
+them the simple manual education which they are capable of receiving, we
+can keep them out of a life of crime.</p>
+
+<p>Studies of criminals in reform schools show that the history of many
+cases is as follows: The person, being of low mentality, could not get
+on well at school and therefore came to dislike school, and consequently
+became a truant. Truancy led to crime. Crime sent the person to the
+court, and the court sent the person to the state reformatory.</p>
+
+<p>The great duty of the state is the prevention of crime. Usually little
+can be done in the way of saving a mature criminal. We must save the
+children before they become criminals, save them by proper treatment.
+Society owes it to every child to do the right thing for him, the right
+thing, whether the child is an idiot or a genius. Merely from the
+standpoint of economy, it would be an immense saving to the state if it
+would prevent crime by the proper treatment of every child.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;215">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_215" id="Pg_215"></a><b>Business.</b> The contribution of psychology in this field, so far, is in
+the psychology of advertising and salesmanship, both having to do
+chiefly with the selling of goods. Students of the psychology of
+advertising have, by experiment, determined many principles that govern
+people when reading newspapers and magazines, principles having to do
+with size and kind of type, arrangement and form, the wording of an
+advertisement, etc. The object of an advertisement is to get the reader
+interested in the article advertised. The first thing is to get him to
+<i>read</i> the advertisement. Here, various principles of attention are
+involved. The next thing is to have the <i>matter</i> of the advertisement of
+such a nature that it creates interest and remains in memory, so that
+when the reader buys an article of that type he buys the particular kind
+mentioned in the advertisement.</p>
+
+<p>In salesmanship, many subtle psychological principles are involved. The
+problem of the salesman is to get the attention of the customer, and
+then to make him <i>want</i> to buy his goods. To do this with the greatest
+success demands a profound knowledge of human nature. Other things being
+equal, that man can most influence people who has the widest knowledge
+of the nature of people, and of the factors that affect this nature. The
+successful salesman must understand human feelings and emotions,
+especially sympathy; also the laws of attention and memory, and the
+power of suggestion. A mastery of the important principles requires
+years of study, and a successful application of them requires just as
+many years of practice.</p>
+
+<p>The last paragraph leads us to a consideration of the general problem of
+influencing men. In all occu<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;216">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_216" id="Pg_216"></a>pations and professions, one needs to know
+how to influence other men. We have already discussed the matter of
+influencing people to buy goods. People who employ labor need to know
+how to get laborers to do more and better work, how to make them loyal
+and happy. The minister needs to know how to induce the members of his
+congregation to do right. The statesman needs to know how to win his
+hearers and convince them of the justice and wisdom of his cause.
+Whatever our calling, there is scarcely a day when we could not do
+better if we knew more fully how to influence people.</p>
+
+<p><b>Industry.</b> The service of psychology here is four-fold: (1) Finding what
+men are fitted for. (2) Finding what kinds of abilities are demanded by
+the various trades and occupations. (3) Helping the worker to understand
+the psychological aspects of his work. (4) Getting the best work out of
+the laborer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finding what men are fitted for.</i> In the preceding chapter, we
+discussed the individual variations of men. Some people are better
+fitted physically and mentally for certain types of work than they are
+for other types of work. The determination of what an individual is
+fitted for and what he is not fitted for is the business of psychology.
+In some cases, the verdict of psychology can be very specific; in
+others, it can be only general. Much misery and unhappiness come to
+people from trying to do what they are not fitted by nature to do. There
+are many professions and occupations which people should not enter
+unless they possess high general ability. Now, psychology is able to
+measure general ability. There are many other occupations and
+professions which people should not enter unless they possess some
+special ability.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;217">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_217" id="Pg_217"></a> Music, art, and mechanics may be mentioned as examples
+of occupations and professions demanding specific kinds of ability. In
+industrial work, many aspects demand very special abilities, as quick
+reaction, quick perception, fine discrimination, calmness and
+self-control, ingenuity, quick adaptation to new situations. Psychology
+can aid in picking out the people who possess the required abilities.</p>
+
+<p><i>The different abilities demanded.</i> It is the business of psychology to
+make a careful analysis of the specific abilities required in all the
+various works of life. There are hundreds of occupations and often much
+differentiation of work within an occupation. It is for the psychologist
+of the future to make this analysis and to classify the occupations with
+reference to the kinds of abilities demanded. Of course, many of them
+will be found to require the same kind of ability, but just as surely,
+many will be found to require very special abilities. It is a great
+social waste to have people trying to fill such positions unless they
+possess the specific abilities required.</p>
+
+<p>It should be the work of the high school and college to explain the
+possibilities, and the demands in the way of ability, of the various
+occupations of the locality. By possibilities and demands are meant the
+kinds of abilities required and the rewards that can be expected, the
+kind of life which the different fields offer. It is the further duty of
+the high school and college to find out, as far as possible, the
+specific abilities of the students. With this knowledge before them, the
+students should choose their careers, and then make specific preparation
+for them. The schools ought to work in close co&ouml;peration with the
+industries, the student working for a part of the day in school and a
+part<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;218">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_218" id="Pg_218"></a> in the industries. This would help much in leading the student to
+understand the industries and in ascertaining his own abilities and
+interests.</p>
+
+<p><i>The psychological aspects of one&#8217;s work.</i> All occupations have a
+psychological aspect. They involve some trick of attention, of
+association, of memory. Certain things must be looked for, certain
+habits must be formed, certain movements must be automatized. Workmen
+should be helped to master these psychological problems, to find the
+most convenient ways of doing their work. Workmen often do their work in
+the most uneconomical ways, having learned their methods through
+imitation, and never inquiring whether there is a more economical way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Securing efficiency.</i> Securing efficiency is a matter of influencing
+men, a matter which we have already discussed. Securing efficiency is
+quite a different matter from that treated in the preceding paragraph. A
+workman may have a complete knowledge of his work and be skilled in its
+performance, and still be a poor workman, because he does not have the
+right attitude toward his employer or toward his work. The employer must
+therefore meet the problem of making his men like their work and be
+loyal to their employer. The laborer must be happy and contented if he
+is to do good work. Moreover, there is <i>no use in working</i>, or in living
+either, if one cannot be happy and contented.</p>
+
+<p>We have briefly indicated the possibilities of psychology in the various
+occupations and professions. There is a further application that has no
+reference to the practical needs of life, but to enjoyment. A
+psychological knowledge of human nature adds a new interest to all our
+social experience. The ability<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;219">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_219" id="Pg_219"></a> to understand the actions and feelings
+of men puts new meaning into the world. The ability to understand
+oneself, to analyze one&#8217;s actions, motives, feelings, and thoughts,
+makes life more worth living. A knowledge of the sensations and sense
+organs adds much pleasure to life in addition to its having great
+practical value. Briefly, a psychological knowledge of human nature adds
+much to the richness of life. It gives one the analytical attitude.
+Experiences that to others are wholes, to the psychologist fall apart
+into their elements. Such knowledge leads us to analyze and see clearly
+what otherwise we do not understand and see only darkly or not at all.
+Literature and art, and all other creations and products of man take on
+a wholly new interest to the psychologist.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Summary.</span> Psychology is of service to education in ascertaining the
+nature of the child and the laws of learning; to law, in determining
+the reliability of evidence and in the prevention of crime; to
+medicine, in the work of diagnosis and treatment; to business, in
+advertising and salesmanship; to the industries, in finding the man
+for the place and the place for the man; to everybody, in giving a
+keener insight into, and understanding of, human nature.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h3>CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li><p>Visit a court room when a trial is in progress. Note wherein
+psychology could be of service to the jury, to the judge, and to the
+attorneys.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>To test the reliability of evidence, proceed as follows: Take a large
+picture, preferably one in color and having many details; hold it before
+the class in a good light where all can see it. Let them look at it for
+ten or fifteen seconds, the time depending on the complexity of the
+picture. The students should then write down what they saw in the
+picture, underscoring all the points to which they would be willing to
+make oath. Then the students should answer a list of questions prepared
+by the teacher, on<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;220">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_220" id="Pg_220"></a> various points in the picture. Some of these
+questions should be suggestive, such as, &ldquo;What color is the dog?&rdquo;
+supposing no dog to be in the picture. The papers giving the first
+written description should be graded on the number of items reported and
+on their accuracy. The answers to the questions should be graded on
+their accuracy. How do girls compare with boys in the various aspects of
+the report? What is the accuracy of the underlined points?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Let the teacher, with the help of two or three students, perform
+before the class some act or series of acts, with some conversation, and
+then have the students who have witnessed the performance write an
+account of it, as in No.&nbsp;2.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Divide the class into two groups. Select one person from each to look
+at a picture as in No.&nbsp;1. These two people are then to write a complete
+account of the picture. This account is then read to another person in
+the same group, who then writes from memory his account and reads to
+another. This is to be continued till all have heard an account and
+written their own. You will then have two series of accounts of the same
+picture proceeding from two sources. It will be well for the two who
+look at the picture to be of very different types, let us say, one
+imaginative, the other matter-of-fact.</p>
+
+<p>Do all the papers of one series have some characteristics that enable
+you to determine from which group they come? What conclusions and
+inferences do you draw from the experiment?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Does the feeling of certainty make a thing true? See how many cases
+you can find in a week, of persons feeling sure a statement is true,
+when it is really false.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>In the following way, try to find out something which a person is
+trying to conceal. Prepare a list of words, inserting now and then words
+which have some reference to the vital point. Read the words one by one
+to the person and have him speak the first word suggested by those read.
+Note the time taken for the responses. A longer reaction time usually
+follows the incriminating words, and the subject is thrown into a
+visible confusion.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Talk to successful physicians and find out what use they make of
+suggestion and other psychological principles.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Spend several hours visiting different grades below the high school.
+In how many ways could the teachers improve their work by following
+psychological principles?<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;221">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_221" id="Pg_221"></a></p></li>
+
+<li><p>Could the qualities of a good teacher&mdash;native and acquired&mdash;be
+measured by tests and experiments?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Visit factories where men do skillful work and try to learn by
+observation what types of mind and body are required by the different
+kinds of work.</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Does the occupation which you have chosen for life demand any
+specific abilities? If so, do you possess them in a high degree?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Could parents better train their children if they made use of
+psychological principles?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>In how many ways will the facts learned in this course be of
+economic use to you in your life? In what ways will they make life more
+pleasurable?</p></li>
+
+<li><p>Make a complete outline of this chapter.</p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h3>
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, Chapter XXVII&ndash;XXXIII.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency</i>.<span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;222">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_222" id="Pg_222"></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ALPHABETICAL_LIST_OF_REFERENCES_FOR_CLASS_READING" id="ALPHABETICAL_LIST_OF_REFERENCES_FOR_CLASS_READING"></a>ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING</h2>
+
+<ul class="ref">
+<li><span class="smcap">Colvin</span>, S.&nbsp;S., and <span class="smcap">Bagley</span>, W.&nbsp;C.: <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a comma instead of a full-stop"><i>Human Behavior</i>.</ins> The Macmillan Company, 1913.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Davenport</span>, C.&nbsp;B.: <i>Heredity in Relation to Eugenics</i>. Henry Holt &amp; Company, 1911.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Dewey</span>, J.: <i>How We Think</i>. D.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;Heath &amp; Company, 1910.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Kellicott</span>, W.&nbsp;E.: <i>The Social Direction of Human Evolution</i>. D.&nbsp;Appleton &amp; Company, 1911.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Kirkpatrick</span>, E.&nbsp;A.: <i>The Fundamentals of Child Study</i>. The Macmillan Company, 1912.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>, H.: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>. D.&nbsp;Appleton &amp; Company, 1914.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>, H.: <i>The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency</i>. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pillsbury</span>, W.&nbsp;B.: <i>Essentials of Psychology</i>. The Macmillan Company, 1916.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>, W.&nbsp;H.: <i>Outlines of Educational Psychology</i>. Warwick and York, 1912.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Pyle</span>, W.&nbsp;H.: <i>The Examination of School Children</i>. The Macmillan Company, 1913.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Rowe</span>, S.&nbsp;H.: <i>Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching</i>. Longmans, Green, &amp; Company, 1911.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Titchener</span>, E.&nbsp;B.: <i>A Beginner&#8217;s Psychology</i>. The Macmillan Company, 1916.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;223">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_223" id="Pg_223"></a><a name="GLOSSARY" id="GLOSSARY"></a>GLOSSARY</h2>
+
+
+<p>Most of the terms given below are explained in the text, but it is hoped
+that this alphabetical list with brief definitions will prove helpful.
+It is a difficult task to make the definitions scientific and at the
+same time brief, simple, and clear.</p>
+
+<dl>
+<dt><i>Abnormal.</i></dt>
+<dd>Having mental or physical characteristics widely different
+from those commonly found in ordinary people.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Acquired nature.</i></dt>
+<dd>Those aspects of habit, skill, knowledge, ideas, and
+ideals that come from experience and are due to experience.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Action.</i></dt>
+<dd>Muscular contractions usually producing motion of the body or
+of some part of the body.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Adaptation.</i></dt>
+<dd>Adjustment to one&#8217;s surroundings.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Adaptive.</i></dt>
+<dd>Readily changing one&#8217;s responses and acquiring such new
+responses as enable one to meet successfully new situations; also having
+tendencies or characteristics which enable one to be readily adjustable.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>After-images.</i></dt>
+<dd>Images that follow immediately after stimulation of a
+sense organ, and resulting from this stimulation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Association.</i></dt>
+<dd>Binding together ideas through experiencing them
+together.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Attention.</i></dt>
+<dd>Relative clearness of perceptions and ideas.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Attitude.</i></dt>
+<dd>The tendency toward a particular type of response in action
+or a particular idea or association in thought.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Bond.</i></dt>
+<dd>The connection established in the nervous system which makes a
+certain response follow a certain stimulus or a certain idea follow
+another idea or perception.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Capacity.</i></dt>
+<dd>The possibility of learning, achieving, etc.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Color blindness.</i></dt>
+<dd>Inability to experience certain colors, usually red
+and green.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Complementary color.</i></dt>
+<dd>Complementary colors are those which, mixed in
+the right proportion, produce gray.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Congenital.</i></dt>
+<dd>Inborn.</dd>
+
+<dt><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;224">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_224" id="Pg_224"></a><i>Connection.</i></dt>
+<dd>The nerve-path through which a stimulus produces a
+response or through which one idea produces or evokes another.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Conscious.</i></dt>
+<dd>Having consciousness, or accompanying consciousness or
+producing consciousness.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Consciousness.</i></dt>
+<dd>The mental states&mdash;perceptions, ideas, feelings&mdash;which
+one has at any moment.
+<dl>
+<dt><i>Low level of consciousness.</i></dt>
+<dd>Conscious processes not so clear as
+others existing at the same time.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>High level of consciousness.</i></dt>
+<dd>Conscious processes that are clear as
+compared to others existing at the same time.</dd></dl></dd>
+
+<dt><i>Contrast.</i></dt>
+<dd>The enhancing or strengthening of a sensation by another of
+opposite quality.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Correlation.</i></dt>
+<dd>The relation that exists between two functions,
+characteristics, or attributes that enables us, finding one, to predict
+the presence of the other.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Development.</i></dt>
+<dd>The appearance, or growth, or strengthening of a
+characteristic.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Emotion.</i></dt>
+<dd>The pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus sensations from
+characteristic bodily reactions.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Environment.</i></dt>
+<dd>The objects and forces about us which affect us through
+our senses.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Environmental instincts.</i></dt>
+<dd>Instincts which have originated, at least in
+part, from the periodic changes in man&#8217;s environment.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Eugenics.</i></dt>
+<dd>The science of race improvement through selective breeding
+or proper marriages or in some cases through the prevention of marriage.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Experience.</i></dt>
+<dd>What we learn of the world through sensation and
+perception.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Fatigue.</i></dt>
+<dd>Inability to work produced by work and which only rest will
+cure.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Feeble-minded.</i></dt>
+<dd>Having important mental traits only poorly developed or
+not at all.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Feeling.</i></dt>
+<dd>The pleasure-pain aspect of experience or of ideational
+states.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Function.</i></dt>
+<dd>The use of a thing or process, also any mental process or
+combination of processes considered as a unit.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Genetic.</i></dt>
+<dd>Having reference to origin and development.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Habits.</i></dt>
+<dd>Definite responses to definite stimuli depending upon bonds
+established by use after birth.</dd>
+
+<dt><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;225">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_225" id="Pg_225"></a><i>Heredity.</i></dt>
+<dd>Transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Human nature.</i></dt>
+<dd>The characteristics and tendencies which we have as
+human beings, with particular reference to mind and action.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Ideals.</i></dt>
+<dd>Definite tendencies to act in definite ways. Ideas of definite
+types of action with tendency toward the actions; ideas of definite
+conditions, forms, and states together with a desire to experience or
+possess them.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Ideas.</i></dt>
+<dd>Revived perceptions.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Images.</i></dt>
+<dd>Revived sensations, simpler than ideas.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Imitation.</i></dt>
+<dd>Acting as we see others act.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Impulse.</i></dt>
+<dd>Tendency to action.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Individualistic instincts.</i></dt>
+<dd>Those instincts which more immediately
+serve individual survival.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Individual differences.</i></dt>
+<dd>The mental and physical differences between
+people.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Inherited nature.</i></dt>
+<dd>Those aspects of one&#8217;s nature due directly to
+heredity.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Instincts.</i></dt>
+<dd>Definite responses produced by definite stimuli through
+hereditary connections in the nervous system.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Intellectual habits.</i></dt>
+<dd>Definite fixed connections between ideas;
+definite ways of meeting typical thought situations.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Intensity.</i></dt>
+<dd>The amount or strength of a sensation or image, how far it
+is from nothing.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Interest.</i></dt>
+<dd>The aspect given to experience or thinking by attention and
+pleasure.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Learning.</i></dt>
+<dd>Establishing new bonds or connections in the nervous system;
+acquiring habits; gaining knowledge.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Memory.</i></dt>
+<dd>The retention of experience; retained and reproduced
+experience.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Mental set.</i></dt>
+<dd>Mental attitude or disposition.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Mind.</i></dt>
+<dd>The sum total of one&#8217;s conscious states from birth to death.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Nerve-path.</i></dt>
+<dd>The route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or excitation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Original nature.</i></dt>
+<dd>All those aspects of mind and body directly
+inherited.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Perceive.</i></dt>
+<dd>To be aware of a thing through sensation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Perception.</i></dt>
+<dd>Awareness of a thing through sensation or a fusion of
+sensations.</dd>
+
+<dt><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;226">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_226" id="Pg_226"></a><i>Plasticity.</i></dt>
+<dd>Modifiability, making easy the formation of new bonds or
+nerve-connections.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Presupposition.</i></dt>
+<dd>A theory or hypothesis on which an argument or a
+system of arguments or principles is based.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Primary.</i></dt>
+<dd>First, original, elementary, perceptive experience as
+distinguished from ideational experience.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Reaction.</i></dt>
+<dd>The action immediately following a stimulus and produced by
+it.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Reasoning.</i></dt>
+<dd>Thinking to a purpose; trying to meet a new situation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Reflex.</i></dt>
+<dd>A very simple act brought about by a stimulus through an
+hereditary nerve-path.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Response.</i></dt>
+<dd>The act following a stimulus and produced by it.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Retention.</i></dt>
+<dd>Memory; modification of the nervous system making possible
+the revival of experience.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Science.</i></dt>
+<dd>Knowledge classified and systematized.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sensation.</i></dt>
+<dd>Primary experience; consciousness directly due to the
+stimulation of a sense organ.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sense.</i></dt>
+<dd>To sense is to have sensation, to perceive. A sense is a sense
+organ or the ability to have sensation through a sense organ.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sense organ.</i></dt>
+<dd>A modified nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or
+mechanism making possible a certain form of stimulation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sensitive.</i></dt>
+<dd>Capable of giving rise to sensation, or transmitting a
+nerve-current.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sensitivity.</i></dt>
+<dd>Property of, or capacity for being sensitive.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Sensory.</i></dt>
+<dd>Relating to a sense organ or to sensation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Situation.</i></dt>
+<dd>The total environmental influences of any one moment.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Socialistic instincts.</i></dt>
+<dd>The instincts related more directly to the
+survival of a social group.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Stimulation.</i></dt>
+<dd>The setting up of a nerve process in a sense organ or in
+a nerve tract.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Stimulus.</i></dt>
+<dd>That which produces stimulation.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Subnormal.</i></dt>
+<dd>Having characteristics considerably below the normal.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Tendency.</i></dt>
+<dd>Probability of a nerve-current taking a certain direction
+due to nerve-organization.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Thinking.</i></dt>
+<dd>The passing of images and ideas.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Thought.</i></dt>
+<dd>Thinking; an idea or group of ideas.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Training.</i></dt>
+<dd>Establishing nerve connection or bonds.</dd>
+
+<dt><i>Vividness.</i></dt>
+<dd>Clearness of sensations, perceptions, images, and ideas.</dd>
+</dl>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;227">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_227" id="Pg_227"></a><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+<table class="az" border="1" summary="Alphabetic jump-table for the index">
+        <tr>
+            <td><a href="#IX_A">A</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_B">B</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_C">C</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_D">D</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_E">E</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_F">F</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_G">G</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_H">H</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_I">I</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_J">J</a></td>
+            <td>K</td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_L">L</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_M">M</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td><a href="#IX_N">N</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_O">O</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_P">P</a></td>
+            <td>Q</td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_R">R</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_S">S</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_T">T</a></td>
+            <td>U</td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_V">V</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_W">W</a></td>
+            <td>X</td>
+            <td>Y</td>
+            <td>Z</td>
+        </tr>
+</table>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_A" id="IX_A"></a>Abilities, specialized, <a href="#Pg_179">179</a></li>
+<li>Ability, unusual, <a href="#Pg_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Adaptation of vision, <a href="#Pg_41">41</a></li>
+<li>After-images, visual, <a href="#Pg_40">40</a></li>
+<li>Ancestors, <a href="#Pg_22">22</a>&nbsp;f.</li>
+<li>Anger, <a href="#Pg_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Appearance of instincts, <a href="#Pg_54">54</a></li>
+<li>Applied psychology, <a href="#Pg_8">8</a>&ndash;<a href="#Pg_9">9</a>, <a href="#Pg_210">210</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Association of ideas, <a href="#Pg_152">152</a></li>
+<li>Astigmatism, <a href="#Pg_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Attention, <a href="#Pg_80">80</a>&nbsp;ff.;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>and will, <a href="#Pg_82">82</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Attitude, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_B" id="IX_B"></a>Behavior, <a href="#Pg_7">7</a></li>
+<li>Bodily conditions, <a href="#Pg_76">76</a></li>
+<li>Brain, <a href="#Pg_7">7</a></li>
+<li>Brightness, sensation of, <a href="#Pg_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Business, <a href="#Pg_215">215</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_C" id="IX_C"></a>Causality, <a href="#Pg_18">18</a>, <a href="#Pg_21">21</a></li>
+<li>Centrally initiated action, <a href="#Pg_51">51</a></li>
+<li>Child, nature of, <a href="#Pg_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Cold, sense of, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Collecting instinct, <a href="#Pg_62">62</a></li>
+<li>College, function of, <a href="#Pg_217">217</a></li>
+<li>Color blindness, <a href="#Pg_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Color mixture, <a href="#Pg_39">39</a></li>
+<li>Color, sensation of, <a href="#Pg_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Completion test, <a href="#Pg_198">198</a></li>
+<li>Concentrated practice, <a href="#Pg_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Consciousness, <a href="#Pg_7">7</a></li>
+<li>Conservatism, <a href="#Pg_109">109</a></li>
+<li>Costly Temper test, <a href="#Pg_186">186</a></li>
+<li>Cramming, <a href="#Pg_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Criminal, the, <a href="#Pg_213">213</a>&nbsp;f.</li>
+<li>Curriculum, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_D" id="IX_D"></a>Darwin, <a href="#Pg_89">89</a></li>
+<li>Defects of sense organs, <a href="#Pg_43">43</a></li>
+<li>Development, individual, <a href="#Pg_24">24</a>&nbsp;ff.;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>racial, <a href="#Pg_18">18</a>&ndash;<a href="#Pg_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li>significance of and causality, <a href="#Pg_21">21</a>&ndash;<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a full-stop"><a href="#Pg_24">24</a></ins></li></ul></li>
+<li>Direct method, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Dizziness, organs that give us sense of, <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a full-stop"><a href="#Pg_42">42</a></ins></li>
+<li>Dramatization, <a href="#Pg_67">67</a></li>
+<li>Drill in school subjects, <a href="#Pg_110">110</a>&ndash;<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a full-stop"><a href="#Pg_112">112</a></ins></li>
+<li>Dynamic, world as, <a href="#Pg_20">20</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_E" id="IX_E"></a>Economical practice, <a href="#Pg_101">101</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Education, <a href="#Pg_210">210</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>aim of, <a href="#Pg_10">10</a>;</li>
+<li>preparatory, <a href="#Pg_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>science of, <a href="#Pg_9">9</a>&nbsp;ff.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Educational inferences, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Educational psychology, <a href="#Pg_9">9</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Efficiency, <a href="#Pg_98">98</a>, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li>
+<li>Emotions, <a href="#Pg_74">74</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Environment, <a href="#Pg_31">31</a></li>
+<li>Environmental instincts, <a href="#Pg_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Envy, <a href="#Pg_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Evolution, <a href="#Pg_19">19</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Exceptions, <a href="#Pg_101">101</a>, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Excursions, <a href="#Pg_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Experience, <a href="#Pg_8">8</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>organization of, <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original had a full-stop"><a href="#Pg_169">169</a></ins></li></ul></li>
+<li>Experiment, <a href="#Pg_13">13</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Eye, the, <a href="#Pg_37">37</a></li>
+<li>Eye defects, <a href="#Pg_43">43</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Eyestrain, <a href="#Pg_20">20</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_F" id="IX_F"></a>Farsightedness, <a href="#Pg_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Fatigue, <a href="#Pg_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Fear, <a href="#Pg_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Pg_29">29</a></li>
+<li>Feeling, <a href="#Pg_73">73</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Fighting instincts, <a href="#Pg_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Formal drill, III, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;228">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_228" id="Pg_228"></a>Free association frequency surface, <a href="#Pg_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Free association test, <a href="#Pg_193">193</a></li>
+<li>Frequency of experience, <a href="#Pg_156">156</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_G" id="IX_G"></a>Gang instinct, <a href="#Pg_60">60</a></li>
+<li>Genetic view of childhood, <a href="#Pg_24">24</a></li>
+<li>Genius, <a href="#Pg_31">31</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_H" id="IX_H"></a>Habit, <a href="#Pg_87">87</a>&nbsp;<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: Original omitted the full-stop">ff.</ins>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>and nerve path, <a href="#Pg_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>how formed, <a href="#Pg_98">98</a>&nbsp;ff.;</li>
+<li>importance in life, <a href="#Pg_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>intellectual, <a href="#Pg_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li>moral, <a href="#Pg_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>of thought, <a href="#Pg_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li>results of, <a href="#Pg_94">94</a>;</li>
+<li>specific, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Hearing, <a href="#Pg_41">41</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>defects of, <a href="#Pg_45">45</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Heredity, <a href="#Pg_24">24</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Heredity <i>vs.</i> Environment, <a href="#Pg_31">31</a></li>
+<li>Heritage, social, <a href="#Pg_23">23</a></li>
+<li>High school and fourth grade abilities compared, <a href="#Pg_203">203</a></li>
+<li>High school, function of, <a href="#Pg_217">217</a></li>
+<li>Home and moral training, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_I" id="IX_I"></a>Idea, <a href="#Pg_52">52</a></li>
+<li>Ideas, <a href="#Pg_124">124</a></li>
+<li>Imitation, <a href="#Pg_64">64</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Imitation in ideals, <a href="#Pg_67">67</a></li>
+<li>Incidental drill, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a></li>
+<li>Individual development, <a href="#Pg_24">24</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Individual differences, <a href="#Pg_176">176</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Individualistic instincts, <a href="#Pg_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Industry, <a href="#Pg_216">216</a></li>
+<li>Influencing men, <a href="#Pg_215">215</a></li>
+<li>Inheritance, <a href="#Pg_22">22</a></li>
+<li>Inherited tendencies, <a href="#Pg_50">50</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Initiative, <a href="#Pg_113">113</a></li>
+<li>Instincts, <a href="#Pg_52">52</a>&nbsp;ff.;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>classification of, <a href="#Pg_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li>significance of, <a href="#Pg_55">55</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Interest, <a href="#Pg_84">84</a></li>
+<li>Intervals between practice, <a href="#Pg_102">102</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_J" id="IX_J"></a>Jealousy, <a href="#Pg_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Joints, sense organs in, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Jost&#8217;s law, <a href="#Pg_142">142</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_L" id="IX_L"></a>Language and thinking, <a href="#Pg_170">170</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Language study, <a href="#Pg_144">144</a></li>
+<li>Latin, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Law, service of psychology to, <a href="#Pg_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Learning and remembering, <a href="#Pg_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Learning by wholes, <a href="#Pg_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Life occupations, <a href="#Pg_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Logical memory, <a href="#Pg_184">184</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_M" id="IX_M"></a>Meaning, <a href="#Pg_163">163</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Medicine, <a href="#Pg_211">211</a></li>
+<li>Memories, kinds of, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Memory, <a href="#Pg_124">124</a>&nbsp;ff.;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>and age and sex, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>and habit, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>and school standing, <a href="#Pg_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>and thinking, <a href="#Pg_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>factors of, <a href="#Pg_128">128</a>&nbsp;ff.;</li>
+<li>good, dangers resulting from, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>kinds of, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Mendelian principle, <a href="#Pg_26">26</a></li>
+<li>Mental development, <a href="#Pg_19">19</a></li>
+<li>Mental differences, <a href="#Pg_178">178</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>detection of, <a href="#Pg_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>importance of, <a href="#Pg_201">201</a>&nbsp;ff.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mental functions developed, <a href="#Pg_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Mental set, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Mental tests, <a href="#Pg_183">183</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Mind and body, <a href="#Pg_34">34</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Mood, <a href="#Pg_78">78</a></li>
+<li>Moral training, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Motive, <a href="#Pg_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Muscular speed, <a href="#Pg_14">14</a></li>
+<li>Museum, school, <a href="#Pg_62">62</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Musical ability, <a href="#Pg_179">179</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_N" id="IX_N"></a>Nearsightedness, <a href="#Pg_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Needs of child, <a href="#Pg_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Nerve tendency, <a href="#Pg_92">92</a></li>
+<li>Norms in mental tests, <a href="#Pg_184">184</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_O" id="IX_O"></a>Occupations, <a href="#Pg_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Opposites test, <a href="#Pg_195">195</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Organization of experience, <a href="#Pg_163">163</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_P" id="IX_P"></a>Pain sense, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Parents, and habit-formation of children, <a href="#Pg_104">104</a>&nbsp;ff., <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Perception, <a href="#Pg_124">124</a></li>
+<li>Physiological basis of memory, <a href="#Pg_126">126</a></li>
+<li>Piano playing, <a href="#Pg_51">51</a>, <a href="#Pg_97">97</a></li>
+<li>Pitch, <a href="#Pg_41">41</a></li>
+<li>Plasticity, <a href="#Pg_93">93</a></li>
+<li>Play, <a href="#Pg_68">68</a></li>
+<li>Pleasure and habit, <a href="#Pg_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Pleasure, higher forms of, <a href="#Pg_80">80</a></li>
+<li>Practice, <a href="#Pg_99">99</a>, <a href="#Pg_113">113</a></li>
+<li>Primary experience, <a href="#Pg_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Psychology and culture, <a href="#Pg_218">218</a></li>
+<li>Psychology defined, <a href="#Pg_5">5</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>method of, <a href="#Pg_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li>problems of, <a href="#Pg_8">8</a><br /></li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_R" id="IX_R"></a><span class="pagenum" title="Page&nbsp;229">&nbsp;</span><a name="Pg_229" id="Pg_229"></a><br />Race, development of, <a href="#Pg_18">18</a>&nbsp;ff.;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>improvement of, <a href="#Pg_30">30</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Ranking students, <a href="#Pg_15">15</a></li>
+<li>Reasoning, <a href="#Pg_159">159</a>; training in, <a href="#Pg_168">168</a></li>
+<li>Recalling forgotten names, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Recency of experience, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Regeneration, <a href="#Pg_23">23</a></li>
+<li>Repetition, <a href="#Pg_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Respect for authority, <a href="#Pg_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Resemblance, <a href="#Pg_25">25</a></li>
+<li>Retina, the, <a href="#Pg_37">37</a>&nbsp;f.</li>
+<li>Revived experience, <a href="#Pg_125">125</a></li>
+<li>Rigidity, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li>
+<li>Rote memory, <a href="#Pg_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Rules for habit-formation, <a href="#Pg_113">113</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_S" id="IX_S"></a>Salesmanship, <a href="#Pg_215">215</a></li>
+<li>School, and habit, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>and moral training, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a>&nbsp;f.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Schoolhouse, community center, <a href="#Pg_60">60</a>&nbsp;f.</li>
+<li>Science, <a href="#Pg_1">1</a></li>
+<li>Scientific law, <a href="#Pg_3">3</a></li>
+<li>Scientist, <a href="#Pg_1">1</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+<li>Securing efficiency, <a href="#Pg_218">218</a></li>
+<li>Selecting habits, <a href="#Pg_109">109</a></li>
+<li>Sense organs, affects of stimulating, <a href="#Pg_6">6</a>, <a href="#Pg_7">7</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>knowledge through, <a href="#Pg_35">35</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Sleight&#8217;s experiment, <a href="#Pg_140">140</a></li>
+<li>Smell, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Social life of children, <a href="#Pg_60">60</a></li>
+<li>Social tendencies, <a href="#Pg_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Stimulation, <a href="#Pg_6">6</a></li>
+<li>Stimulus and response, <a href="#Pg_50">50</a></li>
+<li>Study, learning how to, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Subnormal children, <a href="#Pg_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Substitution test, <a href="#Pg_192">192</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_T" id="IX_T"></a>Taste, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Teacher, function of in memory work, <a href="#Pg_142">142</a>;
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>function of in habit-formation, <a href="#Pg_103">103</a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Teaching too abstract, <a href="#Pg_129">129</a></li>
+<li>Temperament, <a href="#Pg_78">78</a></li>
+<li>Tendons, sense organs in, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Thinking, <a href="#Pg_152">152</a>&nbsp;ff., <a href="#Pg_159">159</a></li>
+<li>Touch, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Transfer of training, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a>&nbsp;ff., <a href="#Pg_140">140</a></li>
+<li>Truancies, <a href="#Pg_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Typewriting, <a href="#Pg_51">51</a>, <a href="#Pg_94">94</a>&nbsp;ff.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_V" id="IX_V"></a>Vision, <a href="#Pg_37">37</a>; importance of, <a href="#Pg_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Visual contrast, <a href="#Pg_39">39</a></li>
+<li>Vividness and intensity of experience, <a href="#Pg_156">156</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><a name="IX_W" id="IX_W"></a>Wandering, <a href="#Pg_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Warmth, sense of, <a href="#Pg_42">42</a></li>
+<li>Weight, diagram showing frequency surface of, <a href="#Pg_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Word-building test, <a href="#Pg_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Work and psychology, <a href="#Pg_218">218</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
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@@ -0,0 +1,7739 @@
+Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Science of Human Nature
+       A Psychology for Beginners
+
+Author: William Henry Pyle
+
+Release Date: May 31, 2006 [EBook #18477]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Transcriber's Note                                                 |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Nine printer errors have been corrected, all of them wrong or      |
+  | missing full-stops or commas. Also, in the completion tests which  |
+  | start at line 5972, the words to be omitted, which were italicised |
+  | in the original, have instead been surrounded by curly brackets    |
+  | to aid readability.  In all other cases, italics are denoted by    |
+  | underscores and bold by equals signs.                              |
+  |                                                                    |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+                       Teacher Training Series
+                              EDITED BY
+                            W. W. CHARTERS
+      _Professor of Education, Carnegie Institute of Technology_
+
+
+
+                            THE SCIENCE OF
+
+                             HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+
+                     _A PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS_
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          WILLIAM HENRY PYLE
+
+                 PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+                        UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
+
+
+                      SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY
+                      BOSTON  NEW YORK  CHICAGO
+
+
+
+                           COPYRIGHT, 1917,
+
+                    BY SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+This book is written for young students in high schools and normal
+schools. No knowledge can be of more use to a young person than a
+knowledge of himself; no study can be more valuable to him than a study
+of himself. A study of the laws of human behavior,--that is the purpose
+of this book.
+
+What is human nature like? Why do we act as we do? How can we make
+ourselves different? How can we make others different? How can we make
+ourselves more efficient? How can we make our lives more worth while?
+This book is a manual intended to help young people to obtain such
+knowledge of human nature as will enable them to answer these questions.
+
+I have not attempted to write a complete text on psychology. There are
+already many such books, and good ones too. I have selected for
+treatment only such topics as young students can study with interest and
+profit. I have tried to keep in mind all the time the practical worth of
+the matters discussed, and the ability and experience of the intended
+readers.
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER
+
+This book can be only a guide to you. You are to help your students
+study human nature. You must, to some extent, be a psychologist yourself
+before you can teach psychology. You must yourself be a close and
+scientific student of human nature. Develop in the students the spirit
+of inquiry and investigation. Teach them to look to their own minds and
+their neighbor's actions for verification of the statements of the text.
+Let the students solve by observation and experiment the questions and
+problems raised in the text and the exercises. The exercises should
+prove to be the most valuable part of the book. The first two chapters
+are the most difficult but ought to be read before the rest of the book
+is studied. If you think best, merely read these two chapters with the
+pupils, and after the book is finished come back to them for careful
+study.
+
+In the references, I have given parallel readings, for the most part to
+Titchener, Pillsbury, and Muensterberg. I have purposely limited the
+references, partly because a library will not be available to many who
+may use the book, and partly because the young student is likely to be
+confused by much reading from different sources before he has worked out
+some sort of system and a point of view of his own. Only the most
+capable members of a high school class will be able to profit much from
+the references given.
+
+
+TO THE STUDENT
+
+You are beginning the study of human nature. You can not study human
+nature from a book, you must study yourself and your neighbors. This
+book may help you to know what to look for and to understand what you
+find, but it can do little more than this. It is true, this text gives
+you many facts learned by psychologists, but you must verify the
+statements, or at least see their significance to _you_, or they will
+be of no worth to you. However, the facts considered here, properly
+understood and assimilated, ought to prove of great value to you. But
+perhaps of greater value will be the psychological frame of mind or
+attitude which you should acquire. The psychological attitude is that of
+seeking to find and understand the _causes of human action, and the
+causes, consequences, and significance of the processes of the human
+mind_. If your first course in psychology teaches you to look for these
+things, gives you some skill in finding them and in using the knowledge
+after you have it, your study should be quite worth while.
+
+W. H. PYLE.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+There are at least two possible approaches to the study of psychology by
+teacher-training students in high schools and by beginning students in
+normal schools.
+
+One of these is through methods of teaching and subject matter. The
+other aims to give the simple, concrete facts of psychology as the
+science of the mind. The former presupposes a close relationship between
+psychology and methods of teaching and assumes that psychology is
+studied chiefly as an aid to teaching. The latter is less complicated.
+The plan contemplates the teaching of the simple fundamentals at first
+and applying them incidentally as the occasion demands. This latter
+point of view is in the main the point of view taken in the text.
+
+The author has taught the material of the text to high school students
+to the end that he might present the fundamental facts of psychology in
+simple form.
+
+W. W. C.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER    I. INTRODUCTION                                      1
+
+  CHAPTER   II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL    18
+
+  CHAPTER  III. MIND AND BODY                                    34
+
+  CHAPTER   IV. INHERITED TENDENCIES                             50
+
+  CHAPTER    V. FEELING AND ATTENTION                            73
+
+  CHAPTER   VI. HABIT                                            87
+
+  CHAPTER  VII. MEMORY                                          124
+
+  CHAPTER VIII. THINKING                                        152
+
+  CHAPTER   IX. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES                          176
+
+  CHAPTER    X. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY                              210
+
+  GLOSSARY                                                      223
+
+  INDEX                                                         227
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+=Science.= Before attempting to define psychology, it will be helpful to
+make some inquiry into the nature of science in general. Science is
+knowledge; it is what we know. But mere knowledge is not science. For a
+bit of knowledge to become a part of science, its relation to other bits
+of knowledge must be found. In botany, for example, bits of knowledge
+about plants do not make a science of botany. To have a science of
+botany, we must not only know about leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, etc.,
+but we must know the relations of these parts and of all the parts of a
+plant to one another. In other words, in science, we must not only
+_know_, we must not only have _knowledge_, but we must know the
+significance of the knowledge, must know its _meaning_. This is only
+another way of saying that we must have knowledge and know its relation
+to other knowledge.
+
+A scientist is one who has learned to organize his knowledge. The main
+difference between a scientist and one who is not a scientist is that
+the scientist sees the significance of facts, while the non-scientific
+man sees facts as more or less unrelated things. As one comes to hunt
+for causes and inquire into the significance of things, one becomes a
+scientist. A thing or an event always points beyond itself to something
+else. This something else is what goes before it or comes after it,--is
+its cause or its effect. This causal relationship that exists between
+events enables a scientist to prophesy. By carefully determining what
+always precedes a certain event, a certain type of happening, a
+scientist is able to predict the event. All that is necessary to be able
+to predict an event is to have a clear knowledge of its true causes.
+Whenever, beyond any doubt, these causes are found to be present, the
+scientist knows the event will follow. Of course, all that he really
+_knows_ is that such results have always followed similar causes in the
+past. But he has come to have faith in the uniformity and regularity of
+nature. The chemist does not find sulphur, or oxygen, or any other
+element acting one way one day under a certain set of conditions, and
+acting another way the next day under exactly the same conditions. Nor
+does the physicist find the laws of mechanics holding good one day and
+not the next.
+
+The scientist, therefore, in his thinking brings order out of chaos in
+the world. If we do not know the causes and relations of things and
+events, the world seems a very mixed-up, chaotic place, where anything
+and everything is happening. But as we come to know causes and
+relations, the world turns out to be a very orderly and systematic
+place. It is a lawful world; it is not a world of chance. Everything is
+related to everything else.
+
+Now, the non-scientific mind sees things as more or less unrelated. The
+far-reaching causal relations are only imperfectly seen by it, while
+the scientific mind not only sees things, but inquires into their causes
+and effects or consequences. The non-scientific man, walking over the
+top of a mountain and noticing a stone there, is likely to see in it
+only a stone and think nothing of how it came to be there; but the
+scientific man sees quite an interesting bit of history in the stone. He
+reads in the stone that millions of years ago the place where the rock
+now lies was under the sea. Many marine animals left their remains in
+the mud underneath the sea. The mud was afterward converted into rock.
+Later, the shrinking and warping earth-crust lifted the rock far above
+the level of the sea, and it may now be found at the top of the
+mountain. The one bit of rock tells its story to one who inquires into
+its causes. The scientific man, then, sees more significance, more
+meaning, in things and events than does the non-scientific man.
+
+Each science has its own particular field. Zooelogy undertakes to answer
+every reasonable question about animals; botany, about plants; physics,
+about motion and forces; chemistry, about the composition of matter;
+astronomy, about the heavenly bodies, etc. The world has many aspects.
+Each science undertakes to describe and explain some particular aspect.
+To understand all the aspects of the world, we must study all the
+sciences.
+
+=A Scientific Law.= By _law_ a scientist has reference to uniformities
+which he notices in things and events. He does not mean that necessities
+are imposed upon things as civil law is imposed upon man. He means only
+that in certain well-defined situations certain events always take
+place, according to all previous observations. The Law of Falling Bodies
+may be cited as an example. By this law, the physicist means that in
+observing falling bodies in the past, he has noticed that they fall
+about sixteen feet in the first second and acquire in this time a
+velocity of thirty-two feet. He has noted that, taking into account the
+specific gravity of the object and the resistance of the air, this way
+of falling holds true of all objects at about the level of the sea.
+
+The more we carefully study the events of the world, the more strongly
+we come to feel that definite causes, under the same circumstances,
+always produce precisely the same result. The scientist has faith that
+events will continue to happen during all the future in the same order
+of cause and effect in which they have been happening during all the
+past.
+
+The astronomer, knowing the relations of the members of the solar
+system--the sun and planets--can successfully predict the occurrence of
+lunar and solar eclipses. In other fields, too, the scientist can
+predict with as much certainty as does the astronomer, provided his
+knowledge of the factors concerned is as complete as is the knowledge
+which the astronomer has of the solar system. Even in the case of human
+beings, uncertain as their actions seem to be, we can predict their
+actions when our knowledge of the factors is sufficiently complete. In a
+great many instances we do make such predictions. For example, if we
+call a person by name, we expect him to turn, or make some other
+movement in response. Our usual inability to make such predictions in
+the case of human beings is not because human beings are not subject to
+the law of cause and effect, it is not that their acts are due to
+chance, but that the factors involved are usually many, and it is
+difficult for us to find out all of them.
+
+=The Science of Psychology.= Now, let us ask, what is the science of
+psychology? What kind of problems does it try to solve? What aspect of
+the world has it taken for its field of investigation?
+
+We have said that each science undertakes to describe some particular
+aspect of the world. Human psychology is the science of human nature.
+But human nature has many aspects. To some extent, our bodies are the
+subject matter for physiology, anatomy, zooelogy, physics, and chemistry.
+Our bodies may be studied in the same way that a rock or a table might
+be studied. But a human being presents certain problems that a rock or
+table does not present. If we consider the differences between a human
+being and a table, we shall see at once the special field of psychology.
+If we stick a pin into a leg of the table, we get no response. If we
+stick a pin into a leg of a man, we get a characteristic response. The
+man moves, he cries out. This shows two very great differences between a
+man and a table. The man is _sensitive_ and has the power of action, the
+power of _moving himself_. The table is not sensitive, nor can it move
+itself. If the pin is thrust into one's own leg, one has _pain_. Human
+beings, then, are sensitive, conscious, acting beings. And the study of
+sensitivity, action, and consciousness is the field of psychology. These
+three characteristics are not peculiar to man. Many, perhaps all,
+animals possess them. There is, therefore, an animal psychology as well
+as human psychology.
+
+A study of the human body shows us that the body-surface and many parts
+within the body are filled with sensitive nerve-ends. These sensitive
+nerve-ends are the sense organs, and on them the substances and forces
+of the world are constantly acting. In the sense organs, the nerve-ends
+are so modified or changed as to be affected by some particular kind of
+force or substance. Vibrations of ether affect the eye. Vibrations of
+air affect the ear. Liquids and solutions affect the sense of taste.
+Certain substances affect the sense of smell. Certain organs in the skin
+are affected by low temperatures; others, by high temperatures; others,
+by mechanical pressure. Similarly, each sense organ in the body is
+affected by a definite kind of force or substance.
+
+This affecting of a sense organ is known technically as _stimulation_,
+and that which affects the organ is known as the _stimulus_.
+
+Two important consequences ordinarily follow the stimulation of a sense
+organ. One of these is movement. The purpose of stimulation is to bring
+about movement. To be alive is to respond to stimulation. When one
+ceases to respond to stimulation, he is dead. If we are to continue
+alive, we must constantly adjust ourselves to the forces of the world in
+which we live. Generally speaking, we may say that every nerve has one
+end in a sense organ and the other in a muscle. This arrangement of the
+nerves and muscles shows that man is essentially a sensitive-action
+machine. The problems connected with sensitivity and action and the
+relation of each to the other constitute a large part of the field of
+psychology.
+
+We said just now, that a nerve begins in a sense organ and ends in a
+muscle. This statement represents the general scheme well enough, but
+leaves out an important detail. The nerve does not extend directly to a
+muscle, but ordinarily goes by way of the brain. The brain is merely a
+great group of nerve cells and fibers which have developed as a central
+organ where a stimulation may pass from almost any sense organ to
+almost any muscle.
+
+But another importance attaches to the brain. When a sense organ is
+stimulated and this stimulation passes on to the brain and agitates a
+cell or group of cells there, _we are conscious_. Consciousness shifts
+and changes with every shift and change of the stimulation.
+
+The brain has still another important characteristic. After it has been
+stimulated through sense organ and nerve, a similar brain activity can
+be revived later, and this revival is the basis of _memory_. When the
+brain is agitated through the medium of a sense organ, we have
+_sensation_; when this agitation is revived later, we have a _memory
+idea_. A study of consciousness, or mind, the conditions under which it
+arises, and all the other problems involved, give us the other part of
+the field of psychology.
+
+We are not merely acting beings; we are _conscious_ acting beings.
+Psychology must study human nature from both points of view. We must
+study man not only from the outside; that is, objectively, in the same
+way that we study a stone or a tree or a frog, but we must study him
+from the inside or subjectively. It is of importance to know not only
+how a man _acts_, but also how he _thinks and feels_.
+
+It must be clear now, that human action, human behavior, is the main
+field of psychology. For, even though our main interests in people were
+in their minds, we could learn of the minds only through the actions.
+But our interests in other human beings are not in their minds but in
+_what they do_. It is true that our interest in ourselves is in our
+minds, and we can know these minds directly; but we cannot know
+directly the mind of another person, we can only guess what it is from
+the person's actions.
+
+=The Problems of Psychology.= Let us now see, in some detail, what the
+various problems of psychology are. If we are to understand human
+nature, we must know something of man's past; we must therefore treat of
+the origin and development of the human race. The relation of one
+generation to that preceding and to the one following makes necessary a
+study of heredity. We must find out how our thoughts, feelings,
+sensations, and ideas are dependent upon a physical body and its organs.
+A study of human actions shows that some actions are unlearned while
+others are learned or acquired. The unlearned acts are known as
+_instincts_ and the acquired acts are known as _habits_. Our psychology
+must, therefore, treat of instincts and habits.
+
+How man gets experience, and retains and organizes this experience must
+be our problem in the chapters on sensations, ideas, memory, and
+thinking. Individual differences in human capacity make necessary a
+treatment of the different types and grades of intelligence, and the
+compilation of tests for determining these differences. We must also
+treat of the application of psychology to those fields where a knowledge
+of human nature is necessary.
+
+=Applied Psychology.= At the beginning of a subject it is legitimate to
+inquire concerning the possibility of applying the principles studied to
+practical uses, and it is very proper to make this inquiry concerning
+psychology. Psychology, being the science of human nature, ought to be
+of use in all fields where one needs to know the causes of human action.
+And psychology is applicable in these fields to the extent that the
+psychologist is able to work out the laws and principles of human
+action.
+
+In education, for example, we wish to influence children, and we must go
+to psychology to learn about the nature of children and to find out how
+we can influence them. Psychology is therefore the basis of the science
+of education.
+
+Since different kinds of work demand, in some cases, different kinds of
+ability, the psychology of individual differences can be of service in
+selecting people for special kinds of work. That is to say, we must have
+sometime, if we do not now, a psychology of professions and vocations.
+Psychological investigations of the reliability of human evidence make
+the science of service in the court room. The study of the laws of
+attention and interest give us the psychology of advertising. The study
+of suggestion and abnormal states make psychology of use in medicine. It
+may be said, therefore, that psychology, once abstract and unrelated to
+any practical interests, will become the most useful of all sciences, as
+it works out its problems and finds the laws of human behavior.
+
+At present, the greatest service of psychology is to education. So true
+is this that a department has grown up called "educational psychology,"
+which constitutes at the present time the most important subdivision of
+psychology. While in this book we treat briefly of the various
+applications of psychology, we shall have in mind chiefly its
+application to education.
+
+=The Science of Education.= Owing to the importance which psychology has
+in the science of education, it will be well for us to make some inquiry
+into the nature of education. If the growth, development, and learning
+of children are all controlled and determined by definite causal
+factors, then a systematic statement of all these factors would
+constitute the science of education. In order to see clearly whether
+there is such a science, or whether there can be, let us inquire more
+definitely as to the kind of problems a science of education would be
+expected to solve.
+
+There are four main questions which the science of education must solve:
+(1) What is the aim of education? (2) What is the nature of education?
+(3) What is the nature of the child? (4) What are the most economical
+methods of changing the child from what it is into what it ought to be?
+
+The first question is a sociological question, and it is not difficult
+to find the answer. We have but to inquire what the people wish their
+children to become. There is a pretty general agreement, at least in the
+same community, that children should be trained in a way that will make
+them socially efficient. Parents generally wish their children to become
+honest, truthful, sympathetic, and industrious. It should be the aim of
+education to accomplish this social ideal. It should be the aim of the
+home and the school to subject children to such influences as will
+enable them to make a living when grown and to do their proper share of
+work for the community and state, working always for better things, and
+having a sympathetic attitude toward neighbors. Education should also do
+what it can to make people able to enjoy the world and life to the
+fullest and highest extent. Some such aim of education as this is held
+by all our people.
+
+The second question is also answered. Psychological analysis reveals the
+fact that education is a process of becoming adjusted to the world. It
+is the process of acquiring the habits, knowledge, and ideals suited to
+the life we are to live. The child in being educated learns what the
+world is and how to act in it--how to act in all the various situations
+of life.
+
+The third question--concerning the nature of the child--cannot be so
+briefly answered. In fact, it cannot be fully answered at the present
+time. We must know what the child's original nature is. This means that
+we must know the instincts and all the other inherited capacities and
+tendencies. We must know the laws of building up habits and of acquiring
+knowledge, the laws of retention and the laws of attention. These
+problems constitute the subject matter of educational psychology, and at
+present can be only partially solved. We have, however, a very
+respectable body of knowledge in this field, though it is by no means
+complete.
+
+The answer to the fourth question is in part dependent upon the progress
+in answering the third. Economical methods of training children must be
+dependent upon the nature of children. But in actual practice, we are
+trying to find out the best procedure of doing each single thing in
+school work; we are trying to find out by experimentation. The proper
+way to teach children to read, to spell, to write, etc., must be
+determined in each case by independent investigation, until our
+knowledge of the child becomes sufficient for us to infer from general
+laws of procedure what the procedure in a particular case should be. We
+venture to infer what ought to be done in some cases, but generally we
+feel insecure till we have proved our inference correct by trying out
+different methods and measuring the results.
+
+Education will not be fully scientific till we have definite knowledge
+to guide us at every step. What should we teach? When should we teach
+it? How should we teach it? How poorly we answer these questions at the
+present time! How inefficient and uneconomical our schools, because we
+cannot fully answer them! But they are answerable. We can answer them in
+part now, and we know how to find out the answer in full. It is just a
+matter of patient and extensive investigation. We must say, then, that
+we have only the beginnings of a science of education. The problems
+which a science of education must solve are almost wholly psychological
+problems. They could not be solved till we had a science of psychology.
+Experimental psychology is but a half-century old; educational
+psychology, less than a quarter-century old. In the field of education,
+the science of psychology may expect to make its most important
+practical contribution. Let us, then, consider very briefly the problems
+of educational psychology.
+
+=Educational Psychology.= Educational psychology is that division of
+psychology which undertakes to discover those aspects of human nature
+most closely related to education. These are (1) the original nature of
+the child--what it is and how it can be modified; (2) the problem of
+acquiring and organizing experience--habit-formation, memory, thinking,
+and the various factors related to these processes. There are many
+subordinate problems, such as the problem of individual differences and
+their bearing on the education of subnormal and supernormal children.
+Educational psychology is not, then, merely the application of
+psychology to education. It is a distinct science in itself, and its aim
+is the solving of those educational problems which for their solution
+depend upon a knowledge of the nature of the child.
+
+=The Method of Psychology.= We have enumerated the various problems of
+psychology, now how are they solved? The method of psychology is the
+same as that of all other sciences; namely, the method of observation
+and experiment. We learn human nature by observing how human beings act
+in all the various circumstances of life. We learn about the human mind
+by observing our own mind. We learn that we _see_ under certain
+objective conditions, _hear_ under certain objective conditions,
+_taste_, _smell_, _feel cold_ and _warm_ under certain objective
+conditions. In the case of ourselves, we can know both our _actions_ and
+our _mind_. In the case of others, we can know only their _actions_, and
+must infer their mental states from our own in similar circumstances.
+With certain restrictions and precautions this inference is legitimate.
+
+We said the method of psychology is that of observation and experiment.
+The experiment is observation still, but observation subjected to exact
+methodical procedure. In a psychological experiment we set out to
+provide the necessary conditions, eliminating some and supplying others
+according to our object. The experiment has certain advantages. It
+enables us to isolate the phenomena to be studied, it enables us to vary
+the circumstances and conditions to suit our purposes, it enables us to
+repeat the observation as often as we like, and it enables us to measure
+exactly the factors of the phenomena studied.
+
+=A Psychological Experiment.= Let us illustrate psychological method by a
+typical experiment. Suppose we wish to measure the individual
+differences among the members of a class with respect to a certain
+ability; namely, the muscular speed of the right hand. Psychological
+laboratories have delicate apparatus for making such a study. But let
+us see how we can do it, roughly at least, without any apparatus. Let
+each member of the class take a sheet of paper and a pencil, and make as
+many strokes as possible in a half-minute, as shown in Figure I. The
+instructor can keep the time with a stop watch, or less accurately with
+the second hand of an ordinary watch. Before beginning the experiment,
+the instructor should have each student taking the test try it for a
+second or two. This is to make sure that all understand what they are to
+do. When the instructor is sure that all understand, he should have the
+students hold their pencils in readiness above the paper, and at the
+signal, "Begin," all should start at the same time and make as many
+marks as possible in the half-minute. The strokes can then be counted
+and the individual scores recorded. The experiment should be repeated
+several times, say six or eight, and the average score for each
+individual recorded.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE I.--STROKES MADE IN THIRTY SECONDS
+A test of muscular speed]
+
+Whether the result in such a performance as this varies from day to day,
+and is accidental, or whether it is constant and fundamental, can be
+determined by repeating the experiment from day to day. This repetition
+will also show whether improvement comes from practice.
+
+If it is decided to repeat the experiment in order to study these
+factors, constancy and the effects of practice, some method of studying
+and interpreting the results must be found. Elaborate methods of doing
+this are known to psychologists, but the beginner must use a simpler
+method. When the experiment is performed for the first time, the
+students can be ranked with reference to their abilities, the fastest
+one being called "first," the second highest, "second," and so on down
+to the slowest performer. Then after the experiment has been performed
+the second time, the students can be again ranked.
+
+A rough comparison can then be made as follows: Determine how many who
+were in the best half in the first experiment are among the best half in
+the second experiment. If most who were among the best half the first
+time are among the best half in the second experiment, constancy in this
+performance is indicated. Or we might determine how many change their
+ranks and how much they change. Suppose there are thirty in the class
+and only four improve their ranks and these to the extent of only two
+places each. This would indicate a high degree of constancy. Two
+different performances can be compared as above described. The abilities
+on successive days can be determined by taking the average rank of the
+first day and comparing it with the average rank of the second day.
+
+If the effects of practice are to be studied, the experiments must be
+kept up for many days, and each student's work on the first day compared
+with his work on succeeding days. Then a graph can be plotted to show
+the improvement from day to day. The average daily speed of the class
+can be taken and a graph made to show the improvement of the class as a
+whole. This might be plotted in black ink, then each individual student
+could put on his improvement in red ink, for comparison. A group of
+thirty may be considered as furnishing a fair average or norm in this
+kind of performance.
+
+In connection with this simple performance, making marks as fast as
+possible, it is evident that many problems arise. It would take several
+months to solve anything like all of them. It might be interesting, for
+example, to determine whether one's speed in writing is related to this
+simple speed in marking. Each member of the class might submit a plan
+for making such a study.
+
+The foregoing simple study illustrates the procedure of psychology in
+all experimentation. A psychological experiment is an attempt to find
+out the truth in regard to some aspect of human nature. In finding out
+this truth, we must throw about the experiment all possible safeguards.
+Every source of error must be discovered and eliminated. In the above
+experiment, for example, the work must be done at the same time of day,
+or else we must prove that doing it at different times of day makes no
+difference. Nothing must be taken for granted, and nothing must be
+assumed. Psychology, then, is like all the other sciences, in that its
+method of getting its facts is by observation and experiment.
+
+  SUMMARY. Science is systematic, related knowledge. Each science has
+  a particular field which it attempts to explore and describe. The
+  field of psychology is the study of sensitivity, action, and
+  consciousness, or briefly, human behavior. Its main problems are
+  development, heredity, instincts, habits, sensation, memory,
+  thinking, and individual differences. Its method is observation and
+  experiment, the same as in all other sciences.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make out a list of things about human nature which you would like to
+know. Paste your list in the front of this book, and as you find your
+questions answered in this book, or in other books which you may read,
+check them off. At the end of the course, note how many remain
+unanswered. Find out whether those not answered can be answered at the
+present time.
+
+2. Does everything you do have a cause? What kind of cause?
+
+3. Human nature is shown in human action. Human action consists in
+muscular contraction. What makes a muscle contract?
+
+4. Plan an experiment the object of which shall be to learn something
+about yourself.
+
+5. Enumerate the professions and occupations in which a knowledge of
+some aspect of human nature would be valuable. State in what way it
+would be valuable.
+
+6. Make a list of facts concerning a child, which a teacher ought to
+know.
+
+7. Make a complete outline of Chapter I.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters I, II, and V.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL
+
+
+=Racial Development.= The purpose of this chapter is to make some inquiry
+concerning the origin of the race and of the individual. In doing this,
+it is necessary for us first of all to fix in our minds the idea of
+causality. According to the view of all modern science, everything has a
+cause. Nothing is uncaused. One event is the result of other previous
+events, and is in turn the cause of other events that follow. Yesterday
+flowed into to-day, and to-day flows into to-morrow. The world as it
+exists to-day is the result of the world as it existed yesterday. This
+is true not only of the inorganic world--the world of physics and
+chemistry--but it is true of living things as well. The animals and
+plants that exist to-day are the descendants of others that lived
+before. There is probably an unbroken line of descent from the first
+life that existed on the earth to the living forms of to-day.
+
+Not only does the law of causality hold true in the case of our bodies,
+but of our minds as well. Our minds have doubtless developed from
+simpler minds just as our bodies have developed from simpler bodies.
+That different grades and types of minds are to be found among the
+various classes of animals now upon the earth, no one can doubt, for the
+different forms certainly show different degrees of mentality.
+According to the evidence of those scientists who have studied the
+remains of animals found in the earth's crust, there is a gradual
+development of animal forms shown in successive epochs. In the very
+oldest parts of the earth's crust, the remains of animal life found are
+very simple. In later formations, the remains show an animal life more
+complex. The highest forms of animals, the mammals, are found only in
+the more recent formations. The remains of man are found only in the
+latest formations.
+
+Putting these two facts together--(1) that the higher types of mind are
+found to-day only in the higher types of animals, and (2) that a gradual
+development of animal forms is shown by the remains in the earth's
+crust--the conclusion is forced upon us that mind has passed through
+many stages of development from the appearance of life upon the earth to
+the present time. Among the lower forms of animals to-day one sees
+evidence of very simple minds. In amoebas, worms, insects, and fishes,
+mind is very simple. In birds, it is higher. In mammals, it is higher
+still. Among the highest mammals below man, we see manifestations of
+mind somewhat like our own. These grades of mentality shown in the
+animals of to-day represent the steps in the development of mind in the
+animals of the past.
+
+We cannot here go into the proof of the doctrine of development. For
+this proof, the reader must be referred to zooelogy. One further point,
+however, may be noted. If it is difficult for the reader to conceive of
+the development of mind on the earth similar to the development of
+animals in the past, let him think of the development of mind in the
+individual. There can certainly be no doubt of the development of mind
+in an individual human being. The infant, when born, shows little
+manifestation of mentality; but as its body grows, its mind develops,
+becoming more and more complex as the individual grows to maturity.
+
+=The World as Dynamic.= The view of the world outlined above, and held by
+all scientific men of the present time, may be termed the _dynamic_
+view. Man formerly looked upon the world as static, a world where
+everything was fixed and final. Each thing existed in itself and for
+itself, and in large measure independent of all other things. We now
+look upon things and events as related and dependent. Each thing is
+dependent upon others, related to others.
+
+Man not only _lives in_ such a world, but is _part of_ such a world. In
+this world of constant and ceaseless change, man is most sensitive and
+responsive. Everything may affect him. To all of the constant changes
+about him he must adjust himself. He has been produced by this world,
+and to live in it he must meet its every condition and change. We must,
+then, look upon human nature as something coming out of the past and as
+being influenced every moment by the things and forces of the present.
+Man is not an independent being, unaffected by everything that happens;
+on the contrary, he is affected by all influences that act upon him.
+Among these influences may be mentioned weather, climate, food, and
+social forces.
+
+The condition of the various organs of a child's body determine, to some
+extent, the effect which these various forces have upon it. If a child's
+eyes are in any way defective, making vision poor, this tremendously
+influences his life. Not only is such a child unable to see the world as
+it really is, but the eyestrain resulting from poor vision has serious
+effects on the child, producing all sorts of disorders. If a child
+cannot hear well or is entirely deaf, many serious consequences follow.
+In fact, every condition or characteristic of a child that is in any way
+abnormal may lead on to other conditions and characteristics, often of a
+serious nature. The growth of adenoids, for example, may lead to a
+serious impairment of the mind. Poor vision may affect the whole life
+and character of the individual. The influence of a parent, teacher, or
+friend may determine the interest of a child and affect his whole life.
+The correct view of child life is that the child is affected, in greater
+or less degree, by every influence which acts upon him.
+
+=Significance of Development and Causality.= What are the consequences of
+the view just set forth? What is the significance of the facts that have
+been enumerated? It is of great consequence to our thinking when we come
+to recognize fully the idea of causality. We then fully accept the fact
+that man's body and mind are part of a causal and orderly world.
+
+Let us consider, for example, the movement of a muscle. Every such
+movement must be caused. The physiologist has discovered what this cause
+is. Ordinarily and normally, a muscle contracts only when stimulated by
+a nerve current. Tiny nerve fibrils penetrate every muscle, ending in
+the muscle fibers. The nerve-impulse passing into the fibers of the
+muscles causes them to contract. The nerve stimulus itself has a cause;
+it ordinarily arises directly or indirectly from the stimulation of a
+sense organ. And the sense organs are stimulated by outside influences,
+as was explained previously.
+
+Not only are our movements caused, but our sensations, our ideas, and
+our feelings follow upon or are dependent upon some definite bodily
+state or condition. The moment that we recognize this we see that our
+sensations, ideas, and feelings are subject to control. It is only
+because our minds are in a world of causality, and subject to its laws,
+that education is possible. We can bring causes to bear upon a child and
+change the child. It is possible to build up ideas, ideals, and habits.
+And ideas, ideals, and habits constitute the man. Training is possible
+only because a child is a being that can be influenced. What any child
+will be when grown depends upon what kind of child it was at the
+beginning and upon the influences that affect it during its early life
+while it is growing into maturity. We need have no doubt about the
+outcome of any particular child if we know, with some degree of
+completeness, the two sets of factors that determine his life--his
+inheritance and the forces that affect this inheritance. We can predict
+the future of a child to the extent that we know and understand the
+forces that will be effective in his life.
+
+The notion of causality puts new meaning into our view of the _training_
+of a child. The doctrine of development puts new meaning into our notion
+of the _nature_ of a child. We can understand man only when we view him
+genetically, that is, in the light of his origin. We can understand a
+child only in the light of what his ancestors have been.
+
+As these lines are being written, the greatest, the bloodiest war of
+history is in progress. Men are killing men by thousands and hundreds of
+thousands. How can we explain such actions? Observation of children
+shows that they are selfish, envious, and quarrelsome. They will fight
+and steal until they are taught not to do such things. How can we
+understand this? There is no way of understanding such actions until we
+come to see that the children and men of to-day are such as they are
+because of their ancestors. It has been only a few generations,
+relatively speaking, since our ancestors were naked savages, killing
+their enemies and eating their enemies' bodies. The civilized life of
+our ancestors covers a period of only a few hundred years. The
+pre-civilized life of our ancestors goes back probably thousands and
+thousands of years. In the relatively short period of civilization, our
+real, original nature has been little changed, perhaps none at all. The
+modern man is, at heart, the same old man of the woods.
+
+The improvements of civilization form what is called a social heritage,
+which must be impressed upon the original nature of each individual in
+order to have any effect. Every child has to learn to speak, to write,
+to dress, to eat with knife and fork; he must learn the various social
+customs, and to act morally as older people dictate. The child is by
+nature bad, in the sense that the nature which he inherits from the past
+fits him better for the original kind of life which man used to live
+than it does for the kind of life which we are trying to live now. This
+view makes us see that training a child is, in a very true sense,
+_making him over again_. The child must be trained to subdue and control
+his original impulses. Habits and ideals that will be suitable for life
+in civilized society _must be built up_. The doctrine of the Bible in
+regard to the original nature of man being sinful, and the necessity of
+regeneration, is fundamentally correct. But this regeneration is not so
+much a sudden process as it is the result of long and patient
+building-up of habits and ideals.
+
+One should not despair of this view of child-life. Neither should one
+use it as an excuse for being bad, or for neglecting the training of
+children. On the contrary, taking the genetic view of childhood should
+give us certain advantages. It makes us see more clearly the _necessity_
+of training. Every child must be trained, or he will remain very much a
+savage. In the absence of training, all children are much alike, and all
+alike bad from our present point of view. The chief differences in
+children in politeness and manners generally, in morals, in industry,
+etc., are due, in the main, to differences in training. It is a great
+help merely to know how difficult the task of training is, and that
+training there must be if we are to have a civilized child. We must take
+thought and plan for the education and training of our children. The
+task of education is in part one of changing human nature. This is no
+light task. It is one that requires, in the case of each child, some
+twenty years of hard, patient, persistent work.
+
+=Individual Development.= Heredity is a corollary of evolution. Individual
+development is intimately related to racial development. Indeed, racial
+development would be impossible without heredity in the individual. The
+individual must carry on and transmit what the race hands down to him.
+This will be evident when we explain what heredity means.
+
+By heredity we mean the likeness between parent and offspring. This
+likeness is a matter of form and structure as well as likeness of action
+or response. Animals and plants are like the parents in form and
+structure, and to a certain extent their responses are alike when the
+individuals are placed in the same situation. A robin is like the parent
+robins in size, shape, and color. It also hops like the parent birds,
+sings as they do, feeds as they do, builds a similar nest, etc. But the
+likeness in action is dependent upon likeness in structure. The young
+robin acts as does the old robin, because the nervous mechanism is the
+same, and therefore a similar stimulus brings about a similar response.
+
+Most of the scientific work in heredity has been done in the study of
+the transmission of physical characteristics. The main facts of heredity
+are evident to everybody, but not many people realize how far-reaching
+is the principle of resemblance between parent and offspring. From
+horses we raise horses. From cows we raise cows. The children of human
+beings are human. Not only is this true, but the offspring of horses are
+of the same stock as the parents. Not only are the colts of the same
+stock as the parents, but they resemble the parents in small details.
+This is also true of human beings. We expect a child to be not only of
+the same race as the parents, but to have family resemblances to the
+parents--the same color of hair, the same shape of head, the same kind
+of nose, the same color of eyes, and to have such resemblances as moles
+in the same places on the skin, etc. A very little investigation reveals
+likenesses between parent and offspring which we may not have expected
+before.
+
+However, if we start out to hunt for facts of heredity, we shall perhaps
+be as much impressed by differences between parent and child as we shall
+by the resemblances. In the first place, every child has two parents,
+and it is often impossible to resemble both. One cannot, for example, be
+both short and tall; one cannot be both fair and dark; one cannot be
+both slender and heavy; one cannot have both brown eyes and blue. In
+some cases, the child resembles one parent and not the other. In other
+cases, the child looks somewhat like both parents but not exactly like
+either. If one parent is white and the other black, the child is
+neither as white as the one parent nor as black as the other.
+
+The parents of a child are themselves different, but there are four
+grandparents, and each of them different from the others. There are
+eight great grandparents, and all of them different. If we go back only
+seven generations, covering a period of perhaps only a hundred and fifty
+years, we have one hundred and twenty-eight ancestors. If we go back ten
+generations, we have over a thousand ancestors in our line of descent.
+Each of these people was, in some measure, different from the others.
+Our inheritance comes from all of them and from each of them.
+
+How do all of these diverse characteristics work out in the child? In
+the first place, it seems evident that we do not inherit our bodies as
+wholes, but in parts or units. We may think of the human race as a whole
+being made up of a great number of unit characters. No one person
+possesses all of them. Every person is lacking in some of them. His
+neighbor may be lacking in quite different ones. Now one parent
+transmits to the child a certain combination of unit characters; the
+other parent, a different combination. These characteristics may not all
+appear in the child, but all are transmitted through it to the next
+generation, and they are transmitted purely. By being transmitted
+purely, we mean that the characteristic does not seem to lose its
+identity and disappear in fusions or mixtures. The essential point in
+this doctrine of heredity is known as Mendelism; it is the principle of
+inheritance through the pure transmission of unit characters.
+
+An illustration will probably make the Mendelian principle clear. Let us
+select our illustration from the plant world. It is found that if white
+and yellow corn are crossed, all the corn the first year, resulting from
+this crossing, will be yellow. Now, if this hybrid yellow corn is
+planted the second year, and freely cross-fertilized, it turns out that
+one fourth of it will be white and three fourths yellow. But this yellow
+consists of three parts: one part being pure yellow which will breed
+true, producing nothing but yellow; the other two parts transmit white
+and yellow in equal ratio. That is to say, these two parts are hybrids,
+the result of crossing white with yellow. It is not meant that one can
+actually distinguish these two kinds of yellow, the pure yellow and the
+hybrid yellow, but the results from planting it show that one third of
+the yellow is pure and that the other two thirds transmit white and
+yellow in equal ratio.
+
+The main point to notice in all this is that when two individuals having
+diverse characteristics are crossed, the characteristics do not fuse and
+disappear ultimately, but that the two characteristics are transmitted
+in equal ratio, and each will appear in succeeding generations, and will
+appear pure, just as if it had not been crossed with something
+different. The first offspring resulting from the cross--known as
+hybrids--may show either one or the other of the diverse
+characteristics, or, when such a thing is possible, even a blending of
+the two characteristics. But whatever the actual appearance of the first
+generation of offspring resulting from crossing parents having diverse
+characteristics, their germ-cells transmit the diverse characteristics
+in equal proportion, as explained above.
+
+When one of the diverse characteristics appears in the first generation
+of offspring and the other does not appear, or is not apparent, the one
+that appears is said to be _dominant_, while the one not appearing is
+said to be _recessive_. In our example of the yellow and white corn,
+yellow is dominant and white recessive. And it must be remembered that
+the white corn that appears in the second generation will breed true
+just as if it had never been crossed with the yellow corn. One third of
+the yellow of the second generation would also breed true if it could be
+separated from the other two thirds.
+
+It is not here claimed that Mendelism is a universal principle, that all
+characteristics are transmitted in this way. However, the results of the
+numerous experiments in heredity lead one to expect this to be the case.
+Most of the experiments have been with lower animals and with plants,
+but recent experiments and statistical studies show that Mendelism is an
+important factor in human heredity, in such characteristics as color of
+hair and eyes and skin, partial color blindness, defects of eye, ear,
+and other important organs.
+
+The studies that have been made of human heredity have been, for the
+most part, studies of the transmission of physical characteristics. Very
+little has been done that bears directly upon the transmission of mental
+characteristics. But our knowledge of the dependence of mind upon body
+should prepare us to infer mental heredity from physical heredity. Such
+studies as throw light on the question bear us out in making such an
+inference.
+
+The studies that have been more directly concerned with mental heredity
+are those dealing with the resemblances of twins, studies of heredity in
+royalty, studies of the inheritance of genius, and studies of the
+transmission of mental defects and defects of sense organs. The results
+of all these studies indicate the inheritance of mental characteristics
+in the same way that physical characteristics are transmitted. Not only
+are human mental characteristics transmitted from parent to offspring,
+but they seem to be transmitted in Mendelian fashion.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, for example, seems to be a Mendelian character and
+recessive. From the studies that have been made, it seems that two
+congenitally feeble-minded parents will have only feeble-minded
+children. Feeble-mindedness acts in heredity as does the white corn in
+the example given above. If one parent only is feeble-minded, the other
+being normal, all of the children will be normal, just as all of the
+corn, in the first generation after the crossing, was yellow. But these
+children whose parents are the one normal and the other feeble-minded,
+while themselves normal, transmit feeble-mindedness in equal ratio with
+normality. It works out as follows: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+person of sound mind and sound stock, the children will all be of sound,
+normal mind. If these children take as husbands and wives men and women
+who had for parents one normal and one feeble-minded person, their
+children will be one fourth feeble-minded and three fourths of them
+normal.
+
+To summarize the various conditions: If a feeble-minded person marry a
+feeble-minded person, all the children will be feeble-minded. If a
+feeble-minded person marry a sound, normal person (pure stock), all the
+children will be normal. If the children, in the last case, marry others
+like themselves as to origin, one fourth of their offspring will be
+feeble-minded. If such hybrid children marry feeble-minded persons, one
+half of the offspring will be feeble-minded. It is rash to prophesy, but
+future studies of heredity may show that Mendelism, or some
+modification of the principle, always holds true of mind as well as of
+body.
+
+Little can be said about the transmission of particular definite mental
+traits, such as the various aspects of memory, association, attention,
+temperament, etc. Before we can speak with any certainty here, we must
+make very careful experimental studies of these mental traits in parents
+and offspring. No such work has been done. All we have at the present
+time is the result of general observation.
+
+=Improvement of the Race.= Eugenics is the science of improvement of the
+human race by breeding. While we can train children and thereby make
+them much better than they would be without such training, this training
+does not improve the stock. The improvement of the stock can be
+accomplished only through breeding from the best and preventing the poor
+stock from leaving offspring. This is a well-known principle in the
+breeding of domestic animals.
+
+It is doubtless just as true in the case of human beings. The hygienic
+and scientific rearing of children is good for the children and makes
+their lives better, but probably does not affect their offspring. We
+should not forget that all the social and educational influences die
+with the generation that receives them. They must be impressed by
+training on the next generation or that generation will receive no
+influence from them. The characters which we acquire in our lifetime
+seem not to be transmitted to our children, except through what is known
+as social heredity, which is merely the taking on of characteristics
+through imitation. Our children must go through all the labor of
+learning to read, write, spell, add, multiply, subtract, and divide,
+which we went through. Moral traits, manners and customs, and other
+habits and ideals of social importance must be acquired by each
+successive generation.
+
+=Heredity _versus_ Environment.= The question is often asked whether
+heredity or the influence of environment has the most to do with the
+final outcome of one's life. It is a rather useless question to ask, for
+what a human being or anything else in the world does depends upon what
+it is itself and what the things and forces are that act upon it.
+Heredity sets a limitation for us, fixes the possibilities. The
+circumstances of life determine what we will do with our inherited
+abilities and characteristics. Hereditary influences incline us to be
+tall or short, fat or lean, light or dark. The characteristics of our
+memory, association, imagination, our learning capacity, etc., are
+determined by heredity. Of course, how far these various aspects develop
+is to some extent dependent upon the favorable or unfavorable influences
+of the environment. What is possible for us to do is settled by
+heredity; what we may actually do, what we may have the opportunity to
+do, is largely a matter of the circumstances of life.
+
+In certain parts of New England, the number of men who become famous in
+art, science, or literature is very great compared to the number in some
+other parts of our country. As far as we have any evidence, the native
+stocks are the same in the two cases, but in New England the influences
+turn men into the direction of science, art, and literature. Everything
+there is favorable. In other parts of the country, the influences turn
+men into other spheres of activity. They become large landowners, men of
+business and affairs.
+
+The question may be asked whether genius makes its way to the front in
+spite of unfavorable circumstances. Sometimes it doubtless does. But
+pugnacity and perseverance are not necessarily connected with
+intellectual genius. Genius may be as likely to be timid as belligerent.
+Therefore unfavorable circumstances may crush many a genius.
+
+The public schools ought to be on the watch for genius in any and all
+kinds of work. When a genius is found, proper training ought to be
+provided to develop this genius for the good of society as well as for
+the good of the individual himself. A few children show ability in
+drawing and painting, others in music, others in mechanical invention,
+some in literary construction. When it is found that this ability is
+undoubtedly a native gift and not a passing whim, special opportunity
+should be provided for its development and training. It will be better
+for the general welfare, as well as for individual happiness, if each
+does in life that for which he is by nature best fitted. For most of us,
+however, there is not much difference in our abilities. We can do one
+thing as well as we can many other things. But in a few there are
+undoubted special native gifts.
+
+  SUMMARY. This is an orderly world, in which everything has a cause.
+  All events are connected in a chain of causes and effects. Human
+  beings live in this world of natural law and are subject to it.
+  Human life is completely within this world of law and order and is a
+  part of it. Education is possible only because we can change human
+  beings by having influences act upon them.
+
+  Individuals receive their original traits from their ancestors,
+  probably as parts or units. Mendelism is the doctrine of the pure
+  transmission of unit characters. Eugenics is the science of
+  improving the human race by selective breeding. An individual's life
+  is the result of the interaction of his hereditary characteristics
+  and his environment.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Try to find rock containing the remains of animals. You can get
+information on such matters from a textbook on geology.
+
+2. Read in a geology about the different geological epochs in the
+history of the earth.
+
+3. Make a comparison of the length of infancy in the lower animals and
+in man. What is the significance of what you find? What advantage does
+it give man?
+
+4. What is natural selection? How does it lead to change in animals?
+Does natural selection still operate among human beings? (See a modern
+textbook on zooelogy.)
+
+5. By observation and from consulting a zooelogy, learn about the
+different classes of animal forms, from low forms to high forms.
+
+6. By studying domestic animals, see what you can learn about heredity.
+Enumerate all the points that you find bearing upon heredity.
+
+7. In a similar way, make a study of heredity in your family. Consider
+such characteristics as height, weight, shape of head, shape of nose,
+hair and eye color. Can you find any evidence of the inheritance of
+mental traits?
+
+8. Make a complete outline of Chapter II.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+DAVENPORT: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_.
+
+KELLICOTT: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MIND AND BODY
+
+
+=Gross Dependence.= The relation of mind to body has always been an
+interesting one to man. This is partly because of the connection of the
+question with that of life after death. An old idea of this relation,
+almost universally held till recently, was that the mind or spirit lived
+in the body but was more or less independent of the body. The body has
+been looked upon as a hindrance to the mind or spirit. Science knows
+nothing about the existence of spirits apart from bodies. The belief
+that after death the mind lives on is a matter of faith and not of
+science. Whether one believes in an existence of the mind after death of
+the body, depends on one's religious faith. There is no scientific
+evidence one way or the other. The only mind that science knows anything
+about is bound up very closely with body. This is not saying that there
+is no existence of spirit apart from body, but that at present such
+existence is beyond the realm of science.
+
+The dependence of mind upon body in a general way is evident to every
+one, upon the most general observation and thought. We know the effect
+on the mind of disease, of good health, of hunger, of fatigue, of
+overwork, of severe bodily injury, of blindness or deafness. We have,
+perhaps, seen some one struck upon the head by a club, or run over by an
+automobile, and have noted the tremendous consequences to the person's
+mind. In such cases it sometimes happens that, as far as we can see,
+there is no longer any mind in connection with that body. The most
+casual observation, then, shows that mind and body are in some way most
+intimately related.
+
+=Finer Dependence.= Let us note this relation more in detail, and, in
+particular, see just which part of the body it is that is connected with
+the mind. First of all, we note the dependence of mind upon sense
+organs. We see only with our eyes. If we close the eyelids, we cannot
+see. If we are born blind, or if injury or disease destroys the retinas
+of the eyes or makes the eyes opaque so that light cannot pass through
+to the retinas, then we cannot see.
+
+Similarly, we hear only by means of the ears. If we are born deaf, or if
+injury destroys some important part of the hearing mechanism, then we
+cannot hear. In like manner, we taste only by means of the taste organs
+in the mouth, and smell only with the organs of smell in the nose. In a
+word, our primary knowledge of the world comes only through the sense
+organs. We shall see presently just how this sensing or perceiving is
+accomplished.
+
+=Dependence of Mind on Nerves and Brain.= We have seen how in a general
+way the mind is dependent on the body. We have seen how in a more
+intimate way it is dependent on the special sense organs. But the part
+of the body to which the mind is most directly and intimately related is
+the nervous system. The sense organs themselves are merely modifications
+of the nerve ends together with certain mechanisms for enabling stimuli
+to act on the nerve ends. The eye is merely the optic nerve spread out
+to form the retina and modified in certain ways to make it sensitive to
+ether vibrations. In addition to this, there is, of course, the focusing
+mechanism of the eye. So for all the sense organs; they are, each of
+them, some sort of modification of nerve-endings which makes them
+sensitive to some particular force or substance.
+
+Let us make the matter clear by an illustration. Suppose I see a picture
+on the wall. My eyes are directed toward the picture. Light from the
+picture is refracted within the eyes, forming an image on each retina.
+The retina is sensitive to the light. The light produces chemical
+changes on the retina. These changes set up an excitation in the optic
+nerves, which is conducted to a certain place in the brain, causing an
+excitation in the brain. Now the important point is that when this
+excitation is going on in the brain, _we are conscious, we see the
+picture_.
+
+As far as science can determine, we do not see, nor hear, nor taste, nor
+smell, nor have any other sensation unless a sense organ is excited and
+produces the excitation in the brain. There can be no doubt about our
+primary, sensory experience. By primary, sensory experience is meant our
+immediate, direct knowledge of any aspect of the world. In this field of
+our conscious life, we are entirely dependent upon sense organs and
+nerves and brain. Injuries to the eyes destroying their power to perform
+their ordinary work, or injuries to the optic nerve or to the visual
+center in the brain, make it impossible for us to see.
+
+These facts are so self-evident that it seems useless to state them. One
+has but to hold his hands before his eyes to convince himself that the
+mind sees by means of eyes, which are physical sense organs. One has but
+to hold his hands tight over his ears to find out that he hears by
+means of ears--again, physical sense organs.
+
+But simple and self-evident as the facts are, their acceptance must have
+tremendous consequences to our thinking, and to our view of human
+nature. If the mind is dependent in every feature on the body with its
+sense organs, this must give to this body and its sense organs an
+importance in our thought and scheme of things that they did not have
+before. This close dependence of mind upon body must give to the body a
+place in our scheme of education that it would not have under any other
+view of the mind. We wish to emphasize here that this statement of the
+close relation of the mind and body is not a theory which one may accept
+or not. It is a simple statement of fact. It is a presupposition of
+psychology. By "presupposition" is meant a fundamental principle which
+the psychologist always has in mind. It is axiomatic, and has the same
+place in psychology that axioms have in mathematics. All explanations of
+the working of the mind must be stated in terms of nerve and brain
+action, and stimulation of sense organs.
+
+Since the sense organs are the primary and fundamental organs through
+which we get experience, and since the sensations are the elementary
+experiences out of which all mental life is built, it is necessary for
+us to have a clear idea of the sense organs, their structure and
+functions, and of the nature of sensations.
+
+=Vision.= _The Visual Sense Organs._ The details of the anatomy of the eye
+can be looked up in a physiological textbook. The essential principles
+are very simple. The eye is made on the principle of a photographer's
+camera. The retina corresponds to the sensitive plate of the camera. The
+light coming from objects toward which the eyes are directed is focused
+on the retina, forming there an image of the object. The light thus
+focused on the retina sets up a chemical change in the delicate nerve
+tissue; this excitation is transmitted through the optic nerve to the
+occipital (back) part of the brain, and sets up brain action there. Then
+we have visual sensation; we see the object.
+
+The different colors that we see are dependent upon the vibration
+frequency of the ether. The higher frequencies give us the colors blue
+and green, and the lower frequencies give us the colors yellow and red.
+The intermediate frequencies give us the intermediate colors blue-green
+and orange. By vibration frequencies is meant the rate at which the
+ether vibrates, the number of vibrations a second. If the reader wishes
+to know something about these frequencies, such information can be found
+in a textbook on physics.
+
+It will be found that the vibration rates of the ether are very great.
+It is only within a certain range of vibration frequency that sunlight
+affects the retina. Slower rates of vibration than that producing red do
+not affect the eye, and faster than that producing violet do not affect
+the eye. The lightness and darkness of a color are dependent upon the
+intensity of the vibration. Red, for example, is produced by a certain
+vibration frequency. The more intense the vibration, the brighter the
+red; the less intense, the darker the red.
+
+When all the vibration frequencies affect the eyes at the same time, we
+see no color at all but only brightness. This is due to the fact that
+certain vibration frequencies neutralize each other in their effect on
+the retina, so far as producing color is concerned. Red neutralizes
+green, blue neutralizes yellow, violet neutralizes yellowish green,
+orange neutralizes bluish green.
+
+All variations in vision as far as color and brightness are concerned
+are due to variations in the stimulus. Changes in vibration frequency
+give the different colors. Changes in intensity give the different
+brightnesses: black, gray, and white. All explanations of the many
+interesting phenomena of vision are to be sought in the physiological
+action of the eye.
+
+Besides the facts of color and light and shade, already mentioned, some
+further interesting visual phenomena may be mentioned here.
+
+_Visual Contrast._ Every color makes objects near it take on the
+antagonistic or complementary color. Red makes objects near appear
+green, green makes them appear red. Blue makes near objects appear
+yellow, while yellow makes them appear blue. Orange induces greenish
+blue, and greenish blue induces orange. Violet induces yellowish green,
+and yellowish green induces violet. These color-pairs are known as
+antagonistic or complementary colors. Each one of a pair enhances the
+effect of its complementary when the two colors are brought close
+together. In a similar way, light and dark tints act as complementaries.
+Light objects make dark objects near appear darker, and dark objects
+make light objects near seem lighter.
+
+These universal principles of contrast are of much practical
+significance. They must be taken account of in all arrangements of
+colors and tints, for example, in dress, in the arrangement of flowers
+and shrubs, in painting.
+
+_Color-Mixture._ If, on a rotating motor, disks of different colors--say
+red and yellow--are placed and rotated, one sees on looking at them not
+red or yellow but orange. This phenomenon is known as _color-mixture_.
+The result is due to the simultaneous stimulation of the retina by two
+kinds of ether vibration. If the colors used are a certain red and a
+certain green, they neutralize each other and produce only gray. All the
+pairs of complementary colors mentioned above act in the same way,
+producing, if mixed in the right proportion, no color, but gray. If
+colored disks not complementary are mixed by rotation on a motor, they
+produce an intermediate color. Red and yellow give orange. Blue and
+green give bluish green. Yellow and green give yellowish green. Red and
+blue give violet or purple, depending on the proportion. Mixing pigments
+gives, in general, the same results as mixing by means of rotating the
+disks. The ordinary blue and yellow pigments give green when mixed,
+because each of the two pigments contains green. The blue and yellow
+neutralize each other, leaving green.
+
+_Visual After-Images._ The stimulation of the retina has interesting
+after effects. We shall mention here only the one known as _negative
+after-images_. If one will place on the table a sheet of white paper,
+and on this white paper lay a small piece of colored paper, and if he
+will then gaze steadily at the colored paper for a half-minute, it will
+be found that if the colored paper is removed one sees its complementary
+color. If the head is not moved, this complementary color has the same
+size and shape as the original colored piece of paper. The negative
+after-image can be projected on a background at different distances, its
+size depending on the distance of the background. The after-image will
+be found to mix with an objective color in accordance with the
+principles of color-mixture mentioned above.
+
+After-image phenomena have some practical consequences. If one has been
+looking at a certain color for some time, a half-minute or more, then
+looks at some other color, the after-image of the first color mixes with
+the second color.
+
+_Adaptation._ The fact last mentioned leads us to the subject of
+adaptation. If the eyes are stimulated by the same kind of light for
+some time, the eyes become adapted to that light. If the light is
+yellow, at first objects seem yellow, but after a time they look as if
+they were illuminated with white light, losing the yellow aspect. But if
+one then goes out into white light, everything looks bluish. The
+negative after-image of the yellow being cast upon everything makes the
+surroundings look blue, for the after-image of yellow is blue. All the
+other colors act in a similar way, as do also black and white. If one
+has been for some time in a dark room and then goes out to a lighter
+place, it seems unusually light. And if one goes from the light to a
+dark room, it seems unusually dark.
+
+=Hearing or Audition.= Just as the eye is an organ sensitive to certain
+frequencies of ether vibration, so the ear is an organ sensitive to
+certain air vibrations. The reader should familiarize himself with the
+physiology of the ear by reference to physiologies. The drum-skin, the
+three little bones of the middle ear, and the cochlea of the inner ear
+are all merely mechanical means of making possible the stimulation of
+the specialized endings of the auditory nerve by vibrations of air.
+
+As the different colors are due to different vibration frequencies of
+the ether, so different pitches of sound are due to differences in the
+rates of the air vibrations. The low bass notes are produced by the low
+vibration frequencies. The high notes are produced by the high
+vibration frequencies. The lowest notes that we can hear are produced by
+about twenty vibrations a second, and the highest by about forty
+thousand vibrations a second.
+
+=Other Sense Organs.= We need not give a detailed statement of the facts
+concerning the other senses. In each case the sense organ is some
+special adaptation of the nerve-endings with appropriate apparatus in
+connection to enable it to be affected by some special thing or force in
+the environment.
+
+In the case of taste, we find in the mouth, chiefly on the back and
+edges of the tongue, organs sensitive to sweet, sour, salt, and bitter.
+In the nose we have an organ that is sensitive to the tiny particles of
+substances that float in the air which we breathe in through the nose.
+
+In the skin we find several kinds of sense organs that give us the
+sensations of cold and warmth, of pressure and pain. These are all
+special and definite sensations produced by different kinds of organs.
+The sense of warmth is produced by different organs from those which
+produce the sense of cold. These organs can be detected and localized on
+the skin. So, also, pain and touch or pressure have each its particular
+organ.
+
+Within the body itself we have sense organs also, particularly in the
+joints and tendons and in the muscles. These give us the sensations
+which are the basis of our perception of motion, and of the position of
+the body and its members. In the semicircular canals of the inner ear
+are organs that give us the sense of dizziness, and enable us to
+maintain our equilibrium and to know up from down.
+
+The general nature of the sense organs and of sensation should now be
+apparent. The nervous system reaches out its myriad fingers to every
+portion of the surface of the body, and within the body as well. These
+nerve-endings are specially adapted to receive each its particular form
+of stimulation. This stimulation of our sense organs is the basis or
+cause of our sensations. And our sensations are the elementary stuff of
+all our experience. Whatever thoughts we have, whatever ideas or images
+we have, they come originally from our sensations. They are built up out
+of our sensations or from these sensations as they exist in memory.
+
+=Defects of Sense Organs.= The organs of sight and hearing are now by far
+the most important of our sense organs. They enable us to sense things
+that are at a distance. We shall therefore discuss defects of these two
+organs only. Since sensations are the primary stuff out of which mind is
+made, and since sight and hearing are the most important sense organs,
+it is evident that our lives are very much dependent on these organs. If
+they cannot do their work well, then we are handicapped. And this is
+often the case.
+
+The making of the human eye is one of the most remarkable achievements
+of nature. But the making of a perfect eye is too big a task for nature.
+She never makes a perfect eye. There is always some defect, large or
+small. To take plastic material and make lenses and shutters and
+curtains is a great task. The curvature of the front of the eye and of
+the front and back of the crystalline lens is never quite perfect, but
+in the majority of cases it is nearly enough perfect to give us good
+vision. However, in about one third of school children the defect is
+great enough to need to be corrected by glasses.
+
+The principle of the correction of sight by means of glasses is merely
+this:[1] When the focusing apparatus of the eye is not perfect, it can
+be made so by putting in front of the eye the proper kind of lens. There
+is nothing strange or mysterious about it. In some cases, the eye
+focuses the light before it reaches the retina. Such cases are known as
+nearsightedness and are corrected by having placed in front of the eyes
+concave lenses of the proper strength. These lenses diverge the rays and
+make them focus on the retina. In other cases, the eye is not able to
+focus the rays by the time they reach the retina. In these cases, the
+eyes need the help of convex lenses of the proper strength to make the
+focus fall exactly on the retina.
+
+[1] The teacher should explain these principles and illustrate by
+drawings. Consult a good text in physiology. Noyes' University of
+Missouri Extension Bulletin on eye and ear defects will be found most
+useful.
+
+Another defect of the eye, known as astigmatism, is due to the fact that
+the eye does not always have a perfectly spherical front (cornea). The
+curvature in one direction is different from that in others. For
+example, the vertical curvature may be more convex than the horizontal.
+Such a condition produces a serious defect of vision. It can be
+corrected by means of cylindrical lenses of the proper strength so
+placed before the eye as to correct the defect in curvature.
+
+Still another defect of vision is known as presbyopia or farsightedness
+due to old age. It has the following explanation: In early life, when we
+look at near objects, the crystalline lens automatically becomes
+thicker, more convex. This adjustment brings the rays to a focus on the
+retina, which is required for good vision. As we get old, the
+crystalline lens loses its power to change its adjustment for near
+objects, although the eye may see at a distance as well as ever. The
+old person, therefore, must wear convex glasses when looking at near
+objects, as in reading and sewing.
+
+Another visual defect of a different nature is known as partial color
+blindness. The defects described above are due to misshapen eyes.
+Partial color blindness is due to a defect of the retina which makes it
+unable to be affected by light waves producing red and green. A person
+with this defect confuses red and green. While only a small percentage
+of the population has this defect, it is nevertheless very important
+that those having it be detected. People having the defect should not be
+allowed to enter occupations in which the seeing of red and green is
+important. It was recently brought to the author's attention that a
+partially color-blind man was selling stamps in a post office. Since two
+denominations of stamps are distinguished by red and green colors, this
+man made frequent mistakes. He was doing one of the things for which he
+was specially unfitted. It is easy to detect color blindness by simple
+tests.
+
+So great is the importance of good vision in school work and the later
+work of life, that every teacher should know how to make simple tests to
+determine visual defects. Children showing any symptoms of eyestrain
+should be required to have their visual defects corrected by a competent
+oculist, and should be warned not to have the correction made by a
+quack. There is great popular ignorance and even prejudice concerning
+visual defects, and it is very important that teachers have a clear
+understanding of the facts.
+
+=Defects of Hearing.= Hearing defects are only about half as frequent as
+those of sight. They are nearly all due to catarrhal infection of the
+middle ear through the Eustachian tube. The careful and frequent
+medical examination of school children cannot, therefore, be too
+strongly emphasized. The deafness or partial deafness that comes from
+this catarrhal infection can seldom be cured; it must be prevented by
+the early treatment of the troubles which cause it.
+
+  SUMMARY. The mind is closely related to the body. Especially is it
+  dependent upon the brain, nerves, and sense organs. The sense organs
+  are special adaptations of the nerve-ends for receiving impressions.
+  Each sense organ receives only its particular type of impression.
+
+  The main visual phenomena are those of color-mixture, after-images,
+  adaptation, and contrast. Since sensation is the basis of mental
+  life, defects of the sense organs are serious handicaps and should
+  be corrected if possible. Visual defects are usually due to a
+  misshapen eyeball and can be corrected by proper glasses, which
+  should be fitted by an oculist. Hearing defects usually arise from
+  catarrhal trouble in the middle ear.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a study of the relation of the mind to the body. Enumerate the
+different lines of evidence which you may find indicating their close
+relationship.
+
+2. Can you find any evidence tending to show that the mind is
+independent of the body?
+
+3. _Color-Mixture._ Colored disks can be procured from C. H. Stoelting
+Company, Chicago. If a small motor is available, the disks can be
+rotated on the motor and the colors mixed. Mix pairs of complementary
+colors, also pairs of non-complementary colors, and note the result. A
+simple device can be made for mixing colors, as follows: On a board
+stand a pane of glass. On one side of the glass put a colored paper and
+on the other side of the glass put a different color. By looking through
+the glass you can see one color through transmitted light and the other
+color through reflected light. By inclining the glass at different
+angles you can get different proportions of the mixture, now more of one
+color, now more of the other.
+
+4. _Negative After-Images._ Cut out pieces of colored paper a half inch
+square. Put one of these on a white background on the table. With elbows
+on the table, hold the head in the hands and gaze at the colored paper
+for about a half-minute, then blow the paper away and continue to gaze
+at the white background. Note the color that appears. Use different
+colors and tabulate the results. Try projecting the after-images at
+different distances. Project the after-images on different colored
+papers. Do the after-images mix with the colors of the papers?
+
+5. An interesting experiment with positive after-images can be performed
+as follows: Shut yourself in a dark closet for fifteen or twenty minutes
+to remove all trace of stimulation of the retina. With the eyes covered
+with several folds of thick black cloth go to a window, uncover the eyes
+and take a momentary look at the landscape, immediately covering the
+eyes again. The landscape will appear as a positive after-image, with
+the positive colors and lights and shades. The experiment is best
+performed on a bright day.
+
+6. _Adaptation._ Put on colored glasses or hold before the eyes a large
+piece of colored glass. Note that at first everything takes on the color
+of the glass. What change comes over objects after the glasses have been
+worn for fifteen or twenty minutes? Describe your experience after
+removing the glasses. Plan and perform other experiments showing
+adaptation. For illustration, go from a very bright room into a dark
+room. Go from a very dark room to a light one. Describe your experience.
+
+7. _Contrast._ Take a medium gray paper and lay it on white and various
+shades of gray and black paper. Describe and explain what you find.
+
+8. _Color Contrast._ Darken a room by covering all the windows except
+one window pane. Cover it with cardboard. In the cardboard cut two
+windows six inches long and one inch wide. Over one window put colored
+glass or any other colored material through which some light will pass.
+By holding up a pencil you can cast two shadows on a piece of paper.
+What color are the shadows? One is a contrast color induced by the
+other; which one? Explain the results.
+
+9. Make a study of the way in which women dress. What do you learn about
+color effects?
+
+10. From the Stoelting Company you can obtain the Holmgren worsteds for
+studying color blindness.
+
+11. _Defective Vision._ Procure a Snellen's test chart and determine the
+visual acuity of the members of the class. Seat the subject twenty feet
+from the chart, which should be placed in a good light. While testing
+one eye, cover the other with a piece of cardboard. Above each row of
+letters on the chart is a number which indicates the distance at which
+it can be read by a normal eye. If the subject can read only the
+thirty-foot line, his vision is said to be 20/30; if only the forty-foot
+line, the vision is 20/40. If the subject can read above the twenty-foot
+line and complains of headache from reading, farsightedness is
+indicated. If the subject cannot read up to the twenty-foot line,
+nearsightedness or astigmatism is indicated.
+
+12. _Hearing._ By consultation with the teacher of physics, plan an
+experiment to show that the pitch of tones depends on vibration
+frequency. Such an experiment can be very simply performed by rotating a
+wheel having spokes. Hold a light stick against the spokes so that it
+strikes each spoke. If the wheel is rotated so as to give twenty or
+thirty strokes a second, a very low tone will be heard. By rotating the
+wheel faster you get a higher tone. Other similar experiments can be
+performed.
+
+13. Acuity of hearing can be tested by finding the distance at which the
+various members of the class can hear a watch-tick. The teacher can plan
+an experiment using whispering instead of the watch-tick. (See the
+author's _Examination of School Children_.)
+
+14. By using the point of a nail, one can find the "cold spots" on the
+skin. Warm the nail to about 40 degrees Centigrade and you can find the
+"warm spots."
+
+15. By touching the hairs on the back of the hand, you can stimulate the
+"pressure spots."
+
+16. By pricking the skin with the point of a needle, you can stimulate
+the "pain spots."
+
+17. The sense of taste is sensitive only to solutions that are sweet,
+sour, salt, or bitter. Plan experiments to verify this point. What we
+call the "taste" of many things is due chiefly to odor. Therefore in
+experiments with taste, the nostrils should be stopped up with cotton.
+It will be found, for example, that quinine and coffee are
+indistinguishable if their odors be eliminated by stopping the nose. The
+student should compare the taste of many substances put into the mouth
+with the nostrils open with the taste of the same substances with the
+nostrils closed.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters VII and XII.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters III, IV, VI,
+and VII.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters II, III, and IV.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter II.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I, par. 3; also
+Chapter II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+INHERITED TENDENCIES
+
+
+=Stimulus and Response.= We have learned something about the sense organs
+and their functions. We have seen that it is through the sense organs
+that the world affects us, stimulates us. And we have said that we are
+stimulated in order that we may respond.
+
+We must now inquire into the nature of our responses. We are moving,
+active beings. But how do we move, how do we act when stimulated? Why do
+we do one thing rather than another? Why do we do one thing at one time
+and a different thing at another time?
+
+Before we answer these questions it will be necessary for us to get a
+more definite and complete idea of the nature of stimulus and response.
+We have already used these terms, but we must now give a more definite
+account of them. It was said in the preceding chapter that when a muscle
+contracts, it must first receive a nerve-impulse. Now, anything which
+starts this nerve-impulse is called the stimulus. The muscular movement
+which follows is, of course, the response. The nervous system forms the
+connection between the stimulus and response.
+
+The stimulus which brings about a response may be very simple. Or, on
+the other hand, it may be very complex. If one blows upon the eyelids of
+a baby, the lids automatically close. The blowing is the stimulus and
+the closing of the lids is the response. Both stimulus and response are
+here very simple.
+
+But sometimes the stimulus is more complex, not merely the simple
+excitation of one sense organ, but a complicated stimulation of an
+organ, or the simultaneous stimulation of several organs. In playing
+ball, the stimulus for the batter is the on-coming ball. The response is
+the stroke. This case is much more complex than the reflex closing of
+the eyelids. The ball may be pitched in many different ways and the
+response changes with these variations.
+
+In piano playing, the stimulus is the notes written in their particular
+places on the staff. Not only must the position of the notes on the
+staff be taken into account, but also many other things, such as sharps
+and flats, and various characters which give directions as to the manner
+in which the music is to be played. The striking of the notes in the
+proper order, in the proper time, and with the proper force, is the
+response.
+
+In typewriting, the stimulus is the copy, or the idea of what is to be
+written, and the response is the striking of the keys in the proper
+order. Speaking generally, we may say that the stimulus is the force or
+forces which excite the sense organs, and thereby, through the nervous
+system, bring about a muscular response.
+
+This is the ordinary type of action, but we have already indicated a
+different type. In speaking of typewriting we said the stimulus might be
+either the copy or ideas. One can write from copy or dictation, in which
+the stimulus is the written or spoken word, but one can also write as
+one thinks of what one wishes to write. The latter is known as
+_centrally initiated action_. That is to say, the stimulus comes from
+within, in the brain, rather than from without.
+
+Let us explain this kind of stimulation a little further. Suppose I am
+sitting in my chair reading. I finish a chapter and look at my watch. I
+notice that it is three o'clock, and recall that I was to meet a friend
+at that time. The stimulus in this case is in the brain itself; it is
+the nervous activity which corresponds to the idea of meeting my friend.
+If we disregard the distinction between mind and body, we may say that
+the stimulus for a response may be an idea as well as a perception, the
+perception arising from the immediate stimulation of a sense organ, and
+the idea arising from an excitation of the brain not caused by an
+immediate stimulation of a sense organ.
+
+=Instincts and Habits.= In human action it is evident that there is always
+a stimulus to start the nerve-impulse which causes the action. If we
+make inquiry concerning the connection between the stimulus and
+response; if we ask how it has come about that a particular stimulus
+causes a particular response rather than some other possible response,
+we find two kinds of causes. In one case the causal connection is
+established through heredity; in the other, the causal connection is
+established during a person's lifetime through training.
+
+A chicken, for example, hides under some cover the first time it hears
+the cry of a hawk; it scratches the first time its feet touch sand or
+gravel; it pecks the first time it sees an insect near by. An infant
+closes its eyes the first time it feels cold wind blow upon them; it
+cries the first time it feels pain; it clasps its fingers together the
+first time a touch is felt inside them. The child's nervous system is so
+organized that, in each of the cases named, the stimulus brings forth
+the particular, definite response. These acts do not have to be
+learned.
+
+But it is quite different in typewriting and piano playing. One _must
+learn_ what keys on the piano to strike in response to the various
+situations of the notes as written in the music. One must also learn the
+keys on the typewriter before he can operate a typewriter. And in the
+case of other habits, we find, for example, that one does not respond by
+saying "81" for 9 times 9; nor "13" for 6 plus 7; nor "8" for 15 minus
+7; nor "8" for the square root of 64; nor "144" for the square of 12,
+etc., until one has learned in each case.
+
+Some connections between stimulus and response we have through
+inheritance; all others are built up and established in one's lifetime,
+particularly in the first thirty years of one's life.
+
+We have spoken of bonds between stimulus and response, but have not
+explained just what can be meant by a _bond_. In what sense are stimulus
+and response bound together? A bond is a matter of greater permeability,
+of less resistance in one direction through the nervous system than in
+other directions. Nerves are conductors for nerve-currents. When a
+nerve-current is started in a sense organ, it passes on through the path
+of least resistance.
+
+Now, some nerves are so organized and connected through inheritance as
+to offer small resistance. This forms a ready-made connection between
+stimulus and response. Muscular responses that are connected with their
+stimuli through inherited bonds, by inherited nerve structure, are
+called instincts. Those that are connected by acquired bonds are called
+habits. Sucking, crying, laughing, are instinctive acts. Adding,
+typewriting, piano playing, are habits.
+
+The term _instinct_ may be given to the act depending upon inherited
+structure, an inherited bond, or it may be given to the inherited bond
+itself. Similarly, the term _habit_ may be given to an act that we have
+had to learn or to the bond which we ourselves establish between
+response and stimulus. In this book we shall usually mean by instinct an
+action depending upon inherited structure and by habit an act depending
+upon a bond established during lifetime. A good part of our early lives
+is spent in building up bonds between stimuli and responses. This
+establishing of bonds or connections is called _learning_.
+
+=Appearance of Inherited Tendencies.= Not all of our inherited tendencies
+are manifested immediately after birth, nor indeed in the earliest years
+of childhood, but appear at different stages of the child's growth. It
+has already been said that a child, soon after birth, will close its
+eyelids when they are blown upon. The lids do not close at this time if
+one strikes at them, but they will do this later. The proper working of
+an instinct or an inherited tendency, then, depends upon the child's
+having reached a certain state of development.
+
+The maturing of an instinct depends upon both age and use, that is to
+say, upon the age of the animal and the amount of use or exercise that
+the instinctive activity has had. The most important factor, however,
+seems to be age. While our knowledge of the dependence of an instinct
+upon the age of the animal is not quite so definite in the case of human
+instincts, the matter has been worked out in the case of chickens.
+
+The experiment was as follows: Chickens were taken at the time of
+hatching, and some allowed to peck from the first, while others were
+kept in a dark room and not allowed to peck. When the chickens were
+taken out of the dark room at the end of one, two, three, and four days,
+it was found that in a few hours they were pecking as well as those
+that had been pecking from birth. It seems probable, if we may judge
+from our limited knowledge, that in the human child, activities are for
+the most part dependent upon the age of the child, and upon the state of
+development of the nervous system and of the organs of the body.
+
+=Significance of Inherited Tendencies.= Although human nature is very
+complex, although human action nearly always has some element of habit
+in it, nevertheless, inborn tendencies are throughout life powerful
+factors in determining action. This will at once be apparent if we
+consider how greatly we are influenced by anger, jealousy, love, fear,
+and competition. Now we do not have to learn to be jealous, to hate, to
+love, to be envious, to fight, or to fear. These are emotions common to
+all members of the human race, and their expression is an inborn
+tendency. Throughout life no other influences are so powerful in
+determining our action as are these. So, although most of our detailed
+actions in life are habits which we learn or acquire, the fundamental
+influences which decide the course of our action are inherited
+tendencies.
+
+=Classification of Instincts.= For convenience in treatment the instincts
+are grouped in classes. Those instincts most closely related to
+individual survival are called _individualistic_ instincts. Those more
+closely related to the survival of the group are called _socialistic_.
+Those individualistic tendencies growing out of periodic changes of the
+environment may be called _environmental_ instincts. Those closely
+related to human infancy, adapting and adjusting the child to the world
+in which he lives, may be called _adaptive_. There is still another
+group of inherited tendencies connected with sex and reproduction, which
+are not discussed in this book.
+
+We shall give a brief discussion of the instincts falling under these
+various classes. It must be remembered, however, that the psychology of
+the instincts is indefinite and obscure. It is difficult to bring the
+instincts into the laboratory for accurate study. For our knowledge of
+the instincts we are dependent, for the most part, on general
+observation. We have had a few careful studies of the very earliest
+years of childhood. However, although from the theoretical point of view
+our knowledge of the instincts is incomplete, it is sufficient to be of
+considerable practical value.
+
+=The Individualistic Instincts.= Man's civilized life has covered but a
+short period of time, only a few hundred or a few thousand years. His
+pre-civilized life doubtless covered a period of millions of years. The
+inborn tendencies in us are such as were developed in the long period of
+savage life. During all of man's life in the time before civilization,
+he was always in danger. He had many enemies, and most of these enemies
+had the advantage of him in strength and natural means of defense.
+Unaided by weapons, he could hardly hold his own against any of the
+beasts of prey. So there were developed in man by the process of natural
+selection many inherited responses which we group under the head of
+_fear_ responses.
+
+Just what the various situations are that bring forth these responses
+has never been carefully worked out. But any situation that suddenly
+puts an individual in danger of losing his life brings about
+characteristic reactions. The most characteristic of the responses are
+shown in connection with circulation and respiration. Both of these
+processes are much interfered with. Sometimes the action is accelerated,
+at other times it is retarded, and in some cases the respiratory and
+circulatory organs are almost paralyzed. Also the small muscles of the
+skin are made to contract, producing the sensation of the hair standing
+on end. Just what the original use of all these responses was it is
+difficult now to work out, but doubtless each served some useful
+purpose.
+
+Whether any particular situations now call forth inherited fear
+responses in us is not definitely established. But among lower animals
+there are certain definite and particular situations which do call forth
+fear responses. On the whole, the evidence rather favors the idea of
+definite fear situations among children. It seems that certain
+situations do invariably arouse fear responses. To be alone in the dark,
+to be in a strange place, to hear loud and sudden noises, to see large,
+strange animals coming in threatening manner, seem universally to call
+forth fear responses in children.
+
+However, the whole situation must always be considered. A situation in
+which the father or mother is present is quite different from one in
+which they are both absent. But it is certain that these and other fears
+are closely related to the age and development of the child. In the
+earlier years of infancy, certain fears are not present that are present
+later. And it can be demonstrated that the fears that do arise as
+infancy passes on are natural and inherited and not the result of
+experience.
+
+Few of the original causes of fear now exist. The original danger was
+from wild animals chiefly. Seldom are we now in such danger. But of
+course this has been the case for only a short time. Our bodies are the
+same sort of bodies that our ancestors had, therefore we are full of
+needless fears. During the early years of a child's life, wise treatment
+causes most of the fear tendencies to disappear because of disuse. On
+the other hand, unwise treatment may accentuate and perpetuate them,
+causing much misery and unhappiness. Neither the home nor the school
+should play upon these ancestral fears. We should not try to get a child
+to be good by frightening him; nor should we often use fear of pain as
+an incentive to get a child to do his work.
+
+Man has always been afraid, but he has also always been a fighter. He
+has always had to fight for his life against the lower animals, and he
+has also fought his fellow man. The fighting response is connected with
+the emotions of anger, envy, and jealousy. A man is angered by anything
+that interferes with his life, with his purposes, with whatever he calls
+his own. We become angry if some one strikes our bodies, or attacks our
+beliefs, or the beliefs of our dear friends, particularly of our
+families. The typical responses connected with anger are such as faster
+heart-beat, irregular breathing, congestion of the blood in the face and
+head, tightening of the voluntary muscles, particularly a setting of the
+teeth and a clinching of the fists. These responses are preparatory to
+actual combat.
+
+Anger, envy, and jealousy, and the responses growing out of them, have
+always played a large part in the life of man. A great part of history
+is a record of the fights of nations, tribes, and individuals. If the
+records of wars and strifes, and the acts growing out of envy and
+jealousy and other similar emotions should be taken out of history,
+there would not be much left. Much of literature and art depict those
+actions of man which grew out of these individualistic aspects of his
+nature. Competition, which is an aspect of fighting, even to the present
+day, continues to be one of the main factors in business and in life
+generally. Briefly, fighting responses growing out of man's selfishness
+are as old as man himself, and the inherited tendencies connected with
+them are among the strongest of our natures.
+
+In the training of children, one of the most difficult tasks is to help
+them to get control over the fighting instinct and other selfish
+tendencies. These tendencies are so deeply rooted in our natures that it
+is hard to get control of them. In fact, the control which we do get
+over them is always relative. The best we can hope to do is to get
+control over our fighting tendencies in ordinary circumstances.
+
+It is doubtful whether it would be good for us if the fighting spirit
+should disappear from the race. It puts vim and determination into the
+life of man. But our fighting should not be directed against our fellow
+man. The fighting spirit can be retained and directed against evil and
+other obstacles. We can learn to attack our tasks in a fighting spirit.
+But surely the time has come when we should cease fighting against our
+neighbors.
+
+=Social Tendencies.= Over against our fighting tendencies we may set the
+socialistic tendencies. Cooeperative and sympathetic actions grow out of
+original nature, just as truly as do the selfish acts. But the
+socialistic tendencies are not, in general, as strong as are the
+individualistic ones. What society needs is the strengthening of the
+socialistic tendencies by use, and a weakening of at least some of the
+individualistic tendencies, by control and disuse.
+
+Socialistic tendencies show themselves in gangs and clubs formed by
+children and adults. It is, therefore, a common practice now to speak of
+the "gang" instinct. Human beings are pleased and content when with
+other human beings and not content, not satisfied, when alone. Of course
+circumstances make a difference in the desires of men, but the general
+original tendency is as stated.
+
+The gang of the modern city has the following explanation: Boys like to
+be with other boys. Moreover, they like to be active; they want to be
+doing something. The city does not provide proper means for the desired
+activities, such as hunting, fishing, tramping, and boating. It does not
+provide experiences with animals, such as boys have on the farm. Much of
+the boy's day is spent in school in a kind of work not at all like what
+he would do by choice. There is not much home life. Usually there is not
+the proper parental control. Seldom do the parents interest themselves
+in planning for the activities of their children. The result is that the
+boys come together on the streets and form a club or gang. Through this
+organization the boy's nature expresses itself. Without proper guidance
+from older people, this expression takes a direction not good for the
+future character and usefulness of the boy.
+
+The social life of children should be provided for by the school in
+cooeperation with the home. The school or the schoolroom should
+constitute a social unit. The teacher with the parents should plan the
+social life of the children. The actual work of the school can be very
+much socialized. There can be much more cooeperation and much more group
+work can be done in the school than is the case at present. And many
+other social activities can be organized in connection with the school
+and its work. Excursions, pageants, shows, picnics, and all sorts of
+activities should be undertaken.
+
+The schoolhouse should be used by the community as the place for many of
+its social acts and performances. Almost every night, and throughout the
+summer as well as in the winter, the people, young and old, should meet
+at the school for some sort of social work or play. The Boy Scouts
+should be brought under the control of the school to help fulfill some
+of its main purposes.
+
+=Environmental Instincts.= In this class there are at least two tendencies
+which seem to be part of the original nature of man; namely, the
+_wandering_ and the _collecting_ tendencies.
+
+_Wandering._ The long life that our ancestors lived free and
+unrestrained in the woods has left its effect within us. One of the
+greatest achievements of civilization has been to overcome the inherited
+tendencies to roam and wander, to the extent that for the most part we
+live out our lives in one home, in one family, doing often but one kind
+of work all our lives. Originally, man had much more freedom to come and
+go and do whatever he wished.
+
+Truancies and runaways are the result of original tendencies and desires
+expressing themselves in spite of training, perhaps sometimes because of
+the lack of training. In childhood and youth these original tendencies
+should, to some extent, be satisfied in legitimate ways. Excursions and
+picnics can be planned both for work and for play. If the child's
+desires and needs can be satisfied in legitimate ways, then he will not
+have to satisfy them illegitimately. The teaching itself can be done
+better by following, to some extent, the lead of the child's nature.
+Much early education consists in learning the world. Now, most of the
+world is out of doors and the child must go out to find it. The teacher
+should make use of the natural desires of the children to wander and
+explore, as a means of educating them. The school work should be of such
+a nature that much outdoor work will need to be done.
+
+_Collecting._ It is in the nature of children to seize and, if possible,
+carry away whatever attracts attention. This tendency is the basis of
+what is called the collecting instinct. If one will take a walk with a
+child, one can observe the operation of the collecting tendency,
+particularly if the walk is in the fields and woods. The child will be
+observed to take leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, pebbles, and in
+fact everything that is loose or can be gotten loose. They are taken at
+first aimlessly, merely because they attract attention. The original,
+natural response of the child toward that which attracts attention is
+usually to get it, get possession of it and take it along. It is easy to
+see why such tendencies were developed in man. In his savage state it
+was highly useful for him to do this. He must always have been on the
+lookout for things which could be used as food or as weapons. He had to
+do this to live. But one need not take a child to the woods to observe
+this tendency. One can go to the stores. Till a child is trained not to
+do it, he seizes and takes whatever attracts attention.
+
+Just as the wandering tendencies can be used for the benefit of the
+child, so can the collecting tendencies. Not only should the children
+make expeditions to learn of the world, but specimens should be
+collected so that they can be used to form a museum at the school which
+will represent the surrounding locality. Geological, geographical,
+botanical, and zooelogical specimens should be collected. The children
+will learn much while making the collections, and much from the
+collections after they are made.
+
+"Education could profit greatly by making large demands upon the
+collecting instinct. It seems clear that in their childhood is the time
+when children should be sent forth to the fields and woods, to study
+what they find there and to gather specimens. The children can form
+naturalists' clubs for the purpose of studying the natural environment.
+Such study should embrace rocks, soils, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits,
+and specimens of the wood of the various trees. Birds and insects can be
+studied and collected. The work of such a club would have a twofold
+value. (1) The study and collecting acquaint the child with his natural
+environment, and in doing it, afford a sphere for the activity of many
+aspects of his nature. They take him out of doors and give an
+opportunity for exploring every nook and corner of the natural
+environment. The collecting can often be done in such a way as to appeal
+to the group instincts. For example, the club could hold meetings for
+exhibiting and studying the specimens, and sometimes the actual
+collecting could be done in groups. (2) The specimens collected should
+be put into the school museum, and the aim of this museum should be to
+represent completely the local environment, the natural and physical
+environment, and also the industrial, civil, and social environment. The
+museum should be completely illustrative of the child's natural,
+physical, and social surroundings. The museum would therefore be
+educative in its making, and when it is made, it would have immense
+value to the community, not only to the children but to all the people.
+In this museum, of course, should be found the minerals, rocks, soils,
+insects,--particularly those of economic importance,--birds, and also
+specimens of the wild animals of the locality. If proper appeal is made
+to the natural desire of the children, this instinct would soon be made
+of service in producing a very valuable collection. The school museum in
+which these specimens are placed should also include other classes of
+specimens. There should be specimens showing industrial evolution, the
+stages of manufacture of raw material, specimens of local historical
+interest, pictures, documents, books. The museum should be made of such
+a nature that parents would go there nearly as often as the children.
+The school should be for the instruction of all the people of the
+community. It should be the experiment station, the library, the
+debating club, the art gallery for the whole community."[2]
+
+[2] Pyle's _Outlines of Educational Psychology_, pp. 84-86.
+
+=Imitation.= One of the fundamental original traits of human nature is the
+tendency to imitate. Imitation is not instinctive in the strict meaning
+of the word. Seeing a certain act performed does not, apart from
+training and experience, serve as a stimulus to make a child perform a
+similar act. Hearing a certain sound does not serve as a stimulus for
+the production of the same sound. Nevertheless, there is in the human
+child a tendency or desire to do what it sees others doing.
+
+A few hours spent in observing children ought to convince any one of the
+universality and of the strength of this tendency. As our experience
+becomes organized, the idea of an act usually serves as the stimulus to
+call it forth. However, this is not because the idea of an act, of
+necessity, always produces the act. It is merely a matter of the
+stimulus and the response _becoming connected in that way_ as the result
+of experience. Our meaning is that an act can be touched off or prompted
+by any stimulus. Our nervous organization makes this possible. The
+particular stimulus that calls forth a particular response depends upon
+how we have been trained, how we have learned. In most cases our acts
+are coupled up with the ideas of the acts. We learn them that way.
+
+In early life particularly, the connection between stimulus and response
+is very close. When a child gets the idea of an act, he immediately
+performs the act, if he knows how. Now, seeing another perform an act
+brings the act clearly into the child's consciousness, and he proceeds
+to perform it. But the act must be one which the child already knows how
+to perform, otherwise his performance of it will be faulty and
+incomplete. If he has never performed the particular act, seeing another
+perform the act sets him to trying to do it and he may soon learn it. If
+he successfully performs an act when he sees it done by another, the act
+must be one which he already knows how to perform, and for whose
+performance the idea has already served as a stimulus. Now if imitation
+were instinctive in the strict sense, one could perform the act for the
+first time merely from seeing another do it, without any previous
+experience or learning. It is doubtful whether there are any such
+inherited connections. It is, however, true that human beings are of
+such a nature that, particularly in early life, they _like_ to do and
+_want_ to do what they see others doing. This is one of the most
+important aspects of human nature, as we shall see.
+
+=Function and Importance of Imitation in Life.= Natural selection has
+developed few aspects of human nature so important for survival as the
+tendency to imitate, for this tendency quickly leads to a successful
+adjustment of the child to the world in which he lives. Adult men and
+women are successfully adjusted to their environment. Their adjustment
+might be better, but it is good enough to keep them alive for a time.
+Now, if children do as they see their parents doing, they will reach a
+satisfactory adjustment. We may, therefore, say that the tendency to
+imitate serves to adjust the child to his environment. It is for this
+reason that imitation has been called an _adaptive instinct_. It would
+perhaps be better to say merely that the _tendency_ to imitate is part
+of the _original equipment of man_.
+
+Imitation is distinctively a human trait. While it occurs in lower
+animals it is probably not an important factor in adjusting them to
+their environment. But in the human race it is one of the chief factors
+in adjustment to environment. Imitation is one of the main factors in
+education. Usually the quickest way to teach a child to do a thing is to
+show him how.
+
+Through imitation we acquire our language, manners, and customs. Ideals,
+beliefs, prejudices, attitudes, we take on through imitation. The
+tendency to imitate others coupled with the desire to be thought well of
+by others is one of the most powerful factors in producing conformity.
+They are the whips which keep us within the bounds of custom and
+conventionality. The tendency to imitate is so strong that its results
+are almost as certain as are those of inherited tendencies. It is almost
+as certain that a child will be like his parents in speech, manners,
+customs, superstitions, etc., as it is that he will be like them in form
+of body. He not only walks and talks and acts like his parents, but he
+thinks as they do. We, therefore, have the term _social heredity_,
+meaning the taking on of all sorts of social habits and ideals through
+imitation.
+
+The part that imitation plays in the education of a child may be learned
+by going to a country home and noting how the boy learns to do all the
+many things about the farm by imitating his father, and how the girl
+learns to do all the housework by imitating her mother. Imitation is the
+basis of much of the play of children, in that their play consists in
+large part of doing what they see older people doing. This imitative
+play gives them skill and is a large factor in preparing for the work of
+life.
+
+=Dramatization.= Dramatization is an aspect of imitation, and is a means
+of making ideas more real than they would otherwise be. There is nothing
+that leads us so close to reality as action. We never completely know an
+act till we have done it. Dramatization is a matter of carrying an idea
+out into action. Ideas give to action its greatest fullness of meaning.
+
+Dramatic representation should, therefore, have a prominent place in the
+schools, particularly in the lower grades. If the child is allowed to
+mimic the characters in the reading lesson, the meaning of the lesson
+becomes fuller. Later on in the school course, dramatic representation
+of the characters in literature and history is a means of getting a
+better conception of these characters. In geography, the study of the
+manners and customs and occupations of foreign peoples can be much
+facilitated through dramatic representation. Children naturally have the
+dramatic tendency; it is one aspect of the tendency to imitate. We have
+only to encourage it and make use of it throughout the school course.
+
+=Imitation in Ideals.= Imitation is of importance not only in acquiring
+the actions of life but also in getting our ideals. Habits of thinking
+are no less an aspect of our lives than are habits of acting. Our
+attitudes, our prejudices, our beliefs, our moral, religious, and
+political ideals are in large measure copied from people about us. The
+family and social atmosphere in which one lives is a mold in which one's
+mind is formed and shaped. We cannot escape the influence of this
+atmosphere if we would. One takes on a belief that his father has, one
+clings to this belief and interprets the world in the light of it. This
+belief becomes a part of one's nature. It is a mental habit, a way of
+looking at the world. It is as much a part of one as red hair or big
+feet or a crooked nose. Probably no other influence has so much to do
+with making us what we are as social beings as the influence of
+imitation.
+
+=Play.= Play is usually considered to be a part of the original equipment
+of man. It is essentially an expression of the ripening instincts of
+children, and not a specific instinct itself. It is rather a sort of
+make-believe activity of all the instincts. Kittens and dogs may be seen
+in play to mimic fighting. They bite and chew each other as in real
+fighting, but still they are not fighting.
+
+As the structures and organs of children mature, they demand activity.
+This early activity is called play. It has several characteristics. The
+main one is that it is pleasurable. Play activity is pleasurable in
+itself. We do not play that we may get something else which we like, as
+is the case with the activity which we call work. Play is an end in
+itself. It is not a means to get something else which is intrinsically
+valuable.
+
+One of the chief values of play comes from its activity aspect. We are
+essentially motor beings. We grow and develop only through exercise. In
+early life we do not have to exert ourselves to get a living. Play is
+nature's means of giving our organs the exercise which they must have to
+bring them to maturity. Play is an expression of the universal tendency
+to action in early life. Without play, the child would not develop,
+would not become a normal human being.
+
+All day long the child is ceaselessly active. The value of this activity
+can hardly be overestimated. It not only leads to healthy growth, but is
+a means through which the child learns himself and the world. Everything
+that the child sees excites him to react to it or upon it. He gets
+possession of it. He bites it. He pounds it. He throws it. In this way
+he learns the properties of things and the characteristics of forces.
+Through play and imitation, in a very few years the child comes to a
+successful adjustment in his world.
+
+Play and imitation are the great avenues of activity in early life. Even
+in later life, we seldom accomplish anything great or worth while until
+the thing becomes play to us, until we throw our whole being into it as
+we do in play, until it is an expression of ourselves as play is in our
+childhood. The proper use of play gives us the solution of many of the
+problems of early education.
+
+Play has two functions in the school: (1) Motor play is necessary to
+growth, development, and health. The constant activity of the child is
+what brings about healthy growth.
+
+In the country it is not difficult for children to get plenty of the
+proper kind of exercise, but in the larger cities it is difficult.
+Nevertheless, opportunity for play should be provided for every child,
+no matter what the trouble or expense, for without play children cannot
+become normal human beings. Everywhere parents and teachers should plan
+for the play life of the children.
+
+(2) In the primary grades play can have a large place in the actual work
+of the school. The early work of education is to a large extent getting
+the tools of knowledge and thought and work--reading, spelling,
+writing, correct speech, correct writing, the elementary processes of
+arithmetic, etc. In many ways play can be used in acquiring these tools.
+
+One aspect of play particularly should have a large place in education;
+namely, the manipulative tendencies of children. This is essentially
+play. Children wish to handle and manipulate everything that attracts
+their attention. They wish to tear it to pieces and to put it together.
+This is nature's way of teaching, and by it children learn the
+properties and structures of things. They thereby learn what things do
+and what can be done with them. Teachers and parents should foster these
+manipulative tendencies and use them for the child's good. These
+tendencies are an aspect of curiosity. We want to know. We are unhappy
+as long as a thing is before us which we do not understand, which has
+some mystery about it. Nature has developed these tendencies in us, for
+without a knowledge of our surroundings we could not live. The child
+therefore has in his nature the basis of his education. We have but to
+know this nature and wisely use and manipulate it to achieve the child's
+education.
+
+  SUMMARY. Instincts are inherited tendencies to specific actions.
+  They fall under the heads: individualistic, socialistic,
+  environmental, adaptive, sexual or mating instincts. These inherited
+  tendencies are to a large extent the foundation on which we build
+  education. The educational problem is to control and guide them,
+  suppressing some, fostering others. In everything we undertake for a
+  child we must take into account these instincts.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make a study of the instincts of several animals, such as dogs, cats,
+chickens. Make a list showing the stimuli and the inherited responses.
+
+2. Make a study of the instincts of a baby. See how many inherited
+responses you can observe. The simpler inherited responses are known as
+_reflexes_. The closing of the eyelids mentioned in the text is an
+example. How many such reflexes can you find in a child?
+
+3. Make a special study of the fears of very young children. How many
+definite situations can you find which excite fear responses in all
+children? Each member of the class can make a list of his own fears. It
+may then be seen whether any fears are common to all members of the
+class and whether there are any sex differences.
+
+4. Similarly, make a study of anger and fighting. What situations
+invariably arouse the fighting response? In what definite, inherited
+ways is anger shown? Do your studies and observations convince you that
+the fighting instinct and other inherited responses concerned with
+individual survival are among the strongest of inherited tendencies? Can
+the fighting instinct be eliminated from the human race? Is it desirable
+to eliminate it?
+
+5. Make a study of children's collections. Take one of the grades and
+find what collections the children have made. What different objects are
+collected?
+
+6. Outline a plan for using the collecting instinct in various school
+studies.
+
+7. With the help of the principal of the school make a study of some
+specific cases of truancy. What does your finding show?
+
+8. Make a study of play by watching children of various ages play. Make
+a list of the games that are universal for infancy, those for childhood,
+and those for youth. (Consult Johnson's _Plays and Games_.)
+
+9. What are the two main functions of play in education? Why should we
+play after we are mature?
+
+10. Study imitation in very young children. Do this by watching the
+spontaneous play of children under six. What evidences of imitation do
+you find?
+
+11. Outline the things we learn by imitation. What is your opinion of
+the place which imitation has in our education?
+
+12. Make a study of imitation as a factor in the lives of grown people.
+Consider styles, fashions, manners, customs, beliefs, prejudices,
+religious ideas, etc.
+
+13. On the whole, is imitation a good thing or a bad thing?
+
+14. Make a plan of the various ways in which dramatization can be
+profitably used in the schools.
+
+15. Make a study of your own ideals. What ideals do you have? Where did
+you get them? What ideals did you get from your parents? What from
+books? What from teachers? What from friends?
+
+16. Show that throughout life inherited tendencies are the fundamental
+bases from which our actions proceed, on which our lives are erected.
+
+17. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters III, VIII, IX, and X.
+
+KIRKPATRICK: _Fundamentals of Child Study_, Chapters IV-XIII.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 184-187.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter X.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters IV-IX.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FEELING AND ATTENTION
+
+
+=The Feelings.= Related to the instincts on one side and to habits on the
+other are the feelings. In Chapter III we discussed sensation, and in
+the preceding chapter, the instincts, but when we have described an act
+in terms of instinct and sensation, we have not told all the facts.
+
+For example, when a child sees a pretty red ball of yarn, he reaches out
+to get it, then puts it into his mouth, or unwinds it, and plays with it
+in various ways. It is all a matter of sensation and instinctive
+responses. The perception of the ball--seeing the ball--brings about the
+instinctive reaching out, grasping the ball, and bringing it to the
+mouth. But to complete our account, we must say that the child is
+_pleased_. We note a change in his facial expression. His eyes gleam
+with pleasure. His face is all smiles, showing pleasant contentment.
+Therefore we must say that the child not only sees, not only acts, but
+the seeing and acting are _pleasant_. The child continues to look, he
+continues to act, because the looking and acting bring joy.
+
+This is typical of situations that bring pleasure. We want them
+continued; we act in a way to make them continue. _We go out after the
+pleasure-giving thing._
+
+But let us consider a different kind of situation. A child sees on the
+hearth a glowing coal. It instinctively reaches out and grasps it,
+starts to draw the coal toward it, but instinctively drops it. This is
+not, however, the whole story. Instead of the situation being pleasant,
+it is decidedly unpleasant. The child fairly howls with pain. His face,
+instead of being wreathed in smiles, is covered with tears. He did not
+hold on to the coal. He did not try to continue the situation. On the
+contrary, he dropped the coal, and withdrew the hand. The body
+contracted and shrank away from the situation.
+
+These two cases illustrate the two simple feelings, pleasantness and
+unpleasantness. Most situations in life are either pleasant or
+unpleasant. Situations may sometimes be neutral; that is, may arouse
+neither the feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. But usually a
+conscious state is either pleasant or unpleasant. A situation brings us
+life, joy, happiness. We want it continued and act in a way to bring
+about its continuance. Or the situation tends to take away our life,
+brings pain, sorrow, grief, and we want it discontinued, and act in a
+way to discontinue it.
+
+These two simple forms of feeling perhaps arose in the beginning in
+connection with the act of taking food. It is known that if a drop of
+acid touches an amoeba, the animal shrinks, contracts, and tries to
+withdraw from the death-bringing acid. On the other hand, if a particle
+of a substance that is suitable for food touches the animal, it takes
+the particle within itself. The particle is life-giving and brings
+pleasure.
+
+=The Emotions.= Pleasure and displeasure are the simple feelings. Most
+situations in life bring about very complex feeling states known as
+_emotions_. The emotions are made up of pleasure or displeasure mixed
+or compounded with the sensations from the bodily reactions.
+
+The circulatory system, the respiratory system, and nearly all the
+involuntary organs of the body form a great sounding board which
+instantly responds in various ways to the situations of life. When the
+youth sees the pretty maiden and when he touches her hand, his heart
+pumps away at a great rate, his cheeks become flushed, his breathing is
+paralyzed, his voice trembles. He experiences the emotion of love. The
+state is complex indeed. There is pleasantness, of course, but there is
+in addition the feeling of all the bodily reactions.
+
+When the mother sees her dead child lying in its casket, her head falls
+over on her breast, her eyes fill with tears, her shoulders droop, her
+chest contracts, she sobs, her breathing is spasmodic. Nearly every
+organ of the body is affected in one way or another. The state is
+_unpleasant_, but there is also the feeling of the manifold bodily
+reactions.
+
+So it is always. The biologically important situations in life bring
+about, through hereditary connections in the nervous system, certain
+typical reactions. These reactions are largely the same for the same
+type of situation, and they give the particular coloring to each
+emotion. It is evident that the emotions are closely related to the
+instincts. The reflexes that take place in emotions are of the same
+nature as the instincts. Each instinctive act has its characteristic
+emotion. There are fear instincts and fear emotions. Fear is unpleasant.
+In addition to its unpleasantness there is a multitude of sensations
+that come from the body. The hair stands on end, the heart throbs, the
+circulation is hastened, breathing is interrupted, the muscles are
+tense. This peculiar mass of sensations, blended with the
+unpleasantness, gives the characteristic emotion of fear. But we need
+not go into an analysis of the various emotions of love, hate, envy,
+grief, jealousy, etc. The reader can do this for himself.[3]
+
+[3] See James' _Psychology, Briefer Course_, Chapter XXIV.
+
+Nearly every organ of the body plays its part in the emotions: the
+digestive organs, the liver, the kidneys, the throat and mouth, the
+salivary glands, the eyes and tear glands, the skin muscles, the facial
+muscles, etc. And every emotion is made up of pleasantness or
+unpleasantness and the sensations produced by some combination of bodily
+reactions.
+
+It is well for us to remember the part that bodily conditions and states
+play in the emotional life. The emotional state of a man depends upon
+whether he has had his dinner or is hungry, whether the liver is working
+normally, and upon the condition of the various secreting and excreting
+organs and glands. In a word, it is evident that our emotions fall
+within a world of cause and effect. _Our feeling states are caused._
+
+=Importance in Life.= Our feelings and emotions are the fountains from
+which nearly all our volitional actions flow. Feeling is the
+_mainspring_ of life. Nearly everything we do is prompted by love, or
+hate, or fear, or jealousy, or rivalry, or anger, or grief. If the
+feelings have such close relation to action, then the schools must take
+them into account, for by education we seek to control action. If the
+feelings control action, then we must try to control the feelings. We
+must get the child into a right state of mind toward the school, toward
+his teacher, and toward his work. The child must like the school, like
+the teacher, and _want_ to learn.
+
+Moreover, we must create the right state of mind in connection with
+each study, each task. The child must come to feel the need and
+importance of each individual task as well as of each subject. The task
+is then desirable, it is to be sought for and worked at, it is important
+for life.
+
+This is merely enlisting the child's nature in the interest of his
+education. For motive, we must always look to the child's nature. The
+two great forces which pull and drive are _pleasure_ and _pain_. Nature
+has no other methods. Formerly the school used pain as its motive almost
+exclusively. The child did his tasks to escape pain. For motive we now
+use more often the positive influences which give pleasure, which pull
+instead of drive. What will one not do _for_ the _loved_ one? What will
+one not do _to_ the _hated_ one? The child who does not love his teacher
+gets little good from school while under that teacher. Moreover, school
+work is often a failure because it is so unreal, has so little relation
+to an actual world, and seems foreign to any real needs of the child. No
+one is going to work very hard unless the work is prompted by desire.
+Our desires come from our needs. Therefore, if we are to enlist the
+child's feelings in the service of his education, we must make the
+school work vital and relate it, if possible, to the actual needs of the
+child.
+
+It must not be forgotten, however, that we must build up permanent
+attitudes of respect for authority, obedience, and reverence for the
+important things of life. Neither must it be forgotten that we can
+create needs in the child. If in the education of the child we follow
+only such needs as he has, we will make a fine savage of him but nothing
+else. It is the business of the school to create in the child the right
+kind of needs. As was pointed out in our study of the instincts, we
+must make the child over again into what he ought to be. But this
+cannot be a sudden process. One cannot arouse enthusiasm in a
+six-year-old child over the beauties of higher mathematics. It takes ten
+or fifteen years to do that, and it must be done little by little.
+
+=Control of the Emotions.= Without training, we remain at the mercy of our
+baser emotions. The child must be trained to control himself. Here is
+where habit comes in to modify primitive action. The child can be
+trained to inhibit or prevent the reactions that arise in hatred, envy,
+jealousy, anger, etc. For a fuller discussion of this point we must wait
+till we come to the discussion of habit and moral training.
+
+=Mood and Temperament.= A mood is a somewhat extended emotional state
+continuing for hours or days. It is due to a continuance of the factors
+which cause it. The state of the liver and digestive organs may throw
+one for days into a cross and ugly mood. When the body becomes normal,
+the mood changes or disappears. Similarly, one may for hours or days be
+overjoyed, or depressed, or morose, or melancholy. Parents and teachers
+should look well to the matter of creating and establishing continuous
+and permanent states of feeling that are favorable to work and
+development.
+
+Some people are permanently optimistic, others pessimistic. Some are
+always joyful, others as constantly see only the dark side of life. Some
+are always serious and solemn, others always gay, even giddy. These
+permanent emotional attitudes constitute temperament, and are due to
+fundamental differences within the body that are in some cases
+hereditary. Crossness and moroseness, for example, may be due to a
+dyspeptic condition and a chronically bad liver. The happy dispositions
+belong to bodies whose organs are functioning properly, in which
+assimilation is good--all the parts of the body doing their proper work.
+
+Poor eyes which are under a constant strain, through the reflex effects
+upon various organs of the body, are likely to develop a permanently
+cross and irritable disposition. Through the close sympathetic relation
+of the various organs, anything affecting one organ and interfering with
+its proper action is likely to affect many other organs and profoundly
+influence the emotional states of the body. In growing children
+particularly, there are many influences which affect their emotions,
+things of which we seldom think, such as the condition of vision and
+hearing, the condition of the teeth, nose, and throat, and the condition
+of all the important vital organs of the body. When a child's
+disposition is not what we think it ought to be, we should try to find
+out the causes.
+
+=Training the Emotions.= The emotions are subject to training. The child
+can be taught control. Moreover, he can be taught to appreciate and
+enjoy higher things than mere animal pleasure; namely, art, literature,
+nature, truth. The child thereby becomes a spiritual being instead of a
+mere pig. The ideal of the school should be to develop men and women
+whose baser passions are under control, who are calm, self-controlled,
+and self-directed, and who get their greatest pleasure from the finer
+and higher things of life, such as the various forms of music, the songs
+of birds, the beauties and intricate workings of nature.
+
+This is a wonderful world and a wonderful life, but the child may go
+through the world without seeing it, and live his life without knowing
+what it is to live. His eyes must be opened, he must be trained to see
+and to feel. It is not the place here to tell how this is to be done.
+This is not a book on methods of teaching. We can only indicate here
+that the business of the school is not merely to teach people how to
+make a living, but to teach them how to enjoy the living. There are many
+avenues from which we get the higher forms of pleasure. There are really
+many different worlds which we may experience: the world of animals, the
+world of plants, the mechanical world, the chemical world, the world of
+literature and of art, the world of music. It is the duty of the schools
+to open up these worlds to the children, and make them so many
+possibilities of joy and happiness.
+
+The emotions and feelings, then, are not lawless and causeless, but are
+a part of a world of law and order. They are themselves caused and
+therefore subject to control and modification.
+
+=Attention.= Attention, too, is related to inherited tendencies on the one
+side and to habits on the other. If one is walking in the woods and
+catches a glimpse of something moving in the trees, the eyes
+_instinctively_ turn so that the person can get a better view of the
+object. If one hears a sudden sound, the head is instinctively turned so
+that the person can hear better. One stops, the body is held still and
+rigid, breathing is slow and controlled--all to favor better hearing.
+
+The various acts of attention are reflex and instinctive. But what is
+attention? By attention we mean _sensory clearness_. When we say we are
+attentive to a thing or subject, we mean that perceptions or ideas of
+that thing or subject are _clear_ as compared to other perceptions and
+ideas that are in consciousness at the same time. The contents of one's
+consciousness, the perceptions and ideas that constitute one's mind at
+any one moment are always arranged in an _attentive_ pattern, some
+being clear, others unclear. The pattern constantly changes and shifts.
+What is now clear and in the focus of consciousness, presently is
+unclear and may in a moment disappear from consciousness altogether,
+while other perceptions or ideas take its place.
+
+The first question that arises in connection with attention is, What are
+the causes of attention? The first group of causes are hereditary and
+instinctive. The child attends to loud things, bright things, moving
+things, etc. But as we grow older, the basis of attention becomes more
+and more _habit_. An illustration will make this clear. I once spent a
+day at a great exposition with a machinist. He was constantly attending
+to things mechanical, when I would not even see them. He had spent many
+years working with machinery, and as a result, things mechanical at once
+attracted him. Similarly, if a man and a woman walk along a street
+together and look in at the shop windows, the woman sees only hats,
+dresses, ribbons, and other finery, while the man sees only cigars,
+pipes, and automobile supplies. Every day we live, we are building up
+habits of attending to certain types of things. What repeatedly comes
+into our experience, easily attracts our attention to the exclusion of
+other things.
+
+=The Function of Attention.= Attention is the unifying aspect of
+consciousness. There are always many things in consciousness, and we
+cannot respond to all at once. The part of consciousness that is clear
+and focal brings about action. The things to which we attend are the
+things that count.
+
+In later chapters we shall learn that in habit-formation, attention is
+an important factor. We must attend to the acts we are trying to
+make habitual. In getting knowledge, we must attend to what we are
+trying to learn. In committing to memory, we must attend to the ideas
+that we are trying to fix and make permanent. In thinking and reasoning,
+those ideas become associated together that are together in attention.
+
+Attention is therefore the controlling aspect of consciousness. It is
+the basis of what we call _will_. The ideas that are clear and focal and
+that persist in consciousness are the ideas that control our action.
+When one says he has made up his mind, he has made a choice; that merely
+means that a certain group of ideas persist in consciousness to the
+exclusion of others. These are the ideas which ultimately produce
+action. And it is our past experience that determines what ideas will
+become focal and persist.
+
+=Training the Attention.= There are two aspects of the training of
+attention. (1) We can learn to hold ourselves to a task. When we sit
+down to a table to study, there may be many things that tend to call us
+away. There lies a magazine which we might read, there is a play at the
+theater, there are noises outside, there is a friend calling across the
+street. But we must study. We have set ourselves to a task and we must
+hold fast to our purpose.
+
+The young child cannot do this. He must be trained to do it. The
+instruments used to train him are pleasure and pain, rewards and
+punishments that come from parents. Gradually, slowly, the child gains
+control over himself. No one ever amounts to anything till he can hold
+himself to a task, to a fixed purpose. One must learn to form plans
+extending over weeks, months, and years, and to hold unflinchingly to
+them, just as one must hold himself to his study table and allow nothing
+to distract or to interfere. No training a child can receive is more
+important than this, for it gives him control over his life, it gives
+him control over the ideas that are to become focal and determine
+action. It is for this reason that we call such training a training of
+attention. It might perhaps better be called a training of the will. But
+the will is only the attentive consciousness. The idea that is clear,
+that holds its own in consciousness, is the idea that produces action.
+When we say that we _will_ to do a certain thing, all we can mean is
+that the _idea of this act_ is clearest and holds its focal place in
+consciousness to the exclusion of other ideas. It therefore goes over
+into action.
+
+(2) The training just discussed may be called a general training of
+attention giving us a general power and control over our lives, but
+there is another type of training which is specific. As with the
+machinist mentioned above, so with all of us; we attend to the type of
+thing that we have formed a habit of attending to. Continued experience
+in a certain field makes it more and more easy to attend to things in
+that field. One can take a certain subject and work at it day after day,
+year after year. By and by, the whole world takes on the aspect of this
+chosen subject. The entomologist sees bugs everywhere, the botanist sees
+only plants, the mechanic sees only machines, the preacher sees only the
+moral and religious aspects of action, the doctor sees only disease, the
+mathematician sees always the quantitative aspect of things. Ideas and
+perceptions related to one's chosen work go at once and readily to the
+focus of consciousness; other things escape notice.
+
+It is for this reason that we become "crankier" every year that we live.
+We are attending to only one aspect of the world. While this blinds us
+to other aspects of the world, it brings mastery in our individual
+fields. We can, then, by training and practice, get a general control
+over attention, and by working in a certain field or kind of work, we
+make it easy to attend to things in that field or work. This to an
+extent gives us control of our lives, of our destiny.
+
+=Interest.= The essential elements of interest are attention and feeling.
+When a person is very attentive to a subject and gets pleasure from
+experience in that subject, we commonly say that he is _interested_ in
+that subject.
+
+Since the importance of attention and feeling in learning has already
+been shown and will be further developed in the chapters which follow in
+connection with the subjects of habit, memory, and thinking, little more
+need be said here.
+
+The key to all forms of learning is _attention_. The key to attention is
+_feeling_. Feeling depends upon the nature of the child, inherited and
+acquired. In our search for the means of arousing interest, we look
+first to the original nature of the child, to the instincts and the
+emotions. We look next to the acquired nature, the habits, the ideals,
+the various needs that have grown up in the individual's life.
+Educational writers have overemphasized the original nature of the child
+as a basis of interest and have not paid enough attention to acquired
+nature. We should not ask so much what a child's needs are, but what
+they _ought_ to be. Needs can be created. The child's nature to some
+extent can be changed. The problem of arousing interest is therefore one
+of finding in the child's nature a basis for attention and pleasure. If
+the basis is not to be found there, then it must be built up. How this
+can be done, how human nature can be changed, is to some extent the main
+problem of psychology. Every chapter in this book, it is hoped, will be
+found to throw some light on the problem.
+
+  SUMMARY. The two elementary feeling states are pleasantness and
+  unpleasantness. The emotions are complex mental states composed of
+  feeling and the sensations from bodily reactions to the situations.
+  Feeling and emotion are the motive forces of life, at the bottom of
+  all important actions. The bodily reactions of emotions are reflex
+  and instinctive. Attention is a matter of the relative clearness of
+  the contents of consciousness. The function of attention is to unify
+  thought and action. It is the important factor in all learning and
+  thinking, for it is only the attentive part of consciousness that is
+  effective.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Make out a complete list of the more important emotions.
+
+2. Indicate the characteristic expression of each emotion in your list.
+
+3. Can you have an emotion without its characteristic expression? If,
+for example, when a situation arises which ordinarily arouses anger in
+you, you inhibit all the usual motor accompaniments of anger, are you
+really angry?
+
+4. Are the expressions of the same emotion the same for all people?
+
+5. Try to analyze some of your emotional states: anger, or fear, or
+grief. Can you detect the sensations that come from the bodily
+reactions?
+
+6. Try to induce an emotional state by producing its characteristic
+reactions.
+
+7. Try to change an emotional state to an opposite emotion; for example,
+grief to joy.
+
+8. Try to control and change emotional states in children.
+
+9. Name some sensations that for you are always pleasant, others that
+are always unpleasant--colors, sounds, tastes, odors, temperatures.
+
+10. Confirm by observation the statement of the text as to the
+importance of emotions in all the important actions of life.
+
+11. To what extent do you have control of your emotional states? What
+have you observed about differences in expression of deep emotions by
+different people? In case of death in the family, some people wail and
+moan and express their grief in the most extreme manner, while others do
+not utter a sound and show great control. Why the difference?
+
+12. Make an introspective study of your conscious states to note the
+difference in clearness of the different processes that are going on in
+consciousness. Do you find a constant shifting?
+
+13. Perform experiments to show the effects of attention in forming
+habits and acquiring knowledge.
+
+(1) Perform tests in learning, using substitution tests as described in
+Chapter X. Use several different keys. In some experiments have no
+distractions, in others, have various distracting noises. What
+differences do you find in the results?
+
+(2) Try learning nonsense syllables, some lists with distractions,
+others without distractions.
+
+(3) Try getting the ideas from stories read to you, as in the logical
+memory experiment described in Chapter X. Some stories should be read
+without distractions, others with distractions.
+
+14. Why are you unable to study well when under the influence of some
+strong emotion?
+
+15. Are you trained to the extent that you can concentrate on a task and
+hold yourself to it for a long time?
+
+16. Do you see that as far as will and attention and the emotions are
+concerned, your life and character are in large measure in your own
+hands?
+
+17. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters IV, V, and VI.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XIV, also
+pp. 187-192 and pp. 370-371.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters V and XI.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIV.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters IV, VIII, and XI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HABIT
+
+
+=The Nature of Habit.= We now turn from man's inherited nature to his
+acquired nature. Inherited tendencies to action we have called
+instincts; acquired tendencies to action we shall call habits. We can
+best form an idea of the nature of habit by considering some concrete
+cases.
+
+Let us take first the case of a man forming the habit of turning out the
+basement light. It usually happens that when a man has an electric light
+in the basement of his house, it is hard for him at first to think to
+turn out the light at night when he retires, and as a consequence the
+light often burns all night. This is expensive and unnecessary, so there
+is a strong incentive for the man to find a plan which will insure the
+regular turning-off of the light at bedtime. The plan usually hit upon
+is the following: The electric switch that controls the basement light
+is beside the basement stairway. The man learns to look at the switch as
+he comes up the stairs, after preparing the furnace fire for the night,
+and learns to take hold of the switch when he sees it and turn off the
+light. Coming up the stairs means to look at the switch. Seeing the
+switch means to turn it. Each step of the performance touches off the
+next. The man sees that in order to make sure that the light will always
+be turned off, the acts must all be made automatic, and each step must
+touch off the next in the series. At first, the man leaves the light
+burning about as often as he turns it off. After practicing for a time
+on the scheme, the different acts become so well connected that he
+seldom leaves the light burning. We say that he has formed the _habit_
+of turning off the light.
+
+For a second illustration, let us take the process of learning that nine
+times nine equals eighty-one. At first, one does not say or write
+"eighty-one" when one sees "nine times nine," but one can acquire the
+habit of doing so. It does not here concern us how the child learns what
+the product of nine times nine is. He may learn it by counting, by being
+told, or by reading it in a book. But however he first learns it, he
+fixes it and makes it automatic and habitual by _continuing_ to say or
+to write, "nine times nine equals eighty-one." The essential point is
+that at first the child does not know what to say when he hears or sees
+the expression "nine times nine," but after long practice he comes to
+give automatically and promptly the correct answer. For the definite
+problem "nine times nine" there comes the definite response
+"eighty-one."
+
+For a third illustration, let us take the case of a man tipping his hat
+when he meets a lady. A young boy does not tip his hat when he meets a
+lady until he has been taught to do so. After he learns this act of
+courtesy he does it quite automatically without thinking of it. For the
+definite situation, meeting a lady of his acquaintance, there comes to
+be established the definite response, tipping the hat. A similar habit
+is that of turning to the right when we meet a person. For the definite
+situation, meeting a person on the road or street or sidewalk, there is
+established the definite response, turning to the right. The response
+becomes automatic, immediate, certain.
+
+There is another type of habit that may properly be called an
+intellectual habit, such as voting a certain party ticket, say the
+Democratic. When one is a boy, one hears his father speak favorably of
+the Democratic party. His father says, "Hurrah for Bryan," so he comes
+to say, "Hurrah for Bryan." His father says, "I am a Democrat," so he
+says he is a Democrat. He takes the side that his father takes. In a
+similar way we take on the same religious notions that our parents have.
+It does not always happen this way, but this is the rule. But no matter
+how we come to do it, we do adopt the creed of some party or some
+church. We adopt a certain way of looking at public questions, and a
+certain way of looking at religious questions. For certain rather
+definite situations, we come to take definite stands. When we go to the
+booth to vote, we look at the top of the ballot to find the column
+marked "Democratic," and the definite response is to check the
+"Democrat" column. Of course, some of us form a different habit and
+check the "Republican" column, but the psychology of the act is the
+same. The point is that we form the Democratic habit or we form the
+Republican habit; and the longer we practice the habit, the harder it is
+to change it.
+
+In the presidential campaign of 1912, Roosevelt "bolted" from the
+Republican party. It was hard for the older Republicans to follow him.
+While one occasionally found a follower of Roosevelt who was gray, one
+usually found the old Republicans standing by the old party, the younger
+ones joining the Progressive party. It is said that when Darwin
+published "The Origin of Species," very few old men accepted the
+doctrine of evolution. The adherents of the new doctrine were nearly
+all young men. So there is such a thing as an intellectual habit. One
+comes to take a definite stand when facing certain definite intellectual
+situations.
+
+Similar to the type of habits which we have called intellectual is
+another type which may be called "moral." When we face the situation of
+reporting an occurrence, we can tell the truth or we can lie. We can
+build up the habit of meeting such situations by telling the truth on
+all occasions. We can learn to follow the maxim "Tell the truth at all
+times, at all hazards." We can come to do this automatically, certainly,
+and without thought of doing anything else.
+
+Most moral situations are fairly definite and clear-cut, and for them we
+can establish definite forms of response. We can form the habit of
+helping a person in distress, of helping a sick neighbor, of speaking
+well of a neighbor; we can form habits of industry, habits of
+perseverance. These and other similar habits are the basis of morality.
+
+The various kinds of habits which we have enumerated are alike in
+certain fundamental particulars. In all of them there is a definite
+situation followed by a definite response. One sees the switch and turns
+off the light; he sees the expression "nine times nine" and says
+"eighty-one"; he sees a lady he knows and tips his hat; in meeting a
+carriage on the road, he turns to the right; when he has to vote, he
+votes a certain ticket; when he has to report an occurrence, he tells it
+as it happened. There is, in every case, a definite situation followed
+by a definite response.
+
+Another characteristic is common to all the cases mentioned above,
+_i.e._ the response is acquired, it does not come at first. In every
+instance we might have learned to act differently. We could form the
+habit of always leaving the light burning; could just as easily say
+"nine times nine equals forty"; we could turn to the left; we could vote
+the Republican ticket. We can form bad moral habits as well as good
+ones, perhaps more easily. The point is, however, that we acquire
+definite ways of acting for the same situations, and these definite ways
+of acting are called habits.
+
+=Habit and Nerve-Path.= It has already been stated that a habit is a
+tendency toward a certain type of action in a certain situation. The
+basis of this tendency is in the nervous system. In order to understand
+it we must consider what the nervous system is like. Nerves terminate at
+one end in a sense organ and at the other end ultimately in a muscle.
+
+In Figure II, A is a sense organ, B a nerve going from the sense organ
+to the brain C. D, E, F, G, and H are motor nerves going from the brain
+to the muscles. Now, let us show from the diagram what organization
+means and what tendency means. At first when the child sees the
+expression "nine times nine," he does not say "eighty-one." The stimulus
+brings about no definite action. It is as likely to go out through E or
+F as through D. But suppose we can get the child to say "nine times nine
+equals eighty-one." We can write the expression on the blackboard and
+have the child look at it and say "nine times nine equals eighty-one."
+Suppose the act of saying "eighty-one" is brought about by the
+nerve-current going out through nerve-chain D. By repetition, we
+establish a bond. A stimulus of a particular kind comes through A, goes
+over B to C, and out over D, making muscles at M bring about a very
+definite action in saying "eighty-one."
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE II.--THE ORGANIZATION OF TENDENCIES]
+
+From the point of view of physiology, the process of habit-formation
+consists in securing a particular nerve coupling, establishing a
+particular nerve path, so that a definite form of stimulation will bring
+about a definite form of response. A nerve tendency is simply the
+likelihood that a stimulus will take a certain course rather than any
+other. This likelihood is brought about by getting the stimulus to take
+the desired route through the nervous system to a group of muscles and
+to continue following this route. The more times it passes the same way,
+the greater is the probability that at any given time the stimulus will
+take the accustomed route and bring about the usual response. At first
+any sort of action is possible. A nerve stimulus can take any one of the
+many routes to the different muscles. By chance or by conscious
+direction, the stimulus takes a certain path, and by repetition we fix
+and make permanent this particular route. This constitutes a nerve
+tendency or habit.
+
+=Plasticity.= Our discussion should have made it clear that habit is
+acquired nature, while instinct is inherited nature. Habit is acquired
+tendency while instinct is inherited tendency. The possibility of
+acquiring habits is peculiarly a human characteristic. While inanimate
+things have a definite nature, a definite way of reacting to forces
+which act upon them, they have little, if any, possibility of varying
+their way of acting. Water might be said to have habits. If one cools
+water, it turns to ice. If we heat it, it turns to steam. But it
+_invariably_ does this. We cannot teach it any different way of acting.
+Under the same conditions it always does the same thing.
+
+Plants are very much like inanimate things. Plants have definite ways of
+acting. A vine turns around a support. A leaf turns its upper surface to
+the light. But one cannot teach plants different ways of acting. The
+lower forms of animals are somewhat like plants and inanimate objects.
+But to a very slight extent they are variable and can form habits. Among
+the higher animals, such as dogs and other domestic animals, there is a
+greater possibility of forming habits. In man there are the greatest
+possibilities of habit-formation. In man the learned acts or habits are
+many as compared to the unlearned acts or instincts; while among the
+lower animals the opposite is the case--their instincts are many as
+compared to their habits.
+
+We may call this possibility of forming habits _plasticity_. Inanimate
+objects such as iron, rocks, sulphur, oxygen, etc., have no plasticity.
+Plants have very little possibility of forming habits. Lower animals
+have somewhat more, and higher animals still more, while man has the
+greatest possibility of forming habits. This great possibility of
+forming habits is one of the main characteristics of man. Let us
+illustrate the contrast between man and inanimate objects by an example.
+If sulphur is put into a test tube and heated, it at first melts and
+becomes quite thin like water. If it is heated still more, it becomes
+thick and will not run out of the tube. It also becomes dark. Sulphur
+_always_ does this when so treated. It cannot be taught to act
+differently. Now the action of sulphur when heated is like the action of
+a man when he turns to the right upon meeting a person in the street.
+But the man has to acquire this habit, while the sulphur does not have
+to learn its way of acting. Sulphur always acted in this way, while man
+did not perform his act at first, but had to learn it by slow
+repetition.
+
+Everything in the world has its own peculiar nature, but man is unique
+in that his nature can be very much changed. To a large extent, a man is
+_made_, his nature is _acquired_. After we become men and women, we have
+hundreds and thousands of tendencies to action, definite forms of
+action, that we did not have when young. Man's nature might be said to
+consist in his tendencies to action. Some of these tendencies he
+inherits; these are his instincts. Some of these he acquires; these are
+his habits.
+
+=What Habits Do for Us.= We have found out what habits are like; let us
+now see what they do for us. What good do they accomplish for us? How
+are we different after forming a habit from what we were before? We can
+best answer these questions by a consideration of concrete cases.
+Typewriting will serve very well the purpose of illustration. We shall
+give the result of an actual experiment in which ten university students
+took part. During their first half hour of practice, they wrote an
+average of 120 words. At the end of forty-five hours of practice, they
+were writing an average of 680 words in a half hour. This was an
+increase of speed of 560 per cent. An expert typist can write about
+3000 words in a half hour. Such a speed requires much more than
+forty-five hours practice, and is attained by the best operators only.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE III.--LEARNING CURVES
+The upper graph shows the improvement in speed of a group of students
+working two half hours a day. The lower curve shows the improvement of a
+group working ten half-hours a day.]
+
+In the foregoing experiment, the students improved in accuracy also. At
+the beginning of the work, they made 115 errors in the half hour. At the
+end of the practice, with much faster speed, they were making only
+327 errors in a half hour. The actual number of errors had increased
+280 per cent. The increase in errors was therefore exactly half as much
+as the increase in speed. This, of course, was a considerable increase
+in accuracy, for while the speed had increased to 5.6 times what it had
+been at the beginning, the errors had increased only 2.8 times. The
+subjects in this experiment paid much more attention to speed than they
+did to accuracy. If they had emphasized accuracy, they would have been
+doing almost perfect work at the end of the practice, and their speed
+would have been somewhat less. Practice, then, not only develops speed
+but also develops accuracy.
+
+There are also other results. At the beginning of work with the
+typewriter, there is much waste of energy and much fatigue. The waste of
+energy comes from using unnecessary muscles, and the fatigue is partly
+due to this waste of energy. But even apart from this waste of energy,
+an habituated act is performed with less fatigue. The various muscles
+concerned become better able to do their work. As a result of
+habituation there is, then, greater speed, greater accuracy, less waste
+of energy, and less fatigue.
+
+If we look not at the changes in our work but at the changes in
+ourselves, the changes in our minds due to the formation of habits, we
+find still other results. At the beginning of practice with the
+typewriter, the learner's whole attention is occupied with the work.
+When one is learning to do a new trick, the attention cannot be divided.
+The whole mind must be devoted to the work. But after one has practiced
+for several weeks, one can operate the typewriter while thinking about
+something else. We say that the habituated act sinks to a lower level of
+consciousness, meaning that as a habit becomes more and more fixed, less
+and less attention is devoted to the acts concerned.
+
+Increased skill gives us pleasure and also gives us confidence in our
+ability to do the thing. Corresponding to this inner confidence is outer
+certainty. There is greater objective certainty in our performance and a
+corresponding inner confidence. By objective certainty, we mean that a
+person watching our performance, becomes more and more sure of our
+ability to perform, and we ourselves feel confidence in our power of
+achievement.
+
+Now that we have shown the results of habituation let us consider
+additional illustrations. In piano playing, the stimuli are the notes as
+written in the music. We see the notes occupying certain places on the
+scale of the music. A note in a certain place means that we must strike
+a certain key. At first the response is slow, we have to hunt out each
+note on the keyboard. Moreover, we make many mistakes; we strike the
+wrong keys just as we do in typewriting. We are awkward, making many
+unnecessary movements, and the work is tiresome and fatiguing. After
+long practice, the speed with which we can manipulate the keys in
+playing the piano is wonderful. Our playing becomes accurate, perfect.
+We do it with ease, with no unnecessary movements. We can play the
+piano, after we become skilled, without paying attention to the actual
+movements of our hands. We can play the piano while concentrating upon
+the meaning of the music, or while carrying on a conversation, or while
+thinking about something else. As a rule, pleasure and confidence come
+with skill. Playing a difficult piece on the piano involves a skill
+which is one of the most complicated that man achieves. It is possible
+only through habituation of the piano-playing movements.
+
+Nailing shingles on a roof illustrates well the various aspects of
+habituation. The expert carpenter not only nails on many more shingles
+in a day than does the amateur, but he does it better and with more
+ease, and with much less fatigue. The carpenter knows exactly how much
+he can do in a day, and each particular movement is certain and sure.
+The carpenter has confidence in, and usually prides himself on, this
+ability, thus getting pleasure out of his work.
+
+The operations in arithmetic illustrate most of the results of
+habituation. Practice in addition makes for speed and accuracy. In a few
+weeks' time we can very much increase our speed and accuracy in adding,
+or in the other arithmetical operations.
+
+The foregoing examples are sufficient, although they could be multiplied
+indefinitely. Almost any habit one might name would show clearly most of
+the results enumerated. The most important aspects of habituation may be
+summed up in the one word _efficiency_. Habituation gives us speed and
+accuracy. Speed and accuracy mean skill. Skill means efficiency.
+
+=How Habits Are Formed.= It is clear from the foregoing discussion that
+the essential thing in a habit is the definiteness of the connection
+between the stimulus and the response, between the situation and the
+reaction to the situation. Our question now is, how is this definiteness
+of connection established? The answer is, _through repetition_. Let us
+work the matter out from a concrete case, such as learning to play the
+piano. In piano playing the stimulus comes from the music as printed on
+the staff. A note having a certain position on the staff indicates that
+a certain key is to be struck. We are told by our music teacher what
+keys on the piano correspond to the various notes on the staff, or we
+may learn these facts from the instruction book. It makes no difference
+how we learn them; but after we know these facts, we must have practice
+to give us skill. The mere knowledge will not make us piano players. In
+order to be skillful, we must have much practice not only in striking
+the keys indicated by the various note positions, but with the various
+combinations of notes. For example, a note on the second space indicates
+that the player must strike the key known as "A." But "A" may occur with
+any of the other notes, it may precede them or it may follow them. We
+must therefore have practice in striking "A" in all these situations. To
+have skill at the piano, we must mechanize many performances. We must be
+able to read the notes with accuracy and ease. We must practice so much
+that the instant we see a certain combination of notes on the staff, our
+hands immediately execute the proper strokes. Not only must we learn
+what keys on the piano correspond to the various notes of the music, but
+the notes have a temporal value which we must learn. Some are to be
+sounded for a short time, others for a longer time. We have eighth
+notes, quarter notes, half notes, etc. Moreover, the signature of the
+music as indicated by the sharps or flats changes the whole situation.
+If the music is written in "A sharp" then when "A" is indicated on the
+staff, we must not strike the white key known as "A," but the black key
+just above, known as "A sharp."
+
+Briefly, in piano playing, the stimulus comes from the characters
+printed on the staff. The movements which these characters direct are
+very complicated and require months and years of practice. We must
+emphasize the fact that practice alone gives facility, years of
+practice. But after these years of practice, one can play a piece of
+music at sight; that is, the first stimulus sets off perfectly a very
+complicated response. This sort of performance is one of the highest
+feats of skill that man accomplishes.
+
+To get skill, then, one must practice. But mere repetition is not
+sufficient. For practice to be most effective, one must put his whole
+mind on what he is doing. If he divides his attention between the acts
+which he is practicing and something else, the effect of the practice in
+fixing and perfecting the habit is slight. It seems that when we are
+building up a new nerve-path which is to be the basis of a new habit,
+the nervous energies should not be divided; that the whole available
+nervous energy should be devoted to the acts which we are repeating.
+This is only another way of saying that when we are practicing to
+establish a habit, we should attend to what we are doing and to nothing
+else. But after the habit-connection is once firmly established, we can
+attend to other things while performing the habitual act. The habitual
+action will go on of itself. We may say, then, that in order to be able
+to do a thing with little or no attention, we must give much attention
+to it at first.
+
+Another important factor in habit-formation is pleasure. The act which
+we are practicing must give us pleasure, either while we are doing it or
+as a result. Pleasurable results hasten habit-formation. When we
+practice an act in which we have no interest, we make slow progress or
+none at all. Now the elements of interest are attention and pleasure. If
+we voluntarily attend to a thing and its performance gives us pleasure,
+or pleasure results from it, we say we are interested in it. The secret
+of successful practice is interest. Repeatedly in laboratory experiments
+it happens that a student loses interest in the performance and
+subsequently makes little, if any, progress. One of the biggest problems
+connected with habit-formation is that of maintaining interest.
+
+A factor which prevents the formation of habits is that of exceptions.
+If a stimulus, instead of going over to the appropriate response,
+produces some other action, there is an interference in the formation of
+the desired habit. The effect of an exception is greater than the mere
+neglect of practice. The _exception opens up another path_ and tends to
+make future action uncertain. Particularly is this true in the case of
+moral habits. Forming moral habits is usually uphill work anyway, in
+that we have instincts to overcome. Allowing exceptions to enter, in the
+moral sphere, usually means a slipping back into an old way of acting,
+thereby weakening much the newly-made connection.
+
+In any kind of practice, when we become fatigued we make errors. If we
+continue to practice when fatigued, we form connections which we do not
+wish to make and which interfere with the desired habits.
+
+=Economy of Practice.= The principles which we have enumerated and
+illustrated are fairly general and of universal validity. There are
+certain other factors which we may discuss here under the head of
+economical procedure. To form a habit, we must practice. But how long
+should we practice at one time? This is an experimental problem and has
+been definitely solved. It has been proved by experiment that we can
+practice profitably for as long a time as we can maintain a high degree
+of attention, which is usually till we become fatigued. This time is not
+the same for all people. It varies with age, and in the case of the same
+person it varies at different times. If ordinary college students work
+at habit-formation at the highest point of concentration, they get the
+best return for a period of about a half hour. It depends somewhat on
+the amount of concentration required for the work and the stage of
+fixation of the habit, _i.e._ whether one has just begun to form the
+habit or whether it is pretty well fixed. For children, the period of
+successful practice is usually much less than a half hour--five, ten,
+fifteen, twenty minutes, depending upon the age of the child and the
+kind of work.
+
+The best interval between periods of practice is the day, twenty-four
+hours. If one practices in the morning for a half hour, one can practice
+again in the afternoon with nearly as much return as he would secure the
+next day, but not quite. In general, practice is better, gives more
+return, if spread out. To practice one day as long as one can work at a
+high point of efficiency, and then to postpone further practice till the
+next day, gives one the most return for the time put in. But if one is
+in a hurry to form a habit, one can afford to practice more each day
+even if the returns from the practice do diminish proportionately.
+
+This matter has been tried out on the typewriter. If one practices for
+ten half hours a day with half-hour rests between, one does not get so
+much return for his time as he would if he should spread it out at the
+rate of one or two half-hour practices a day. But by working ten half
+hours a day, one gets much more efficiency in the same number of days
+than if he should practice only one or two half hours a day. This point
+must not be misunderstood. We do not mean that one must not work at
+anything longer than a half hour a day. We mean that if one is forming a
+habit, his time counts for more in forming the habit if spread out at
+the rate of a half hour or an hour a day, than it does if put in at a
+faster rate. Therefore if one is in no hurry and can afford to spread
+out his time, he gets the best return by so doing, and the habit is more
+firmly fixed than if formed hurriedly. But if one is in a hurry, and has
+the time to devote to it, he can afford to concentrate his practice up
+to five hours or possibly more in a day, provided that rest intervals
+are interspersed between periods of practice.
+
+There is one time in habit-formation when concentrated practice is most
+efficient. That is at the beginning. In a process as complicated as
+typewriting, so little impression is made at the beginning by a short
+period of practice that progress is but slight. On the first day, one
+should practice about four or five times to secure the best returns, a
+half hour each time.
+
+=What the Teacher Can Do.= Now, let us see how the teacher can be of
+assistance to the pupil in habit-formation. The teacher should have a
+clear idea of the nature of the habit to be formed and should
+demonstrate the habit to the pupil. Suppose the habit is so simple a
+thing as long division. The teacher should explain each step in the
+process. She should go to the blackboard and actually solve a number of
+problems in long division, so that the pupils can see just how to do it.
+After this the pupils should go to the board and solve a problem
+themselves. The reason for this procedure is that it is most economical.
+If the children are left to get the method of doing long division from a
+book, they will not be able to do it readily and will make mistakes. A
+teacher can explain a process better than it can be explained in a book.
+By giving a full explanation and demonstration and then by requiring the
+children to work a few problems while she watches for mistakes,
+correcting them at once, the teacher secures economy of effort and time.
+The first step is to demonstrate the habit to the pupils; the second, to
+have them do the act, whatever it is, correcting their mistakes; the
+third, to require the pupils to practice till they have acquired skill.
+The teacher must make provision for practice.
+
+=What Parents Can Do.= Parents can be of very great assistance to children
+who are forming habits.
+
+(1) They can cooeperate with the school, which is directing the child in
+the systematic formation of a great system of habits. The teacher should
+explain these habits to the parents so that they may know what the
+teacher is trying to do. Quite often the home and the school are working
+at cross purposes. The only way to prevent this is for them to work in
+the closest cooeperation, with the fullest understanding of what is being
+undertaken for the child. Parents and teachers should often meet
+together and talk over the work of training the children of the
+community. Parents should have not merely a general understanding of the
+work of the school, but they should know the details undertaken. The
+school often assigns practice work to be done at home in reading,
+writing, arithmetic. Parents should always know of these assignments and
+should help the children get the necessary practice. They can do this by
+reminding the child of the work, by preparing a suitable place where the
+work may be done, and by securing quiet for the practice. Children like
+play and it is easy for them to forget their necessary work. Parents can
+be of the greatest service to childhood and youth by holding the
+children to their responsibilities and duties.
+
+Few parents take any thought of whether their children are doing all
+possible for their school progress. Few of those who do, make definite
+plans and arrangements for the children to accomplish the necessary
+practice and study. This is the parent's duty and responsibility.
+Moreover, parents are likely to feel that children have no rights, and
+think nothing of calling on them in the midst of their work to do some
+errand. Now, children should work about the house and help their
+parents, but there should be a time for this and a separate time for
+study and practice on school work.
+
+When a child sits down for serious practice on some work, his time
+should be sacred and inviolable. Instead of interfering with the child,
+the parents should do everything in their power to make this practice
+possible and efficient. In their relations with their children perhaps
+parents sin more in the matter of neglecting to plan for them than in
+any other way. They plan for everything else, but they let their
+children grow up, having taken no definite thought about helping them to
+form their life habits and to establish these habits by practice. When a
+child comes home from school, the mother should find out just what work
+is to be done before the next day and should plan the child's play and
+work in such a way as to include all necessary practice. If all parents
+would do this, the value to the work of the school and to the life of
+the child would be incalculable.
+
+(2) Just as one of the main purposes of the teacher is to help the child
+gain initiative, so it is one of the greatest of the parents' duties.
+Parents must help the children to keep their purposes before them.
+Children forget, even when they wish to remember. Often, they do not
+want to remember. The parents' duty is to get the child to _want_ to
+remember, and to help him to remember, whether he wants to or not. One
+of the main differences between childhood and maturity is that the child
+lives in the present, his purposes are all immediate ones. Habits always
+look forward, they are for future good and use. Mature people have
+learned to look forward and to plan for the future. They must,
+therefore, perform this function for the children. They must look
+forward and see what the child should learn to do, and then see that he
+learns to do it.
+
+(3) Parents must help children to plan their lives in general and in
+detail; _i.e._ in the sense of determining the ideals and habits that
+will be necessary for those lives. The parents must do this with the
+help of the child. The child must not be a blind follower, but as the
+child's mind becomes mature enough, the parent must explain the matter
+of forming life habits, and must show the child that life is a structure
+that he himself is to build. Life will be what he makes it, and the time
+for forming character is during early years. The parent must not only
+tell the child this but must help him to realize the truth of it, must
+help him continually, consistently.
+
+(4) Of course it is hardly necessary to say that the parent can help
+much, perhaps most, by example. The parent must not only tell the child
+what to do but must _show_ him how it should be done.
+
+(5) Parents can help in the ways mentioned above, but they can also help
+by cooeperating among themselves in planning for the training of the
+children of the community. One parent cannot train his children
+independently of all the other people in the community. There must be a
+certain unity of ideals and aims. Therefore, not only is there need for
+cooeperation between parents and teachers but among parents themselves.
+Although they cooeperate in everything else, they seldom do in the
+training of their children. The people of a community should meet
+together occasionally to plan for this common work.
+
+=Importance of Habit in Education and Life.= A man is the sum of his
+habits and ideals. He has language habits; he speaks German, or French,
+or English. He has writing habits, spelling habits, reading habits,
+arithmetic habits. He has political habits, religious habits. He has
+various social habits, habitual attitudes which he takes toward his
+fellows. He has moral habits--he is honest and truthful, or he is
+dishonest and untruthful. He always looks on the bright side, or else on
+the dark side of events. All these habits and many more, he has. They
+are structures which he has built. One's life, then, is the sum of his
+tendencies, and these tendencies one establishes in early life.
+
+This view gives an importance to the work of the school which is derived
+from no other view. The school is not a place where we get this little
+bit of information, or the other. It is the place where we are molded,
+formed, and shaped into the beings we are to be. The school has not
+risen to see the real importance of its work. Its aims have been low and
+its achievements much lower than its aims. Teachers should rise to the
+importance of their calling. Their work is that of gods. They are
+creators. They do not make the child. They do not give it memory or
+attention or imagination. But they are creators of tendencies,
+prejudices, religions, politics, and other habits unnumbered. So that in
+a very real sense, the school, with all the other educational
+influences, makes the man. We do not give a child the capacity to learn,
+but we can determine what he shall learn. We do not give him memory, but
+we can select what he shall remember. We do not make the child as he is
+at the beginning, but we can, in large measure, determine the world of
+influences which complete the task of _making_.
+
+In the early part of life every day and every hour of the day
+establishes and strengthens tendencies. Every year these tendencies
+become stronger. Every year after maturity, we resist change. By
+twenty-five or thirty, "character has set like plaster." The general
+attitude and view of the world which we have at maturity, we are to hold
+throughout life. Very few men fundamentally change after this. It takes
+a tremendous influence and an unusual situation to break one up and make
+him an essentially different man after maturity. Every year a "crank"
+becomes "crankier."
+
+It is well that this is so. Everything in the world costs its price.
+Rigidity is the price we pay for efficiency. In order to be efficient,
+we must make habitual the necessary movements. After they are
+habituated, they resist change. But habit makes for regularity and
+order. We could not live in society unless there were regularity,
+order, fixity. Habit makes for conservatism. But conservatism is
+necessary for order. In a sense, habit works against progress. But
+permanent improvement without habit would be impossible, for permanent
+progress depends upon holding what we gain. It is well for society that
+we are conservative. We could not live in the chaos that would exist
+without habit. Public opinion resists change. People refuse to accept a
+view that is different from the one they have held. We could get nowhere
+if we continually changed, and it is well for us that we continue to do
+the old way to which we have become accustomed, till a new and better
+one is shown beyond doubt. Even then, it is probably better for an old
+person to continue to use the accustomed methods of a lifetime. Although
+better methods are developed, they will not be so good for the old
+person as those modes of action that he is used to. The possibility of
+progress is through new methods which come in with each succeeding
+generation.
+
+When we become old we are not willing to change, but the more reasonable
+of us are willing that our children should be taught a better way.
+Sometimes, of course, we find people who say that what was good enough
+for them is good enough for their children. Most of us think better, and
+wish to give our children a "better bringing up than ours has been."
+
+These considerations make clear the importance of habit in life. They
+should also make clear a very important corollary. If habits are
+important in life, then it is the duty of parents and teachers to make a
+careful selection of the habits that are to be formed by the children.
+The habits that will be necessary for the child to form in order to meet
+the various situations of his future life, should be determined. There
+should be no vagueness about it. Definite habits, social, moral,
+religious, intellectual, professional, etc., will be necessary for
+efficiency. We should know what these various habits are, and should
+then set about the work of establishing them with system and
+determination, just as we would the building of a house. Much school
+work and much home training is vague, indefinite, uncertain, done
+without a clear understanding of the needs or of the results. We
+therefore waste time, years of the child's life, and the results are
+unsatisfactory.
+
+=Drill in School Subjects.= In many school subjects, the main object is to
+acquire skill in certain processes. As previously explained, we can
+become skillful in an act only by repetition of the act. Therefore, in
+those subjects in which the main object is the acquiring of skill, there
+must be much repetition. This repetition is called drill. The matter of
+economical procedure in drill has already been considered, but there are
+certain problems connected with drill that must be further discussed.
+
+Drill is usually the hardest part of school work. It becomes monotonous
+and tiresome. Moreover, drill is always a means. It is the means by
+which we become efficient. Take writing, for example. It is not an end
+in itself; it is the means by which we convey thoughts. Reading is a
+means by which we are able to get the thought of another. In acquiring a
+foreign language, we have first to master the elementary tools that will
+enable us to make the thought of the foreign language our own.
+
+It seems that the hardest part of education always comes first, when we
+are least able to do it. It used to be that nearly all the work of the
+school was drill. There was little school work that was interesting in
+itself. In revolt against this kind of school, many modern educators
+have tried to plan a curriculum that would be interesting to the child.
+In schools that follow this idea, there is little or no drill, pure and
+simple. There is no work that is done for the sole purpose of acquiring
+skill. The work is so planned that, in pursuing it, the child will of
+necessity have to perform the necessary acts and will thereby gain
+efficiency. In arithmetic, there is no adding, subtracting, multiplying,
+or dividing, only as such things must be done in the performance of
+something else that is interesting in itself. For example, the child
+plays store and must add up the sales. The child plays bean bag and must
+add up the score. Practice gained in this indirect way is known as
+incidental drill. Direct drill consists in making a direct approach; we
+wish to be efficient at adding, so we practice adding as such and not
+merely as incidental to something else.
+
+This plan of incidental drill is in harmony with the principle of
+interest previously explained. There are several things, however, that
+must be considered. The proper procedure would seem to be to look
+forward and find out in what directions the child will need to acquire
+skill and then to help him acquire it in the most economical way and at
+the proper time. Nature has so made us that we like to do a new trick.
+When we have taught a child how to add and subtract, he likes to perform
+these operations because the operations themselves give pleasure.
+Therefore much repetition can be allowed and much skill acquired by a
+direct approach to the practice. When interest drags, incidental drill
+can be fallen back upon to help out the interest. Children should be
+taught that certain things must be done, certain skill must be acquired.
+They should accept some things on the authority of elders. They should
+be taught to apply themselves and to give their whole attention to a
+thing that must be done. A desire for efficiency can be developed in
+them. The spirit of competition can sometimes be effectively used to add
+interest to drill. Of course, interest and attention there must be, and
+if it cannot be secured in one way, it must be in another.
+
+Experiments have abundantly shown the value of formal drill, that is to
+say, drill for drill's sake. If an arithmetic class is divided, one half
+being given a few minutes' drill on the fundamental operations each day
+but otherwise doing exactly the same work as the other half of the
+class, the half receiving the drill acquires much more skill in the
+fundamental operations and, besides, is better at reasoning out problems
+than the half that had no drill. The explanation of the latter fact is
+doubtless that the pupils receiving the drill acquire such efficiency in
+the fundamental operations that these cause no trouble, leaving all the
+energies of the pupils for reasoning out the problems.
+
+It has been shown experimentally that a direct method of teaching
+spelling is more efficient than an indirect method. It is not to be
+wondered at that such turns out to be the case. For in a direct
+approach, the act that we are trying to habituate is brought more
+directly before consciousness, receiving that focal attention which is
+necessary for the most efficient practice in habit-formation. If one
+wishes to be a good ball pitcher, one begins to pitch balls, and
+continues pitching balls day after day, morning, noon, and night. One
+does not go about it indirectly. If one wishes to be a good shot with a
+rifle, one gets a rifle and goes to shooting. Similarly, if one wishes
+to be a good adder, the way to do is to begin adding, not to begin doing
+something else. Of course any method that will induce a child to realize
+that he ought to acquire a certain habit, is right and proper. We must
+do all we can to give a child a desire, an interest in the thing that he
+is trying to do. But there is no reason why the thing should not be
+faced directly.
+
+=Rules for Habit Formation.= In the light of the various principles which
+we have discussed, what rules can be given to one forming habits? The
+evident answer is, to proceed in accordance with established principles.
+We may, however, bring the most important of these principles together
+in the form of rules which can serve as a guide and help to one forming
+habits.
+
+(1) _Get initiative._ By this is meant that a person forming a habit
+should have some sustaining reason for doing it, some end that is being
+sought. This principle will be of very little use to young children,
+only to those old enough to appreciate reasons and ends. In arithmetic,
+for example, a child should be shown what can be accomplished if he
+possesses certain skill in addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It
+is not always possible for a young person to see why a certain habit
+should be formed. For the youngest children, the practice must be in the
+form of play. But when a child is old enough to think, to have ideals
+and purposes, reasons and explanations should be worked out.
+
+(2) _Get practice._ If you are to have skill, you must practice.
+Practice regularly, practice hard while you are doing it. Throw your
+whole life into it, as if what you are doing is the most important
+thing in the world. Practice under good conditions. Do not think that
+just any kind of practice will do. Try to make conditions such that they
+will enable you to do your best work. Such conditions will not happen by
+chance. You must make them happen. You must make conditions favorable.
+You must seek opportunities to practice. You must realize that your life
+is in the making, that _you_ are making it, that it is to a large extent
+composed of habits. These habits you are building. They are built only
+by practice. Get practice. When practicing, fulfill the psychological
+conditions. Work under the most favorable circumstances as to length of
+periods, intervals, etc.
+
+(3) _Allow no exceptions._ You should fully realize the great influence
+of exceptions. When you start in to form a habit, allow nothing to turn
+you from your course. Whether the habit is some fundamental moral habit
+or the multiplication table, be consistent, do not vacillate. Nothing is
+so strong as consistent action, nothing so weak as doubtful, wavering,
+uncertain action. Have the persistence of a bull dog and the regularity
+of planetary motion.
+
+=Transfer of Training.= Our problem now is to find out whether forming one
+habit helps one to form another. In some cases it does. The results of a
+recent experiment performed in the laboratory of educational psychology
+in the University of Missouri, will show what is meant. It was found
+that if a person practiced distributing cards into pigeon holes till
+great proficiency was attained, and then the numbering of the boxes or
+pigeon holes was changed, the person could learn the new numbering and
+gain proficiency in distributing the cards in the new way more quickly
+than was the case at first. Similarly, if one learns to run a
+typewriter with a certain form of keyboard, one can learn to operate a
+different keyboard much more quickly than was the case in learning the
+first keyboard.
+
+It is probable that the explanation of this apparent transfer is that
+there are common elements in the two cases. Certain bonds established in
+the first habit are available in the second. In the case of distributing
+the cards, many such common elements can be made out. One gains facility
+in reading the numbering of the cards. The actual movement of the hand
+in getting to a particular box is the same whatever the number of the
+box. One acquires schemes of associating and locating the boxes, schemes
+that will work in both cases. But suppose that one spends fifteen days
+in distributing cards according to one scheme of numbering, and then
+changes the numbering and practices for fifteen days with the new
+numbering, at the end of the second fifteen days one has more skill than
+at the close of the first fifteen days. In fact, in five days one has as
+much skill in the new method as was acquired in fifteen days in the
+first method. However, and this is an important point, the speed in the
+new way is not so great as the speed acquired in thirty days using one
+method or one scheme all the time. Direct practice on the specific habit
+involved is always most efficient.
+
+One should probably never learn one thing _just because_ it will help
+him in learning something else, for that something else could be more
+economically learned by direct practice. Learning one language probably
+helps in learning another. A year spent in learning German will probably
+help in learning French. But two years spent in learning French will
+give more efficiency in French than will be acquired by spending one
+year on German and then one year on French. If the only reason for a
+study is that it helps in learning something else, then this study
+should be left out of the curriculum. If the only reason for studying
+Latin, for example, is that it helps in studying English, or French, or
+helps in grammar, or gives one a larger vocabulary in English on account
+of a knowledge of the Latin roots, then the study of the language cannot
+be justified; for all of these results could be much more economically
+and better attained by a direct approach. Of course, if Latin has a
+justification in itself, then these by-products are not to be despised.
+
+The truth seems to be that habits are very specific things. A definite
+stimulus goes over to a definite response. We must decide what habits we
+need to have established, and then by direct and economical practice
+establish these habits. It is true that in pursuing some studies, we
+acquire habits that are of much greater applicability in the affairs of
+life than can be obtained from other studies. When one has acquired the
+various adding habits, he has kinds of skill that will be of use in
+almost everything that is undertaken later. So also speaking habits,
+writing habits, spelling habits, moral habits, etc., are of universal
+applicability. Whenever one undertakes to do a thing that involves some
+habit already formed, that thing is more easily done by virtue of that
+habit. One could not very well learn to multiply one number by another,
+such as 8,675,489 by 439,857, without first learning to add.
+
+This seems to be all there is to the idea of the transfer of training.
+One gets an act, or an idea, or an attitude, or a point of view that is
+available in a new thing, thereby making the new thing easier. The
+methods one would acquire in the study of zooelogy would be, many of
+them, directly applicable in the study of botany. But, just as truly,
+one can acquire habits in doing one thing that will be a direct
+hindrance in learning another thing. Knocking a baseball unfits one for
+knocking a tennis ball. The study of literature and philosophy probably
+unfits one for the study of an experimental science because the methods
+are so dissimilar, in some measure antagonistic.
+
+=Habit and Moral Training.= By moral training, we mean that training which
+prepares one to live among his fellows. It is a training that prepares
+us to act in our relations with our fellow men in such a way as to bring
+happiness to our neighbors as well as to ourselves. Specifically, it is
+a training in honesty, truthfulness, sympathy, and industry. There are
+other factors of morality but these are the most important. It is
+evident at once that moral training is the most important of all
+training. This is, at any rate, the view taken by society; for if a man
+falls short in his relations with his fellows, he is punished. If the
+extent of his falling is very great, his liberty is entirely taken away
+from him. In some cases, he is put to death. Moral training, in addition
+to being the most important, is also the most difficult. What the public
+schools can do in this field is quite limited. The training which the
+child gets on the streets and at home almost overshadows it.
+
+=Nature of Moral Training.= A good person is one who does the right social
+thing at the right time. The more completely and consistently one does
+this, the better one is. What kind of training can one receive that will
+give assurance of appropriate moral action? Two things can be done to
+give a child this assurance. The child can be led to form proper ideals
+of action and proper habits of action. By ideal of action, we mean that
+the child should know what the right action is, and have a desire to do
+it. Habits of action are acquired only through action. As has been
+pointed out in the preceding pages, continued action of a definite kind
+develops a tendency to this particular action. One's character is the
+sum of his tendencies to action. These tendencies can be developed only
+through practice, through repetition. Moral training, therefore, has the
+same basis as all other training, that is, in habits. The same procedure
+that we use in teaching the child the multiplication table is the one to
+use in developing honesty. In the case of the tables, we have the child
+say "fifty-six" for "eight times seven." We have him do this till he
+does it instantly, automatically. Honesty and truthfulness and the other
+moral virtues can be fixed in the same way.
+
+=Home and Moral Training.= The home is the most important factor in moral
+training. This is largely because of the importance of early habits and
+attitudes. Obedience to parents and respect for authority, which in a
+large measure underlie all other moral training, must be secured and
+developed in the early years of childhood. The child does not start to
+school till about six years old. At this age much of the foundation of
+morality is laid. Unless the child learns strict obedience in the first
+two or three years of life, it is doubtful whether he will ever learn it
+aright. Without the habit of implicit obedience, it is difficult to
+establish any other good habit.
+
+Parents should understand that training in morality consists, in large
+measure, in building up habits, and should go about it in a systematic
+way. As various situations arise in the early life of a child, the
+parents should obtain from him the appropriate responses. When the
+situations recur, the right responses should be again secured. Parents
+should continue to insist upon these responses till tendencies are
+formed for the right response to follow when the situation arises. After
+continued repetition, the response comes automatically. The good man or
+woman is the one who does the right thing as the situation presents
+itself, does it as a matter of course because it is his nature. He does
+not even think of doing the wrong thing.
+
+One of the main factors in child training is consistency. The parent
+must inflexibly require the right action in the appropriate situation.
+Good habits will not be formed if parents insist on proper action one
+day but on the next day allow the child to do differently.
+
+Parents must plan the habits which they wish their children to form and
+execute these plans systematically, exercising constant care. Parents,
+and children as well, would profit from reading the plan used by
+Franklin. Farseeing and clear-headed, Franklin saw that character is a
+structure which one builds, so he set about this building in a
+systematic way. For a certain length of time he practiced on one virtue,
+allowing no exceptions in this one virtue. When this aspect of his
+character had acquired strength, he added another virtue and then tried
+to keep perfect as to both.[4]
+
+[4] See _Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin_.
+
+=The School and Moral Training.= In this, as in all other forms of
+training, the school is supplementary to the home. The teacher should
+have well in mind the habits and ideals that the home has been trying to
+develop and should assist in strengthening the bonds. The school can do
+much in developing habits of kindness and sympathy among the children.
+It can develop civic and social ideals and habits. Just how it can best
+do this is a question. Should moral ideals be impressed systematically
+and should habits be formed at the time these ideals are impressed, or
+should the different ideals be instilled and developed as occasion
+demands? This is an experimental problem, and that method should be
+followed which produces the best results. It is possible that one
+teacher may use one method best while a different teacher will have
+better success with another method.
+
+More important than the question of a systematic or an incidental method
+is the question of making the matter vital when it is taken up. Nothing
+is more certain than that mere knowledge of right action will not insure
+right action. In a few hours one can teach a child, as matters of mere
+knowledge, what he should do in all the important situations of life;
+but this will not insure that he will henceforth do the right things.
+
+There are only two ways by which we can obtain any assurance that right
+action will come. The first way is to secure right habits of response.
+We must build up tendencies to action. Tendencies depend upon previous
+action. The second way is to help the child to analyze moral situations
+and see what results will follow upon the different kinds of action.
+There can be developed in a child a desire to do that which will bring
+joy and happiness to others, rather than pain and sorrow. But this
+analysis of moral situations is not enough to insure right moral action;
+there must be practice in doing the right thing. The situation must go
+over to the right response to insure its going there the next time. The
+first thing in moral training is to develop habits. Then, as soon as
+the child is old enough he can strengthen his habits by a careful
+analysis of the problem why one should act one way rather than another.
+This adds motive; and motive gives strength and assurance.
+
+  SUMMARY. Habits are acquired tendencies to specific actions in
+  definite situations. They are fixed through repetition. They give us
+  speed, accuracy, and certainty, they save energy and prevent
+  fatigue. They are performed with less attention and become
+  pleasurable. The main purpose of education is to form the
+  habits--moral, intellectual, vocational, cultural--necessary for
+  life. Habits and ideals are the basis of our mature life and
+  character. Moral training is essentially like other forms of
+  training, habit being the basis.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Practice on the formation of some habit until considerable skill is
+acquired. Draw a learning curve similar to the one on page 95, showing
+the increase in skill. A class experiment can be performed by the use of
+a substitution test. Take letters to represent the nine digits, then
+transcribe numbers into the letters as described on page 192. Keep a
+record of successive five-minute periods of practice till all have
+practiced an hour. This gives twelve practice periods for the
+construction of a learning curve. The individual experiments should be
+more difficult and cover a longer period. Suitable experiments for
+individual practice are: learning to operate a typewriter, pitching
+marbles into a hole, writing with the left hand, and mirror writing. The
+latter is performed by standing a mirror vertically on the table,
+placing the paper in front and writing in such a way that the letters
+have the proper form and appearance when seen in the mirror. The subject
+should not look at his hand but at its reflection in the mirror. A piece
+of cardboard can be supported just over the hand so that only the image
+of the hand in the mirror can be seen.
+
+2. A study of the interference of habit can be made as follows: Take
+eight small boxes and arrange them in a row. Number each box plainly. Do
+not number them consecutively, but as follows, 5, 7, 1, 8, 2, 3, 6, 4.
+Make eighty cards, ten of each number, and number them plainly. Practice
+distributing the cards into the boxes. Note the time required for each
+distribution. Continue to distribute them till considerable skill is
+acquired. Then rearrange the order of the boxes and repeat the
+experiment. What do the results show?
+
+3. Does the above experiment show any transfer of training? Compare the
+time for each distribution in the second part of the experiment, _i.e._
+after the rearrangement of the boxes, with the time for the
+corresponding distribution in the first part of the experiment. The
+question to be answered is: Are the results of the second part of the
+experiment better than they would have been if the first part had not
+been performed? State your results and conclusions and compare with the
+statements in the text.
+
+4. A study of the effects of spreading out learning periods can be made
+as follows: Divide the class into two equal divisions. Let one division
+practice on a substitution experiment as explained in Exercise 1, for
+five ten-minute periods of practice in immediate succession. Let the
+other division practice for five days, ten minutes a day. What do the
+results indicate? The divisions should be of equal ability. If the first
+ten-minute practice period shows the sections to be of unequal ability,
+this fact should be taken into account in making the comparisons. Test
+sheets can be prepared by the teacher, or they can be obtained from the
+Extension Division of the University of Missouri.
+
+5. An experiment similar to No. 4 can be performed by practicing adding
+or any other school exercise. Care must be taken to control the
+experiment and to eliminate disturbing factors.
+
+6. Try the card-distributing experiment with people of different ages,
+young children, old people, and various ages in between. What do you
+learn? Is it as easy for an old person to form a habit as it is for a
+young person? Why?
+
+7. If an old person has no old habits to interfere, can he form a new
+habit as readily as can a young person?
+
+8. Cite evidence from your own experience to prove that it is hard for
+an old person to break up old habits and form new ones which interfere
+with the old ones.
+
+9. Do you find that you are becoming "set in your ways?"
+
+10. What do we mean by saying that we are "plastic in early years"?
+
+11. Have you planned your life work? Are you establishing the habits
+that will be necessary in it?
+
+12. Is it an advantage or a disadvantage to choose one's profession or
+occupation early?
+
+13. Attention often interferes with the performance of a habitual act.
+Why is this?
+
+14. If a man removes his vest in the daytime, he is almost sure to wind
+his watch. On the other hand if he is up all night, he lets his watch
+run down. Why?
+
+15. Do you know of people who have radically changed their views late in
+life?
+
+16. Try to teach a dog or a cat a trick. What do you learn of importance
+about habit-formation?
+
+17. What branches taught in school involve the formation of habits that
+are useful throughout life?
+
+18. Make a list of the moral habits that should be formed in early
+years.
+
+19. Write an essay on _Habit and Life_.
+
+20. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XI and XVII.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, pp. 48-59; also Chapter XV.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters X, XI, and XII.
+
+ROWE: _Habit Formation_, Chapters V-XIII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, p. 169, par. 37.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MEMORY
+
+
+=Perceptions and Ideas.= In a previous chapter, brief mention was made of
+the difference between perceptions and ideas. This distinction must now
+be enlarged upon and made clearer. Perceptions arise out of our sensory
+life. We see things when these things are before our eyes. We hear
+things when these things produce air vibrations which affect our ears.
+We smell things when tiny particles from them come into contact with a
+small patch of sensitive membrane in our noses. We taste substances when
+these substances are in our mouths. Now, this seeing, hearing, smelling,
+tasting, etc., is _perceiving_. We perceive a thing when the thing is
+actually at the time affecting some one or more of our sense organs. A
+perception, then, results from the stimulation of a sense organ.
+Perception is the process of perceiving, sensing, objects in the
+external world.
+
+Ideas are our _seeming_ to see, hear, smell, taste things when these
+things are not present to the senses. This morning I saw, had a
+_perception_ of, a robin. To-night in my study, I have an _idea_ of a
+robin. This morning the robin was present. Light reflected from it
+stimulated my eye. To-night, as I have an idea of the robin, it is not
+here; I only seem to see it. The scene which was mine this morning is
+now revived, reproduced. We may say, therefore, that ideas are the
+conscious representatives of objects which are not present to the
+senses. Ideas are revived experiences.
+
+Revived experience is memory. Since it is memory that enables us to live
+our lives over again, brings the past up to the present, it is one of
+the most wonderful aspects of our natures. The importance of memory is
+at once apparent if we try to imagine what life would be without it. If
+our life were only perceptual, if it were only the sights and sounds and
+smells and tastes of the passing moment, it would have little meaning,
+it would be bare and empty. But instead of our perceptions being our
+whole life, they are only the starting points of life. Perceptions serve
+to arouse groups of memory images or ideas, and the groups of ideas
+enrich the passing moment and give meaning to the passing perceptions,
+which otherwise would have no meaning.
+
+Suppose I am walking along the street and meet a friend. I see him,
+speak to him, and pass on. But after I have passed on, I have ideas. I
+think of seeing my friend the day before. I think of what he said and of
+what he was doing, of what I said and of what I was doing. Perhaps for
+many minutes there come ideas from my past experience. These ideas were
+aroused by the perception of my friend. The perception was momentary,
+but it started a long train of memory ideas.
+
+I pass on down the street and go by a music store. Within the store, a
+victrola is playing _Jesus, Lover of My Soul_. The song starts another
+train of memory ideas. I think of the past, of my boyhood days and
+Sunday school, my early home and many scenes of my childhood. For
+several minutes I am so engrossed with the memory images that I
+scarcely notice anything along the street. Again, the momentary
+perception, this time of sounds, served to revive a great number of
+ideas, or memories, of the past.
+
+These illustrations are typical of our life. Every moment we have
+perceptions. These perceptions arouse ideas of our past life and
+experience. One of these ideas evokes another, and so an endless chain
+of images passes along. The older we become, the richer is our
+ideational life. While we are children, the perceptions constitute the
+larger part of our mental life, but as we become older, larger and
+larger becomes the part played by our memory images or ideas. A child is
+not content to sit down and reflect, giving himself up to the flow of
+ideas that come up from his past experience, but a mature person can
+spend hours in recalling past experience. This means that the older we
+grow, the more we live in the past, the less we are bound down by the
+present, and when we are old, instead of perceptions being the main part
+of mental life, they but give the initial push to our thoughts which go
+on in an endless chain as long as we live.
+
+=The Physiological Basis of Memory.= It will be remembered that the basis
+of perception is the agitation of the brain caused by the stimulation of
+a sense organ by an external thing or force. If there is no stimulation
+of a sense organ, there is no sensation, no perception. Now, just as the
+basis of sensation and perception is brain activity, so it is also the
+basis of ideas. In sensation, the brain activity is set up from without.
+In memory, when we have ideas, the brain activity is set up from within
+and is a fainter revival of the activity originally caused by the
+stimulation of the sense organ. Our ideas are just as truly conditioned
+or caused by brain activity as are our sensations.
+
+Memory presents many problems, and psychologists have been trying for
+many years to solve them. We shall now see what they have discovered and
+what is the practical significance of the facts.
+
+=Relation of Memory to Age and Sex.= It is a common notion that memory is
+best when we are young, but such is not the case. Numerous experiments
+have shown that all aspects of memory improve with age. Some aspects of
+memory improve more than others, and they improve at different times and
+rates; but all aspects do improve. From the beginning of school age to
+about fourteen years of age the improvement of most aspects of memory is
+rapid.
+
+If we pronounce a number of digits to a child of six, it can reproduce
+but few of them, a child of eight or ten can reproduce more, a child of
+twelve can reproduce still more, and an adult still more. If we read a
+sentence to children of different ages, we find that the older children
+can reproduce a longer sentence. If we read a short story to children of
+different ages, and then require them to reproduce the story in their
+own words, the older children reproduce more of the story than do the
+young children.[5]
+
+[5] See age and sex graphs, pp. 184, 188, 189.
+
+Girls excel boys in practically all the aspects of memory.
+
+In rote memory, that is, memory for lists of unrelated words, there is
+not much difference; but the girls are somewhat better. However, in the
+ability to remember the ideas of a story, girls excel boys at every age.
+This superiority of girls over boys is not merely a matter of memory. A
+girl is superior to a boy of the same age in nearly every way. This is
+merely a fact of development. A girl develops faster than a boy, she
+reaches maturity more quickly, in mind as well as in body. Although a
+girl is lighter than a boy at birth, on the average she gains in weight
+faster and is heavier at twelve than a boy of the same age. She also
+gains faster in height, and for a few years in early adolescence is
+taller than a boy of the same age. Of course, boys catch up and finally
+become much taller and heavier than girls. Similarly, a girl's mind
+develops faster than the mind of a boy, as shown in memory and other
+mental functions.
+
+=The Improvement of Memory by Practice.= All aspects of memory can be
+improved by practice, some aspects much, other aspects little. The
+memory span for digits, or letters, or words, or for objects cannot be
+much improved, but memory for ideas that are related, as the ideas of a
+story, can be considerably improved. In extensive experiments conducted
+in the author's laboratory, it was found that a person who at first
+required an hour to memorize the ideas in a certain amount of material,
+could, after a few months' practice, memorize the same amount in fifteen
+minutes. And in the latter case the ideas would be better remembered
+than they were at the beginning of the experiment. Not only could a
+given number of ideas be learned in less time, but they would be better
+retained when learned in the shorter time. If a person comes to us for
+advice as to how to improve his memory, what should we tell him? In
+order to answer the question, we must consider the factors of a good
+memory.
+
+=Factors of a Good Memory.= (1) The first requirement is to get a good
+impression in the beginning. Memory is revived experience. The more
+vivid and intense the first experience, the more sure will be the later
+recall. So if we wish to remember an experience, we must experience it
+in the first place under the most favorable conditions. The thing must
+be seen clearly, it must be understood, it must be in the focus of
+consciousness.
+
+The best teaching is that which leads the child to get the clearest
+apprehension of what is taught. If we are teaching about some concrete
+thing, a plant, a machine, we should be sure that the child sees the
+essential points, should be sure that the main principles enter his
+consciousness. We should find out by questioning whether he really does
+clearly understand what we are trying to get him to understand. Often we
+think a pupil or student has forgotten, when the fact is that he never
+really knew the thing which we wished to have him remember.
+
+The first requisite to memory, then, is to _know in the first place_. If
+we wish to remember knowledge, the knowledge must be seen in the
+clearest light, really _be_ knowledge, at the outset. Few people ever
+really learn how to learn. They never see anything clearly, they never
+stick to a point till it is apprehended in all its relations and
+bearings; consequently they forget, largely because they never really
+knew in the fullest sense.
+
+Most teaching is too abstract. The teacher uses words that have no
+meaning to the pupil. Too much teaching deals with things indirectly. We
+study _about_ things instead of studying things. In geography, for
+example, we study about the earth, getting our information from a book.
+We read about land formations, river courses, erosion, etc., when
+instead we should study these objects and processes themselves. The
+first thing in memory, then, is clear apprehension, clear understanding,
+vivid and intense impression.
+
+(2) The second thing necessary to memory is to repeat the experience.
+First we must get a clear impression, then we must repeat the experience
+if we would retain it. It is a mistake to believe that if we have once
+understood a thing, we will always thereafter remember it. We must think
+our experiences over again if we wish to fix them for permanent
+retention.
+
+We must organize our experience. To organize experience means to think
+it over in its helpful relations. In memory, one idea arouses another.
+When we have one idea, what other idea will this arouse? It depends on
+what connections this idea has had in our minds in the past. It depends
+on the associations that it has, and associations depend on our thinking
+the ideas over together.
+
+Teachers and parents should help children to think over their
+experiences in helpful, practical relations. Then in the future, when an
+idea comes to mind, it brings along with it other ideas that have these
+helpful, practical relations. We must not, then, merely repeat our
+experiences, but must repeat them in helpful connections or
+associations. In organizing our experience, we must systematize and
+classify our knowledge.
+
+One of the chief differences in men is in the way they organize their
+knowledge. Most of us have experiences abundant enough, but we differ in
+the way we work over and organize these experiences. Organization not
+only enables us to remember our experience, but brings our experience
+back in the right connections.
+
+The advice that should be given to a student is the following: Make sure
+that you understand. If the matter is a lesson in a book, go through it
+trying to get the main facts; then go through it again, trying to see
+the relation of all the facts. Then try to see the facts in relation to
+your wider experience. If it is a history lesson, think of the facts of
+the lesson in their relation to previous chapters. Think of the details
+in their bearing on wider and larger movements.
+
+A teacher should always hold in mind the facts in regard to memory, and
+should make her teaching conform to them. She should carefully plan the
+presentation of a new topic so as to insure a clear initial impression.
+A new topic should be presented orally by the teacher, with abundant
+illustration and explanation. It cannot be made too concrete, it cannot
+be made too plain and simple.
+
+Then after the teacher has introduced and made plain the new topic, the
+pupil reads and studies further. At the next recitation of the class,
+the first thing in order should be a discussion, on the part of the
+pupils. This will help the pupils to get the facts cleared up and will
+help the teacher to find out whether the pupils have the facts right.
+
+The first part of the recitation should also be a time for questions.
+Everything should now be made clear, if there are any errors or
+misunderstandings on the pupil's part. Of course any procedure in a
+recitation should depend upon the nature of the material and to some
+extent on the stage of advancement of the pupil; but in general such a
+procedure as that just outlined will be most satisfactory and
+economical: first clear initial presentation by the teacher; then
+reading and study on the part of the pupil, and third, discussions on
+the following day.
+
+Teachers should also endeavor to show students how to study to the best
+advantage. Pupils do not know how to study. They do not know what to
+look for, and do not know how to find it after they know what they are
+looking for. They should be shown. Of course, some of them learn without
+help how to study. But some never learn, and it would be a great saving
+of time to help all of them master the arts of study and memorizing.
+
+A very important factor in connection with memory is the matter of
+meaning. If a person will try to memorize a list of nonsense words, he
+will find that it is much more difficult than to memorize words that
+have meaning. This is a significant fact. It means that as material
+approaches nonsense, it is difficult to memorize. Therefore we should
+always try to grasp the meaning of a thing, its significance. In
+science, let us always ask, what is the meaning of this fact? What
+bearing does it have on other facts? How does it affect the meaning of
+other facts?
+
+=Kinds of Memories.= We should not speak of memory as if it were some sort
+of power like muscular strength. We should always speak of _memories_.
+Memories may be classified from several different points of view: A
+classification may be based on the kind of material, as memory for
+concrete things, the actual objects of experience, on the one hand, and
+memory for abstract material, such as names of things, their attributes
+and relations, on the other. Again, we can base a classification on the
+type of ideation to which the material appeals, as auditory memory,
+visual memory, motor memory. We can also base a classification on the
+principle of _meaning_. This principle of classification would give us
+at least three classes: memory for ideas as expressed in sentences,
+logical memory; memory for series of meaningful words not logically
+related in sentences, rote memory; memory for series of meaningless
+words, a form of rote memory. This classification is not meant to be
+complete, but only suggestive. With every change in the kind of
+material, the method of presenting the material to the subject, or the
+manner in which the subject deals with the material, there may be a
+change in the effectiveness of memory.
+
+While these different kinds or aspects of memory may have some relation
+to one another, they are to some extent independent. One may have a good
+rote memory and a poor logical memory, or a poor rote memory and a good
+logical memory. That is to say, one may be very poor at remembering the
+exact words of a book, but be good at remembering the meaning, the
+ideas, of the book. One may be good at organizing meaningful material
+but poor at remembering mere words. On the other hand, these conditions
+may be reversed; one may remember the words but never get the meaning.
+It is of course possible that much of this difference is due to habit
+and experience, but some of the difference is beyond doubt due to
+original differences in the nervous system and brain. These differences
+should be determined in the case of all children. It is quite a common
+thing to find a feeble-minded person with a good rote memory, but such a
+person never has a good logical memory. One can have a good rote memory
+without understanding, one cannot have a good logical memory without
+understanding.
+
+Let us now ask the question, why can one remember better words that are
+connected by logical relations than words that have no such connection?
+If we read to a person a list of twenty nonsense words, the person can
+remember only two or three; but if a list of twenty words connected in a
+sentence were read to a person, in most cases, all of them would be
+reproduced. The reason is that the words in the latter case are not new.
+We already know the words. They are already a part of our experience. We
+have had days, perhaps years, of experience with them. All that is now
+new about them is perhaps a slightly new relation.
+
+Moreover, the twenty words may contain but one, or at most only a few,
+ideas, and in this case it is the ideas that we remember. The ideas hold
+the words together. If the twenty words contain a great number of ideas,
+then we cannot remember all of them from one reading. If I say, "I have
+a little boy who loves his father and mother very much, and this boy
+wishes to go to the river to catch some fish," one can easily remember
+all these words after one reading. But if I say, "The stomach in all the
+Salmonidae is syphonal and at the pylorus are fifteen to two hundred
+comparatively large pyloric coeca"; although this sentence is shorter,
+one finds it more difficult to remember, and the main reason is that the
+words are not so familiar.
+
+=Memory and Thinking.= What is the relation of memory to thinking and the
+other mental functions? One often hears a teacher say that she does not
+wish her pupils to depend on memory, but wishes them to reason things
+out. Such a statement shows a misunderstanding of the facts; for
+reasoning itself is only the recall of ideas in accordance with the laws
+of association. Without memory, there would be no reasoning, for the
+very material of thought is found to be the revived experiences which we
+call ideas, memories.
+
+One of the first requisites of good thinking is a reliable memory. One
+must have facts to reason, and these facts must come to one in memory to
+be available for thought. If one wishes to become a great thinker in a
+certain field, he must gain experience in that field and organize that
+experience in such a way as to remember it and to recall it when it is
+wanted.
+
+What one does deplore is memory for the mere words with no understanding
+of the meaning. In geometry, for example, a student sometimes commits to
+memory the words of a demonstration, with no understanding of the
+meaning. Of course, that is worse than useless. One should remember the
+meaning of the demonstration. If one has memorized the words only, he
+cannot solve an original problem in geometry. But if he has understood
+the meaning of the demonstration, then he recalls it, and is enabled to
+solve the problem. If one does not remember the various facts about the
+relationships in a triangle, he cannot solve a problem of the triangle
+until he has worked out and discovered the necessary facts. Then memory
+would make them available for the solution of the problem.
+
+=Memory and School Standing.= That memory plays a large part in our life
+is evident; and, of course, it is an important factor in all school
+work. It matters not what we learn, if we do not remember it. The author
+has made extensive experiments to determine the relation that memory has
+to a child's progress in school.
+
+The method used was to give logical memory tests to all the children in
+a school and then rank the children in accordance with their abilities
+to reproduce the story used in the test. Then they were ranked according
+to their standing in their studies. A very high correlation was found.
+On the whole, the pupils standing highest in the memory tests were found
+to stand highest in their studies. It is true, of course, that they did
+not stand highest merely because they had good memories, but because
+they were not only better in memory, but were better in most other
+respects too. Pupils that are good in logical memory are usually good in
+other mental functions.
+
+A test of logical memory is one of the best to give us an idea of the
+school standing of pupils. Not only is the retention of ideas of very
+great importance itself, but the acquiring of ideas, and the organizing
+of them in such a way as to remember them involves nearly all the mental
+functions. The one who remembers well ideas logically related, is the
+one who pays the closest attention, the one who sees the significance,
+the one who organizes, the one who repeats, the one who turns things
+over in his mind. A logical memory test is therefore, to some extent, a
+test of attention, association, power of organization as well as of
+memory; in a word, it is a test of mental power.
+
+Other things being equal, a person whose power of retention is good has
+a great advantage over his fellows who have poor ability to remember.
+Suppose we consider the learning of language. The pupil who can look up
+the meaning of a word just once and remember it has an advantage over
+the person who has to look up the meaning of the word several times
+before it is retained. So in any branch of study, the person who can
+acquire the facts in less time than another person, has the extra time
+for learning something else or for going over the same material and
+organizing it better. The scientist who remembers all the significant
+facts that he reads, and sees their bearing on his problems, has a great
+advantage over the person who does not remember so well.
+
+Of course, there are certain dangers in having a good memory, just as
+there is danger in being brilliant generally. The quick learner is in
+danger of forming slovenly habits. A person who learns quickly is likely
+to form the habit of waiting till the last minute to study his lesson
+and then getting a superficial idea of it. The slow learner must form
+good habits of study to get on at all.
+
+Teachers and parents should prevent the bright children from forming bad
+habits of study. The person who learns quickly and retains well should
+be taught to be thorough and to use the advantage that comes from
+repetition. The quick learner should not be satisfied with one attack on
+his lesson, but should study the lesson more than once, for even the
+brilliant learner cannot afford to neglect the advantages that come from
+repetition. A person with poor memory and only mediocre ability
+generally can make up very much by hard work and by work that takes
+advantage of all the laws of economical learning. But he can never
+compete successfully with the person who works as hard as he does and
+who has good powers of learning and retention.
+
+The author has found that in a large class of a hundred or more, there
+is usually a person who has good memory along with good mental ability
+generally, and is also a hard worker. Such a person always does the best
+work in the class. A person with poor memory and poor mental powers
+generally cannot hope to compete with a person of good memory, good
+mental powers generally, if that person is also a good worker.
+
+=Learning and Remembering.= A popular fallacy is expressed in the saying
+"Easy come, easy go." The person who is the best learner is also the
+best in retaining what is learned, provided all other conditions are the
+same. This matter was determined in the following way: A logical memory
+test was given to all the children in a city school system. A story was
+read to the pupils and then reproduced by them in writing. The papers
+were corrected and graded and nothing more was said about the test for
+one month. Then at the same time in every room, the teachers said, "You
+remember the story I read to you some time ago and which I asked you to
+reproduce. Well, I wish to see how much of the story you still
+remember." The pupils were then required to write down all the story
+that they could recall.
+
+It was found that, in general, the children who write the most when the
+story is first read to them, write the most after the lapse of a month,
+and the poorest ones at first are the poorest ones at the end of the
+month. Of course, the correspondence is not perfect, but in some cases,
+in some grades, it is almost so.
+
+The significance of this experiment is very great. It means that the
+pupil who gets the most facts from a lesson will have the most facts at
+any later time. This is true, of course, only if other things are equal.
+If one pupil studies about the matter more, reflects upon it, repeats it
+in his mind, of course this person will remember more, other things
+being equal. But if neither reviews the matter, or if both do it to an
+equal extent, then the one who learns the most in the first place,
+remembers the most at a later time.
+
+I have also tested the matter out in other ways. I have experimented
+with a group of men and women, by reading a passage of about a page in
+length, repeating the reading till the subject could reproduce all the
+facts. It was found that the person who acquired all the facts from the
+fewest readings remembered more of the facts later. It must be said that
+there is less difference between the subjects later than at first.
+
+In the laboratory of Columbia University a similar experiment was
+performed, but in a somewhat different way. Students were required to
+commit to memory German vocabularies and were later tested for their
+retention of the words learned. It was found that those who learned the
+most words in a given time, also retained the largest percentage of what
+had been learned. It should not be surprising that this is the case. The
+quick learner is the one who makes the best use of all the factors of
+retention, the factors mentioned in the preceding paragraph--good
+attention, association, organization, etc.
+
+Another experiment performed in the author's laboratory bears out the
+above conclusions. A group of students were required to commit to memory
+at one sitting a long list of nonsense syllables. The number of
+repetitions necessary to enable each student to reproduce them was
+noted. One day later, the students attempted to reproduce the syllables.
+Of course they could not, and they were then required to say them over
+again till they could just repeat them from memory. The number of
+repetitions was noted. The number of repetitions was much less than on
+the first day. On the third day, the process was repeated. The number of
+repetitions was fewer still. This relearning was kept up each day till
+each person could repeat the syllables from memory without any study.
+It was found that the person who learned the syllables in the fewest
+repetitions the first time, relearned them in the fewest repetitions on
+succeeding days. All the experiments bearing on the subject point to the
+same conclusion; namely, that the quick learner, if other things are
+equal, retains at least as well as the slow learner, and usually retains
+better.
+
+=Transfer of Memory Training.= We have said above that there are many
+kinds or aspects of memory. It has also been said that we can improve
+memory by practice. Now, the question arises, if we improve one aspect
+of memory, does this improve all aspects? This is an important question;
+moreover, it is one to be settled by experiment and not by argument.
+
+The most extensive and thorough experiment was performed by an English
+psychologist, Sleight. The experiment was essentially as follows: He
+took a large number of pupils and tested the efficiency of the various
+aspects of their memory. He then took half of them and trained one
+aspect of their memory until there was considerable improvement. The
+other section had no memory training meanwhile. After the training, both
+groups again had all aspects of their memory tested. Both groups showed
+improvement in all aspects because the first tests gave them some
+practice, but the group that had been receiving the training was no
+better in those aspects not trained than was the group receiving no
+training at all. Aspects of memory much like the one trained showed some
+improvement, but other aspects did not.
+
+The conclusion is that memory training is specific, that it affects only
+the kind of memory trained, and related memories. This is in harmony
+with what we learned about habit. When we receive training, it affects
+only the parts of us trained and other closely related parts.
+
+=Learning by Wholes.= We do not often have to commit to memory verbatim,
+but when we do, it is important that we should know the most economical
+way. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that the most economical way
+is to read the entire selection through from beginning to end and
+continue to read it through in this way till the matter is learned by
+heart.
+
+In long selections, the saving by this method is considerable. A pupil
+is not likely to believe this because if he spends a few minutes
+learning in this manner, he finds that he cannot repeat a single line,
+while if he had concentrated on one line, he could have repeated at
+least that much. This is true; but although he cannot repeat a single
+line by the whole procedure, he has learned nevertheless. It would be a
+good thing to demonstrate this fact to a class; then the pupils would be
+satisfied to use the most economical procedure. The plan holds good
+whether the matter be prose or poetry.
+
+But experiments have been carried on only with verbatim learning. The
+best procedure for learning the facts so that one can give them in one's
+own words has not yet been experimentally determined.
+
+=Cramming.= An important practical question is whether it pays to go over
+a great amount of material in a very short time, as students often do
+before examinations. From all that has been said above, one could infer
+the solution to this problem. Learning and memorizing are to some extent
+a growth, and consequently involve time.
+
+There is an important law of learning and memory known as Jost's law,
+which may be stated as follows: If we repeat or renew associations, the
+repetitions have most value for the old associations. Therefore when we
+learn, we should learn and then later relearn. This will make for
+permanent retention. Of course, if we wish to get together a great mass
+of facts for a temporary purpose and do not care to retain them
+permanently, cramming is the proper method. If we are required to pass
+an examination in which a knowledge of many details is expected and
+these details have no important permanent value, cramming is justified.
+When a lawyer is preparing a case to present to a court, the actual,
+detail evidence is of no permanent value, and cramming is justified.
+
+But if we wish to acquire and organize facts for their permanent value,
+cramming is not the proper procedure. The proper procedure is for a
+student to go over his work faithfully as the term of school proceeds,
+then occasionally review. At the end of the term, a rapid review of the
+whole term's work is valuable. After one has studied over matter and
+once carefully worked it out, a quick view again of the whole subject is
+most valuable, and assists greatly in making the acquisition permanent.
+But if the matter has not been worked out before, the hasty view of the
+material of the course, while it may enable one to pass the examination,
+has no permanent value.
+
+=Function of the Teacher in Memory Work.= The function of a teacher is
+plainly to get the pupils to learn in accordance with the laws of memory
+above set forth; but there are certain things that a teacher can do that
+may not have become evident to the reader. It has been learned in
+experiments in logical memory that when a story is read to a subject and
+the subject attempts to reproduce it, certain mistakes are made. When
+the story is read again, it is common for the same mistakes to be made
+in the recall. Certain ideas were apprehended in a certain way; and,
+when the piece is read again, the subject pays no more attention to the
+ideas already acquired and reported, and they are therefore reported
+wrongly as they were in the first place. Often the subject does not
+notice the errors till his attention is called to them.
+
+This suggests an important function of the teacher in connection with
+the memory work of the pupils. This function is to correct mistakes in
+the early stages of learning. A teacher should always be on the watch to
+find the errors of the pupils and to correct them before they are fixed
+by repetition.
+
+A teacher should, also, consider it her duty to test the memory
+capacities of the pupils and to give each the advice that the case
+demands.
+
+=Some Educational Inferences.=--There are certain consequences to
+education that follow from the facts of memory above set forth that are
+of considerable significance. Many things have been taught to children
+on the assumption that they could learn them better in childhood than
+later, because it was thought that memory and the learning capacity were
+better in childhood. But both of these assumptions are false. As
+children grow older their learning capacity increases and their memories
+become better.
+
+It has particularly been held that rote memory is better in childhood
+and that therefore children should begin their foreign language study
+early. It is true that as far as _speaking_ a foreign language is
+concerned, the earlier a child begins it the better. But this is not
+true of learning to read the language. The sounds of the foreign
+language that we have not learned in childhood in speaking the mother
+tongue are usually difficult for us to make. The organs of speech become
+set in the way of their early exercise. In reading the foreign language,
+correct pronunciation is not important. We are concerned with _getting_
+the thought, and this is possible without pronouncing at all. Reference
+to graphs on pages 190 and 191 will show that rote memory steadily
+improves throughout childhood and youth. The author has performed
+numerous experiments to test this very point. He has had adults work
+side by side with children at building up new associations of the rote
+memory type and found that always the adult could learn faster than the
+child and retain better what was learned.
+
+The experience of language teachers in college and university does not
+give much comfort to those who claim that language study should be begun
+early. These teachers claim that the students who have had previous
+language study do no better than those who have had none. It seems,
+however, that there certainly ought to be _some_ advantage in beginning
+language study early and spreading the study out over the high school
+period. But what is gained does not offset the tremendous loss that
+follows from requiring _all_ high school students to study a foreign
+language merely to give an opportunity for early study to those who are
+to go on in the university with language courses. A mature university
+student that has a real interest in language and literature can begin
+his language study in the university and make rapid progress. Some of
+the best classical scholars whom the author knows began their language
+study in the university. While it would have been of some advantage to
+them to have begun their language study earlier, there are so few who
+should go into this kind of work that society cannot afford to make
+provision for their beginning the study in the high school.
+
+The selection and arrangement of the studies in the curriculum must be
+based on other grounds than the laws of memory. What children make most
+progress in and need most to know are the concrete things of their
+physical and social environment. Children must first learn the
+world--the woods and streams and birds and flowers and plants and
+animals, the earth, its rocks and soils and the wonderful forces at work
+in it. They must learn man,--what he is and what he does and how he does
+it; how he lives and does his work and how he governs himself. They
+should also learn to read and to write their mother tongue, and should
+learn something of that great store of literature written in the mother
+tongue.
+
+The few that are to be scholars in language and literature must wait
+till beginning professional study before taking up their foreign
+language; just as a person who is to be a lawyer or physician must also
+wait till time to enter a university before beginning special
+professional preparation. The child's memory for abstract conceptions is
+particularly weak in early years; hence studies should be so arranged as
+to acquaint the child with the concrete aspects of the world first, and
+later to acquaint him with the abstract relations of things. Mathematics
+should come late in the child's life, for the same reason. Mathematics
+deals with quantitative relations which the child can neither learn nor
+remember profitably and economically till he is more mature. The child
+should first learn the world in its descriptive aspects.
+
+=Memory and Habit.= The discussion up to this point should have made it
+clear to the reader that memory is much the same thing as habit. Memory
+considered as retention depends upon the permanence of the impression on
+the brain; but in its associative aspects depends on connections between
+brain centers, as is the case with habit. The association of ideas,
+which is the basis of their recall, is purely a matter of habit
+formation.
+
+When I think of George Washington, I also think of the Revolution, of
+the government, of the presidency, of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson,
+etc., because of the connections which these ideas have had in my mind
+many times before. There is a basis in the brain structure for these
+connections. There is nothing in any _idea_ that connects it with
+another idea. Ideas become connected because of the _way in which we
+experience them_, and the reason one idea calls up another idea is
+because the brain process that is the cause of one idea brings about
+another brain process that is the cause of a second idea. The whole
+thing is merely a matter of the way the brain activities become
+organized. Therefore the various laws of habit-formation have
+application to memory in so far as memory is a matter of the association
+of ideas, based on brain processes.
+
+One often has the experience of trying to recall a name or a fact and
+finds that he cannot. Presently the name or fact may come, or it may not
+come till the next day or the next week. What is the cause of this
+peculiar phenomenon? The explanation is to be found in the nervous
+system. When one tries to recall the name and it will not come to mind,
+there is some temporary block or hindrance in the nerve-path that leads
+from one center to the other and one cannot think of the name till the
+obstruction is removed. We go on thinking about other things, and in the
+meantime the activities going on in the brain remove the obstruction; so
+when the matter comes up again, the nerve current shoots through, and
+behold, the name comes to mind.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE IV--ASSOCIATIVE CONNECTIONS
+The diagram represents schematically the neural basis of the association
+of ideas.]
+
+Now the only preventive of such an occurrence is to be found in the law
+of habit, for the block ordinarily occurs in case of paths or bonds not
+well established. We must _think together_ the things we wish to have
+associated. Repetition is the key to the situation, repetition which is
+the significant thing in habit-formation, repetition which is the only
+way of coupling two things which we wish to have associated together.
+
+Of course, there is no absolute coupling of two ideas. One sometimes
+forgets his own name. When we are tired or ill, things which were the
+most closely associated may not hang together. But those ideas hold
+together in the firmest way that have been experienced together most
+often in a state of attention. The diagram on page 147 illustrates
+schematically the neural connections and cross-connections which are the
+bases of the association of ideas, the circles _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_,
+and _F_ represent brain processes which give rise to ideas, and the
+lines represent connecting paths. Note that there are both direct and
+indirect connections.
+
+  SUMMARY. Sensation and perception give us our first experience with
+  things; memory is revived experience. It enables us to live our
+  experience over again and is therefore one of the most important
+  human traits. The physiological basis of memory is in the brain and
+  nervous system. Memory improves with practice and up to a certain
+  point with the age of the person. It is better in girls than in
+  boys. Good memory depends on vivid experience in the first place and
+  on organization and repetition afterward. The person who learns
+  quickly usually retains well also. Memory training is specific. The
+  extension of the learning process over a long time is favorable to
+  memory. Memory ideas are the basis of thinking and reasoning.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. The teacher can test the auditory memory of the members of the class
+for rote material by using letters. It is better to omit the vowels,
+using only the consonants. Prepare five groups of letters with eight
+letters in a group. Read each group of letters to the class, slowly and
+distinctly. After reading a group, allow time for the students to write
+down what they recall, then read the next group and so proceed till the
+five groups have been read. Grade the work by finding the number of
+letters reproduced, taking no account of the position of the letters.
+
+2. In a similar way, test visual memory, using different combinations of
+letters. Write the letters plainly on five large squares of cardboard.
+Hold each list before the class for as long a time as it took to read a
+group in experiment No. 1.
+
+3. Test memory for words in a similar way. Use simple words of one
+syllable, making five lists with eight words in a list.
+
+4. Test memory for objects by fastening common objects on a large
+cardboard and holding the card before the class. Put eight objects on
+each card and prepare five cards. Expose them for the same length of
+time as in experiment No. 2.
+
+5. Test memory for _names_ of objects by preparing five lists of names,
+eight names in a list, and reading the names as in experiment No. 1.
+
+6. You now have data for the following study: Find the average grade of
+each student in the different experiments. Find the combined grade of
+each student in all the above experiments. Do the members of the class
+hold the same rank in all the tests? How do the boys compare with the
+girls? How does memory for objects compare with memory for names of
+objects? How does auditory memory compare with visual? What other points
+do you learn from the experiments?
+
+7. The teacher can make a study of the logical memory of the members of
+the class by using material as described on page 184. Make five separate
+tests, using stories that are well within the comprehension of the class
+and that will arouse their interest. Sufficient material will be found
+in the author's _Examination of School Children_ and Whipple's _Manual_.
+However, the teacher can prepare similar material.
+
+8. Do the students maintain the same rank in the separate tests of
+experiment No. 7? Rank all the students for their combined standing in
+all the first five tests. Rank them for their combined standing in the
+logical memory tests. Compare the two rankings. What conclusions are
+warranted?
+
+9. You have tested, in experiment No. 7, logical memory when the
+material was read to the students. It will now be interesting to compare
+the results of No. 7 with the results obtained by allowing the students
+to read the material of the test. For this purpose, select portions from
+the later chapters of this book. Allow just time enough for the
+selection to be read once slowly by the students, then have it
+reproduced as in the other logical memory experiment. Give several
+tests, if there is sufficient time. Find the average grade of each
+student, and compare the results with those obtained in No. 7. This will
+enable you to compare the relative standing of the members of the
+class, but will not enable you to compare the two ways of acquiring
+facts. For this purpose, the stories would have to be of equal
+difficulty. Let the members of the class plan an experiment that would
+be adequate for this purpose.
+
+10. A brief study of the improvement of memory can be made by practicing
+a few minutes each day for a week or two, as time permits, using
+material that can be easily prepared, such as lists of common words. Let
+the members of the class plan the experiment. Use the best plan.
+
+11. The class can make a study of the relation of memory to school
+standing in one of the grades below the high school. Give at least two
+tests for logical memory. Give also the rote memory tests described on
+page 189. Get the class standing of the pupils from the teacher. Make
+the comparison as suggested in Chapter I, page 15. Or, the correlation
+can be worked out accurately by following the directions given in the
+_Examination of School Children_, page 58, or in Whipple's _Manual_,
+page 38.
+
+12. Let the members of the class make a plan for the improvement of
+their memory for the material studied in school. Plan devices for
+learning the material better and for fixing it in memory. At the end of
+the course in psychology, have an _experience_ meeting and study the
+results reported.
+
+13. Prepare five lists of nonsense syllables, with eight in a list. Give
+them as in experiment No. 3, and compare the results with those of that
+experiment. What do the results indicate as to the value to memory of
+_meaningful_ material? What educational inferences can you make? In
+preparing the syllables, put a vowel between two consonants, and use no
+syllable that is a real word.
+
+14. A study of the effects of distractions on learning and memory can be
+made as follows: Let the teacher select two paragraphs in later chapters
+of this book, of equal length and difficulty. Let the students read one
+under quiet conditions and the other while an electric bell is ringing
+in the room. Compare the reproductions in the two cases.
+
+15. From the chapter and from the results of all the memory tests, let
+the students enumerate the facts that have educational significance.
+
+16. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapter XV.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 165-170.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and VIII.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THINKING
+
+
+In Chapter III we learned about sensation. We found that when a sense
+organ is stimulated by its appropriate type of stimulus, this
+stimulation travels through the sensory nerves and sets up an excitation
+in the brain. This excitation in the brain gives us sensation. We see if
+the eye is stimulated. We hear if the ear is stimulated, etc. In
+Chapter VII we learned that after the brain has had an excitation giving
+rise to sensation, it is capable of reviving this excitation later. This
+renewal or revival of a brain excitation gives us an experience
+resembling the original sensation, only usually fainter and less stable.
+This revived experience is called _image_ or _idea_. The general process
+of retention and revival of experience is, as we have seen, known as
+memory. An idea, then, is a bit of revived experience. A perception is a
+bit of immediate or primary experience. I am said to perceive a chair if
+the chair is present before me, if the light reflected from the chair is
+actually exciting my retinas. I have an _idea_ of the chair when I
+_seem_ to see it, when the chair is not before me or when my eyes are
+shut. These distinctions were pointed out in the preceding chapter. Let
+us now proceed to carry our study of ideas further.
+
+=Association of Ideas.= The subject of the association of ideas can best
+be introduced by an experiment. Take a paper and pencil, and think of
+the word "horse." Write this word down, and then write down other words
+that come to mind. Write them in the order in which they come to mind.
+Do this for three or four minutes, and try the experiment several times,
+beginning with a different word each time. Make a study of the lists of
+words. Compare the different lists and the lists written by different
+students.
+
+In the case of the writer, the following words came to mind in the first
+few seconds: horse, bridle, saddle, tail, harness, buggy, whip, man,
+sky, stars, sun, ocean. Why did these words come, and why did they come
+in that order? Why did the idea "horse" suggest the idea "bridle"? And
+why did "bridle" suggest "saddle"? Is there something in the nature of
+ideas that couples them with certain other ideas and makes them _always_
+suggest the other ideas? No, there is not. Ideas become coupled together
+in our experience, and the coupling is in accordance with our
+experience. Things that are together in our experience become coupled
+together as ideas. The idea "horse" may become coupled with any other
+idea. The general law of the association of ideas is this: Ideas are
+joined together in memory or revived experience as they were joined in
+the original or perceptive experience.
+
+But the matter is complicated by the fact that things are experienced in
+different connections in perceptive experience. I do not always
+experience "horse" together with "bridle." I sometimes see horses in a
+pasture eating clover. So, as far as this last experience is concerned,
+when I think "horse" I should also think "clover." I sometimes see a
+horse running when a train whistles, so "whistle" and "horse" should be
+coupled in my mind. A horse once kicked me on the shoulder, so "horse"
+and "shoulder" should be connected in my mind. And so they are. The very
+fact that these various experiences come back to me proves that they are
+connected in my mind in accordance with the original experiences. The
+revival of various horse experiences has come to me faster than I could
+write them down, and they are all bound together in my memory. If I
+should write them all out, it would take many hours, perhaps days.
+
+Not only are these "horse ideas" bound together with one another, but
+they are bound more or less directly, more or less closely, to
+everything else in my life. I can, therefore, pass in thought from the
+idea "horse" to any other idea, directly or indirectly. Now, in any
+given case, what idea will actually come first after I have the idea
+"horse"? This depends upon the tendencies established in the nervous
+system. The brain process underlying the idea "horse" has connections
+with many other processes and tends to excite these processes. The
+factors that strengthen these tendencies or connections are the
+frequency, recency, primacy, and vividness of experience. Let us
+consider, in some detail, each of these factors.
+
+=Primacy of Experience.= A strong factor in determining association is the
+_first experience_. The first, the original, coupling of ideas tends to
+persist. The first connection is nearly always a strong one, and is also
+strengthened by frequent repetition in memory. Our first experience with
+people and things persists with great strength, across the years, in
+spite of other associations and connections established later. Just now
+there comes to mind my first experience with a certain famous scientist.
+It was many years ago. I was a student in an eastern university. This
+man gave a public lecture at the opening of the session. I remember many
+details of the occurrence with great vividness. Although I studied under
+this man for three years, no other experience with him is more prominent
+than the first. First experiences give rise to such strong connections
+between ideas that these connections often persist and hold their own as
+against other connections depending upon other factors.
+
+The practical consequences of this factor in teaching are, of course,
+evident. Both teachers and parents should take great care in the matter
+of the first experiences of children. If the idea-connections of first
+experiences are likely to persist, then these connections should be
+desirable ones. They should not be useless connections, nor should they,
+ordinarily, be connections that will have to be radically undone later.
+Usually it is not economical to build up connections between ideas that
+will not serve permanently, except in cases in which the immaturity of
+the mind makes such a procedure necessary.
+
+=Recency of Experience.= The most recent connection of ideas is relatively
+strong, and is often the determining one. But the most recent connection
+must be very recent or it has no especial value. If I have seen a
+certain friend to-day, and his name is brought to mind now, to-day's
+experience with him will likely be brought to mind _first_. But if my
+last seeing him was some days or months ago, the idea-connection of the
+last meeting has no great value. Of course, circumstances always alter
+the matter. Perhaps we should say in the last instance that, other
+things being equal, the last experience has no special value. If the
+last experience was an unusual one, such as a death or a marriage, then
+it has a value due to its vividness and intensity and its emotional
+aspects. These factors not only add strength to the connections made at
+the time but are the cause of frequent revivals of this last experience
+in memory in the succeeding days. All these factors taken together often
+give a last experience great associative strength, even though the last
+experience is not recent.
+
+=Frequency of Experience.= The most frequent connection of ideas is
+probably the most important factor of all in determining future
+associations. The first connection is but one, and the last connection
+is but one, while repeated connections may be many in number.
+Connections which recur frequently usually overcome all other
+connections. Hence frequency is the dominant factor in association. Most
+of the strength of first connections is due to repetitions in memory
+later. The first experience passes through the mind again and again as
+memory, and thereby becomes strengthened. The fact that repetition of
+connections establishes these connections is, of course, the
+justification of drill and review in school studies. The practical needs
+of life demand that certain ideas be associated so that one calls up the
+other. Teachers and parents, knowing these desirable connections,
+endeavor to fix them in the minds of children by repetition. The
+important facts of history, literature, civics, and science we endeavor,
+by means of repetition, to fasten in the child's mind.
+
+=Vividness and Intensity of Experience.= A vivid experience is one that
+excites and arouses us, strongly stimulating our feelings. Such
+experiences establish strong bonds of connection. When I think of a
+railroad wreck, I think of one in which I participated. The experience
+was vivid, intense, and aroused my emotions. I hardly knew whether I was
+dead or alive. Then, secondly, I usually think of a wreck which I
+witnessed in childhood. A train plunged through a bridge and eighteen
+cars were piled up in the ravine. The experience was vivid and produced
+a deep and lasting impression on me.
+
+The practical significance of this factor is, of course, great. When
+ideas are presented to pupils these ideas should be made clear. Every
+conceivable device should be used to clarify and explain,--concrete
+demonstration, the use of objects and diagrams, pictures and drawings,
+and abundant oral illustration. We must be sure that the one taught
+understands, that the ideas become focal in consciousness and take hold
+of the individual. This is the main factor in what is known as
+"interest." An interesting thing is one that takes hold of us and
+possesses us so that we cannot get away from it. Such experiences are
+vivid and have rich emotional connections or accompaniments. Ideas that
+are experienced together at such times are strongly connected.
+
+=Mental Set or Attitude.= Another influence always operative in
+determining the association of ideas is mental set. By mental set we
+mean the mood or attitude one is in,--whether one is sad or glad, well
+or ill, fresh or fatigued, etc. What one has just been thinking about,
+what one has just been doing, are always factors that determine the
+direction of association. One often notices the effects of mental set in
+reading newspapers. If one's mind has been deeply occupied with some
+subject and one then starts to read a newspaper, one may actually
+miscall many of the words in the article he is reading; the words are
+made to fit in with what is in his mind. For example, if one is all
+wrought up over a wedding, many words beginning with "w" and having
+about the same length as the word "wedding," will be read as "wedding."
+
+Mental set may be permanent or temporary. By permanent we mean the
+strong tendencies that are built up by continued thought in a certain
+direction. One becomes a Methodist, a Democrat, a conservative, a
+radical, a pessimist, an optimist, etc., by continuity of similar
+experiences and similar reactions to these experiences. Germans, French,
+Irish, Italians, Chinese, have characteristic sets or ways of reacting
+to typical situations that may be called racial. These prejudicial ways
+of reacting may be called racial sets or attitudes. Religious,
+political, and social prejudices may all be called sets or attitudes.
+
+Temporary sets or attitudes are leanings and prejudices that are due to
+temporary states of mind. The fact that one has headache, or
+indigestion, or is in a hurry, or is angry, or is hungry, or is
+emotionally excited over something will, for the time, be a factor in
+determining the direction of association.
+
+One of the tasks of education is to build up sets or attitudes,
+permanent prejudices, to be constant factors in guiding association and,
+consequently, action. We wish to build up permanent attitudes toward
+truth, honesty, industry, sympathy, zeal, persistence, etc. It is
+evident that attitude is merely an aspect of habit. It is an habitual
+way of reacting to a definite and typical situation. This habitual way
+is strengthened by repetition, so that set or attitude finally, after
+years of repetition, becomes a part of our nature. Our prejudices become
+as strong, seemingly, as our instinctive tendencies. After a man has
+thought in a particular groove for years, it is about as sure that he
+will come to certain definite conclusions on matters in the line of his
+thought as that he would give typical instinctive or even reflex
+reactions. We know the direction association will take for a
+Presbyterian in religious matters, for a Democrat in political matters,
+with about as much certainty as we know what their actions will be in
+situations that evoke instinctive reactions.
+
+=Thinking and Reasoning.= Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind.
+This flow of ideas is in accordance with the laws of association above
+discussed. The order in which the ideas come is the order fixed by
+experience, the order as determined by the various factors above
+enumerated.
+
+In early life, one's mind is chiefly perceptual, it is what we see and
+hear and taste and smell. As one grows older his mind grows more and
+more ideational. With increasing age, a larger and larger percentage of
+our mental life is made up of ideas, of memories. The child lives in the
+present, in a world of perceptions. A man is not so much tied down to
+the present; he lives in memory and anticipation. He thinks more than
+does the child. A man is content to sit down in his chair and think for
+hours at a time, a child is not. This thinking is the passing of ideas,
+now one, then another and another. These ideas are the survivals or
+revivals of our past experience. The order of their coming depends on
+our past experience.
+
+As I sit here and write, there surge up out of my past, ideas of creeks
+and rivers and hills, horses and cows and dogs, boys and girls, men and
+women, work and play, school days, friends,--an endless chain of ideas.
+This "flow" of ideas is often started by a perception. For
+illustration, I see a letter on the table, a letter from my brother. I
+then have a visual image of my brother. I think of him as I saw him
+last. I think of what he said. I think of his children, of his home, of
+his boyhood, and our early life together. Then I think of our mother and
+the old home, and so on and on. Presently I glance at a history among my
+books, and immediately think of Greece and Athens and the Acropolis,
+Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, schoolmates and teachers, and friends
+connected in one way or another with my college study of Greek.
+
+In this description of the process of thinking, I have repeatedly used
+the words "think of." I might have said instead, "there came to mind
+ideas of Athens, ideas of friends," etc. Thinking, then, is a general
+term for our idea-life.
+
+Reasoning is a form of thinking. Reasoning, too, is a flow of ideas. But
+while reasoning is thinking, it is a special form of thinking; it is
+thinking to a purpose. In thinking as above described and illustrated,
+no immediate ends of the person are served; while in reasoning some end
+is always sought. In reasoning, the flow of ideas must reach some
+particular idea that will serve the need of the moment, the need of the
+problem at hand. Reasoning, then, is controlled thinking, thinking
+centering about a problem, about a situation that one must meet.
+
+The statement that reasoning is _controlled_ thinking needs some
+explanation, for the reader at once is likely to want to know what does
+the controlling. There is not some special faculty or power that does
+the controlling. The control is exercised by the set into which one is
+thrown by the situation which confronts one. The set puts certain
+nerve-tracts into readiness to conduct, or in other words, makes
+certain groups of ideas come into mind, and makes one satisfied only if
+the right ideas come. As long as ideas come that do not satisfy, the
+flow keeps on, taking one direction and then another, in accordance with
+the way our ideas have become organized. An idea finally comes that
+satisfies. We are then said to have reached a conclusion, to have made
+up our mind, to have solved our problem.
+
+But the fact that we are satisfied is no sure sign that the problem is
+correctly solved. It means only that our past experiences, available at
+the time through association, say that the conclusion is right. Or, in
+more scientific terms, that the conclusion is in harmony with our past
+experience, as it has been organized and made available through
+association. There is not within us a little being, a reasoner, that
+sits and watches ideas file by and passes judgment upon them. The real
+judge is our nervous system with its organized bonds or connections.
+
+An illustration may make the matter clearer: A boy walking along in the
+woods comes to a stream too wide for him to jump across. He wishes to be
+on the other side, so here is a situation that must be met, a problem
+that must be solved. A flow of ideas is started centering about the
+problem. The flow is entirely determined and directed by past experience
+and the present situation. The boy pauses, looks about, and sees on the
+bank a pole and several large stones. He has walked on poles and on
+fences, he therefore sees himself putting the pole across the stream and
+walking on it. This may be in actual visual imagery, or it may be in
+words. He may merely say, "I will put the pole across and walk on it."
+But, before having time to do it, he may recall walking on poles that
+turned. He is not then satisfied with the pole idea. The perception of
+stones may next become clear in his mind, and if no inhibiting or
+hindering idea comes up, the stone idea carries him into action. He
+piles the stones into the stream and walks across.
+
+As was mentioned above, the flow of ideas may take different forms. The
+imagery may take any form but is usually visual, auditory, motor, or
+verbal.
+
+Further discussion of the point that reasoning is determined by past
+experience may be necessary. Suppose the teacher ask the class a number
+of different questions, moral, religious, political. Many different
+answers to the questions will be received, in some cases as many answers
+to the questions as there are pupils. Ask whether it is ever right to
+steal, whether it is ever right to lie, whether it is ever right to
+fight, whether it is ever right to disobey a parent or teacher, whether
+oak is stronger than maple, whether iron expands more when heated than
+does copper, whether one should always feed beggars, etc. The answers
+received, in each case, depend on the previous experience of the pupils.
+The more nearly alike the experiences of the pupils, the more nearly
+alike will be the answers. The more divergent the experiences, the more
+different will be the answers.
+
+The basis of reasoning is ultimately the same sort of thing as the basis
+of habit. We have repeated experiences of the same kind. The ideas of
+these experiences become welded together in a definite way. Association
+between certain groups of ideas becomes well fixed. Later situations
+involving these groups of ideas set up definite trains of association.
+We come always to definite conclusions from the same situations
+provided that we are in the same mental set and the factors involved are
+the same.
+
+Throughout early life we have definite moral and religious ideas
+presented to us. We come to think in definite ways about them or with
+them. It therefore comes about that every day we live, we are
+determining the way we shall in the future reason about things. We are
+each day getting the material for the solution of the problems that will
+be presented to us by future situations. And the reason that one of us
+will solve those problems in a different way from another is because of
+having somewhat different experiences, and of organizing them in a
+different way.
+
+=Meaning and the Organization of Ideas.= In the preceding paragraphs we
+have several times spoken of the organization of ideas. Let us now see
+just what is meant by this expression. Intimately connected with the
+organization of ideas is _meaning_. What is the meaning of an idea? The
+meaning of an idea is another idea or group of ideas that are very
+closely associated with it. When there comes to mind an idea that has
+arisen out of repeated experience, there come almost immediately with it
+other ideas, perhaps vivid images which have been connected with the
+same experience. Suppose the idea is of a horse. If one were asked,
+"What is a horse?" ideas of a horse in familiar situations would present
+themselves. One may see in imagination a horse being driven, ridden,
+etc., and he would then answer, "Why, a horse is to ride," or "A horse
+is to drive," or "A horse is a domestic animal," etc.
+
+Again, "What is a cloud? What is the sun? What is a river? What is
+justice? What is love?" One says, "A cloud is that from which rain
+falls," or "A cloud is partially condensed vapor. The sun is a round
+thing in the sky that shines by day. A river is water flowing along in a
+low place through the land. Justice is giving to people what they
+deserve. Love is that feeling one has for a person which makes him be
+kind to that person." The answer that one gives depends on age and
+experience.
+
+But it is evident that when a person is asked what a thing is or what is
+the meaning of a thing, he has at once ideas that have been most closely
+associated with the idea in question. Now, since the most important
+aspect of a thing is what we can do with it, what use it can be to us,
+usually meaning centers about _use_. A chair is to sit in, bread is to
+eat, water is to drink, clothes are to wear, a hat is a thing to be worn
+on one's head, a shovel is to dig with, a car is to ride in, etc.
+
+Use is not quite so evident in such cases as the following: "Who was
+Caesar? Who was Homer? Who is Edison? What was the Inquisition? What were
+the Crusades?" However, one has, in these cases, very closely associated
+ideas, and these ideas do center about what we have done with these men
+and events in our thinking. "Caesar was a warrior. Homer was a writer of
+epics. Edison is an inventor," etc. These men and events have been
+presented to us in various situations as standing for various things in
+the history of the world. And when we think of them, we at once think of
+what they did, the place they fill in the world. This constitutes their
+meaning.
+
+It is evident that an idea may have many meanings. And the meaning that
+may come to us at any particular moment depends upon the situation. A
+chair, for example, in one situation, may come to mind as a thing to sit
+in; in another situation, as a thing to stand in the corner and look
+pretty; in another, a thing to stand on so that one may reach the top
+shelf in the pantry; in another, a thing to strike a burglar with; in
+another, a thing to knock to pieces to be used to make a fire.
+
+The meaning of a thing comes from our experience with it, and the thing
+usually comes to have more and more meanings as our experience with it
+increases. When we meet something new, it may have practically no
+meaning. Suppose we find a new plant in the woods. It has little
+meaning. We may be able to say only that it is a plant, or it is a small
+plant. We touch it and it pricks us, and it at once has more meaning. It
+is a plant that pricks. We bite into it and find it bitter. It is then a
+plant that is bitter, etc. In such a way, objects come to have meaning.
+They acquire meaning according to the connections in which we experience
+them and they may take on different meanings for different persons
+because of the different experiences of these persons. The chief
+interest we have in objects is in what use we can make of them, how we
+can make them serve our purposes, how we can make them contribute to our
+pleasure.
+
+The organization of experience is the connecting, through the process of
+association, of the ideas that arise out of our experience. Our ideas
+are organized not only in accordance with the way we experience them in
+the first place, but in accordance with the way we think them later in
+memory. Of course, ideas are recalled in accordance with the way we
+experience them, but since they are experienced in such a multitude of
+connections, they are recalled later in these various connections and it
+is possible in recall to repeat one connection to the exclusion of
+others.
+
+Organization can therefore be a selective process. Although "horse" is
+experienced in a great variety of situations or connections, for our
+purposes we can select some one or more of these connections and by
+repetition in recalling it, strengthen these connections to the
+exclusion of others. Herein lies one of the greatest possibilities in
+thinking and reasoning, which enables us, to an extent, to be
+independent of original experience. We must have had experience, of
+course, but the strength of bonds between ideas need not depend upon
+original experience, but rather upon the way in which these ideas are
+recalled later, and especially upon the number of times they are
+recalled.
+
+It is in the matter of the organization of experience that teachers and
+parents can be of great help to young people. Children do not know what
+connections of ideas will be most useful in the future. People who have
+had more experience know better and can, by direction and suggestion,
+lead the young to form, and strengthen by repetition, those connections
+of ideas that will be most useful later.
+
+In the various school studies, a mass of ideas is presented. These
+ideas, isolated or with random connections, will be of little service to
+the pupils. They must be organized with reference to future use. This
+organization must come about through thinking over these ideas in
+helpful connections. The teacher knows best what these helpful
+connections are and must help the pupil to make them.
+
+Suppose the topic studied in history is the Battle of Bunker Hill. The
+teacher should assist the child to think the battle over in many
+different connections. There are various geographical, historical, and
+literary aspects of the battle that are of importance. These aspects
+should be brought to mind and related by being thought of together.
+Thinking things together binds them together as ideas; and later when
+one idea comes, the others that have been joined with it in the past in
+thought, come also. Therefore, in studying the Battle of Bunker Hill,
+the pupil not only reads about it, but gets a map and studies the
+geography of it, works out the causes that led up to the battle, studies
+the consequences that followed, reads speeches and poems that have been
+made and written since concerning the battle, the monument, etc.
+
+Similarly, all the topics studied in school should be thought over and
+organized with reference to meaning and with reference to future use. As
+a result of such procedure, all the topics become organized and
+crystallized, with all related ideas closely bound together in
+association.
+
+One of the greatest differences in people is in the organization of
+their ideas. Of course, people differ in original experience, but they
+differ more in the way they organize this experience and prepare it for
+future needs. Just as in habit-formation we should by exercise and
+practice acquire those kinds of skill that will serve us best in the
+future, so in getting knowledge we should by repetition strengthen the
+connections between those ideas that we shall need to have connected in
+the future. All education looks forward and is preparatory. As a result
+of training in the organization of ideas, a pupil can learn how to
+organize his experience, in a measure, independent of the teacher. He
+learns to know, himself, what ideas are significant, and what
+connections of ideas will be most helpful. Such an outcome should be one
+of the ends of school training.
+
+=Training in Reasoning.= We have already mentioned ways in which a child
+can be helped in gaining power and facility in reasoning. In this
+paragraph we shall discuss the matter more fully. There are three
+aspects of training in reasoning, one with reference to original
+experience, one with reference to the organization of this experience as
+just discussed, and one with reference to certain habits of procedure in
+the recall and use of experience.
+
+(1) _Original experience._ Before reasoning in any field, one must have
+experience in that field. There is no substitute for experience. After
+having the experience, it can be organized in various ways, but
+experience there must be. Experience may be primary, with things
+themselves, or it may be secondary, received second hand through books
+or through spoken language. We cannot think without ideas, and ideas
+come only through perceptions of one kind or another.
+
+Originally, all experience arises out of sensations. Language makes it
+possible for us to profit through the perceptual experience of others.
+But even when we receive our experience second hand, our own primary
+experience must enable us to understand the meaning of what we read and
+hear about, else it is valueless to us. Therefore, if we wish to be able
+to reason in the field of physics, of botany, of chemistry, of medicine,
+of law, or of agriculture, we must get experience in those fields. The
+raw material of thought comes only through experience. In such a subject
+as physical geography, for example, the words of the book have little
+meaning unless the child has had original experience in the matter
+discussed. He must have seen hills and valleys and rivers and lakes and
+rocks and weathering, and all the various processes discussed in
+physical geography; otherwise, the reading of the text is almost
+valueless. The same thing is true of all subjects. To reason in any
+subject we must have had original experience in it.
+
+(2) _The organization of experience._ After experience comes its
+organization. This point has already been fully explained. It was
+pointed out that organization consists in thinking our experience over
+again in helpful relations. Here parents and teachers can be of very
+great service to children.
+
+(3) _Habits of thought._ There are certain habits of procedure in
+reasoning, apart from the association of the ideas. One can form the
+habit of putting certain questions to oneself when a problem is
+presented, so that certain types of relations are called up. If one is a
+scientist, one looks for causes. If one is a lawyer, one looks up the
+court decisions. If one is a physician, one looks for symptoms, etc.
+
+One of the most important habits in connection with reasoning is the
+habit of caution. Reasoning is waiting, waiting for ideas to come that
+will be adequate for the situation. One must form the habit of waiting a
+reasonable length of time for associations to run their course. If one
+act too soon, before his organized experience has had time to pass in
+review, he may act improperly. Therefore one must be trained to a proper
+degree of caution. Of course, caution may be overdone. One must act
+sometime, one cannot wait always.
+
+Another habit is that of testing out a conclusion before it is finally
+put into practice. It is often possible to put a conclusion to some sort
+of test before it is put to the real test, just as one makes a model and
+tries out an invention on a small scale. One should not have full
+confidence in a conclusion that is the result of reasoning, till the
+conclusion has been put to the final test of experiment, of trial.
+
+This last statement leads us to the real function of reasoning. Reason
+points the way to action in a new situation. After the situation is
+repeated for a sufficient number of times, action passes into the realm
+of habit.
+
+=Language and Thinking.= The fact that man has spoken and written language
+is of the greatest significance. It has already been pointed out that
+language is a means through which we can get experience secondhand. This
+proves to be a great advantage to man. But language gives us still
+another advantage. Without language, thinking is limited to the passing
+of sensory images that arise in accordance with the laws of association.
+But man can name things and the attributes of things, and these names
+become associated, so that thinking comes to be, in part at least, a
+matter of words. Thinking is talking to oneself. One cannot talk without
+language.
+
+The importance that attaches to language can hardly be overestimated.
+When the child acquires the use of language, he has acquired the use of
+a tool, the importance of which to thinking is greater than that of any
+other tool. Now, one can think without language, in the sense that
+memory images come and go,--we have defined thinking as the flow of
+imagery, the passing or succession of ideas. But after we have named
+things, thinking, particularly reasoning, becomes largely verbal, or as
+we said above, _talking to oneself_.
+
+Not only do we give names to concrete things but we give names to
+specific attributes and to relations. As we organize and analyze our
+experiences, there appear uniformities, principles, laws. To these we
+give names, such as white, black, red, weight, length, thickness,
+justice, truth, sin, crime, heat, cold, mortal, immortal, evolution,
+disintegration, love, hate, envy, jealousy, possible, impossible,
+probable, etc. We spoke above of meanings. To meanings we give names, so
+that a single word comes to stand for meanings broad and significant,
+the result of much experience. Such words as "evolution" and
+"gravitation," single words though they are, represent a wide range of
+experiences and bring these experiences together and crystallize them
+into a single expression, which we use as a unit in our thought.
+
+Language, therefore, makes thought easier and its accomplishment
+greater. After we have studied Caesar for some years, the name comes to
+represent the epitome, the bird's-eye view of a great man. A similar
+thing is true of our study of other men and movements and things. Single
+words come to represent a multitude of experiences. Then these words
+become associated and organized in accordance with the principles of
+association discussed above, so that it comes about that the older we
+are, the more we come to think in words, and the more these words
+represent. The older we are, the more abstract our thinking becomes, the
+more do our words come to stand for meanings and attributes and laws
+that have come out of the organization of our experience.
+
+It is evident that the accuracy of our thinking depends upon these words
+standing for the _truth_, depends upon whether we have organized our
+experience in accordance with facts. If our word "Caesar" does not stand
+for the real Caesar, then all our thinking in which Caesar enters will be
+incorrect. If our word "justice" does not stand for the real justice,
+then all our thinking in which justice enters will be incorrect.
+
+This discussion points to the tremendous importance of the organization
+of experience. Truth is the agreement of our thought with the thing,
+with reality. We must therefore help the young to see the world clearly
+and to organize what they see in accordance with the facts and with a
+view to future use. Then the units of this organized experience are to
+be tagged, labeled, by means of words, and these words or labels become
+the vehicles of thought, and the outcome of the thinking depends on the
+validity of the organization of our experience.
+
+  SUMMARY. Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind; its basis is
+  in the association of memory ideas. The basis of association is in
+  original experience, ideas becoming bound together in memory as
+  originally experienced. The factors of association are primacy,
+  recency, frequency, intensity, and mental set or attitude. Reasoning
+  is thinking to a purpose. We can be trained in reasoning by being
+  taught to get vivid experience in the first place and in organizing
+  this experience in helpful ways, having in mind future use.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. A series of experiments should be performed to make clear to the
+students that the basis of the association of ideas is in _experience_
+and not in the nature of the ideas themselves.
+
+(a) Let the students, starting with the same word, write down all the
+ideas that come to mind in one minute. The teacher should give the
+initial idea, as sky, hate, music, clock, table, or wind. The first ten
+ideas coming to each student might be written on the blackboard for
+study and comparison. Are any series alike? Is the tenth idea in one
+series the same as that in any other?
+
+(b) For a study of the various factors of association, perform the
+following experiment: Let the teacher prepare a list of fifty
+words--nouns and adjectives, such as wood, murder, goodness, bad, death,
+water, love, angel. Read the words to the class and let each student
+write down the first idea that comes to mind in each case. After the
+list is finished, let each student try to find out what the determining
+factor was in each case, whether primacy, frequency, recency, vividness,
+or mental set. When the study is completed, the student's paper should
+contain three columns, the first column showing the stimulus words, the
+second showing the response words, the third showing the determining
+factors. The first column should be dictated and copied after the
+response words have been written.
+
+(c) Study the data in (a) and (b), noting the variety of ideas
+that come to different students for the same stimulus word. It will be
+seen that they come from a great variety of experiences and from all
+parts of one's life from childhood to the present, showing that all our
+experiences are bound together and that we can go from one point to any
+other, directly or indirectly.
+
+2. Perform an experiment to determine how each member of the class
+thinks, _i.e._ in what kind of imagery. Let each plan a picnic in
+detail. How do they do it? Do they see it or hear it or seem to act it?
+Or does it happen in words merely?
+
+3. Think of the events of yesterday. How do they come to you? Do your
+images seem to be visual, auditory, motor, or verbal? Do you seem to
+have all kinds of imagery? Is one kind predominant?
+
+4. Test the class for speed of free association as described on
+page 193. Repeat the experiment at least five times and rank the members
+of the class from the results.
+
+5. Similarly, test speed for controlled association as described on
+page 195 and rank the members of the class.
+
+6. Compare the rankings in Nos. 4 and 5.
+
+7. The teacher can extend the controlled association tests by preparing
+lists that show different kinds of logical relations with one another,
+from genus to species, from species to genus, from verb to object, from
+subject to verb, etc. Do the students maintain the same rank in the
+various types of experiments? Do the ranks in these tests correspond to
+the students' ranks in thinking in the school subjects?
+
+8. At least two series of experiments in reasoning should be performed,
+one to show the nature of reasoning and the other to show the ability of
+the members of the class.
+
+(a) Put several problems to the class, similar to the following: What
+happens to a wet board laid out in the sunshine? Explain. Suppose corn
+is placed in three vessels, 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 is sealed up air tight
+and kept warm? Number 2 is kept open and warm? Number 3 is kept open and
+warm and moist. What happens in each case? Explain.
+
+Condensed milk does not sour as long as the can remains unopened. After
+the can is opened, the milk sours if allowed to become warm; it does not
+sour if kept frozen. Why? Two bars of metal are riveted together. One
+bar is lead, the other iron. What happens when the bars are heated to
+150 C? 500 C? 1000 C? 2000 C? Answer the following questions: Is it ever
+right to steal? To kill a person? To lie? Which are unwise and mistaken,
+Republicans or Democrats?
+
+In the above, do all come to the same conclusion? Why? Were any unable
+to come to a conclusion at all on some questions? Why? Do the
+experiments make it clear that reasoning is dependent upon experience?
+
+(b) Let the teacher prepare five problems in reasoning well within the
+experience of the class, and find the speed and accuracy of the students
+in solving them. Compare the results with those in the controlled
+association tests. Test the class with various kinds of mechanical
+puzzles.
+
+9. The students should study several people to ascertain how well those
+people have their experience organized. Is their experience available?
+Can they come to the point immediately, or, are they hazy, uncertain,
+and impractical?
+
+10. It is claimed that we have two types of people, theoretical and
+practical. This is to some extent true. What is the explanation?
+
+11. From the point of view of No. 10, compare teachers and engineers.
+
+12. If anything will work in theory, will it work in practice?
+
+13. From what you have learned in the chapter and from the experiments,
+write a paper on training in reasoning.
+
+14. What are the main defects of the schools with reference to training
+children to think?
+
+15. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XVI and XVIII.
+
+DEWEY: _How We Think_, Parts I and III.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters VIII and XII;
+also pp. 192-195.
+
+PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and IX.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XV.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters V, VI, and X.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
+
+
+=Physical Differences.= One never sees two people whose bodies are exactly
+alike. They differ in height or weight or color of the skin. They differ
+in the color of the hair or eyes, in the shape of the head, or in such
+details as size and shape of the ear, size and shape of the nose, chin,
+mouth, teeth, feet, hands, fingers, toes, nails, etc. The anatomist
+tells us that we differ internally just as we do externally. While the
+internal structure of one person has the same general plan as that of
+another, there being the same number of bones, muscles, organs, etc.,
+there are always differences in detail. We are built on the same plan,
+_i.e._ we are made after a common type. We vary, above and below this
+type or central tendency.
+
+Weight may be taken for illustration. If we should weigh the first
+thousand men we meet, we should find light men, heavy men, and men of
+medium weight. There would be few light men, few heavy men, but many men
+of medium weight. This fact is well shown in diagram by what is known as
+a curve of distribution or frequency surface, which is constructed as
+follows: Draw a base line A B, and on this line mark off equal distances
+to represent the various weights. At the left end put the number
+representing the lightest men and at the right the number representing
+the heaviest men; the other weights come in between in order. Then
+select a scale; we will say a millimeter in height above the base line
+represents one person of the weight represented on the base, and in
+drawing the upper part of the figure, A C B, we have but to measure up
+one millimeter for each person weighed, of the weight indicated below on
+the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE V--FREQUENCY SURFACE--WEIGHT
+The solid line represents men, the broken line, women.]
+
+A study of this frequency surface shows a tendency for people to be
+grouped about the central tendency or average. There are many people of
+average weight or nearly so, but few people who deviate widely from the
+average weight. If we measure people with reference to any other
+physical characteristic, or any mental characteristic, we get a similar
+result, we find them grouped about an average or central tendency.
+
+=Mental Differences.= Just as we differ physically, so also we differ
+mentally, and in the various aspects of our behavior. The accompanying
+diagram (Free Association) shows the distribution of a large number of
+men and women with respect to the speed of their flow of ideas. When men
+and women are measured with respect to any mental function, a similar
+distribution is found.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VI--FREQUENCY SURFACE--FREE ASSOCIATION
+Solid line, men; broken line, women. The numbers below the base
+represent the number of words written in the Free Association test, and
+the numbers at the left represent the number of people making the
+respective scores.]
+
+An interesting question is whether our mental differences have any
+relation or connection with one another. If one mental characteristic is
+of high order, are all the others of high order also? Does a good memory
+indicate a high order of attention, of association, of imagination, of
+learning capacity? Experiments show that mental characteristics have at
+least some degree of independence. But the rule is that they generally
+go together, a high order of ability in one mental function indicating a
+high order of ability in at least some others, and a low order of
+ability in one function indicating a low order in other functions.
+
+However, it seems that abilities that are very much specialized, such as
+musical ability, artistic ability, etc., may exist in high order while
+other mental functions may be only mediocre. It is a common thing for a
+musical person to be of rather poor ability otherwise. To the extent
+that special abilities require specialized differences in the structure
+of brain, nervous system, or sense organ, they can exist in some degree
+of independence of other functions. Musical ability to some extent does
+require some such differences and may therefore be found either with a
+high or a low degree of ability in other characteristics.
+
+It is doubtless true that at maturity the unequal power of mental
+functions in the same person may be partly due to the fact that one
+function has been exercised and others neglected. A person having very
+strong musical tendencies is likely to have such a great interest in
+music that he will think other activities are not worth while, and will
+consequently neglect these other activities. It will therefore turn out
+that at maturity the great differences in mental functions in such a
+person are in part due to exercise of one function and neglect of
+others. But there can be no doubt that in many cases there are large
+original, inherited differences, the individual being poor in one aspect
+of mind and good in others. Feeble-minded people are usually poor in all
+important aspects of mind. However, one sometimes finds a feeble-minded
+person having musical or artistic ability, and often such a person has a
+good rote memory, sometimes a good verbal memory. However, the so-called
+higher mental functions--logical memory, controlled association, and
+constructive imagination--are all poor in a feeble-minded person.
+
+Each mental function may be looked upon as in some measure independent;
+each is found existing in people in varying degrees from zero ability up
+to what might be called genius ability. The frequency curves in Fig. VI
+show this. Take rote memory for example. Idiots are found with
+practically zero ability in rote memory. At the other extreme, we find
+mathematical prodigies who, after watching a long freight train pass and
+noting the numbers of the cars, can repeat correctly the number of each
+car. Rote memory abilities can be found representing every step between
+these two extremes. This principle of distribution holds true in the
+case of all mental functions. We find persons practically without them,
+and others possessing them in the highest order, but most people are
+grouped about the average ability.
+
+=Detecting Mental Differences.= It has already been said that mind has
+many different aspects and that people differ with respect to these
+aspects. Now let us ask how we can measure the degree of development of
+these aspects or functions of mind. We measure them just as we measured
+muscular speed as described in the first chapter. Each mental function
+means ability to do something--to learn, to remember, to form images,
+to reason, etc. To measure these different capacities or functions we
+have but to require that the person under consideration _do_ something,
+as learn, remember, etc., and measure how well and how fast he does it,
+just as we would measure how far he can jump, how fast he can run, etc.
+
+In such measurements, the question of practice is always involved. If we
+measure running ability, we find that some are in practice while others
+are not. Those in practice can run at very nearly their ultimate
+capacity. Those who are not in practice can be trained to run much
+faster than they do. To get a true measure of running capacity, we
+should practice the persons to be measured till each runs up to the
+limit of his capacity, and then measure each one's speed. The same thing
+is true, to some extent, when we come to measure mental functions
+proper. However, the life that children live gives exercise to all
+fundamental functions of the mind, and unless some of the children
+tested have had experience which would tend to develop some mental
+functions in a special way, tests of the various aspects of learning
+capacity, memory, association, imagination, etc., are a fairly good
+measure of original, inherited tendencies.
+
+Of course, it must be admitted that there are measurable differences in
+the influence of environment on children, and when these differences are
+extreme, no doubt the influence is shown in the development of the
+child's mind. A child reared in a home where all the influences favor
+its mental development, ought to show a measurable difference in such
+development when compared with a child reared in a home where all the
+influences are unfavorable. It is difficult to know to what extent this
+is true, for the hereditary and environmental influences are usually in
+harmony, the child of good hereditary stock having good environmental
+influences, and vice versa. When this is not the case, _i.e._ when a
+child of good stock is reared under poor environmental influences, or
+when a child of poor stock is reared under good influences, the results
+seem to show that the differences in environment have little effect on
+mental development, as far as the fundamental functions are concerned,
+except in the most extreme cases.
+
+Each mental function is capable of some development. It can be brought
+up to the limit of its possibilities. But recent experiments indicate
+that such development is not very great in the case of the elementary,
+fundamental functions. Training, however, has a much greater effect on
+complex mental activities that involve several functions. Rote memory is
+rather simple; it cannot be much affected by training. The memory for
+ideas is more complex; it can be considerably affected by training. The
+original and fundamental functions of the mind depend upon the nature of
+the nervous system which is bequeathed to us by heredity. This cannot be
+much changed. However, training has considerable effect on the
+cooerdinations and combinations of mental functions. Therefore, the more
+complex the mental activities which we are testing, the more likely they
+are to have been affected by differences in experience and training.
+
+If we should designate the logical memory capacity of one person by 10,
+and that of another by 15, by practice we might bring the first up to 15
+and the second to 221/2, but we could not equalize them. We could never
+make the memory of the one equal to that of the other. In an extreme
+case, we might find one child whose experience had been such that his
+logical memory was working up to the limit of its capacity, while the
+other had had little practice in logical memory and was therefore far
+below his real capacity. In such a case, a test would not show the
+native difference, it would show only the present difference in
+functioning capacity.
+
+Fairly adequate tests for the most important mental functions have been
+worked out. A series of group tests with directions and norms follow.
+The members of the class can use these tests in studying the individual
+differences in other people. The teacher will find other tests in the
+author's _Examination of School Children_, and in Whipple's _Manual of
+Mental and Physical Tests_.
+
+
+=MENTAL TESTS=
+
+GENERAL DIRECTIONS
+
+The results of the mental tests in the school will be worse than useless
+unless the tests are given with the greatest care and scientific
+precision. Every test should be most carefully explained to the children
+so that they will know _exactly_ what they are to do. The matter must be
+so presented to them that they will put forth _all possible_ effort.
+They must take the tests seriously. Great care must be taken to see that
+there is no cheating. The work of each child should be his own work. In
+those tests in which time is an important element, the time must be
+_carefully kept_, with a stop watch if one is available. The papers
+should be distributed for the tests and turned face downward on the
+pupil's desk. The pupil, when all are ready to begin, should take the
+paper in his hand and at the signal "begin" turn it over and begin work,
+and when the signal "stop" is given, should quit work instantly and turn
+the paper over. Before the work begins, the necessary information should
+be placed on each paper. This information should be the pupil's name,
+age, grade, sex, and school. This should be on every paper. When the
+test is over the papers should be immediately collected.
+
+
+LOGICAL MEMORY
+
+=Object.= The purpose of this test is to determine the pupil's facility in
+remembering and reproducing ideas. A pupil's standing in the test may
+serve as an indication of his ability to remember the subject matter of
+the school studies.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VII--LOGICAL MEMORY "WILLIE JONES"]
+
+=Method.= The procedure in this test is for the teacher to read slowly and
+distinctly the story to be reproduced. Immediately after the reading the
+pupils are to write down all of the story that they can recall. They
+must not begin to write till _after_ the reading. Ten minutes should be
+allowed for the reproduction. This is ample time, and each pupil should
+be told to use the whole time in working on his reproduction. At the end
+of ten minutes, collect the papers. Care should be taken to see that
+each pupil does his own work, that there is no copying. Before reading
+the story, the teacher should give the following instructions:
+
+  I shall read to you a story entitled "Willie Jones and His Dog" (or
+  "A Farmer's Son," or "A Costly Temper," as the case may be). After I
+  have read the story you are to write down all you can remember of
+  it. You are not to use the exact words that I read unless you wish.
+  You are to use your own words. Try to recall as much as possible and
+  write all you recall. Try to get all the details, not merely the
+  main facts.
+
+=Material.= For grades three, four, and five, use "Willie Jones and His
+Dog"; for grades six, seven, and eight, use "A Farmer's Son"; for the
+high school, use "A Costly Temper." The norms for the latter are based
+on eighth grade and high school pupils.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+WILLIE JONES AND HIS DOG
+
+Willie | Jones | was a little | boy | only | five years old. | He had a
+dog | whose name was Buster. | Buster was a large | dog | with long, |
+black, | curly | hair. | His fore | feet | and the tip | of his tail |
+were white. | One day | Willie's mother | sent him | to the store |
+which was only | a short | distance away. | Buster went with him, |
+following behind. | As Buster was turning | at the corner, | a car |
+struck him | and broke | one | hind | leg | and hurt | one | eye. |
+Willie was | very | sorry | and cried | a long | time. | Willie's
+father | came | and carried | the poor | dog | home. | The broken leg |
+got well | in five | weeks | but the eye | that was hurt | became blind.|
+
+
+A FARMER'S SON
+
+Will | was a farmer's | son | who attended school | in town. | His
+clothes | were poor and his boots | often smelled | of the farmyard |
+although he took great | care of them. | Since Will had not gone to
+school | as much | as his classmates, | he was often | at a
+disadvantage, | although his mind | was as good | as theirs,--| in fact,
+he was brighter | than most | of them. | James, | the wit | of the
+class, | never lost an opportunity | to ridicule | Will's mistakes, |
+his bright | red | hair, | and his patched | clothes. | Will | took the
+ridicule | in good part | and never | lost his temper. | One Saturday |
+as Will | was driving | his cows | to pasture, | he met James | teasing
+| a young | child, | a cripple. | Will's | indignation | was aroused |
+by the sight. | He asked | the bully | to stop, | but when he would not,
+| Will pounced | upon him | and gave him | a good | beating, | and he
+would not | let James go | until he promised | not to tease | the
+crippled | child | again. |
+
+
+A COSTLY TEMPER
+
+A man | named John | Murdock | had a servant | who worried him | much by
+his stupidity. | One day | when this servant was more | stupid | than
+usual, | the angry | master | of the house | threw a book | at his head.
+| The servant | ducked | and the book flew | out of the window. |
+
+"Now go | and pick that book up!" | ordered the master. | The servant |
+started | to obey, | but a passerby | had saved him | the trouble, | and
+had walked off | with the book. | The scientist | thereupon | began to
+wonder | what book | he had thrown away, | and to his horror, |
+discovered | that it was a quaint | and rare | little | volume | of
+poems, | which he had purchased | in London | for fifty | dollars. |
+
+But his troubles | were not over. | The weeks went by | and the man had
+almost | forgotten his loss, | when, strolling | into a secondhand |
+bookshop, | he saw, | to his great delight, | a copy of the book | he
+had lost. | He asked the price. |
+
+"Well," | said the dealer, | reflectively, | "I guess we can let you
+have it | for forty | dollars. | It is a very | rare book, | and I am
+sure | that I could get seventy-five | dollars for it | by holding on a
+while." |
+
+The man of science | pulled out his purse | and produced the money, |
+delighted at the opportunity of replacing | his lost | treasure. | When
+he reached home, | a card | dropped out | of the leaves. | The card was
+his own, | and further | examination | showed that he had bought back |
+his own property. |
+
+"Forty dollars' | worth of temper," | exclaimed the man. | "I think I
+shall mend my ways." | His disposition | afterward | became so | good |
+that | the servant became worried, | thinking the man | must be ill. |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE VIII--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A FARMER'S SON"]
+
+=The Results.= The material for the test is divided into units as
+indicated by the vertical lines. The pupil's written reproduction should
+be compared unit by unit with the story as printed, and given one credit
+for each unit adequately reproduced. The norms for the three tests are
+shown in the accompanying Figures VII, VIII, and IX. In these and all
+the graphs which follow, the actual ages are shown in the first
+horizontal column. The norms for girls appear in the second horizontal
+column, the norms for boys in the column at the bottom. By the _norm_
+for an age is meant the average performance of all the pupils of that
+age examined. Age ten applies to those pupils who have passed their
+tenth birthday and have not reached their eleventh birthday, and the
+other ages are to be similarly interpreted. The vertical lines in the
+graphs indicate birthdays and the scores written on these lines indicate
+ability at these exact ages. The column marked ten, for example,
+includes all the children that are over ten and not yet eleven. The
+graphs show the development from age to age. In general, it will be
+noticed, there is an improvement of memory with age, but in the high
+school, in the "Costly Temper" test, there is a decline. This may not
+indicate a real decline in ability to remember ideas, but a change in
+attitude. The high school pupil probably acquires a habit of
+remembering only significant facts. His memory is selective, while in
+the earlier ages, the memory may be more parrot-like, one idea being
+reproduced with about as much fidelity as another. This statement is
+made not as a _fact_, but as a _probable_ explanation.
+
+
+ROTE MEMORY
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE IX--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A COSTLY TEMPER"]
+
+=Object.= The object of the rote memory tests is to determine the pupil's
+memory span for unrelated impressions--words that have no logical
+relations with one another. Much school work makes demands upon this
+ability. Therefore, the tests are of importance.
+
+=Method.= There are two lists of words, _concrete_ and _abstract_, with
+six groups in each list. The list of concrete words should be given
+first, then the abstract. The procedure is to pronounce the first group,
+_cat_, _tree_, _coat_, and then pause for the pupils to write these
+three words. Then pronounce the next group, _mule_, _bird_, _cart_,
+_glass_, and pause for the reproduction, and so on through the list.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE X--CONCRETE ROTE MEMORY]
+
+Give the following instructions:
+
+  We wish to see how well you can remember words. I shall pronounce
+  first a group of three words. _After_ I have pronounced them, you
+  are to write them down. I shall then pronounce a group of four
+  words, then one of five words, and so continue with a longer group
+  each time. You must pay very close attention for I shall pronounce
+  a group but once. You are not required to write the words in their
+  order, but just as you recall them.
+
+=Material.= The words for the test are given in the following lists:
+
+  _Concrete_                           _Abstract_
+
+  1. cat, tree, coat                   1. good, black, fast
+  2. mule, bird, cart, glass           2. clean, tall, round, hot
+  3. star, horse, dress, fence, man    3. long, wet, fierce, white, cold
+  4. fish, sun, head, door, shoe,      4. deep, soft, quick, dark, great,
+       block                                dead
+  5. train, mill, box, desk, oil,      5. sad, strong, hard, bright,
+       pup, bill                            fine, glad, plain
+  6. floor, car, pipe, bridge, hand,   6. sharp, late, sour, wide, rough,
+       dirt, cow, crank                     thick, red, tight
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XI--ABSTRACT ROTE MEMORY]
+
+=Results.= The papers are graded by determining the number of concrete
+words and the number of abstract words that are reproduced. No account
+is taken of whether the words are in the right position or not. A
+perfect score in each test would therefore be thirty-three. The norms
+are shown in Figures X and XI.
+
+
+THE SUBSTITUTION TEST
+
+=Object.= This test determines one's ability to build up new associations.
+It is a test of quickness of learning.
+
+=Method.= The substitution test-sheets are distributed to the pupils and
+turned face down on the desks. The teacher gives the following
+instructions:
+
+  We wish to see how fast you can learn. At the top of the sheet which
+  has been distributed to you there is a key. In nine circles are
+  written the nine digits and for each digit there is written a letter
+  which is to be used instead of the digit. Below the key are two
+  columns of numbers; each number contains five digits. In the five
+  squares which follow the number you are to write the letters which
+  correspond to the digits. Work as fast as you can and fill as many
+  of the squares as you can without making mistakes. When I say
+  "stop," quit work instantly and turn the paper over.
+
+Before beginning the test the teacher should explain on the blackboard
+the exact nature of the test. This can be done by using other letters
+instead of those used in the key. Make sure that the pupils understand
+what they are to do. Allow _eight_ minutes in grades three, four, and
+five, and _five_ minutes above the fifth grade.
+
+=Material.= For material, use the substitution test-sheets. This and the
+other test material can be obtained from the University of Missouri,
+Extension Division.
+
+=Results.= In grading the work, count each square correctly filled in as
+one point, and reduce the score to speed per minute by dividing by eight
+in grades three, four, and five, and by five in the grades above.
+
+The norms are shown in Figure XII.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XII--SUBSTITUTION TEST]
+
+
+FREE ASSOCIATION
+
+=Object.= This test determines the speed of the free flow of ideas. The
+result of the test is a criterion of the quickness of the flow of ideas
+when no restriction or limitation is put on this flow.
+
+=Method.= The procedure in this test is to give the pupils a word, and
+tell them to write this word down and all the other words that come into
+their minds. Make it clear to them that they are to write whatever word
+comes to mind, whether it has any relation to the word that is given
+them or not. Start them with the word "cloud." Give the following
+instructions:
+
+  I wish to see how many words you can think of and write down in
+  three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it down and then
+  all the other words that come into your minds. Do not write
+  sentences, merely the words that come into your minds. Work as fast
+  as you can.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIII--FREE ASSOCIATION TEST]
+
+=Results.= Score the work by counting the number of words that have been
+written. The norms are shown in Figure XIII.
+
+
+OPPOSITES
+
+=Object.= This is a test of controlled association. It tests one aspect of
+the association of ideas. All thinking is a matter of association of
+ideas. Reasoning is controlled association. The test may therefore be
+taken as a measure of speed in reasoning.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIV--OPPOSITES TEST--LISTS I AND II]
+
+=Method.= Distribute the lists of opposites to the pupils and turn them
+face down on the desks. Use List One in grades three, four, and five,
+and List Two in grades above. Allow two minutes in grades three, four,
+and five and one minute in grades above. Give the following
+instructions:
+
+  On the sheets that have been distributed to you are fifty words.
+  After each word you are to write a word that has the opposite
+  meaning. For example, if one word were "far," you could write
+  "near." Work as fast as you can, and when I say "stop" quit work
+  instantly and turn your paper over.
+
+=Results.= The score is the number of opposites correctly written. The
+norms are shown in Figure XIV.
+
+OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 1
+
+    1. good         18. up            35. before
+    2. big          19. thick         36. winter
+    3. rich         20. quick         37. ripe
+    4. out          21. pretty        38. night
+    5. sick         22. heavy         39. open
+    6. hot          23. late          40. first
+    7. long         24. wrong         41. over
+    8. wet          25. smooth        42. love
+    9. yes          26. strong        43. come
+    10. high        27. dark          44. east
+    11. hard        28. dead          45. top
+    12. sweet       29. wide          46. wise
+    13. clean       30. empty         47. front
+    14. sharp       31. above         48. girl
+    15. fast        32. north         49. sad
+    16. black       33. laugh         50. fat
+    17. old         34. man
+
+OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 2
+
+    1. strong         18. strange     35. fine
+    2. deep           19. wrong       36. plain
+    3. lazy           20. quickly     37. sharp
+    4. seldom         21. black       38. late
+    5. thin           22. good        39. sour
+    6. soft           23. fast        40. wide
+    7. many           24. clean       41. drunk
+    8. valuable       25. tall        42. tight
+    9. gloomy         26. hot         43. empty
+   10. rude           27. long        44. sick
+   11. dark           28. wet         45. friend
+   12. rough          29. fierce      46. above
+   13. pretty         30. great       47. loud
+   14. high           31. dead        48. war
+   15. foolish        32. cloudy      49. in
+   16. present        33. hard        50. yes
+   17. glad           34. bright
+
+
+THE WORD-BUILDING TEST
+
+=Object.= This is a test of a certain type of inventiveness, namely
+linguistic invention. Specifically, it tests the pupil's ability to
+construct words using certain prescribed letters.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XV--WORD-BUILDING TEST]
+
+=Method.= The pupils are given the letters, _a_, _e_, _o_, _m_, _n_, _r_,
+and told to make as many words as possible using only these letters.
+Give the following instructions:
+
+  I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes, using
+  only the letters which I give you. The words must be real English
+  words. You must use only the letters which I give you and must not
+  use the same letter more than once in the same word. You do not, of
+  course, have to use all the letters in the same word. A word may
+  contain one or more letters up to six.
+
+=Material.= The pupils need only sheets of blank paper.
+
+=Results.= The score is the number of words that do not violate the rules
+of the test as given in the instructions. The norms are shown in Figure XV.
+
+
+THE COMPLETION TEST
+
+=Object.= This is, to some extent, a test of reasoning capacity. Of
+course, it is only one particular aspect of reasoning. The pupil is
+given a story that has certain words omitted. He must read the story,
+see what it is trying to say, and determine what words, put into the
+blanks, will make the correct sense. The meaning of the word written in
+a particular blank must not only make the sentence read sensibly but
+must fit into the story _as a whole_. Filling in the blanks in this way
+demands considerable thought.
+
+=Method.= Distribute the test-sheets and turn them face down on the desks.
+Allow ten minutes in all the tests. Give the following instructions:
+
+  On the sheets which have been distributed is printed a story which
+  has certain words omitted. You are to put in the blanks the words
+  that are omitted. The words which you write in must give the proper
+  meaning so that the story reads correctly. Each word filled in must
+  not only give the proper meaning to the sentence but to the story as
+  a whole.
+
+=Material.= Use the completion test-sheets, "Joe and the Fourth of July,"
+for grades three, four, and five; "The Trout" for grades, six, seven,
+and eight; and "Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine" for the high school.
+
+=Results.= In scoring the papers, allow one credit for each blank
+correctly filled. The norms are shown in Figures XVI, XVII, and XVIII.
+It will be noticed that the boys excel in the "Trout" story. This is
+doubtless because the story is better suited to them on the ground of
+their experience and interest.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVI--COMPLETION TEST--"JOE AND THE FOURTH OF
+JULY"]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+JOE AND THE FOURTH OF JULY
+
+Joe {ran}[6] errands for {his} mother and {took} care of the {baby}
+until by the Fourth of July his penny {grew} to be a dime. The day
+before the Fourth, he {went} down town all by {himself} to get his fire
+{works}. There were so {many} kinds he hardly knew which to {buy}. The
+clerk knew that it takes a {long} time to decide, for he had been a
+{boy} himself not very {long} ago. So he helped Joe to {select} the very
+best kinds. "When are you going to {fire} them off?" asked the clerk. "I
+will fire {them} very {early} to-morrow," said the boy. So that night
+Joe set the {alarm} clock, and the next {morning} got up {early} to fire
+his firecrackers.
+
+[6] The italicized words and letters are left blank in the test sheets.
+
+
+THE TROUT
+
+The trout is a fine fish. Once a big trout {lived} in a pool {close} by
+a spring. He used to {stay} under the bank with {only} his head showing.
+His wide-open {eyes} shone like jewels. I tried to {catch} him. I would
+{creep} up to the {edge} of the pool {where} I could see his {bright}
+eyes looking up.
+
+I {caught} a grasshopper and {threw} it over {to} him. Then there was a
+{splash} in the water and the grasshopper {was gone}. I {did} this {two}
+or three times. Each time I {saw} the rush and splash and saw the bait
+had been {taken}.
+
+So I put the sa{me} bait on my {hook} and {threw} it over into the
+{water}. But {all} was silent. The fish was an {old} one and had {grown}
+very wise. I did this {day} after day with the same luck. The trout
+{knew} there was a {hook} hidden in the bait.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVII--COMPLETION TEST--"THE TROUT"]
+
+
+DOCTOR GOLDSMITH'S MEDICINE
+
+This {is} a story of good medicine. Most medicine is {bad} to {take},
+but this was so good {that} the sick man {wished} for more.
+
+{One} day a poor woman {went} to Doctor Goldsmith and {asked} him to
+{go} to see her {sick} husband. "He {is} very sick," she said, "and I
+{can} not {get} him to eat anything."
+
+{So} Doctor Goldsmith {went} to {see} him. The doctor {saw} at once that
+the {reason} why the man {could} not eat was {because} he was {so} poor
+that he had {not} been {able} to buy good food.
+
+Then he {said} to the woman, "{Come} to my house this evening and I will
+{give you} some {medicine} for your {husband}."
+
+The woman {went} in the evening and the {doctor} gave {her} a small
+paper box tied {up} tight. "{It} is very heavy," {she} said. "May I
+{see} what it looks {like}?" "{No}," said the doctor, "{wait} until you
+get {home}." When she {got} home, and she and {her} husband {opened} the
+box so that he {could} take the first {dose} of medicine,--what do you
+think they {saw}? The box was {filled} with silver {money}. {This} was
+the {good} doctor's medicine.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+=Importance of Mental Differences.= (1) _In school work._ One of the
+important results that come from a knowledge of the mental differences
+in children is that we are able to classify them better. When a child
+enters school he should be allowed to proceed through the course as fast
+as his development warrants. Some children can do an eight-year course
+in six years; others require ten years; still others can never do it.
+The great majority, of course, can do it in eight years.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XVIII--COMPLETION TEST--"DR. GOLDSMITH'S
+MEDICINE"]
+
+Norms for adults, as obtained from university students, are:
+
+  TEST                                       MEN      WOMEN
+  Substitution Test                          29.1     32.2
+  Rote Memory, Concrete                      28.5     28.6
+  Rote Memory, Abstract                      28.4     27.9
+  Free Association                           51.5     49.3
+  Completion, _Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine_     48.1     49.0
+  Word Building                              20.5     20.1
+  Logical Memory, _Costly Temper_            64.0     69.6
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE XIX--FREQUENCY SURFACES--COMPARING FOURTH GRADE
+WITH HIGH SCHOOL
+
+The numbers along the base represent mental age; those at the left, the
+number of pupils of the respective ages.]
+
+It may be thought that a child's success in school branches is a
+sufficient measure of his ability and that no special mental
+measurements are needed. This is a mistake. Many factors contribute to
+success in school work. Ability is only one of these factors, and should
+be specially and independently determined by suitable tests. Children
+may fail in school branches because of being poorly started or started
+at the wrong time, because of poor teaching, sickness, moving from one
+school to another, etc. On the other hand, children of poor ability may
+succeed at school because of much help at home. Therefore special mental
+tests will help in determining to what extent original mental ability
+is a factor in the success or failure of the different pupils.
+
+As far as possible, the children of the same grade should have about the
+same ability; but such is seldom the case. In a recent psychological
+study of a school system, the author found wide differences in ability
+in the same grade. The distribution of abilities found in the fourth
+grade and in the high school are shown in Figure XIX. It will be seen
+that in the fourth grade pupils are found with ability equal to that of
+some in the high school. Of course to some extent such a condition is
+unavoidable, for a pupil must establish certain habits and acquire
+certain knowledge before passing from one grade to another. However,
+much of the wide variation in ability now found in the same grade of a
+school could be avoided if the teacher had accurate knowledge of the
+pupils' abilities. When a teacher learns that a child who is doing
+poorly in school really has ability, she is often able to get from that
+pupil the work of which he is capable. It has been demonstrated by
+experience that accurate measures of children's abilities are a great
+help in gradation and classification.
+
+A knowledge of mental differences is also an aid in the actual teaching
+of the children. The instance mentioned at the close of the last
+paragraph is an example. A knowledge of the differences among the mental
+functions of the same pupil is especially helpful. It has been pointed
+out that the different mental functions in the same pupil are sometimes
+unequally developed. Sometimes considerable differences exist in the
+same pupil with respect to learning capacity, the different aspects of
+memory, association, imagination, and attention. When a teacher knows of
+these differences, she can better direct the work of the pupils.
+
+For example, if a pupil have a very poor memory, the teacher can help
+him by aiding him to secure the advantage that comes from close and
+concentrated attention, frequent repetitions, logical organization, etc.
+On the other hand, she can help the brilliant student by preventing him
+from being satisfied with hastily secured, superficial knowledge, and by
+encouraging him to make proper use of his unusual powers in going deeper
+and more extensively into the school subjects than is possible for the
+ordinary student. In many ways a teacher can be helpful to her pupils if
+she has an accurate knowledge of their mental abilities.
+
+(2) _In life occupations._ Extreme variations in ability should
+certainly be considered in choosing one's life work. Only persons of the
+highest ability should go into science, law, medicine, or teaching. Many
+occupations demand special kinds of ability, special types of reaction,
+of attention, imagination, etc. For example, the operation of a
+telephone exchange demands a person of quick and steady reaction. The
+work of a motorman on a street car demands a person having the broad
+type of attention, the type of attention that enables one to keep in
+mind many details at the same time. Scientific work demands the type of
+concentrated attention. As far as it is possible, occupations demanding
+special types of ability should be filled by people possessing these
+abilities. It is best for all concerned if each person is doing what he
+can do best. It is true that many occupations do not call for special
+types of ability. And therefore, as far as ability is concerned, a
+person could do as well in one of these occupations as in another. The
+time will sometime come when we shall know the special abilities
+demanded by the different occupations and professions, and by suitable
+tests shall be able to determine what people possess the required
+qualifications.
+
+The schools should always be on the lookout for unusual ability.
+Children that are far superior to others of the same age should be
+allowed to advance as fast as their superior ability makes possible, and
+should be held up to a high order of work. Such superior people should
+be, as far as possible, in the same classes, so that they can the more
+easily be given the kind and amount of work that they need. The schools
+should find the children of unusual special ability, such as ability in
+drawing, painting, singing, playing musical instruments, mechanical
+invention, etc. Some provision should be made for the proper development
+and training of these unusual abilities. Society cannot afford to lose
+any spark of genius wherever found. Moreover, the individual will be
+happier if developed and trained along the line of his special ability.
+
+=Subnormal Children.= A small percentage of children are of such low
+mentality that they cannot do the ordinary school work. As soon as such
+children can be picked out with certainty, they should be taken out of
+the regular classes and put into special classes. It is a mistake to try
+to get them to do the regular school work. They cannot do it, and they
+only waste the teacher's time and usually give her much trouble.
+Besides, they waste their own time; for while they cannot do the
+ordinary school work, they can do other things, perhaps work of a manual
+nature. The education of such people should, therefore, be in the
+direction of simple manual occupations.
+
+For detecting such children, in addition to the tests given above,
+elaborate tests for individual examination have been devised. The most
+widely used is a series known as the Binet-Simon tests. A special group
+of tests is provided for the children of each age. If a child can pass
+the tests for his age, he is considered normal. If he can pass only the
+tests three years or more below his age, he is usually considered
+subnormal. But a child's fate should not depend solely upon any number
+or any kind of tests. We should always give the child a trial and see
+what he is able to achieve. This trial should cover as many months or
+years as are necessary to determine beyond doubt the child's mental
+status.
+
+  SUMMARY. Just as we differ in the various aspects of body, so also
+  we differ in the various aspects of mind. These differences can be
+  measured by tests. A knowledge of these differences should aid us in
+  grading, classifying, and teaching children, as well as in the
+  selection of occupation and professions for them. Mental traits have
+  some degree of independence; as a result a high degree of one trait
+  may be found with low degree of some others.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Many of the tests and experiments already described should have shown
+many of the individual differences of the members of the class. The
+teacher will find in the author's _Examination of School Children_ a
+series of group tests with norms which can be used for a further study
+of individual differences.
+
+2. The tapping experiment described in the first chapter can now be
+repeated and the results taken as a measure of reaction time.
+
+3. You should now have available the records of all the tests and
+experiments so far given that show individual differences. Make out a
+table showing the rank of each student in the various tests. Compute the
+average rank of each student for all the tests. This average rank may be
+taken as a measure of the intelligence of the students, as far as such
+can be determined by the tests used. Correlate this ranking with
+standing in the high school classes. It will give a positive
+correlation, not perfect, however. Why not? If your measures of
+intelligence were absolutely correct, you still would not get a perfect
+correlation with high school standing. Why not?
+
+4. If you had a correct measure of intelligence of 100 mature people in
+your city, selected at random, would this measure give you an exact
+measure of their success in life? Give the reason for your answer.
+
+5. Of all the tests and experiments previously described in this book,
+which gives the best indication of success in high school?
+
+6. If the class in psychology is a large one, a graph should be prepared
+showing the distribution of abilities in the class. For this purpose,
+you will have to use the absolute measures instead of ranks. Find the
+average for each test used. Make these averages all the same by
+multiplying the low ones and dividing the high ones. Then all the grades
+of each student can be added. This will give each test the same weight
+in the average. The use of a slide rule will make this transference to a
+new average very easy. A more accurate method for this computation is
+described in the author's _Examination of School Children_, p. 65.
+
+The students should make a study of individual differences and the
+distribution of ability in some grade below the high school. The tests
+described in this chapter can be used for that purpose.
+
+7. Is it a good thing for high school students to find out how they
+compare with others in their various mental functions? If you have poor
+ability, is it a good thing for you to find it out? If the teacher and
+students think best, the results of all the various tests need not be
+made known except to the persons concerned. The data can be used in the
+various computations without the students' knowing whose measures they
+are.
+
+8. To what extent is ability a factor in life? You find people of only
+ordinary ability succeeding and brilliant people failing. Why is this?
+
+9. None of the tests so far used measures ideals or perseverance and
+persistence. These are important factors in life, and there is no very
+adequate measure for any of them. The students might plan some
+experiments to test physical and mental persistence and endurance. The
+tapping experiment, for example, might be continued for an hour and the
+records kept for each minute. Then from these records a graph could be
+plotted showing the course of efficiency for the hour. Mental adding or
+multiplying might be kept up continuously for several hours and the
+results studied as above.
+
+10. We have said that ideals and persistence are important factors in
+life. Are they inherited or acquired?
+
+11. Do you find it to be the rule or the exception for a person standing
+high in one mental function to stand high in the others also?
+
+12. Make a complete outline of the chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_. Chapter XVI.
+
+PYLE: _The Examination of School Children_.
+
+PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Chapter XVII.
+
+TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, pp. 309-311.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
+
+
+=The General Field.= Psychology has now reached that stage in its
+development where it can be of use to humanity. It can be of use in
+those fields which demand a knowledge of human nature. As indicated in
+the first chapter, these fields are education, medicine, law, business,
+and industry. We may add another which has been called "culture." We
+cannot say that psychology is able yet to be of very great service
+except to education, law, and medicine. It has been of less service to
+the field of business and industry, but in the future, its contribution
+here will be as great as in the other fields. While the service of
+psychology in the various fields is not yet great, what it will
+eventually be able to do is very clear. It is the purpose of this
+chapter to indicate briefly, the nature and possibilities of this
+psychological service.
+
+=Education.= Throughout the preceding chapters, we have emphasized the
+educational importance of the facts discussed. There is little left to
+say here except to summarize the main facts. Since education is a matter
+of making a child over into what he ought to be, the science of
+education demands a knowledge of the original nature of children. This
+means that one must know the nature of instincts, their relations to one
+another, their order of development, and the possibilities of their
+being changed, modified, developed, suppressed. It means that one must
+know the nature of the child's mind in all its various functions, the
+development and significance of these functions,--memory, association,
+imagination, and attention. The science especially demands that we
+understand the principles of habit-formation, the laws of economical
+learning, and the laws of memory.
+
+This psychological knowledge must form the ground-work in the education
+of teachers for their profession. In addition to this general
+preparation of the teacher, psychology will render the schools a great
+service through the psycho-clinicist, who will be a psychological expert
+working under the superintendents of our school systems. His duty will
+be to supervise the work of mental testing, the work of diagnosis for
+feeble-mindedness and selection of the subnormal children, the teaching
+of such children. He will give advice in all cases which demand expert
+psychological knowledge.
+
+=Medicine.= In the first place, there is a department of medicine which
+deals with nervous diseases, such as insanity, double personality,
+severe nervous shock, hallucination, etc. This entire aspect of medicine
+is wholly psychological. But psychology can be of service to the general
+practitioner both in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A thorough
+psychological knowledge of human nature will assist a physician in
+diagnosis. Often the best way to find out what ails a patient's body is
+through the patient's mind, and the doctor must know how to get the
+truth from the patient's mind even in those cases in which the patient
+is actually trying to conceal the truth. A profound practical knowledge
+of human nature is necessary,--a knowledge which can be obtained only
+by long and careful technical study as well as practice and experience.
+
+Psychology can be of service in the treatment of disease. The physician
+must understand the peculiar mental characteristics of his patient in
+order to know how to deal with him. In some cases, hypnotism is a
+valuable aid in treatment, and in many cases, ordinary normal suggestion
+can be of considerable service. The state of mind of a sick person has
+much to do with his recovery. The physician must know this and must know
+how to induce the desired state of mind. Indeed, a patient's trouble is
+often imaginary, exists in the mind only; in such cases, the treatment
+should be wholly mental, _i.e._ through suggestion. Of course, the best
+physicians know these facts and make use of them in their practice, but
+preparation for this aspect of their work should be a regular part of
+their medical education. They should not be left to learn these facts
+from their practice as best they may, any more than they should be
+expected to learn their physiology and anatomy in this way.
+
+=Law.= The service of psychology to law can be very great, but owing to
+the necessary conservatism of the courts, it will be a long time before
+they will make much use of psychological knowledge. Perhaps the greatest
+service will be in determining the credibility of evidence. Psychology
+can now give the general principles in this matter. Witnesses go on the
+stand and swear to all sorts of things as to what they heard and saw and
+did, often months and even years previously. The expert clinical
+psychologist can tell the court the probability of such evidence being
+true. Experiments have shown that there is a large percentage of error
+in such evidence. The additional value that comes from the oath has been
+measured. The oath increases the liability of truth only a small
+percentage.
+
+Experiments have also shown that one's feeling of certainty is no
+guarantee of truth. Sometimes the point we feel surest about is the one
+farthest from the truth. In fact, feeling sure of a thing is no
+guarantee of truth.
+
+In a particular case in court, the psychologist can determine the
+reliability of the evidence of a particular witness and enable the judge
+and the jury to put the proper value on such witness's testimony. For
+example, a witness may swear to a certain point involving the estimation
+of time and distance. The psychologist can measure the witness's
+accuracy in such estimates, often showing that what the witness claims
+to be able to do is an impossibility. A case may hinge on whether an
+interval of time was ten minutes or twelve minutes, or whether a
+distance was three hundred or four hundred feet. A witness may swear
+positively to one or both of these points. The psychologist can show the
+court the limitations of the witness in making such estimates.
+
+Psychology can be of service in the examination of the criminal himself.
+Through association tests and in other ways, the guilt or innocence of
+the prisoner can often be determined, and his intellectual status can
+also be determined. The prisoner may be insane, or feeble-minded, or
+have some other peculiar mental disorder. Such matters fall within the
+realm of psychology. After a prisoner has been found guilty, the court
+should have the advice of the clinical psychologist in deciding what
+should be done with him.
+
+It should be added that the court and not the attorneys should make use
+of the psychologist. Whenever a psychologist can be of service in a case
+in court, the judge should summon such assistance, just as he should if
+expert chemical, physical, physiological, or anatomical knowledge should
+be desired.
+
+A knowledge of human nature can be of much service to society in the
+prevention of crime. This will come about from a better knowledge of the
+psychological principles of habit-formation and moral training, through
+a better knowledge of how to control human nature. A large percentage of
+all crime, perhaps as much as forty per cent, is committed by
+feeble-minded people. Now, if we can detect these people early, and give
+them the simple manual education which they are capable of receiving, we
+can keep them out of a life of crime.
+
+Studies of criminals in reform schools show that the history of many
+cases is as follows: The person, being of low mentality, could not get
+on well at school and therefore came to dislike school, and consequently
+became a truant. Truancy led to crime. Crime sent the person to the
+court, and the court sent the person to the state reformatory.
+
+The great duty of the state is the prevention of crime. Usually little
+can be done in the way of saving a mature criminal. We must save the
+children before they become criminals, save them by proper treatment.
+Society owes it to every child to do the right thing for him, the right
+thing, whether the child is an idiot or a genius. Merely from the
+standpoint of economy, it would be an immense saving to the state if it
+would prevent crime by the proper treatment of every child.
+
+=Business.= The contribution of psychology in this field, so far, is in
+the psychology of advertising and salesmanship, both having to do
+chiefly with the selling of goods. Students of the psychology of
+advertising have, by experiment, determined many principles that govern
+people when reading newspapers and magazines, principles having to do
+with size and kind of type, arrangement and form, the wording of an
+advertisement, etc. The object of an advertisement is to get the reader
+interested in the article advertised. The first thing is to get him to
+_read_ the advertisement. Here, various principles of attention are
+involved. The next thing is to have the _matter_ of the advertisement of
+such a nature that it creates interest and remains in memory, so that
+when the reader buys an article of that type he buys the particular kind
+mentioned in the advertisement.
+
+In salesmanship, many subtle psychological principles are involved. The
+problem of the salesman is to get the attention of the customer, and
+then to make him _want_ to buy his goods. To do this with the greatest
+success demands a profound knowledge of human nature. Other things being
+equal, that man can most influence people who has the widest knowledge
+of the nature of people, and of the factors that affect this nature. The
+successful salesman must understand human feelings and emotions,
+especially sympathy; also the laws of attention and memory, and the
+power of suggestion. A mastery of the important principles requires
+years of study, and a successful application of them requires just as
+many years of practice.
+
+The last paragraph leads us to a consideration of the general problem of
+influencing men. In all occupations and professions, one needs to know
+how to influence other men. We have already discussed the matter of
+influencing people to buy goods. People who employ labor need to know
+how to get laborers to do more and better work, how to make them loyal
+and happy. The minister needs to know how to induce the members of his
+congregation to do right. The statesman needs to know how to win his
+hearers and convince them of the justice and wisdom of his cause.
+Whatever our calling, there is scarcely a day when we could not do
+better if we knew more fully how to influence people.
+
+=Industry.= The service of psychology here is four-fold: (1) Finding what
+men are fitted for. (2) Finding what kinds of abilities are demanded by
+the various trades and occupations. (3) Helping the worker to understand
+the psychological aspects of his work. (4) Getting the best work out of
+the laborer.
+
+_Finding what men are fitted for._ In the preceding chapter, we
+discussed the individual variations of men. Some people are better
+fitted physically and mentally for certain types of work than they are
+for other types of work. The determination of what an individual is
+fitted for and what he is not fitted for is the business of psychology.
+In some cases, the verdict of psychology can be very specific; in
+others, it can be only general. Much misery and unhappiness come to
+people from trying to do what they are not fitted by nature to do. There
+are many professions and occupations which people should not enter
+unless they possess high general ability. Now, psychology is able to
+measure general ability. There are many other occupations and
+professions which people should not enter unless they possess some
+special ability. Music, art, and mechanics may be mentioned as examples
+of occupations and professions demanding specific kinds of ability. In
+industrial work, many aspects demand very special abilities, as quick
+reaction, quick perception, fine discrimination, calmness and
+self-control, ingenuity, quick adaptation to new situations. Psychology
+can aid in picking out the people who possess the required abilities.
+
+_The different abilities demanded._ It is the business of psychology to
+make a careful analysis of the specific abilities required in all the
+various works of life. There are hundreds of occupations and often much
+differentiation of work within an occupation. It is for the psychologist
+of the future to make this analysis and to classify the occupations with
+reference to the kinds of abilities demanded. Of course, many of them
+will be found to require the same kind of ability, but just as surely,
+many will be found to require very special abilities. It is a great
+social waste to have people trying to fill such positions unless they
+possess the specific abilities required.
+
+It should be the work of the high school and college to explain the
+possibilities, and the demands in the way of ability, of the various
+occupations of the locality. By possibilities and demands are meant the
+kinds of abilities required and the rewards that can be expected, the
+kind of life which the different fields offer. It is the further duty of
+the high school and college to find out, as far as possible, the
+specific abilities of the students. With this knowledge before them, the
+students should choose their careers, and then make specific preparation
+for them. The schools ought to work in close cooeperation with the
+industries, the student working for a part of the day in school and a
+part in the industries. This would help much in leading the student to
+understand the industries and in ascertaining his own abilities and
+interests.
+
+_The psychological aspects of one's work._ All occupations have a
+psychological aspect. They involve some trick of attention, of
+association, of memory. Certain things must be looked for, certain
+habits must be formed, certain movements must be automatized. Workmen
+should be helped to master these psychological problems, to find the
+most convenient ways of doing their work. Workmen often do their work in
+the most uneconomical ways, having learned their methods through
+imitation, and never inquiring whether there is a more economical way.
+
+_Securing efficiency._ Securing efficiency is a matter of influencing
+men, a matter which we have already discussed. Securing efficiency is
+quite a different matter from that treated in the preceding paragraph. A
+workman may have a complete knowledge of his work and be skilled in its
+performance, and still be a poor workman, because he does not have the
+right attitude toward his employer or toward his work. The employer must
+therefore meet the problem of making his men like their work and be
+loyal to their employer. The laborer must be happy and contented if he
+is to do good work. Moreover, there is _no use in working_, or in living
+either, if one cannot be happy and contented.
+
+We have briefly indicated the possibilities of psychology in the various
+occupations and professions. There is a further application that has no
+reference to the practical needs of life, but to enjoyment. A
+psychological knowledge of human nature adds a new interest to all our
+social experience. The ability to understand the actions and feelings
+of men puts new meaning into the world. The ability to understand
+oneself, to analyze one's actions, motives, feelings, and thoughts,
+makes life more worth living. A knowledge of the sensations and sense
+organs adds much pleasure to life in addition to its having great
+practical value. Briefly, a psychological knowledge of human nature adds
+much to the richness of life. It gives one the analytical attitude.
+Experiences that to others are wholes, to the psychologist fall apart
+into their elements. Such knowledge leads us to analyze and see clearly
+what otherwise we do not understand and see only darkly or not at all.
+Literature and art, and all other creations and products of man take on
+a wholly new interest to the psychologist.
+
+  SUMMARY. Psychology is of service to education in ascertaining the
+  nature of the child and the laws of learning; to law, in determining
+  the reliability of evidence and in the prevention of crime; to
+  medicine, in the work of diagnosis and treatment; to business, in
+  advertising and salesmanship; to the industries, in finding the man
+  for the place and the place for the man; to everybody, in giving a
+  keener insight into, and understanding of, human nature.
+
+
+CLASS EXERCISES
+
+1. Visit a court room when a trial is in progress. Note wherein
+psychology could be of service to the jury, to the judge, and to the
+attorneys.
+
+2. To test the reliability of evidence, proceed as follows: Take a large
+picture, preferably one in color and having many details; hold it before
+the class in a good light where all can see it. Let them look at it for
+ten or fifteen seconds, the time depending on the complexity of the
+picture. The students should then write down what they saw in the
+picture, underscoring all the points to which they would be willing to
+make oath. Then the students should answer a list of questions prepared
+by the teacher, on various points in the picture. Some of these
+questions should be suggestive, such as, "What color is the dog?"
+supposing no dog to be in the picture. The papers giving the first
+written description should be graded on the number of items reported and
+on their accuracy. The answers to the questions should be graded on
+their accuracy. How do girls compare with boys in the various aspects of
+the report? What is the accuracy of the underlined points?
+
+3. Let the teacher, with the help of two or three students, perform
+before the class some act or series of acts, with some conversation, and
+then have the students who have witnessed the performance write an
+account of it, as in No. 2.
+
+4. Divide the class into two groups. Select one person from each to look
+at a picture as in No. 1. These two people are then to write a complete
+account of the picture. This account is then read to another person in
+the same group, who then writes from memory his account and reads to
+another. This is to be continued till all have heard an account and
+written their own. You will then have two series of accounts of the same
+picture proceeding from two sources. It will be well for the two who
+look at the picture to be of very different types, let us say, one
+imaginative, the other matter-of-fact.
+
+Do all the papers of one series have some characteristics that enable
+you to determine from which group they come? What conclusions and
+inferences do you draw from the experiment?
+
+5. Does the feeling of certainty make a thing true? See how many cases
+you can find in a week, of persons feeling sure a statement is true,
+when it is really false.
+
+6. In the following way, try to find out something which a person is
+trying to conceal. Prepare a list of words, inserting now and then words
+which have some reference to the vital point. Read the words one by one
+to the person and have him speak the first word suggested by those read.
+Note the time taken for the responses. A longer reaction time usually
+follows the incriminating words, and the subject is thrown into a
+visible confusion.
+
+7. Talk to successful physicians and find out what use they make of
+suggestion and other psychological principles.
+
+8. Spend several hours visiting different grades below the high school.
+In how many ways could the teachers improve their work by following
+psychological principles?
+
+9. Could the qualities of a good teacher--native and acquired--be
+measured by tests and experiments?
+
+10. Visit factories where men do skillful work and try to learn by
+observation what types of mind and body are required by the different
+kinds of work.
+
+11. Does the occupation which you have chosen for life demand any
+specific abilities? If so, do you possess them in a high degree?
+
+12. Could parents better train their children if they made use of
+psychological principles?
+
+13. In how many ways will the facts learned in this course be of
+economic use to you in your life? In what ways will they make life more
+pleasurable?
+
+14. Make a complete outline of this chapter.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XXVII-XXXIII.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_.
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING
+
+
+COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. C.: _Human Behavior_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1913.
+
+DAVENPORT, C. B.: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_. Henry Holt &
+Company, 1911.
+
+DEWEY, J.: _How We Think_. D. C. Heath & Company, 1910.
+
+KELLICOTT, W. E.: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_. D. Appleton
+& Company, 1911.
+
+KIRKPATRICK, E. A.: _The Fundamentals of Child Study_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1912.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG, H.: _Psychology, General and Applied_. D. Appleton &
+Company, 1914.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG, H.: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_. Houghton
+Mifflin Company, 1913.
+
+PILLSBURY, W. B.: _Essentials of Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,
+1916.
+
+PYLE, W. H.: _Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Warwick and York,
+1912.
+
+PYLE, W. H.: _The Examination of School Children_. The Macmillan
+Company, 1913.
+
+ROWE, S. H.: _Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching_. Longmans,
+Green, & Company, 1911.
+
+TITCHENER, E. B.: _A Beginner's Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,
+1916.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+Most of the terms given below are explained in the text, but it is hoped
+that this alphabetical list with brief definitions will prove helpful.
+It is a difficult task to make the definitions scientific and at the
+same time brief, simple, and clear.
+
+_Abnormal._ Having mental or physical characteristics widely different
+from those commonly found in ordinary people.
+
+_Acquired nature._ Those aspects of habit, skill, knowledge, ideas, and
+ideals that come from experience and are due to experience.
+
+_Action._ Muscular contractions usually producing motion of the body or
+of some part of the body.
+
+_Adaptation._ Adjustment to one's surroundings.
+
+_Adaptive._ Readily changing one's responses and acquiring such new
+responses as enable one to meet successfully new situations; also having
+tendencies or characteristics which enable one to be readily adjustable.
+
+_After-images._ Images that follow immediately after stimulation of a
+sense organ, and resulting from this stimulation.
+
+_Association._ Binding together ideas through experiencing them
+together.
+
+_Attention._ Relative clearness of perceptions and ideas.
+
+_Attitude._ The tendency toward a particular type of response in action
+or a particular idea or association in thought.
+
+_Bond._ The connection established in the nervous system which makes a
+certain response follow a certain stimulus or a certain idea follow
+another idea or perception.
+
+_Capacity._ The possibility of learning, achieving, etc.
+
+_Color blindness._ Inability to experience certain colors, usually red
+and green.
+
+_Complementary color._ Complementary colors are those which, mixed in
+the right proportion, produce gray.
+
+_Congenital._ Inborn.
+
+_Connection._ The nerve-path through which a stimulus produces a
+response or through which one idea produces or evokes another.
+
+_Conscious._ Having consciousness, or accompanying consciousness or
+producing consciousness.
+
+_Consciousness._ The mental states--perceptions, ideas, feelings--which
+one has at any moment.
+
+  _Low level of consciousness._ Conscious processes not so clear as
+  others existing at the same time.
+
+  _High level of consciousness._ Conscious processes that are clear as
+  compared to others existing at the same time.
+
+_Contrast._ The enhancing or strengthening of a sensation by another of
+opposite quality.
+
+_Correlation._ The relation that exists between two functions,
+characteristics, or attributes that enables us, finding one, to predict
+the presence of the other.
+
+_Development._ The appearance, or growth, or strengthening of a
+characteristic.
+
+_Emotion._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus sensations from
+characteristic bodily reactions.
+
+_Environment._ The objects and forces about us which affect us through
+our senses.
+
+_Environmental instincts._ Instincts which have originated, at least in
+part, from the periodic changes in man's environment.
+
+_Eugenics._ The science of race improvement through selective breeding
+or proper marriages or in some cases through the prevention of marriage.
+
+_Experience._ What we learn of the world through sensation and
+perception.
+
+_Fatigue._ Inability to work produced by work and which only rest will
+cure.
+
+_Feeble-minded._ Having important mental traits only poorly developed or
+not at all.
+
+_Feeling._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience or of ideational
+states.
+
+_Function._ The use of a thing or process, also any mental process or
+combination of processes considered as a unit.
+
+_Genetic._ Having reference to origin and development.
+
+_Habits._ Definite responses to definite stimuli depending upon bonds
+established by use after birth.
+
+_Heredity._ Transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring.
+
+_Human nature._ The characteristics and tendencies which we have as
+human beings, with particular reference to mind and action.
+
+_Ideals._ Definite tendencies to act in definite ways. Ideas of definite
+types of action with tendency toward the actions; ideas of definite
+conditions, forms, and states together with a desire to experience or
+possess them.
+
+_Ideas._ Revived perceptions.
+
+_Images._ Revived sensations, simpler than ideas.
+
+_Imitation._ Acting as we see others act.
+
+_Impulse._ Tendency to action.
+
+_Individualistic instincts._ Those instincts which more immediately
+serve individual survival.
+
+_Individual differences._ The mental and physical differences between
+people.
+
+_Inherited nature._ Those aspects of one's nature due directly to
+heredity.
+
+_Instincts._ Definite responses produced by definite stimuli through
+hereditary connections in the nervous system.
+
+_Intellectual habits._ Definite fixed connections between ideas;
+definite ways of meeting typical thought situations.
+
+_Intensity._ The amount or strength of a sensation or image, how far it
+is from nothing.
+
+_Interest._ The aspect given to experience or thinking by attention and
+pleasure.
+
+_Learning._ Establishing new bonds or connections in the nervous system;
+acquiring habits; gaining knowledge.
+
+_Memory._ The retention of experience; retained and reproduced
+experience.
+
+_Mental set._ Mental attitude or disposition.
+
+_Mind._ The sum total of one's conscious states from birth to death.
+
+_Nerve-path._ The route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or excitation.
+
+_Original nature._ All those aspects of mind and body directly
+inherited.
+
+_Perceive._ To be aware of a thing through sensation.
+
+_Perception._ Awareness of a thing through sensation or a fusion of
+sensations.
+
+_Plasticity._ Modifiability, making easy the formation of new bonds or
+nerve-connections.
+
+_Presupposition._ A theory or hypothesis on which an argument or a
+system of arguments or principles is based.
+
+_Primary._ First, original, elementary, perceptive experience as
+distinguished from ideational experience.
+
+_Reaction._ The action immediately following a stimulus and produced by
+it.
+
+_Reasoning._ Thinking to a purpose; trying to meet a new situation.
+
+_Reflex._ A very simple act brought about by a stimulus through an
+hereditary nerve-path.
+
+_Response._ The act following a stimulus and produced by it.
+
+_Retention._ Memory; modification of the nervous system making possible
+the revival of experience.
+
+_Science._ Knowledge classified and systematized.
+
+_Sensation._ Primary experience; consciousness directly due to the
+stimulation of a sense organ.
+
+_Sense._ To sense is to have sensation, to perceive. A sense is a sense
+organ or the ability to have sensation through a sense organ.
+
+_Sense organ._ A modified nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or
+mechanism making possible a certain form of stimulation.
+
+_Sensitive._ Capable of giving rise to sensation, or transmitting a
+nerve-current.
+
+_Sensitivity._ Property of, or capacity for being sensitive.
+
+_Sensory._ Relating to a sense organ or to sensation.
+
+_Situation._ The total environmental influences of any one moment.
+
+_Socialistic instincts._ The instincts related more directly to the
+survival of a social group.
+
+_Stimulation._ The setting up of a nerve process in a sense organ or in
+a nerve tract.
+
+_Stimulus._ That which produces stimulation.
+
+_Subnormal._ Having characteristics considerably below the normal.
+
+_Tendency._ Probability of a nerve-current taking a certain direction
+due to nerve-organization.
+
+_Thinking._ The passing of images and ideas.
+
+_Thought._ Thinking; an idea or group of ideas.
+
+_Training._ Establishing nerve connection or bonds.
+
+_Vividness._ Clearness of sensations, perceptions, images, and ideas.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abilities, specialized, 179
+
+Ability, unusual, 206
+
+Adaptation of vision, 41
+
+After-images, visual, 40
+
+Ancestors, 22 f.
+
+Anger, 58
+
+Appearance of instincts, 54
+
+Applied psychology, 8-9, 210 ff.
+
+Association of ideas, 152
+
+Astigmatism, 44
+
+Attention, 80 ff.;
+  and will, 82.
+
+Attitude, 157
+
+
+Behavior, 7
+
+Bodily conditions, 76
+
+Brain, 7
+
+Brightness, sensation of, 38
+
+Business, 215
+
+
+Causality, 18, 21
+
+Centrally initiated action, 51
+
+Child, nature of, 11
+
+Cold, sense of, 42
+
+Collecting instinct, 62
+
+College, function of, 217
+
+Color blindness, 45
+
+Color mixture, 39
+
+Color, sensation of, 38
+
+Completion test, 198
+
+Concentrated practice, 102
+
+Consciousness, 7
+
+Conservatism, 109
+
+Costly Temper test, 186
+
+Cramming, 141
+
+Criminal, the, 213 f.
+
+Curriculum, 145
+
+
+Darwin, 89
+
+Defects of sense organs, 43
+
+Development, individual, 24 ff.;
+  racial, 18-21;
+  significance of and causality, 21-24
+
+Direct method, 112
+
+Dizziness, organs that give us sense of, 42
+
+Dramatization, 67
+
+Drill in school subjects, 110-112
+
+Dynamic, world as, 20
+
+
+Economical practice, 101 ff.
+
+Education, 210;
+  aim of, 10;
+  preparatory, 167;
+  science of, 9 ff.
+
+Educational inferences, 143
+
+Educational psychology, 9 ff.
+
+Efficiency, 98, 108
+
+Emotions, 74 ff.
+
+Environment, 31
+
+Environmental instincts, 61
+
+Envy, 58
+
+Evolution, 19 ff.
+
+Exceptions, 101, 114
+
+Excursions, 61
+
+Experience, 8;
+  organization of, 169
+
+Experiment, 13 ff.
+
+Eye, the, 37
+
+Eye defects, 43 ff.
+
+Eyestrain, 20
+
+
+Farsightedness, 44
+
+Fatigue, 101
+
+Fear, 56
+
+Feeble-mindedness, 29
+
+Feeling, 73 ff.
+
+Fighting instincts, 58
+
+Formal drill, III, 112
+
+Free association frequency surface, 178
+
+Free association test, 193
+
+Frequency of experience, 156
+
+
+Gang instinct, 60
+
+Genetic view of childhood, 24
+
+Genius, 31
+
+
+Habit, 87 ff.;
+  and nerve path, 91;
+  how formed, 98 ff.;
+  importance in life, 107;
+  intellectual, 89;
+  moral, 90;
+  of thought, 169;
+  results of, 94;
+  specific, 116
+
+Hearing, 41;
+  defects of, 45
+
+Heredity, 24 ff.
+
+Heredity _vs._ Environment, 31
+
+Heritage, social, 23
+
+High school and fourth grade abilities compared, 203
+
+High school, function of, 217
+
+Home and moral training, 118
+
+
+Idea, 52
+
+Ideas, 124
+
+Imitation, 64 ff.
+
+Imitation in ideals, 67
+
+Incidental drill, 111
+
+Individual development, 24 ff.
+
+Individual differences, 176 ff.
+
+Individualistic instincts, 56
+
+Industry, 216
+
+Influencing men, 215
+
+Inheritance, 22
+
+Inherited tendencies, 50 ff.
+
+Initiative, 113
+
+Instincts, 52 ff.;
+  classification of, 55;
+  significance of, 55
+
+Interest, 84
+
+Intervals between practice, 102
+
+
+Jealousy, 58
+
+Joints, sense organs in, 42
+
+Jost's law, 142
+
+
+Language and thinking, 170 ff.
+
+Language study, 144
+
+Latin, 116
+
+Law, service of psychology to, 212
+
+Learning and remembering, 138
+
+Learning by wholes, 141
+
+Life occupations, 205
+
+Logical memory, 184 ff.
+
+
+Meaning, 163 ff.
+
+Medicine, 211
+
+Memories, kinds of, 132
+
+Memory, 124 ff.;
+  and age and sex, 127;
+  and habit, 146;
+  and school standing, 135;
+  and thinking, 134;
+  factors of, 128 ff.;
+  good, dangers resulting from, 137;
+  kinds of, 132
+
+Mendelian principle, 26
+
+Mental development, 19
+
+Mental differences, 178;
+  detection of, 180;
+  importance of, 201 ff.
+
+Mental functions developed, 182
+
+Mental set, 157
+
+Mental tests, 183 ff.
+
+Mind and body, 34 ff.
+
+Mood, 78
+
+Moral training, 117 ff.
+
+Motive, 77
+
+Muscular speed, 14
+
+Museum, school, 62 ff.
+
+Musical ability, 179
+
+
+Nearsightedness, 44
+
+Needs of child, 77
+
+Nerve tendency, 92
+
+Norms in mental tests, 184 ff.
+
+
+Occupations, 205
+
+Opposites test, 195 ff.
+
+Organization of experience, 163 ff.
+
+
+Pain sense, 42
+
+Parents, and habit-formation of children, 104 ff., 119
+
+Perception, 124
+
+Physiological basis of memory, 126
+
+Piano playing, 51, 97
+
+Pitch, 41
+
+Plasticity, 93
+
+Play, 68
+
+Pleasure and habit, 101
+
+Pleasure, higher forms of, 80
+
+Practice, 99, 113
+
+Primary experience, 154
+
+Psychology and culture, 218
+
+Psychology defined, 5;
+  method of, 13;
+  problems of, 8
+
+
+Race, development of, 18 ff.;
+  improvement of, 30
+
+Ranking students, 15
+
+Reasoning, 159; training in, 168
+
+Recalling forgotten names, 146
+
+Recency of experience, 155
+
+Regeneration, 23
+
+Repetition, 99
+
+Respect for authority, 77
+
+Resemblance, 25
+
+Retina, the, 37 f.
+
+Revived experience, 125
+
+Rigidity, 108
+
+Rote memory, 189
+
+Rules for habit-formation, 113
+
+
+Salesmanship, 215
+
+School, and habit, 108;
+  and moral training, 119 f.
+
+Schoolhouse, community center, 60 f.
+
+Science, 1
+
+Scientific law, 3
+
+Scientist, 1 ff.
+
+Securing efficiency, 218
+
+Selecting habits, 109
+
+Sense organs, affects of stimulating, 6, 7;
+  knowledge through, 35
+
+Sleight's experiment, 140
+
+Smell, 42
+
+Social life of children, 60
+
+Social tendencies, 59
+
+Stimulation, 6
+
+Stimulus and response, 50
+
+Study, learning how to, 132
+
+Subnormal children, 206
+
+Substitution test, 192
+
+
+Taste, 42
+
+Teacher, function of in memory work, 142;
+  function of in habit-formation, 103
+
+Teaching too abstract, 129
+
+Temperament, 78
+
+Tendons, sense organs in, 42
+
+Thinking, 152 ff., 159
+
+Touch, 42
+
+Transfer of training, 114 ff., 140
+
+Truancies, 61
+
+Typewriting, 51, 94 ff.
+
+
+Vision, 37; importance of, 45
+
+Visual contrast, 39
+
+Vividness and intensity of experience, 156
+
+
+Wandering, 61
+
+Warmth, sense of, 42
+
+Weight, diagram showing frequency surface of, 177
+
+Word-building test, 197
+
+Work and psychology, 218
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle
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+*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #18477 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18477)