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diff --git a/18477.txt b/18477.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f0407c --- /dev/null +++ b/18477.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7739 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Science of Human Nature + A Psychology for Beginners + +Author: William Henry Pyle + +Release Date: May 31, 2006 [EBook #18477] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | + | Transcriber's Note | + | | + | Nine printer errors have been corrected, all of them wrong or | + | missing full-stops or commas. Also, in the completion tests which | + | start at line 5972, the words to be omitted, which were italicised | + | in the original, have instead been surrounded by curly brackets | + | to aid readability. In all other cases, italics are denoted by | + | underscores and bold by equals signs. | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + Teacher Training Series + EDITED BY + W. W. CHARTERS + _Professor of Education, Carnegie Institute of Technology_ + + + + THE SCIENCE OF + + HUMAN NATURE + + + + _A PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS_ + + + BY + + WILLIAM HENRY PYLE + + PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY + + UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI + + + SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY + BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1917, + + BY SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY. + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + + +This book is written for young students in high schools and normal +schools. No knowledge can be of more use to a young person than a +knowledge of himself; no study can be more valuable to him than a study +of himself. A study of the laws of human behavior,--that is the purpose +of this book. + +What is human nature like? Why do we act as we do? How can we make +ourselves different? How can we make others different? How can we make +ourselves more efficient? How can we make our lives more worth while? +This book is a manual intended to help young people to obtain such +knowledge of human nature as will enable them to answer these questions. + +I have not attempted to write a complete text on psychology. There are +already many such books, and good ones too. I have selected for +treatment only such topics as young students can study with interest and +profit. I have tried to keep in mind all the time the practical worth of +the matters discussed, and the ability and experience of the intended +readers. + + +TO THE TEACHER + +This book can be only a guide to you. You are to help your students +study human nature. You must, to some extent, be a psychologist yourself +before you can teach psychology. You must yourself be a close and +scientific student of human nature. Develop in the students the spirit +of inquiry and investigation. Teach them to look to their own minds and +their neighbor's actions for verification of the statements of the text. +Let the students solve by observation and experiment the questions and +problems raised in the text and the exercises. The exercises should +prove to be the most valuable part of the book. The first two chapters +are the most difficult but ought to be read before the rest of the book +is studied. If you think best, merely read these two chapters with the +pupils, and after the book is finished come back to them for careful +study. + +In the references, I have given parallel readings, for the most part to +Titchener, Pillsbury, and Muensterberg. I have purposely limited the +references, partly because a library will not be available to many who +may use the book, and partly because the young student is likely to be +confused by much reading from different sources before he has worked out +some sort of system and a point of view of his own. Only the most +capable members of a high school class will be able to profit much from +the references given. + + +TO THE STUDENT + +You are beginning the study of human nature. You can not study human +nature from a book, you must study yourself and your neighbors. This +book may help you to know what to look for and to understand what you +find, but it can do little more than this. It is true, this text gives +you many facts learned by psychologists, but you must verify the +statements, or at least see their significance to _you_, or they will +be of no worth to you. However, the facts considered here, properly +understood and assimilated, ought to prove of great value to you. But +perhaps of greater value will be the psychological frame of mind or +attitude which you should acquire. The psychological attitude is that of +seeking to find and understand the _causes of human action, and the +causes, consequences, and significance of the processes of the human +mind_. If your first course in psychology teaches you to look for these +things, gives you some skill in finding them and in using the knowledge +after you have it, your study should be quite worth while. + +W. H. PYLE. + + + + +EDITOR'S PREFACE + + +There are at least two possible approaches to the study of psychology by +teacher-training students in high schools and by beginning students in +normal schools. + +One of these is through methods of teaching and subject matter. The +other aims to give the simple, concrete facts of psychology as the +science of the mind. The former presupposes a close relationship between +psychology and methods of teaching and assumes that psychology is +studied chiefly as an aid to teaching. The latter is less complicated. +The plan contemplates the teaching of the simple fundamentals at first +and applying them incidentally as the occasion demands. This latter +point of view is in the main the point of view taken in the text. + +The author has taught the material of the text to high school students +to the end that he might present the fundamental facts of psychology in +simple form. + +W. W. C. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 + + CHAPTER II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL 18 + + CHAPTER III. MIND AND BODY 34 + + CHAPTER IV. INHERITED TENDENCIES 50 + + CHAPTER V. FEELING AND ATTENTION 73 + + CHAPTER VI. HABIT 87 + + CHAPTER VII. MEMORY 124 + + CHAPTER VIII. THINKING 152 + + CHAPTER IX. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 176 + + CHAPTER X. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY 210 + + GLOSSARY 223 + + INDEX 227 + + + + +THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION + + +=Science.= Before attempting to define psychology, it will be helpful to +make some inquiry into the nature of science in general. Science is +knowledge; it is what we know. But mere knowledge is not science. For a +bit of knowledge to become a part of science, its relation to other bits +of knowledge must be found. In botany, for example, bits of knowledge +about plants do not make a science of botany. To have a science of +botany, we must not only know about leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, etc., +but we must know the relations of these parts and of all the parts of a +plant to one another. In other words, in science, we must not only +_know_, we must not only have _knowledge_, but we must know the +significance of the knowledge, must know its _meaning_. This is only +another way of saying that we must have knowledge and know its relation +to other knowledge. + +A scientist is one who has learned to organize his knowledge. The main +difference between a scientist and one who is not a scientist is that +the scientist sees the significance of facts, while the non-scientific +man sees facts as more or less unrelated things. As one comes to hunt +for causes and inquire into the significance of things, one becomes a +scientist. A thing or an event always points beyond itself to something +else. This something else is what goes before it or comes after it,--is +its cause or its effect. This causal relationship that exists between +events enables a scientist to prophesy. By carefully determining what +always precedes a certain event, a certain type of happening, a +scientist is able to predict the event. All that is necessary to be able +to predict an event is to have a clear knowledge of its true causes. +Whenever, beyond any doubt, these causes are found to be present, the +scientist knows the event will follow. Of course, all that he really +_knows_ is that such results have always followed similar causes in the +past. But he has come to have faith in the uniformity and regularity of +nature. The chemist does not find sulphur, or oxygen, or any other +element acting one way one day under a certain set of conditions, and +acting another way the next day under exactly the same conditions. Nor +does the physicist find the laws of mechanics holding good one day and +not the next. + +The scientist, therefore, in his thinking brings order out of chaos in +the world. If we do not know the causes and relations of things and +events, the world seems a very mixed-up, chaotic place, where anything +and everything is happening. But as we come to know causes and +relations, the world turns out to be a very orderly and systematic +place. It is a lawful world; it is not a world of chance. Everything is +related to everything else. + +Now, the non-scientific mind sees things as more or less unrelated. The +far-reaching causal relations are only imperfectly seen by it, while +the scientific mind not only sees things, but inquires into their causes +and effects or consequences. The non-scientific man, walking over the +top of a mountain and noticing a stone there, is likely to see in it +only a stone and think nothing of how it came to be there; but the +scientific man sees quite an interesting bit of history in the stone. He +reads in the stone that millions of years ago the place where the rock +now lies was under the sea. Many marine animals left their remains in +the mud underneath the sea. The mud was afterward converted into rock. +Later, the shrinking and warping earth-crust lifted the rock far above +the level of the sea, and it may now be found at the top of the +mountain. The one bit of rock tells its story to one who inquires into +its causes. The scientific man, then, sees more significance, more +meaning, in things and events than does the non-scientific man. + +Each science has its own particular field. Zooelogy undertakes to answer +every reasonable question about animals; botany, about plants; physics, +about motion and forces; chemistry, about the composition of matter; +astronomy, about the heavenly bodies, etc. The world has many aspects. +Each science undertakes to describe and explain some particular aspect. +To understand all the aspects of the world, we must study all the +sciences. + +=A Scientific Law.= By _law_ a scientist has reference to uniformities +which he notices in things and events. He does not mean that necessities +are imposed upon things as civil law is imposed upon man. He means only +that in certain well-defined situations certain events always take +place, according to all previous observations. The Law of Falling Bodies +may be cited as an example. By this law, the physicist means that in +observing falling bodies in the past, he has noticed that they fall +about sixteen feet in the first second and acquire in this time a +velocity of thirty-two feet. He has noted that, taking into account the +specific gravity of the object and the resistance of the air, this way +of falling holds true of all objects at about the level of the sea. + +The more we carefully study the events of the world, the more strongly +we come to feel that definite causes, under the same circumstances, +always produce precisely the same result. The scientist has faith that +events will continue to happen during all the future in the same order +of cause and effect in which they have been happening during all the +past. + +The astronomer, knowing the relations of the members of the solar +system--the sun and planets--can successfully predict the occurrence of +lunar and solar eclipses. In other fields, too, the scientist can +predict with as much certainty as does the astronomer, provided his +knowledge of the factors concerned is as complete as is the knowledge +which the astronomer has of the solar system. Even in the case of human +beings, uncertain as their actions seem to be, we can predict their +actions when our knowledge of the factors is sufficiently complete. In a +great many instances we do make such predictions. For example, if we +call a person by name, we expect him to turn, or make some other +movement in response. Our usual inability to make such predictions in +the case of human beings is not because human beings are not subject to +the law of cause and effect, it is not that their acts are due to +chance, but that the factors involved are usually many, and it is +difficult for us to find out all of them. + +=The Science of Psychology.= Now, let us ask, what is the science of +psychology? What kind of problems does it try to solve? What aspect of +the world has it taken for its field of investigation? + +We have said that each science undertakes to describe some particular +aspect of the world. Human psychology is the science of human nature. +But human nature has many aspects. To some extent, our bodies are the +subject matter for physiology, anatomy, zooelogy, physics, and chemistry. +Our bodies may be studied in the same way that a rock or a table might +be studied. But a human being presents certain problems that a rock or +table does not present. If we consider the differences between a human +being and a table, we shall see at once the special field of psychology. +If we stick a pin into a leg of the table, we get no response. If we +stick a pin into a leg of a man, we get a characteristic response. The +man moves, he cries out. This shows two very great differences between a +man and a table. The man is _sensitive_ and has the power of action, the +power of _moving himself_. The table is not sensitive, nor can it move +itself. If the pin is thrust into one's own leg, one has _pain_. Human +beings, then, are sensitive, conscious, acting beings. And the study of +sensitivity, action, and consciousness is the field of psychology. These +three characteristics are not peculiar to man. Many, perhaps all, +animals possess them. There is, therefore, an animal psychology as well +as human psychology. + +A study of the human body shows us that the body-surface and many parts +within the body are filled with sensitive nerve-ends. These sensitive +nerve-ends are the sense organs, and on them the substances and forces +of the world are constantly acting. In the sense organs, the nerve-ends +are so modified or changed as to be affected by some particular kind of +force or substance. Vibrations of ether affect the eye. Vibrations of +air affect the ear. Liquids and solutions affect the sense of taste. +Certain substances affect the sense of smell. Certain organs in the skin +are affected by low temperatures; others, by high temperatures; others, +by mechanical pressure. Similarly, each sense organ in the body is +affected by a definite kind of force or substance. + +This affecting of a sense organ is known technically as _stimulation_, +and that which affects the organ is known as the _stimulus_. + +Two important consequences ordinarily follow the stimulation of a sense +organ. One of these is movement. The purpose of stimulation is to bring +about movement. To be alive is to respond to stimulation. When one +ceases to respond to stimulation, he is dead. If we are to continue +alive, we must constantly adjust ourselves to the forces of the world in +which we live. Generally speaking, we may say that every nerve has one +end in a sense organ and the other in a muscle. This arrangement of the +nerves and muscles shows that man is essentially a sensitive-action +machine. The problems connected with sensitivity and action and the +relation of each to the other constitute a large part of the field of +psychology. + +We said just now, that a nerve begins in a sense organ and ends in a +muscle. This statement represents the general scheme well enough, but +leaves out an important detail. The nerve does not extend directly to a +muscle, but ordinarily goes by way of the brain. The brain is merely a +great group of nerve cells and fibers which have developed as a central +organ where a stimulation may pass from almost any sense organ to +almost any muscle. + +But another importance attaches to the brain. When a sense organ is +stimulated and this stimulation passes on to the brain and agitates a +cell or group of cells there, _we are conscious_. Consciousness shifts +and changes with every shift and change of the stimulation. + +The brain has still another important characteristic. After it has been +stimulated through sense organ and nerve, a similar brain activity can +be revived later, and this revival is the basis of _memory_. When the +brain is agitated through the medium of a sense organ, we have +_sensation_; when this agitation is revived later, we have a _memory +idea_. A study of consciousness, or mind, the conditions under which it +arises, and all the other problems involved, give us the other part of +the field of psychology. + +We are not merely acting beings; we are _conscious_ acting beings. +Psychology must study human nature from both points of view. We must +study man not only from the outside; that is, objectively, in the same +way that we study a stone or a tree or a frog, but we must study him +from the inside or subjectively. It is of importance to know not only +how a man _acts_, but also how he _thinks and feels_. + +It must be clear now, that human action, human behavior, is the main +field of psychology. For, even though our main interests in people were +in their minds, we could learn of the minds only through the actions. +But our interests in other human beings are not in their minds but in +_what they do_. It is true that our interest in ourselves is in our +minds, and we can know these minds directly; but we cannot know +directly the mind of another person, we can only guess what it is from +the person's actions. + +=The Problems of Psychology.= Let us now see, in some detail, what the +various problems of psychology are. If we are to understand human +nature, we must know something of man's past; we must therefore treat of +the origin and development of the human race. The relation of one +generation to that preceding and to the one following makes necessary a +study of heredity. We must find out how our thoughts, feelings, +sensations, and ideas are dependent upon a physical body and its organs. +A study of human actions shows that some actions are unlearned while +others are learned or acquired. The unlearned acts are known as +_instincts_ and the acquired acts are known as _habits_. Our psychology +must, therefore, treat of instincts and habits. + +How man gets experience, and retains and organizes this experience must +be our problem in the chapters on sensations, ideas, memory, and +thinking. Individual differences in human capacity make necessary a +treatment of the different types and grades of intelligence, and the +compilation of tests for determining these differences. We must also +treat of the application of psychology to those fields where a knowledge +of human nature is necessary. + +=Applied Psychology.= At the beginning of a subject it is legitimate to +inquire concerning the possibility of applying the principles studied to +practical uses, and it is very proper to make this inquiry concerning +psychology. Psychology, being the science of human nature, ought to be +of use in all fields where one needs to know the causes of human action. +And psychology is applicable in these fields to the extent that the +psychologist is able to work out the laws and principles of human +action. + +In education, for example, we wish to influence children, and we must go +to psychology to learn about the nature of children and to find out how +we can influence them. Psychology is therefore the basis of the science +of education. + +Since different kinds of work demand, in some cases, different kinds of +ability, the psychology of individual differences can be of service in +selecting people for special kinds of work. That is to say, we must have +sometime, if we do not now, a psychology of professions and vocations. +Psychological investigations of the reliability of human evidence make +the science of service in the court room. The study of the laws of +attention and interest give us the psychology of advertising. The study +of suggestion and abnormal states make psychology of use in medicine. It +may be said, therefore, that psychology, once abstract and unrelated to +any practical interests, will become the most useful of all sciences, as +it works out its problems and finds the laws of human behavior. + +At present, the greatest service of psychology is to education. So true +is this that a department has grown up called "educational psychology," +which constitutes at the present time the most important subdivision of +psychology. While in this book we treat briefly of the various +applications of psychology, we shall have in mind chiefly its +application to education. + +=The Science of Education.= Owing to the importance which psychology has +in the science of education, it will be well for us to make some inquiry +into the nature of education. If the growth, development, and learning +of children are all controlled and determined by definite causal +factors, then a systematic statement of all these factors would +constitute the science of education. In order to see clearly whether +there is such a science, or whether there can be, let us inquire more +definitely as to the kind of problems a science of education would be +expected to solve. + +There are four main questions which the science of education must solve: +(1) What is the aim of education? (2) What is the nature of education? +(3) What is the nature of the child? (4) What are the most economical +methods of changing the child from what it is into what it ought to be? + +The first question is a sociological question, and it is not difficult +to find the answer. We have but to inquire what the people wish their +children to become. There is a pretty general agreement, at least in the +same community, that children should be trained in a way that will make +them socially efficient. Parents generally wish their children to become +honest, truthful, sympathetic, and industrious. It should be the aim of +education to accomplish this social ideal. It should be the aim of the +home and the school to subject children to such influences as will +enable them to make a living when grown and to do their proper share of +work for the community and state, working always for better things, and +having a sympathetic attitude toward neighbors. Education should also do +what it can to make people able to enjoy the world and life to the +fullest and highest extent. Some such aim of education as this is held +by all our people. + +The second question is also answered. Psychological analysis reveals the +fact that education is a process of becoming adjusted to the world. It +is the process of acquiring the habits, knowledge, and ideals suited to +the life we are to live. The child in being educated learns what the +world is and how to act in it--how to act in all the various situations +of life. + +The third question--concerning the nature of the child--cannot be so +briefly answered. In fact, it cannot be fully answered at the present +time. We must know what the child's original nature is. This means that +we must know the instincts and all the other inherited capacities and +tendencies. We must know the laws of building up habits and of acquiring +knowledge, the laws of retention and the laws of attention. These +problems constitute the subject matter of educational psychology, and at +present can be only partially solved. We have, however, a very +respectable body of knowledge in this field, though it is by no means +complete. + +The answer to the fourth question is in part dependent upon the progress +in answering the third. Economical methods of training children must be +dependent upon the nature of children. But in actual practice, we are +trying to find out the best procedure of doing each single thing in +school work; we are trying to find out by experimentation. The proper +way to teach children to read, to spell, to write, etc., must be +determined in each case by independent investigation, until our +knowledge of the child becomes sufficient for us to infer from general +laws of procedure what the procedure in a particular case should be. We +venture to infer what ought to be done in some cases, but generally we +feel insecure till we have proved our inference correct by trying out +different methods and measuring the results. + +Education will not be fully scientific till we have definite knowledge +to guide us at every step. What should we teach? When should we teach +it? How should we teach it? How poorly we answer these questions at the +present time! How inefficient and uneconomical our schools, because we +cannot fully answer them! But they are answerable. We can answer them in +part now, and we know how to find out the answer in full. It is just a +matter of patient and extensive investigation. We must say, then, that +we have only the beginnings of a science of education. The problems +which a science of education must solve are almost wholly psychological +problems. They could not be solved till we had a science of psychology. +Experimental psychology is but a half-century old; educational +psychology, less than a quarter-century old. In the field of education, +the science of psychology may expect to make its most important +practical contribution. Let us, then, consider very briefly the problems +of educational psychology. + +=Educational Psychology.= Educational psychology is that division of +psychology which undertakes to discover those aspects of human nature +most closely related to education. These are (1) the original nature of +the child--what it is and how it can be modified; (2) the problem of +acquiring and organizing experience--habit-formation, memory, thinking, +and the various factors related to these processes. There are many +subordinate problems, such as the problem of individual differences and +their bearing on the education of subnormal and supernormal children. +Educational psychology is not, then, merely the application of +psychology to education. It is a distinct science in itself, and its aim +is the solving of those educational problems which for their solution +depend upon a knowledge of the nature of the child. + +=The Method of Psychology.= We have enumerated the various problems of +psychology, now how are they solved? The method of psychology is the +same as that of all other sciences; namely, the method of observation +and experiment. We learn human nature by observing how human beings act +in all the various circumstances of life. We learn about the human mind +by observing our own mind. We learn that we _see_ under certain +objective conditions, _hear_ under certain objective conditions, +_taste_, _smell_, _feel cold_ and _warm_ under certain objective +conditions. In the case of ourselves, we can know both our _actions_ and +our _mind_. In the case of others, we can know only their _actions_, and +must infer their mental states from our own in similar circumstances. +With certain restrictions and precautions this inference is legitimate. + +We said the method of psychology is that of observation and experiment. +The experiment is observation still, but observation subjected to exact +methodical procedure. In a psychological experiment we set out to +provide the necessary conditions, eliminating some and supplying others +according to our object. The experiment has certain advantages. It +enables us to isolate the phenomena to be studied, it enables us to vary +the circumstances and conditions to suit our purposes, it enables us to +repeat the observation as often as we like, and it enables us to measure +exactly the factors of the phenomena studied. + +=A Psychological Experiment.= Let us illustrate psychological method by a +typical experiment. Suppose we wish to measure the individual +differences among the members of a class with respect to a certain +ability; namely, the muscular speed of the right hand. Psychological +laboratories have delicate apparatus for making such a study. But let +us see how we can do it, roughly at least, without any apparatus. Let +each member of the class take a sheet of paper and a pencil, and make as +many strokes as possible in a half-minute, as shown in Figure I. The +instructor can keep the time with a stop watch, or less accurately with +the second hand of an ordinary watch. Before beginning the experiment, +the instructor should have each student taking the test try it for a +second or two. This is to make sure that all understand what they are to +do. When the instructor is sure that all understand, he should have the +students hold their pencils in readiness above the paper, and at the +signal, "Begin," all should start at the same time and make as many +marks as possible in the half-minute. The strokes can then be counted +and the individual scores recorded. The experiment should be repeated +several times, say six or eight, and the average score for each +individual recorded. + +[Illustration: FIGURE I.--STROKES MADE IN THIRTY SECONDS +A test of muscular speed] + +Whether the result in such a performance as this varies from day to day, +and is accidental, or whether it is constant and fundamental, can be +determined by repeating the experiment from day to day. This repetition +will also show whether improvement comes from practice. + +If it is decided to repeat the experiment in order to study these +factors, constancy and the effects of practice, some method of studying +and interpreting the results must be found. Elaborate methods of doing +this are known to psychologists, but the beginner must use a simpler +method. When the experiment is performed for the first time, the +students can be ranked with reference to their abilities, the fastest +one being called "first," the second highest, "second," and so on down +to the slowest performer. Then after the experiment has been performed +the second time, the students can be again ranked. + +A rough comparison can then be made as follows: Determine how many who +were in the best half in the first experiment are among the best half in +the second experiment. If most who were among the best half the first +time are among the best half in the second experiment, constancy in this +performance is indicated. Or we might determine how many change their +ranks and how much they change. Suppose there are thirty in the class +and only four improve their ranks and these to the extent of only two +places each. This would indicate a high degree of constancy. Two +different performances can be compared as above described. The abilities +on successive days can be determined by taking the average rank of the +first day and comparing it with the average rank of the second day. + +If the effects of practice are to be studied, the experiments must be +kept up for many days, and each student's work on the first day compared +with his work on succeeding days. Then a graph can be plotted to show +the improvement from day to day. The average daily speed of the class +can be taken and a graph made to show the improvement of the class as a +whole. This might be plotted in black ink, then each individual student +could put on his improvement in red ink, for comparison. A group of +thirty may be considered as furnishing a fair average or norm in this +kind of performance. + +In connection with this simple performance, making marks as fast as +possible, it is evident that many problems arise. It would take several +months to solve anything like all of them. It might be interesting, for +example, to determine whether one's speed in writing is related to this +simple speed in marking. Each member of the class might submit a plan +for making such a study. + +The foregoing simple study illustrates the procedure of psychology in +all experimentation. A psychological experiment is an attempt to find +out the truth in regard to some aspect of human nature. In finding out +this truth, we must throw about the experiment all possible safeguards. +Every source of error must be discovered and eliminated. In the above +experiment, for example, the work must be done at the same time of day, +or else we must prove that doing it at different times of day makes no +difference. Nothing must be taken for granted, and nothing must be +assumed. Psychology, then, is like all the other sciences, in that its +method of getting its facts is by observation and experiment. + + SUMMARY. Science is systematic, related knowledge. Each science has + a particular field which it attempts to explore and describe. The + field of psychology is the study of sensitivity, action, and + consciousness, or briefly, human behavior. Its main problems are + development, heredity, instincts, habits, sensation, memory, + thinking, and individual differences. Its method is observation and + experiment, the same as in all other sciences. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Make out a list of things about human nature which you would like to +know. Paste your list in the front of this book, and as you find your +questions answered in this book, or in other books which you may read, +check them off. At the end of the course, note how many remain +unanswered. Find out whether those not answered can be answered at the +present time. + +2. Does everything you do have a cause? What kind of cause? + +3. Human nature is shown in human action. Human action consists in +muscular contraction. What makes a muscle contract? + +4. Plan an experiment the object of which shall be to learn something +about yourself. + +5. Enumerate the professions and occupations in which a knowledge of +some aspect of human nature would be valuable. State in what way it +would be valuable. + +6. Make a list of facts concerning a child, which a teacher ought to +know. + +7. Make a complete outline of Chapter I. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters I, II, and V. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter I. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter I. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE AND OF THE INDIVIDUAL + + +=Racial Development.= The purpose of this chapter is to make some inquiry +concerning the origin of the race and of the individual. In doing this, +it is necessary for us first of all to fix in our minds the idea of +causality. According to the view of all modern science, everything has a +cause. Nothing is uncaused. One event is the result of other previous +events, and is in turn the cause of other events that follow. Yesterday +flowed into to-day, and to-day flows into to-morrow. The world as it +exists to-day is the result of the world as it existed yesterday. This +is true not only of the inorganic world--the world of physics and +chemistry--but it is true of living things as well. The animals and +plants that exist to-day are the descendants of others that lived +before. There is probably an unbroken line of descent from the first +life that existed on the earth to the living forms of to-day. + +Not only does the law of causality hold true in the case of our bodies, +but of our minds as well. Our minds have doubtless developed from +simpler minds just as our bodies have developed from simpler bodies. +That different grades and types of minds are to be found among the +various classes of animals now upon the earth, no one can doubt, for the +different forms certainly show different degrees of mentality. +According to the evidence of those scientists who have studied the +remains of animals found in the earth's crust, there is a gradual +development of animal forms shown in successive epochs. In the very +oldest parts of the earth's crust, the remains of animal life found are +very simple. In later formations, the remains show an animal life more +complex. The highest forms of animals, the mammals, are found only in +the more recent formations. The remains of man are found only in the +latest formations. + +Putting these two facts together--(1) that the higher types of mind are +found to-day only in the higher types of animals, and (2) that a gradual +development of animal forms is shown by the remains in the earth's +crust--the conclusion is forced upon us that mind has passed through +many stages of development from the appearance of life upon the earth to +the present time. Among the lower forms of animals to-day one sees +evidence of very simple minds. In amoebas, worms, insects, and fishes, +mind is very simple. In birds, it is higher. In mammals, it is higher +still. Among the highest mammals below man, we see manifestations of +mind somewhat like our own. These grades of mentality shown in the +animals of to-day represent the steps in the development of mind in the +animals of the past. + +We cannot here go into the proof of the doctrine of development. For +this proof, the reader must be referred to zooelogy. One further point, +however, may be noted. If it is difficult for the reader to conceive of +the development of mind on the earth similar to the development of +animals in the past, let him think of the development of mind in the +individual. There can certainly be no doubt of the development of mind +in an individual human being. The infant, when born, shows little +manifestation of mentality; but as its body grows, its mind develops, +becoming more and more complex as the individual grows to maturity. + +=The World as Dynamic.= The view of the world outlined above, and held by +all scientific men of the present time, may be termed the _dynamic_ +view. Man formerly looked upon the world as static, a world where +everything was fixed and final. Each thing existed in itself and for +itself, and in large measure independent of all other things. We now +look upon things and events as related and dependent. Each thing is +dependent upon others, related to others. + +Man not only _lives in_ such a world, but is _part of_ such a world. In +this world of constant and ceaseless change, man is most sensitive and +responsive. Everything may affect him. To all of the constant changes +about him he must adjust himself. He has been produced by this world, +and to live in it he must meet its every condition and change. We must, +then, look upon human nature as something coming out of the past and as +being influenced every moment by the things and forces of the present. +Man is not an independent being, unaffected by everything that happens; +on the contrary, he is affected by all influences that act upon him. +Among these influences may be mentioned weather, climate, food, and +social forces. + +The condition of the various organs of a child's body determine, to some +extent, the effect which these various forces have upon it. If a child's +eyes are in any way defective, making vision poor, this tremendously +influences his life. Not only is such a child unable to see the world as +it really is, but the eyestrain resulting from poor vision has serious +effects on the child, producing all sorts of disorders. If a child +cannot hear well or is entirely deaf, many serious consequences follow. +In fact, every condition or characteristic of a child that is in any way +abnormal may lead on to other conditions and characteristics, often of a +serious nature. The growth of adenoids, for example, may lead to a +serious impairment of the mind. Poor vision may affect the whole life +and character of the individual. The influence of a parent, teacher, or +friend may determine the interest of a child and affect his whole life. +The correct view of child life is that the child is affected, in greater +or less degree, by every influence which acts upon him. + +=Significance of Development and Causality.= What are the consequences of +the view just set forth? What is the significance of the facts that have +been enumerated? It is of great consequence to our thinking when we come +to recognize fully the idea of causality. We then fully accept the fact +that man's body and mind are part of a causal and orderly world. + +Let us consider, for example, the movement of a muscle. Every such +movement must be caused. The physiologist has discovered what this cause +is. Ordinarily and normally, a muscle contracts only when stimulated by +a nerve current. Tiny nerve fibrils penetrate every muscle, ending in +the muscle fibers. The nerve-impulse passing into the fibers of the +muscles causes them to contract. The nerve stimulus itself has a cause; +it ordinarily arises directly or indirectly from the stimulation of a +sense organ. And the sense organs are stimulated by outside influences, +as was explained previously. + +Not only are our movements caused, but our sensations, our ideas, and +our feelings follow upon or are dependent upon some definite bodily +state or condition. The moment that we recognize this we see that our +sensations, ideas, and feelings are subject to control. It is only +because our minds are in a world of causality, and subject to its laws, +that education is possible. We can bring causes to bear upon a child and +change the child. It is possible to build up ideas, ideals, and habits. +And ideas, ideals, and habits constitute the man. Training is possible +only because a child is a being that can be influenced. What any child +will be when grown depends upon what kind of child it was at the +beginning and upon the influences that affect it during its early life +while it is growing into maturity. We need have no doubt about the +outcome of any particular child if we know, with some degree of +completeness, the two sets of factors that determine his life--his +inheritance and the forces that affect this inheritance. We can predict +the future of a child to the extent that we know and understand the +forces that will be effective in his life. + +The notion of causality puts new meaning into our view of the _training_ +of a child. The doctrine of development puts new meaning into our notion +of the _nature_ of a child. We can understand man only when we view him +genetically, that is, in the light of his origin. We can understand a +child only in the light of what his ancestors have been. + +As these lines are being written, the greatest, the bloodiest war of +history is in progress. Men are killing men by thousands and hundreds of +thousands. How can we explain such actions? Observation of children +shows that they are selfish, envious, and quarrelsome. They will fight +and steal until they are taught not to do such things. How can we +understand this? There is no way of understanding such actions until we +come to see that the children and men of to-day are such as they are +because of their ancestors. It has been only a few generations, +relatively speaking, since our ancestors were naked savages, killing +their enemies and eating their enemies' bodies. The civilized life of +our ancestors covers a period of only a few hundred years. The +pre-civilized life of our ancestors goes back probably thousands and +thousands of years. In the relatively short period of civilization, our +real, original nature has been little changed, perhaps none at all. The +modern man is, at heart, the same old man of the woods. + +The improvements of civilization form what is called a social heritage, +which must be impressed upon the original nature of each individual in +order to have any effect. Every child has to learn to speak, to write, +to dress, to eat with knife and fork; he must learn the various social +customs, and to act morally as older people dictate. The child is by +nature bad, in the sense that the nature which he inherits from the past +fits him better for the original kind of life which man used to live +than it does for the kind of life which we are trying to live now. This +view makes us see that training a child is, in a very true sense, +_making him over again_. The child must be trained to subdue and control +his original impulses. Habits and ideals that will be suitable for life +in civilized society _must be built up_. The doctrine of the Bible in +regard to the original nature of man being sinful, and the necessity of +regeneration, is fundamentally correct. But this regeneration is not so +much a sudden process as it is the result of long and patient +building-up of habits and ideals. + +One should not despair of this view of child-life. Neither should one +use it as an excuse for being bad, or for neglecting the training of +children. On the contrary, taking the genetic view of childhood should +give us certain advantages. It makes us see more clearly the _necessity_ +of training. Every child must be trained, or he will remain very much a +savage. In the absence of training, all children are much alike, and all +alike bad from our present point of view. The chief differences in +children in politeness and manners generally, in morals, in industry, +etc., are due, in the main, to differences in training. It is a great +help merely to know how difficult the task of training is, and that +training there must be if we are to have a civilized child. We must take +thought and plan for the education and training of our children. The +task of education is in part one of changing human nature. This is no +light task. It is one that requires, in the case of each child, some +twenty years of hard, patient, persistent work. + +=Individual Development.= Heredity is a corollary of evolution. Individual +development is intimately related to racial development. Indeed, racial +development would be impossible without heredity in the individual. The +individual must carry on and transmit what the race hands down to him. +This will be evident when we explain what heredity means. + +By heredity we mean the likeness between parent and offspring. This +likeness is a matter of form and structure as well as likeness of action +or response. Animals and plants are like the parents in form and +structure, and to a certain extent their responses are alike when the +individuals are placed in the same situation. A robin is like the parent +robins in size, shape, and color. It also hops like the parent birds, +sings as they do, feeds as they do, builds a similar nest, etc. But the +likeness in action is dependent upon likeness in structure. The young +robin acts as does the old robin, because the nervous mechanism is the +same, and therefore a similar stimulus brings about a similar response. + +Most of the scientific work in heredity has been done in the study of +the transmission of physical characteristics. The main facts of heredity +are evident to everybody, but not many people realize how far-reaching +is the principle of resemblance between parent and offspring. From +horses we raise horses. From cows we raise cows. The children of human +beings are human. Not only is this true, but the offspring of horses are +of the same stock as the parents. Not only are the colts of the same +stock as the parents, but they resemble the parents in small details. +This is also true of human beings. We expect a child to be not only of +the same race as the parents, but to have family resemblances to the +parents--the same color of hair, the same shape of head, the same kind +of nose, the same color of eyes, and to have such resemblances as moles +in the same places on the skin, etc. A very little investigation reveals +likenesses between parent and offspring which we may not have expected +before. + +However, if we start out to hunt for facts of heredity, we shall perhaps +be as much impressed by differences between parent and child as we shall +by the resemblances. In the first place, every child has two parents, +and it is often impossible to resemble both. One cannot, for example, be +both short and tall; one cannot be both fair and dark; one cannot be +both slender and heavy; one cannot have both brown eyes and blue. In +some cases, the child resembles one parent and not the other. In other +cases, the child looks somewhat like both parents but not exactly like +either. If one parent is white and the other black, the child is +neither as white as the one parent nor as black as the other. + +The parents of a child are themselves different, but there are four +grandparents, and each of them different from the others. There are +eight great grandparents, and all of them different. If we go back only +seven generations, covering a period of perhaps only a hundred and fifty +years, we have one hundred and twenty-eight ancestors. If we go back ten +generations, we have over a thousand ancestors in our line of descent. +Each of these people was, in some measure, different from the others. +Our inheritance comes from all of them and from each of them. + +How do all of these diverse characteristics work out in the child? In +the first place, it seems evident that we do not inherit our bodies as +wholes, but in parts or units. We may think of the human race as a whole +being made up of a great number of unit characters. No one person +possesses all of them. Every person is lacking in some of them. His +neighbor may be lacking in quite different ones. Now one parent +transmits to the child a certain combination of unit characters; the +other parent, a different combination. These characteristics may not all +appear in the child, but all are transmitted through it to the next +generation, and they are transmitted purely. By being transmitted +purely, we mean that the characteristic does not seem to lose its +identity and disappear in fusions or mixtures. The essential point in +this doctrine of heredity is known as Mendelism; it is the principle of +inheritance through the pure transmission of unit characters. + +An illustration will probably make the Mendelian principle clear. Let us +select our illustration from the plant world. It is found that if white +and yellow corn are crossed, all the corn the first year, resulting from +this crossing, will be yellow. Now, if this hybrid yellow corn is +planted the second year, and freely cross-fertilized, it turns out that +one fourth of it will be white and three fourths yellow. But this yellow +consists of three parts: one part being pure yellow which will breed +true, producing nothing but yellow; the other two parts transmit white +and yellow in equal ratio. That is to say, these two parts are hybrids, +the result of crossing white with yellow. It is not meant that one can +actually distinguish these two kinds of yellow, the pure yellow and the +hybrid yellow, but the results from planting it show that one third of +the yellow is pure and that the other two thirds transmit white and +yellow in equal ratio. + +The main point to notice in all this is that when two individuals having +diverse characteristics are crossed, the characteristics do not fuse and +disappear ultimately, but that the two characteristics are transmitted +in equal ratio, and each will appear in succeeding generations, and will +appear pure, just as if it had not been crossed with something +different. The first offspring resulting from the cross--known as +hybrids--may show either one or the other of the diverse +characteristics, or, when such a thing is possible, even a blending of +the two characteristics. But whatever the actual appearance of the first +generation of offspring resulting from crossing parents having diverse +characteristics, their germ-cells transmit the diverse characteristics +in equal proportion, as explained above. + +When one of the diverse characteristics appears in the first generation +of offspring and the other does not appear, or is not apparent, the one +that appears is said to be _dominant_, while the one not appearing is +said to be _recessive_. In our example of the yellow and white corn, +yellow is dominant and white recessive. And it must be remembered that +the white corn that appears in the second generation will breed true +just as if it had never been crossed with the yellow corn. One third of +the yellow of the second generation would also breed true if it could be +separated from the other two thirds. + +It is not here claimed that Mendelism is a universal principle, that all +characteristics are transmitted in this way. However, the results of the +numerous experiments in heredity lead one to expect this to be the case. +Most of the experiments have been with lower animals and with plants, +but recent experiments and statistical studies show that Mendelism is an +important factor in human heredity, in such characteristics as color of +hair and eyes and skin, partial color blindness, defects of eye, ear, +and other important organs. + +The studies that have been made of human heredity have been, for the +most part, studies of the transmission of physical characteristics. Very +little has been done that bears directly upon the transmission of mental +characteristics. But our knowledge of the dependence of mind upon body +should prepare us to infer mental heredity from physical heredity. Such +studies as throw light on the question bear us out in making such an +inference. + +The studies that have been more directly concerned with mental heredity +are those dealing with the resemblances of twins, studies of heredity in +royalty, studies of the inheritance of genius, and studies of the +transmission of mental defects and defects of sense organs. The results +of all these studies indicate the inheritance of mental characteristics +in the same way that physical characteristics are transmitted. Not only +are human mental characteristics transmitted from parent to offspring, +but they seem to be transmitted in Mendelian fashion. + +Feeble-mindedness, for example, seems to be a Mendelian character and +recessive. From the studies that have been made, it seems that two +congenitally feeble-minded parents will have only feeble-minded +children. Feeble-mindedness acts in heredity as does the white corn in +the example given above. If one parent only is feeble-minded, the other +being normal, all of the children will be normal, just as all of the +corn, in the first generation after the crossing, was yellow. But these +children whose parents are the one normal and the other feeble-minded, +while themselves normal, transmit feeble-mindedness in equal ratio with +normality. It works out as follows: If a feeble-minded person marry a +person of sound mind and sound stock, the children will all be of sound, +normal mind. If these children take as husbands and wives men and women +who had for parents one normal and one feeble-minded person, their +children will be one fourth feeble-minded and three fourths of them +normal. + +To summarize the various conditions: If a feeble-minded person marry a +feeble-minded person, all the children will be feeble-minded. If a +feeble-minded person marry a sound, normal person (pure stock), all the +children will be normal. If the children, in the last case, marry others +like themselves as to origin, one fourth of their offspring will be +feeble-minded. If such hybrid children marry feeble-minded persons, one +half of the offspring will be feeble-minded. It is rash to prophesy, but +future studies of heredity may show that Mendelism, or some +modification of the principle, always holds true of mind as well as of +body. + +Little can be said about the transmission of particular definite mental +traits, such as the various aspects of memory, association, attention, +temperament, etc. Before we can speak with any certainty here, we must +make very careful experimental studies of these mental traits in parents +and offspring. No such work has been done. All we have at the present +time is the result of general observation. + +=Improvement of the Race.= Eugenics is the science of improvement of the +human race by breeding. While we can train children and thereby make +them much better than they would be without such training, this training +does not improve the stock. The improvement of the stock can be +accomplished only through breeding from the best and preventing the poor +stock from leaving offspring. This is a well-known principle in the +breeding of domestic animals. + +It is doubtless just as true in the case of human beings. The hygienic +and scientific rearing of children is good for the children and makes +their lives better, but probably does not affect their offspring. We +should not forget that all the social and educational influences die +with the generation that receives them. They must be impressed by +training on the next generation or that generation will receive no +influence from them. The characters which we acquire in our lifetime +seem not to be transmitted to our children, except through what is known +as social heredity, which is merely the taking on of characteristics +through imitation. Our children must go through all the labor of +learning to read, write, spell, add, multiply, subtract, and divide, +which we went through. Moral traits, manners and customs, and other +habits and ideals of social importance must be acquired by each +successive generation. + +=Heredity _versus_ Environment.= The question is often asked whether +heredity or the influence of environment has the most to do with the +final outcome of one's life. It is a rather useless question to ask, for +what a human being or anything else in the world does depends upon what +it is itself and what the things and forces are that act upon it. +Heredity sets a limitation for us, fixes the possibilities. The +circumstances of life determine what we will do with our inherited +abilities and characteristics. Hereditary influences incline us to be +tall or short, fat or lean, light or dark. The characteristics of our +memory, association, imagination, our learning capacity, etc., are +determined by heredity. Of course, how far these various aspects develop +is to some extent dependent upon the favorable or unfavorable influences +of the environment. What is possible for us to do is settled by +heredity; what we may actually do, what we may have the opportunity to +do, is largely a matter of the circumstances of life. + +In certain parts of New England, the number of men who become famous in +art, science, or literature is very great compared to the number in some +other parts of our country. As far as we have any evidence, the native +stocks are the same in the two cases, but in New England the influences +turn men into the direction of science, art, and literature. Everything +there is favorable. In other parts of the country, the influences turn +men into other spheres of activity. They become large landowners, men of +business and affairs. + +The question may be asked whether genius makes its way to the front in +spite of unfavorable circumstances. Sometimes it doubtless does. But +pugnacity and perseverance are not necessarily connected with +intellectual genius. Genius may be as likely to be timid as belligerent. +Therefore unfavorable circumstances may crush many a genius. + +The public schools ought to be on the watch for genius in any and all +kinds of work. When a genius is found, proper training ought to be +provided to develop this genius for the good of society as well as for +the good of the individual himself. A few children show ability in +drawing and painting, others in music, others in mechanical invention, +some in literary construction. When it is found that this ability is +undoubtedly a native gift and not a passing whim, special opportunity +should be provided for its development and training. It will be better +for the general welfare, as well as for individual happiness, if each +does in life that for which he is by nature best fitted. For most of us, +however, there is not much difference in our abilities. We can do one +thing as well as we can many other things. But in a few there are +undoubted special native gifts. + + SUMMARY. This is an orderly world, in which everything has a cause. + All events are connected in a chain of causes and effects. Human + beings live in this world of natural law and are subject to it. + Human life is completely within this world of law and order and is a + part of it. Education is possible only because we can change human + beings by having influences act upon them. + + Individuals receive their original traits from their ancestors, + probably as parts or units. Mendelism is the doctrine of the pure + transmission of unit characters. Eugenics is the science of + improving the human race by selective breeding. An individual's life + is the result of the interaction of his hereditary characteristics + and his environment. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Try to find rock containing the remains of animals. You can get +information on such matters from a textbook on geology. + +2. Read in a geology about the different geological epochs in the +history of the earth. + +3. Make a comparison of the length of infancy in the lower animals and +in man. What is the significance of what you find? What advantage does +it give man? + +4. What is natural selection? How does it lead to change in animals? +Does natural selection still operate among human beings? (See a modern +textbook on zooelogy.) + +5. By observation and from consulting a zooelogy, learn about the +different classes of animal forms, from low forms to high forms. + +6. By studying domestic animals, see what you can learn about heredity. +Enumerate all the points that you find bearing upon heredity. + +7. In a similar way, make a study of heredity in your family. Consider +such characteristics as height, weight, shape of head, shape of nose, +hair and eye color. Can you find any evidence of the inheritance of +mental traits? + +8. Make a complete outline of Chapter II. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +DAVENPORT: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_. + +KELLICOTT: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MIND AND BODY + + +=Gross Dependence.= The relation of mind to body has always been an +interesting one to man. This is partly because of the connection of the +question with that of life after death. An old idea of this relation, +almost universally held till recently, was that the mind or spirit lived +in the body but was more or less independent of the body. The body has +been looked upon as a hindrance to the mind or spirit. Science knows +nothing about the existence of spirits apart from bodies. The belief +that after death the mind lives on is a matter of faith and not of +science. Whether one believes in an existence of the mind after death of +the body, depends on one's religious faith. There is no scientific +evidence one way or the other. The only mind that science knows anything +about is bound up very closely with body. This is not saying that there +is no existence of spirit apart from body, but that at present such +existence is beyond the realm of science. + +The dependence of mind upon body in a general way is evident to every +one, upon the most general observation and thought. We know the effect +on the mind of disease, of good health, of hunger, of fatigue, of +overwork, of severe bodily injury, of blindness or deafness. We have, +perhaps, seen some one struck upon the head by a club, or run over by an +automobile, and have noted the tremendous consequences to the person's +mind. In such cases it sometimes happens that, as far as we can see, +there is no longer any mind in connection with that body. The most +casual observation, then, shows that mind and body are in some way most +intimately related. + +=Finer Dependence.= Let us note this relation more in detail, and, in +particular, see just which part of the body it is that is connected with +the mind. First of all, we note the dependence of mind upon sense +organs. We see only with our eyes. If we close the eyelids, we cannot +see. If we are born blind, or if injury or disease destroys the retinas +of the eyes or makes the eyes opaque so that light cannot pass through +to the retinas, then we cannot see. + +Similarly, we hear only by means of the ears. If we are born deaf, or if +injury destroys some important part of the hearing mechanism, then we +cannot hear. In like manner, we taste only by means of the taste organs +in the mouth, and smell only with the organs of smell in the nose. In a +word, our primary knowledge of the world comes only through the sense +organs. We shall see presently just how this sensing or perceiving is +accomplished. + +=Dependence of Mind on Nerves and Brain.= We have seen how in a general +way the mind is dependent on the body. We have seen how in a more +intimate way it is dependent on the special sense organs. But the part +of the body to which the mind is most directly and intimately related is +the nervous system. The sense organs themselves are merely modifications +of the nerve ends together with certain mechanisms for enabling stimuli +to act on the nerve ends. The eye is merely the optic nerve spread out +to form the retina and modified in certain ways to make it sensitive to +ether vibrations. In addition to this, there is, of course, the focusing +mechanism of the eye. So for all the sense organs; they are, each of +them, some sort of modification of nerve-endings which makes them +sensitive to some particular force or substance. + +Let us make the matter clear by an illustration. Suppose I see a picture +on the wall. My eyes are directed toward the picture. Light from the +picture is refracted within the eyes, forming an image on each retina. +The retina is sensitive to the light. The light produces chemical +changes on the retina. These changes set up an excitation in the optic +nerves, which is conducted to a certain place in the brain, causing an +excitation in the brain. Now the important point is that when this +excitation is going on in the brain, _we are conscious, we see the +picture_. + +As far as science can determine, we do not see, nor hear, nor taste, nor +smell, nor have any other sensation unless a sense organ is excited and +produces the excitation in the brain. There can be no doubt about our +primary, sensory experience. By primary, sensory experience is meant our +immediate, direct knowledge of any aspect of the world. In this field of +our conscious life, we are entirely dependent upon sense organs and +nerves and brain. Injuries to the eyes destroying their power to perform +their ordinary work, or injuries to the optic nerve or to the visual +center in the brain, make it impossible for us to see. + +These facts are so self-evident that it seems useless to state them. One +has but to hold his hands before his eyes to convince himself that the +mind sees by means of eyes, which are physical sense organs. One has but +to hold his hands tight over his ears to find out that he hears by +means of ears--again, physical sense organs. + +But simple and self-evident as the facts are, their acceptance must have +tremendous consequences to our thinking, and to our view of human +nature. If the mind is dependent in every feature on the body with its +sense organs, this must give to this body and its sense organs an +importance in our thought and scheme of things that they did not have +before. This close dependence of mind upon body must give to the body a +place in our scheme of education that it would not have under any other +view of the mind. We wish to emphasize here that this statement of the +close relation of the mind and body is not a theory which one may accept +or not. It is a simple statement of fact. It is a presupposition of +psychology. By "presupposition" is meant a fundamental principle which +the psychologist always has in mind. It is axiomatic, and has the same +place in psychology that axioms have in mathematics. All explanations of +the working of the mind must be stated in terms of nerve and brain +action, and stimulation of sense organs. + +Since the sense organs are the primary and fundamental organs through +which we get experience, and since the sensations are the elementary +experiences out of which all mental life is built, it is necessary for +us to have a clear idea of the sense organs, their structure and +functions, and of the nature of sensations. + +=Vision.= _The Visual Sense Organs._ The details of the anatomy of the eye +can be looked up in a physiological textbook. The essential principles +are very simple. The eye is made on the principle of a photographer's +camera. The retina corresponds to the sensitive plate of the camera. The +light coming from objects toward which the eyes are directed is focused +on the retina, forming there an image of the object. The light thus +focused on the retina sets up a chemical change in the delicate nerve +tissue; this excitation is transmitted through the optic nerve to the +occipital (back) part of the brain, and sets up brain action there. Then +we have visual sensation; we see the object. + +The different colors that we see are dependent upon the vibration +frequency of the ether. The higher frequencies give us the colors blue +and green, and the lower frequencies give us the colors yellow and red. +The intermediate frequencies give us the intermediate colors blue-green +and orange. By vibration frequencies is meant the rate at which the +ether vibrates, the number of vibrations a second. If the reader wishes +to know something about these frequencies, such information can be found +in a textbook on physics. + +It will be found that the vibration rates of the ether are very great. +It is only within a certain range of vibration frequency that sunlight +affects the retina. Slower rates of vibration than that producing red do +not affect the eye, and faster than that producing violet do not affect +the eye. The lightness and darkness of a color are dependent upon the +intensity of the vibration. Red, for example, is produced by a certain +vibration frequency. The more intense the vibration, the brighter the +red; the less intense, the darker the red. + +When all the vibration frequencies affect the eyes at the same time, we +see no color at all but only brightness. This is due to the fact that +certain vibration frequencies neutralize each other in their effect on +the retina, so far as producing color is concerned. Red neutralizes +green, blue neutralizes yellow, violet neutralizes yellowish green, +orange neutralizes bluish green. + +All variations in vision as far as color and brightness are concerned +are due to variations in the stimulus. Changes in vibration frequency +give the different colors. Changes in intensity give the different +brightnesses: black, gray, and white. All explanations of the many +interesting phenomena of vision are to be sought in the physiological +action of the eye. + +Besides the facts of color and light and shade, already mentioned, some +further interesting visual phenomena may be mentioned here. + +_Visual Contrast._ Every color makes objects near it take on the +antagonistic or complementary color. Red makes objects near appear +green, green makes them appear red. Blue makes near objects appear +yellow, while yellow makes them appear blue. Orange induces greenish +blue, and greenish blue induces orange. Violet induces yellowish green, +and yellowish green induces violet. These color-pairs are known as +antagonistic or complementary colors. Each one of a pair enhances the +effect of its complementary when the two colors are brought close +together. In a similar way, light and dark tints act as complementaries. +Light objects make dark objects near appear darker, and dark objects +make light objects near seem lighter. + +These universal principles of contrast are of much practical +significance. They must be taken account of in all arrangements of +colors and tints, for example, in dress, in the arrangement of flowers +and shrubs, in painting. + +_Color-Mixture._ If, on a rotating motor, disks of different colors--say +red and yellow--are placed and rotated, one sees on looking at them not +red or yellow but orange. This phenomenon is known as _color-mixture_. +The result is due to the simultaneous stimulation of the retina by two +kinds of ether vibration. If the colors used are a certain red and a +certain green, they neutralize each other and produce only gray. All the +pairs of complementary colors mentioned above act in the same way, +producing, if mixed in the right proportion, no color, but gray. If +colored disks not complementary are mixed by rotation on a motor, they +produce an intermediate color. Red and yellow give orange. Blue and +green give bluish green. Yellow and green give yellowish green. Red and +blue give violet or purple, depending on the proportion. Mixing pigments +gives, in general, the same results as mixing by means of rotating the +disks. The ordinary blue and yellow pigments give green when mixed, +because each of the two pigments contains green. The blue and yellow +neutralize each other, leaving green. + +_Visual After-Images._ The stimulation of the retina has interesting +after effects. We shall mention here only the one known as _negative +after-images_. If one will place on the table a sheet of white paper, +and on this white paper lay a small piece of colored paper, and if he +will then gaze steadily at the colored paper for a half-minute, it will +be found that if the colored paper is removed one sees its complementary +color. If the head is not moved, this complementary color has the same +size and shape as the original colored piece of paper. The negative +after-image can be projected on a background at different distances, its +size depending on the distance of the background. The after-image will +be found to mix with an objective color in accordance with the +principles of color-mixture mentioned above. + +After-image phenomena have some practical consequences. If one has been +looking at a certain color for some time, a half-minute or more, then +looks at some other color, the after-image of the first color mixes with +the second color. + +_Adaptation._ The fact last mentioned leads us to the subject of +adaptation. If the eyes are stimulated by the same kind of light for +some time, the eyes become adapted to that light. If the light is +yellow, at first objects seem yellow, but after a time they look as if +they were illuminated with white light, losing the yellow aspect. But if +one then goes out into white light, everything looks bluish. The +negative after-image of the yellow being cast upon everything makes the +surroundings look blue, for the after-image of yellow is blue. All the +other colors act in a similar way, as do also black and white. If one +has been for some time in a dark room and then goes out to a lighter +place, it seems unusually light. And if one goes from the light to a +dark room, it seems unusually dark. + +=Hearing or Audition.= Just as the eye is an organ sensitive to certain +frequencies of ether vibration, so the ear is an organ sensitive to +certain air vibrations. The reader should familiarize himself with the +physiology of the ear by reference to physiologies. The drum-skin, the +three little bones of the middle ear, and the cochlea of the inner ear +are all merely mechanical means of making possible the stimulation of +the specialized endings of the auditory nerve by vibrations of air. + +As the different colors are due to different vibration frequencies of +the ether, so different pitches of sound are due to differences in the +rates of the air vibrations. The low bass notes are produced by the low +vibration frequencies. The high notes are produced by the high +vibration frequencies. The lowest notes that we can hear are produced by +about twenty vibrations a second, and the highest by about forty +thousand vibrations a second. + +=Other Sense Organs.= We need not give a detailed statement of the facts +concerning the other senses. In each case the sense organ is some +special adaptation of the nerve-endings with appropriate apparatus in +connection to enable it to be affected by some special thing or force in +the environment. + +In the case of taste, we find in the mouth, chiefly on the back and +edges of the tongue, organs sensitive to sweet, sour, salt, and bitter. +In the nose we have an organ that is sensitive to the tiny particles of +substances that float in the air which we breathe in through the nose. + +In the skin we find several kinds of sense organs that give us the +sensations of cold and warmth, of pressure and pain. These are all +special and definite sensations produced by different kinds of organs. +The sense of warmth is produced by different organs from those which +produce the sense of cold. These organs can be detected and localized on +the skin. So, also, pain and touch or pressure have each its particular +organ. + +Within the body itself we have sense organs also, particularly in the +joints and tendons and in the muscles. These give us the sensations +which are the basis of our perception of motion, and of the position of +the body and its members. In the semicircular canals of the inner ear +are organs that give us the sense of dizziness, and enable us to +maintain our equilibrium and to know up from down. + +The general nature of the sense organs and of sensation should now be +apparent. The nervous system reaches out its myriad fingers to every +portion of the surface of the body, and within the body as well. These +nerve-endings are specially adapted to receive each its particular form +of stimulation. This stimulation of our sense organs is the basis or +cause of our sensations. And our sensations are the elementary stuff of +all our experience. Whatever thoughts we have, whatever ideas or images +we have, they come originally from our sensations. They are built up out +of our sensations or from these sensations as they exist in memory. + +=Defects of Sense Organs.= The organs of sight and hearing are now by far +the most important of our sense organs. They enable us to sense things +that are at a distance. We shall therefore discuss defects of these two +organs only. Since sensations are the primary stuff out of which mind is +made, and since sight and hearing are the most important sense organs, +it is evident that our lives are very much dependent on these organs. If +they cannot do their work well, then we are handicapped. And this is +often the case. + +The making of the human eye is one of the most remarkable achievements +of nature. But the making of a perfect eye is too big a task for nature. +She never makes a perfect eye. There is always some defect, large or +small. To take plastic material and make lenses and shutters and +curtains is a great task. The curvature of the front of the eye and of +the front and back of the crystalline lens is never quite perfect, but +in the majority of cases it is nearly enough perfect to give us good +vision. However, in about one third of school children the defect is +great enough to need to be corrected by glasses. + +The principle of the correction of sight by means of glasses is merely +this:[1] When the focusing apparatus of the eye is not perfect, it can +be made so by putting in front of the eye the proper kind of lens. There +is nothing strange or mysterious about it. In some cases, the eye +focuses the light before it reaches the retina. Such cases are known as +nearsightedness and are corrected by having placed in front of the eyes +concave lenses of the proper strength. These lenses diverge the rays and +make them focus on the retina. In other cases, the eye is not able to +focus the rays by the time they reach the retina. In these cases, the +eyes need the help of convex lenses of the proper strength to make the +focus fall exactly on the retina. + +[1] The teacher should explain these principles and illustrate by +drawings. Consult a good text in physiology. Noyes' University of +Missouri Extension Bulletin on eye and ear defects will be found most +useful. + +Another defect of the eye, known as astigmatism, is due to the fact that +the eye does not always have a perfectly spherical front (cornea). The +curvature in one direction is different from that in others. For +example, the vertical curvature may be more convex than the horizontal. +Such a condition produces a serious defect of vision. It can be +corrected by means of cylindrical lenses of the proper strength so +placed before the eye as to correct the defect in curvature. + +Still another defect of vision is known as presbyopia or farsightedness +due to old age. It has the following explanation: In early life, when we +look at near objects, the crystalline lens automatically becomes +thicker, more convex. This adjustment brings the rays to a focus on the +retina, which is required for good vision. As we get old, the +crystalline lens loses its power to change its adjustment for near +objects, although the eye may see at a distance as well as ever. The +old person, therefore, must wear convex glasses when looking at near +objects, as in reading and sewing. + +Another visual defect of a different nature is known as partial color +blindness. The defects described above are due to misshapen eyes. +Partial color blindness is due to a defect of the retina which makes it +unable to be affected by light waves producing red and green. A person +with this defect confuses red and green. While only a small percentage +of the population has this defect, it is nevertheless very important +that those having it be detected. People having the defect should not be +allowed to enter occupations in which the seeing of red and green is +important. It was recently brought to the author's attention that a +partially color-blind man was selling stamps in a post office. Since two +denominations of stamps are distinguished by red and green colors, this +man made frequent mistakes. He was doing one of the things for which he +was specially unfitted. It is easy to detect color blindness by simple +tests. + +So great is the importance of good vision in school work and the later +work of life, that every teacher should know how to make simple tests to +determine visual defects. Children showing any symptoms of eyestrain +should be required to have their visual defects corrected by a competent +oculist, and should be warned not to have the correction made by a +quack. There is great popular ignorance and even prejudice concerning +visual defects, and it is very important that teachers have a clear +understanding of the facts. + +=Defects of Hearing.= Hearing defects are only about half as frequent as +those of sight. They are nearly all due to catarrhal infection of the +middle ear through the Eustachian tube. The careful and frequent +medical examination of school children cannot, therefore, be too +strongly emphasized. The deafness or partial deafness that comes from +this catarrhal infection can seldom be cured; it must be prevented by +the early treatment of the troubles which cause it. + + SUMMARY. The mind is closely related to the body. Especially is it + dependent upon the brain, nerves, and sense organs. The sense organs + are special adaptations of the nerve-ends for receiving impressions. + Each sense organ receives only its particular type of impression. + + The main visual phenomena are those of color-mixture, after-images, + adaptation, and contrast. Since sensation is the basis of mental + life, defects of the sense organs are serious handicaps and should + be corrected if possible. Visual defects are usually due to a + misshapen eyeball and can be corrected by proper glasses, which + should be fitted by an oculist. Hearing defects usually arise from + catarrhal trouble in the middle ear. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Make a study of the relation of the mind to the body. Enumerate the +different lines of evidence which you may find indicating their close +relationship. + +2. Can you find any evidence tending to show that the mind is +independent of the body? + +3. _Color-Mixture._ Colored disks can be procured from C. H. Stoelting +Company, Chicago. If a small motor is available, the disks can be +rotated on the motor and the colors mixed. Mix pairs of complementary +colors, also pairs of non-complementary colors, and note the result. A +simple device can be made for mixing colors, as follows: On a board +stand a pane of glass. On one side of the glass put a colored paper and +on the other side of the glass put a different color. By looking through +the glass you can see one color through transmitted light and the other +color through reflected light. By inclining the glass at different +angles you can get different proportions of the mixture, now more of one +color, now more of the other. + +4. _Negative After-Images._ Cut out pieces of colored paper a half inch +square. Put one of these on a white background on the table. With elbows +on the table, hold the head in the hands and gaze at the colored paper +for about a half-minute, then blow the paper away and continue to gaze +at the white background. Note the color that appears. Use different +colors and tabulate the results. Try projecting the after-images at +different distances. Project the after-images on different colored +papers. Do the after-images mix with the colors of the papers? + +5. An interesting experiment with positive after-images can be performed +as follows: Shut yourself in a dark closet for fifteen or twenty minutes +to remove all trace of stimulation of the retina. With the eyes covered +with several folds of thick black cloth go to a window, uncover the eyes +and take a momentary look at the landscape, immediately covering the +eyes again. The landscape will appear as a positive after-image, with +the positive colors and lights and shades. The experiment is best +performed on a bright day. + +6. _Adaptation._ Put on colored glasses or hold before the eyes a large +piece of colored glass. Note that at first everything takes on the color +of the glass. What change comes over objects after the glasses have been +worn for fifteen or twenty minutes? Describe your experience after +removing the glasses. Plan and perform other experiments showing +adaptation. For illustration, go from a very bright room into a dark +room. Go from a very dark room to a light one. Describe your experience. + +7. _Contrast._ Take a medium gray paper and lay it on white and various +shades of gray and black paper. Describe and explain what you find. + +8. _Color Contrast._ Darken a room by covering all the windows except +one window pane. Cover it with cardboard. In the cardboard cut two +windows six inches long and one inch wide. Over one window put colored +glass or any other colored material through which some light will pass. +By holding up a pencil you can cast two shadows on a piece of paper. +What color are the shadows? One is a contrast color induced by the +other; which one? Explain the results. + +9. Make a study of the way in which women dress. What do you learn about +color effects? + +10. From the Stoelting Company you can obtain the Holmgren worsteds for +studying color blindness. + +11. _Defective Vision._ Procure a Snellen's test chart and determine the +visual acuity of the members of the class. Seat the subject twenty feet +from the chart, which should be placed in a good light. While testing +one eye, cover the other with a piece of cardboard. Above each row of +letters on the chart is a number which indicates the distance at which +it can be read by a normal eye. If the subject can read only the +thirty-foot line, his vision is said to be 20/30; if only the forty-foot +line, the vision is 20/40. If the subject can read above the twenty-foot +line and complains of headache from reading, farsightedness is +indicated. If the subject cannot read up to the twenty-foot line, +nearsightedness or astigmatism is indicated. + +12. _Hearing._ By consultation with the teacher of physics, plan an +experiment to show that the pitch of tones depends on vibration +frequency. Such an experiment can be very simply performed by rotating a +wheel having spokes. Hold a light stick against the spokes so that it +strikes each spoke. If the wheel is rotated so as to give twenty or +thirty strokes a second, a very low tone will be heard. By rotating the +wheel faster you get a higher tone. Other similar experiments can be +performed. + +13. Acuity of hearing can be tested by finding the distance at which the +various members of the class can hear a watch-tick. The teacher can plan +an experiment using whispering instead of the watch-tick. (See the +author's _Examination of School Children_.) + +14. By using the point of a nail, one can find the "cold spots" on the +skin. Warm the nail to about 40 degrees Centigrade and you can find the +"warm spots." + +15. By touching the hairs on the back of the hand, you can stimulate the +"pressure spots." + +16. By pricking the skin with the point of a needle, you can stimulate +the "pain spots." + +17. The sense of taste is sensitive only to solutions that are sweet, +sour, salt, or bitter. Plan experiments to verify this point. What we +call the "taste" of many things is due chiefly to odor. Therefore in +experiments with taste, the nostrils should be stopped up with cotton. +It will be found, for example, that quinine and coffee are +indistinguishable if their odors be eliminated by stopping the nose. The +student should compare the taste of many substances put into the mouth +with the nostrils open with the taste of the same substances with the +nostrils closed. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters VII and XII. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters III, IV, VI, +and VII. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters II, III, and IV. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter II. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter I, par. 3; also +Chapter II. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INHERITED TENDENCIES + + +=Stimulus and Response.= We have learned something about the sense organs +and their functions. We have seen that it is through the sense organs +that the world affects us, stimulates us. And we have said that we are +stimulated in order that we may respond. + +We must now inquire into the nature of our responses. We are moving, +active beings. But how do we move, how do we act when stimulated? Why do +we do one thing rather than another? Why do we do one thing at one time +and a different thing at another time? + +Before we answer these questions it will be necessary for us to get a +more definite and complete idea of the nature of stimulus and response. +We have already used these terms, but we must now give a more definite +account of them. It was said in the preceding chapter that when a muscle +contracts, it must first receive a nerve-impulse. Now, anything which +starts this nerve-impulse is called the stimulus. The muscular movement +which follows is, of course, the response. The nervous system forms the +connection between the stimulus and response. + +The stimulus which brings about a response may be very simple. Or, on +the other hand, it may be very complex. If one blows upon the eyelids of +a baby, the lids automatically close. The blowing is the stimulus and +the closing of the lids is the response. Both stimulus and response are +here very simple. + +But sometimes the stimulus is more complex, not merely the simple +excitation of one sense organ, but a complicated stimulation of an +organ, or the simultaneous stimulation of several organs. In playing +ball, the stimulus for the batter is the on-coming ball. The response is +the stroke. This case is much more complex than the reflex closing of +the eyelids. The ball may be pitched in many different ways and the +response changes with these variations. + +In piano playing, the stimulus is the notes written in their particular +places on the staff. Not only must the position of the notes on the +staff be taken into account, but also many other things, such as sharps +and flats, and various characters which give directions as to the manner +in which the music is to be played. The striking of the notes in the +proper order, in the proper time, and with the proper force, is the +response. + +In typewriting, the stimulus is the copy, or the idea of what is to be +written, and the response is the striking of the keys in the proper +order. Speaking generally, we may say that the stimulus is the force or +forces which excite the sense organs, and thereby, through the nervous +system, bring about a muscular response. + +This is the ordinary type of action, but we have already indicated a +different type. In speaking of typewriting we said the stimulus might be +either the copy or ideas. One can write from copy or dictation, in which +the stimulus is the written or spoken word, but one can also write as +one thinks of what one wishes to write. The latter is known as +_centrally initiated action_. That is to say, the stimulus comes from +within, in the brain, rather than from without. + +Let us explain this kind of stimulation a little further. Suppose I am +sitting in my chair reading. I finish a chapter and look at my watch. I +notice that it is three o'clock, and recall that I was to meet a friend +at that time. The stimulus in this case is in the brain itself; it is +the nervous activity which corresponds to the idea of meeting my friend. +If we disregard the distinction between mind and body, we may say that +the stimulus for a response may be an idea as well as a perception, the +perception arising from the immediate stimulation of a sense organ, and +the idea arising from an excitation of the brain not caused by an +immediate stimulation of a sense organ. + +=Instincts and Habits.= In human action it is evident that there is always +a stimulus to start the nerve-impulse which causes the action. If we +make inquiry concerning the connection between the stimulus and +response; if we ask how it has come about that a particular stimulus +causes a particular response rather than some other possible response, +we find two kinds of causes. In one case the causal connection is +established through heredity; in the other, the causal connection is +established during a person's lifetime through training. + +A chicken, for example, hides under some cover the first time it hears +the cry of a hawk; it scratches the first time its feet touch sand or +gravel; it pecks the first time it sees an insect near by. An infant +closes its eyes the first time it feels cold wind blow upon them; it +cries the first time it feels pain; it clasps its fingers together the +first time a touch is felt inside them. The child's nervous system is so +organized that, in each of the cases named, the stimulus brings forth +the particular, definite response. These acts do not have to be +learned. + +But it is quite different in typewriting and piano playing. One _must +learn_ what keys on the piano to strike in response to the various +situations of the notes as written in the music. One must also learn the +keys on the typewriter before he can operate a typewriter. And in the +case of other habits, we find, for example, that one does not respond by +saying "81" for 9 times 9; nor "13" for 6 plus 7; nor "8" for 15 minus +7; nor "8" for the square root of 64; nor "144" for the square of 12, +etc., until one has learned in each case. + +Some connections between stimulus and response we have through +inheritance; all others are built up and established in one's lifetime, +particularly in the first thirty years of one's life. + +We have spoken of bonds between stimulus and response, but have not +explained just what can be meant by a _bond_. In what sense are stimulus +and response bound together? A bond is a matter of greater permeability, +of less resistance in one direction through the nervous system than in +other directions. Nerves are conductors for nerve-currents. When a +nerve-current is started in a sense organ, it passes on through the path +of least resistance. + +Now, some nerves are so organized and connected through inheritance as +to offer small resistance. This forms a ready-made connection between +stimulus and response. Muscular responses that are connected with their +stimuli through inherited bonds, by inherited nerve structure, are +called instincts. Those that are connected by acquired bonds are called +habits. Sucking, crying, laughing, are instinctive acts. Adding, +typewriting, piano playing, are habits. + +The term _instinct_ may be given to the act depending upon inherited +structure, an inherited bond, or it may be given to the inherited bond +itself. Similarly, the term _habit_ may be given to an act that we have +had to learn or to the bond which we ourselves establish between +response and stimulus. In this book we shall usually mean by instinct an +action depending upon inherited structure and by habit an act depending +upon a bond established during lifetime. A good part of our early lives +is spent in building up bonds between stimuli and responses. This +establishing of bonds or connections is called _learning_. + +=Appearance of Inherited Tendencies.= Not all of our inherited tendencies +are manifested immediately after birth, nor indeed in the earliest years +of childhood, but appear at different stages of the child's growth. It +has already been said that a child, soon after birth, will close its +eyelids when they are blown upon. The lids do not close at this time if +one strikes at them, but they will do this later. The proper working of +an instinct or an inherited tendency, then, depends upon the child's +having reached a certain state of development. + +The maturing of an instinct depends upon both age and use, that is to +say, upon the age of the animal and the amount of use or exercise that +the instinctive activity has had. The most important factor, however, +seems to be age. While our knowledge of the dependence of an instinct +upon the age of the animal is not quite so definite in the case of human +instincts, the matter has been worked out in the case of chickens. + +The experiment was as follows: Chickens were taken at the time of +hatching, and some allowed to peck from the first, while others were +kept in a dark room and not allowed to peck. When the chickens were +taken out of the dark room at the end of one, two, three, and four days, +it was found that in a few hours they were pecking as well as those +that had been pecking from birth. It seems probable, if we may judge +from our limited knowledge, that in the human child, activities are for +the most part dependent upon the age of the child, and upon the state of +development of the nervous system and of the organs of the body. + +=Significance of Inherited Tendencies.= Although human nature is very +complex, although human action nearly always has some element of habit +in it, nevertheless, inborn tendencies are throughout life powerful +factors in determining action. This will at once be apparent if we +consider how greatly we are influenced by anger, jealousy, love, fear, +and competition. Now we do not have to learn to be jealous, to hate, to +love, to be envious, to fight, or to fear. These are emotions common to +all members of the human race, and their expression is an inborn +tendency. Throughout life no other influences are so powerful in +determining our action as are these. So, although most of our detailed +actions in life are habits which we learn or acquire, the fundamental +influences which decide the course of our action are inherited +tendencies. + +=Classification of Instincts.= For convenience in treatment the instincts +are grouped in classes. Those instincts most closely related to +individual survival are called _individualistic_ instincts. Those more +closely related to the survival of the group are called _socialistic_. +Those individualistic tendencies growing out of periodic changes of the +environment may be called _environmental_ instincts. Those closely +related to human infancy, adapting and adjusting the child to the world +in which he lives, may be called _adaptive_. There is still another +group of inherited tendencies connected with sex and reproduction, which +are not discussed in this book. + +We shall give a brief discussion of the instincts falling under these +various classes. It must be remembered, however, that the psychology of +the instincts is indefinite and obscure. It is difficult to bring the +instincts into the laboratory for accurate study. For our knowledge of +the instincts we are dependent, for the most part, on general +observation. We have had a few careful studies of the very earliest +years of childhood. However, although from the theoretical point of view +our knowledge of the instincts is incomplete, it is sufficient to be of +considerable practical value. + +=The Individualistic Instincts.= Man's civilized life has covered but a +short period of time, only a few hundred or a few thousand years. His +pre-civilized life doubtless covered a period of millions of years. The +inborn tendencies in us are such as were developed in the long period of +savage life. During all of man's life in the time before civilization, +he was always in danger. He had many enemies, and most of these enemies +had the advantage of him in strength and natural means of defense. +Unaided by weapons, he could hardly hold his own against any of the +beasts of prey. So there were developed in man by the process of natural +selection many inherited responses which we group under the head of +_fear_ responses. + +Just what the various situations are that bring forth these responses +has never been carefully worked out. But any situation that suddenly +puts an individual in danger of losing his life brings about +characteristic reactions. The most characteristic of the responses are +shown in connection with circulation and respiration. Both of these +processes are much interfered with. Sometimes the action is accelerated, +at other times it is retarded, and in some cases the respiratory and +circulatory organs are almost paralyzed. Also the small muscles of the +skin are made to contract, producing the sensation of the hair standing +on end. Just what the original use of all these responses was it is +difficult now to work out, but doubtless each served some useful +purpose. + +Whether any particular situations now call forth inherited fear +responses in us is not definitely established. But among lower animals +there are certain definite and particular situations which do call forth +fear responses. On the whole, the evidence rather favors the idea of +definite fear situations among children. It seems that certain +situations do invariably arouse fear responses. To be alone in the dark, +to be in a strange place, to hear loud and sudden noises, to see large, +strange animals coming in threatening manner, seem universally to call +forth fear responses in children. + +However, the whole situation must always be considered. A situation in +which the father or mother is present is quite different from one in +which they are both absent. But it is certain that these and other fears +are closely related to the age and development of the child. In the +earlier years of infancy, certain fears are not present that are present +later. And it can be demonstrated that the fears that do arise as +infancy passes on are natural and inherited and not the result of +experience. + +Few of the original causes of fear now exist. The original danger was +from wild animals chiefly. Seldom are we now in such danger. But of +course this has been the case for only a short time. Our bodies are the +same sort of bodies that our ancestors had, therefore we are full of +needless fears. During the early years of a child's life, wise treatment +causes most of the fear tendencies to disappear because of disuse. On +the other hand, unwise treatment may accentuate and perpetuate them, +causing much misery and unhappiness. Neither the home nor the school +should play upon these ancestral fears. We should not try to get a child +to be good by frightening him; nor should we often use fear of pain as +an incentive to get a child to do his work. + +Man has always been afraid, but he has also always been a fighter. He +has always had to fight for his life against the lower animals, and he +has also fought his fellow man. The fighting response is connected with +the emotions of anger, envy, and jealousy. A man is angered by anything +that interferes with his life, with his purposes, with whatever he calls +his own. We become angry if some one strikes our bodies, or attacks our +beliefs, or the beliefs of our dear friends, particularly of our +families. The typical responses connected with anger are such as faster +heart-beat, irregular breathing, congestion of the blood in the face and +head, tightening of the voluntary muscles, particularly a setting of the +teeth and a clinching of the fists. These responses are preparatory to +actual combat. + +Anger, envy, and jealousy, and the responses growing out of them, have +always played a large part in the life of man. A great part of history +is a record of the fights of nations, tribes, and individuals. If the +records of wars and strifes, and the acts growing out of envy and +jealousy and other similar emotions should be taken out of history, +there would not be much left. Much of literature and art depict those +actions of man which grew out of these individualistic aspects of his +nature. Competition, which is an aspect of fighting, even to the present +day, continues to be one of the main factors in business and in life +generally. Briefly, fighting responses growing out of man's selfishness +are as old as man himself, and the inherited tendencies connected with +them are among the strongest of our natures. + +In the training of children, one of the most difficult tasks is to help +them to get control over the fighting instinct and other selfish +tendencies. These tendencies are so deeply rooted in our natures that it +is hard to get control of them. In fact, the control which we do get +over them is always relative. The best we can hope to do is to get +control over our fighting tendencies in ordinary circumstances. + +It is doubtful whether it would be good for us if the fighting spirit +should disappear from the race. It puts vim and determination into the +life of man. But our fighting should not be directed against our fellow +man. The fighting spirit can be retained and directed against evil and +other obstacles. We can learn to attack our tasks in a fighting spirit. +But surely the time has come when we should cease fighting against our +neighbors. + +=Social Tendencies.= Over against our fighting tendencies we may set the +socialistic tendencies. Cooeperative and sympathetic actions grow out of +original nature, just as truly as do the selfish acts. But the +socialistic tendencies are not, in general, as strong as are the +individualistic ones. What society needs is the strengthening of the +socialistic tendencies by use, and a weakening of at least some of the +individualistic tendencies, by control and disuse. + +Socialistic tendencies show themselves in gangs and clubs formed by +children and adults. It is, therefore, a common practice now to speak of +the "gang" instinct. Human beings are pleased and content when with +other human beings and not content, not satisfied, when alone. Of course +circumstances make a difference in the desires of men, but the general +original tendency is as stated. + +The gang of the modern city has the following explanation: Boys like to +be with other boys. Moreover, they like to be active; they want to be +doing something. The city does not provide proper means for the desired +activities, such as hunting, fishing, tramping, and boating. It does not +provide experiences with animals, such as boys have on the farm. Much of +the boy's day is spent in school in a kind of work not at all like what +he would do by choice. There is not much home life. Usually there is not +the proper parental control. Seldom do the parents interest themselves +in planning for the activities of their children. The result is that the +boys come together on the streets and form a club or gang. Through this +organization the boy's nature expresses itself. Without proper guidance +from older people, this expression takes a direction not good for the +future character and usefulness of the boy. + +The social life of children should be provided for by the school in +cooeperation with the home. The school or the schoolroom should +constitute a social unit. The teacher with the parents should plan the +social life of the children. The actual work of the school can be very +much socialized. There can be much more cooeperation and much more group +work can be done in the school than is the case at present. And many +other social activities can be organized in connection with the school +and its work. Excursions, pageants, shows, picnics, and all sorts of +activities should be undertaken. + +The schoolhouse should be used by the community as the place for many of +its social acts and performances. Almost every night, and throughout the +summer as well as in the winter, the people, young and old, should meet +at the school for some sort of social work or play. The Boy Scouts +should be brought under the control of the school to help fulfill some +of its main purposes. + +=Environmental Instincts.= In this class there are at least two tendencies +which seem to be part of the original nature of man; namely, the +_wandering_ and the _collecting_ tendencies. + +_Wandering._ The long life that our ancestors lived free and +unrestrained in the woods has left its effect within us. One of the +greatest achievements of civilization has been to overcome the inherited +tendencies to roam and wander, to the extent that for the most part we +live out our lives in one home, in one family, doing often but one kind +of work all our lives. Originally, man had much more freedom to come and +go and do whatever he wished. + +Truancies and runaways are the result of original tendencies and desires +expressing themselves in spite of training, perhaps sometimes because of +the lack of training. In childhood and youth these original tendencies +should, to some extent, be satisfied in legitimate ways. Excursions and +picnics can be planned both for work and for play. If the child's +desires and needs can be satisfied in legitimate ways, then he will not +have to satisfy them illegitimately. The teaching itself can be done +better by following, to some extent, the lead of the child's nature. +Much early education consists in learning the world. Now, most of the +world is out of doors and the child must go out to find it. The teacher +should make use of the natural desires of the children to wander and +explore, as a means of educating them. The school work should be of such +a nature that much outdoor work will need to be done. + +_Collecting._ It is in the nature of children to seize and, if possible, +carry away whatever attracts attention. This tendency is the basis of +what is called the collecting instinct. If one will take a walk with a +child, one can observe the operation of the collecting tendency, +particularly if the walk is in the fields and woods. The child will be +observed to take leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, pebbles, and in +fact everything that is loose or can be gotten loose. They are taken at +first aimlessly, merely because they attract attention. The original, +natural response of the child toward that which attracts attention is +usually to get it, get possession of it and take it along. It is easy to +see why such tendencies were developed in man. In his savage state it +was highly useful for him to do this. He must always have been on the +lookout for things which could be used as food or as weapons. He had to +do this to live. But one need not take a child to the woods to observe +this tendency. One can go to the stores. Till a child is trained not to +do it, he seizes and takes whatever attracts attention. + +Just as the wandering tendencies can be used for the benefit of the +child, so can the collecting tendencies. Not only should the children +make expeditions to learn of the world, but specimens should be +collected so that they can be used to form a museum at the school which +will represent the surrounding locality. Geological, geographical, +botanical, and zooelogical specimens should be collected. The children +will learn much while making the collections, and much from the +collections after they are made. + +"Education could profit greatly by making large demands upon the +collecting instinct. It seems clear that in their childhood is the time +when children should be sent forth to the fields and woods, to study +what they find there and to gather specimens. The children can form +naturalists' clubs for the purpose of studying the natural environment. +Such study should embrace rocks, soils, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits, +and specimens of the wood of the various trees. Birds and insects can be +studied and collected. The work of such a club would have a twofold +value. (1) The study and collecting acquaint the child with his natural +environment, and in doing it, afford a sphere for the activity of many +aspects of his nature. They take him out of doors and give an +opportunity for exploring every nook and corner of the natural +environment. The collecting can often be done in such a way as to appeal +to the group instincts. For example, the club could hold meetings for +exhibiting and studying the specimens, and sometimes the actual +collecting could be done in groups. (2) The specimens collected should +be put into the school museum, and the aim of this museum should be to +represent completely the local environment, the natural and physical +environment, and also the industrial, civil, and social environment. The +museum should be completely illustrative of the child's natural, +physical, and social surroundings. The museum would therefore be +educative in its making, and when it is made, it would have immense +value to the community, not only to the children but to all the people. +In this museum, of course, should be found the minerals, rocks, soils, +insects,--particularly those of economic importance,--birds, and also +specimens of the wild animals of the locality. If proper appeal is made +to the natural desire of the children, this instinct would soon be made +of service in producing a very valuable collection. The school museum in +which these specimens are placed should also include other classes of +specimens. There should be specimens showing industrial evolution, the +stages of manufacture of raw material, specimens of local historical +interest, pictures, documents, books. The museum should be made of such +a nature that parents would go there nearly as often as the children. +The school should be for the instruction of all the people of the +community. It should be the experiment station, the library, the +debating club, the art gallery for the whole community."[2] + +[2] Pyle's _Outlines of Educational Psychology_, pp. 84-86. + +=Imitation.= One of the fundamental original traits of human nature is the +tendency to imitate. Imitation is not instinctive in the strict meaning +of the word. Seeing a certain act performed does not, apart from +training and experience, serve as a stimulus to make a child perform a +similar act. Hearing a certain sound does not serve as a stimulus for +the production of the same sound. Nevertheless, there is in the human +child a tendency or desire to do what it sees others doing. + +A few hours spent in observing children ought to convince any one of the +universality and of the strength of this tendency. As our experience +becomes organized, the idea of an act usually serves as the stimulus to +call it forth. However, this is not because the idea of an act, of +necessity, always produces the act. It is merely a matter of the +stimulus and the response _becoming connected in that way_ as the result +of experience. Our meaning is that an act can be touched off or prompted +by any stimulus. Our nervous organization makes this possible. The +particular stimulus that calls forth a particular response depends upon +how we have been trained, how we have learned. In most cases our acts +are coupled up with the ideas of the acts. We learn them that way. + +In early life particularly, the connection between stimulus and response +is very close. When a child gets the idea of an act, he immediately +performs the act, if he knows how. Now, seeing another perform an act +brings the act clearly into the child's consciousness, and he proceeds +to perform it. But the act must be one which the child already knows how +to perform, otherwise his performance of it will be faulty and +incomplete. If he has never performed the particular act, seeing another +perform the act sets him to trying to do it and he may soon learn it. If +he successfully performs an act when he sees it done by another, the act +must be one which he already knows how to perform, and for whose +performance the idea has already served as a stimulus. Now if imitation +were instinctive in the strict sense, one could perform the act for the +first time merely from seeing another do it, without any previous +experience or learning. It is doubtful whether there are any such +inherited connections. It is, however, true that human beings are of +such a nature that, particularly in early life, they _like_ to do and +_want_ to do what they see others doing. This is one of the most +important aspects of human nature, as we shall see. + +=Function and Importance of Imitation in Life.= Natural selection has +developed few aspects of human nature so important for survival as the +tendency to imitate, for this tendency quickly leads to a successful +adjustment of the child to the world in which he lives. Adult men and +women are successfully adjusted to their environment. Their adjustment +might be better, but it is good enough to keep them alive for a time. +Now, if children do as they see their parents doing, they will reach a +satisfactory adjustment. We may, therefore, say that the tendency to +imitate serves to adjust the child to his environment. It is for this +reason that imitation has been called an _adaptive instinct_. It would +perhaps be better to say merely that the _tendency_ to imitate is part +of the _original equipment of man_. + +Imitation is distinctively a human trait. While it occurs in lower +animals it is probably not an important factor in adjusting them to +their environment. But in the human race it is one of the chief factors +in adjustment to environment. Imitation is one of the main factors in +education. Usually the quickest way to teach a child to do a thing is to +show him how. + +Through imitation we acquire our language, manners, and customs. Ideals, +beliefs, prejudices, attitudes, we take on through imitation. The +tendency to imitate others coupled with the desire to be thought well of +by others is one of the most powerful factors in producing conformity. +They are the whips which keep us within the bounds of custom and +conventionality. The tendency to imitate is so strong that its results +are almost as certain as are those of inherited tendencies. It is almost +as certain that a child will be like his parents in speech, manners, +customs, superstitions, etc., as it is that he will be like them in form +of body. He not only walks and talks and acts like his parents, but he +thinks as they do. We, therefore, have the term _social heredity_, +meaning the taking on of all sorts of social habits and ideals through +imitation. + +The part that imitation plays in the education of a child may be learned +by going to a country home and noting how the boy learns to do all the +many things about the farm by imitating his father, and how the girl +learns to do all the housework by imitating her mother. Imitation is the +basis of much of the play of children, in that their play consists in +large part of doing what they see older people doing. This imitative +play gives them skill and is a large factor in preparing for the work of +life. + +=Dramatization.= Dramatization is an aspect of imitation, and is a means +of making ideas more real than they would otherwise be. There is nothing +that leads us so close to reality as action. We never completely know an +act till we have done it. Dramatization is a matter of carrying an idea +out into action. Ideas give to action its greatest fullness of meaning. + +Dramatic representation should, therefore, have a prominent place in the +schools, particularly in the lower grades. If the child is allowed to +mimic the characters in the reading lesson, the meaning of the lesson +becomes fuller. Later on in the school course, dramatic representation +of the characters in literature and history is a means of getting a +better conception of these characters. In geography, the study of the +manners and customs and occupations of foreign peoples can be much +facilitated through dramatic representation. Children naturally have the +dramatic tendency; it is one aspect of the tendency to imitate. We have +only to encourage it and make use of it throughout the school course. + +=Imitation in Ideals.= Imitation is of importance not only in acquiring +the actions of life but also in getting our ideals. Habits of thinking +are no less an aspect of our lives than are habits of acting. Our +attitudes, our prejudices, our beliefs, our moral, religious, and +political ideals are in large measure copied from people about us. The +family and social atmosphere in which one lives is a mold in which one's +mind is formed and shaped. We cannot escape the influence of this +atmosphere if we would. One takes on a belief that his father has, one +clings to this belief and interprets the world in the light of it. This +belief becomes a part of one's nature. It is a mental habit, a way of +looking at the world. It is as much a part of one as red hair or big +feet or a crooked nose. Probably no other influence has so much to do +with making us what we are as social beings as the influence of +imitation. + +=Play.= Play is usually considered to be a part of the original equipment +of man. It is essentially an expression of the ripening instincts of +children, and not a specific instinct itself. It is rather a sort of +make-believe activity of all the instincts. Kittens and dogs may be seen +in play to mimic fighting. They bite and chew each other as in real +fighting, but still they are not fighting. + +As the structures and organs of children mature, they demand activity. +This early activity is called play. It has several characteristics. The +main one is that it is pleasurable. Play activity is pleasurable in +itself. We do not play that we may get something else which we like, as +is the case with the activity which we call work. Play is an end in +itself. It is not a means to get something else which is intrinsically +valuable. + +One of the chief values of play comes from its activity aspect. We are +essentially motor beings. We grow and develop only through exercise. In +early life we do not have to exert ourselves to get a living. Play is +nature's means of giving our organs the exercise which they must have to +bring them to maturity. Play is an expression of the universal tendency +to action in early life. Without play, the child would not develop, +would not become a normal human being. + +All day long the child is ceaselessly active. The value of this activity +can hardly be overestimated. It not only leads to healthy growth, but is +a means through which the child learns himself and the world. Everything +that the child sees excites him to react to it or upon it. He gets +possession of it. He bites it. He pounds it. He throws it. In this way +he learns the properties of things and the characteristics of forces. +Through play and imitation, in a very few years the child comes to a +successful adjustment in his world. + +Play and imitation are the great avenues of activity in early life. Even +in later life, we seldom accomplish anything great or worth while until +the thing becomes play to us, until we throw our whole being into it as +we do in play, until it is an expression of ourselves as play is in our +childhood. The proper use of play gives us the solution of many of the +problems of early education. + +Play has two functions in the school: (1) Motor play is necessary to +growth, development, and health. The constant activity of the child is +what brings about healthy growth. + +In the country it is not difficult for children to get plenty of the +proper kind of exercise, but in the larger cities it is difficult. +Nevertheless, opportunity for play should be provided for every child, +no matter what the trouble or expense, for without play children cannot +become normal human beings. Everywhere parents and teachers should plan +for the play life of the children. + +(2) In the primary grades play can have a large place in the actual work +of the school. The early work of education is to a large extent getting +the tools of knowledge and thought and work--reading, spelling, +writing, correct speech, correct writing, the elementary processes of +arithmetic, etc. In many ways play can be used in acquiring these tools. + +One aspect of play particularly should have a large place in education; +namely, the manipulative tendencies of children. This is essentially +play. Children wish to handle and manipulate everything that attracts +their attention. They wish to tear it to pieces and to put it together. +This is nature's way of teaching, and by it children learn the +properties and structures of things. They thereby learn what things do +and what can be done with them. Teachers and parents should foster these +manipulative tendencies and use them for the child's good. These +tendencies are an aspect of curiosity. We want to know. We are unhappy +as long as a thing is before us which we do not understand, which has +some mystery about it. Nature has developed these tendencies in us, for +without a knowledge of our surroundings we could not live. The child +therefore has in his nature the basis of his education. We have but to +know this nature and wisely use and manipulate it to achieve the child's +education. + + SUMMARY. Instincts are inherited tendencies to specific actions. + They fall under the heads: individualistic, socialistic, + environmental, adaptive, sexual or mating instincts. These inherited + tendencies are to a large extent the foundation on which we build + education. The educational problem is to control and guide them, + suppressing some, fostering others. In everything we undertake for a + child we must take into account these instincts. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Make a study of the instincts of several animals, such as dogs, cats, +chickens. Make a list showing the stimuli and the inherited responses. + +2. Make a study of the instincts of a baby. See how many inherited +responses you can observe. The simpler inherited responses are known as +_reflexes_. The closing of the eyelids mentioned in the text is an +example. How many such reflexes can you find in a child? + +3. Make a special study of the fears of very young children. How many +definite situations can you find which excite fear responses in all +children? Each member of the class can make a list of his own fears. It +may then be seen whether any fears are common to all members of the +class and whether there are any sex differences. + +4. Similarly, make a study of anger and fighting. What situations +invariably arouse the fighting response? In what definite, inherited +ways is anger shown? Do your studies and observations convince you that +the fighting instinct and other inherited responses concerned with +individual survival are among the strongest of inherited tendencies? Can +the fighting instinct be eliminated from the human race? Is it desirable +to eliminate it? + +5. Make a study of children's collections. Take one of the grades and +find what collections the children have made. What different objects are +collected? + +6. Outline a plan for using the collecting instinct in various school +studies. + +7. With the help of the principal of the school make a study of some +specific cases of truancy. What does your finding show? + +8. Make a study of play by watching children of various ages play. Make +a list of the games that are universal for infancy, those for childhood, +and those for youth. (Consult Johnson's _Plays and Games_.) + +9. What are the two main functions of play in education? Why should we +play after we are mature? + +10. Study imitation in very young children. Do this by watching the +spontaneous play of children under six. What evidences of imitation do +you find? + +11. Outline the things we learn by imitation. What is your opinion of +the place which imitation has in our education? + +12. Make a study of imitation as a factor in the lives of grown people. +Consider styles, fashions, manners, customs, beliefs, prejudices, +religious ideas, etc. + +13. On the whole, is imitation a good thing or a bad thing? + +14. Make a plan of the various ways in which dramatization can be +profitably used in the schools. + +15. Make a study of your own ideals. What ideals do you have? Where did +you get them? What ideals did you get from your parents? What from +books? What from teachers? What from friends? + +16. Show that throughout life inherited tendencies are the fundamental +bases from which our actions proceed, on which our lives are erected. + +17. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters III, VIII, IX, and X. + +KIRKPATRICK: _Fundamentals of Child Study_, Chapters IV-XIII. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 184-187. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapter X. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters IV-IX. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VIII. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FEELING AND ATTENTION + + +=The Feelings.= Related to the instincts on one side and to habits on the +other are the feelings. In Chapter III we discussed sensation, and in +the preceding chapter, the instincts, but when we have described an act +in terms of instinct and sensation, we have not told all the facts. + +For example, when a child sees a pretty red ball of yarn, he reaches out +to get it, then puts it into his mouth, or unwinds it, and plays with it +in various ways. It is all a matter of sensation and instinctive +responses. The perception of the ball--seeing the ball--brings about the +instinctive reaching out, grasping the ball, and bringing it to the +mouth. But to complete our account, we must say that the child is +_pleased_. We note a change in his facial expression. His eyes gleam +with pleasure. His face is all smiles, showing pleasant contentment. +Therefore we must say that the child not only sees, not only acts, but +the seeing and acting are _pleasant_. The child continues to look, he +continues to act, because the looking and acting bring joy. + +This is typical of situations that bring pleasure. We want them +continued; we act in a way to make them continue. _We go out after the +pleasure-giving thing._ + +But let us consider a different kind of situation. A child sees on the +hearth a glowing coal. It instinctively reaches out and grasps it, +starts to draw the coal toward it, but instinctively drops it. This is +not, however, the whole story. Instead of the situation being pleasant, +it is decidedly unpleasant. The child fairly howls with pain. His face, +instead of being wreathed in smiles, is covered with tears. He did not +hold on to the coal. He did not try to continue the situation. On the +contrary, he dropped the coal, and withdrew the hand. The body +contracted and shrank away from the situation. + +These two cases illustrate the two simple feelings, pleasantness and +unpleasantness. Most situations in life are either pleasant or +unpleasant. Situations may sometimes be neutral; that is, may arouse +neither the feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. But usually a +conscious state is either pleasant or unpleasant. A situation brings us +life, joy, happiness. We want it continued and act in a way to bring +about its continuance. Or the situation tends to take away our life, +brings pain, sorrow, grief, and we want it discontinued, and act in a +way to discontinue it. + +These two simple forms of feeling perhaps arose in the beginning in +connection with the act of taking food. It is known that if a drop of +acid touches an amoeba, the animal shrinks, contracts, and tries to +withdraw from the death-bringing acid. On the other hand, if a particle +of a substance that is suitable for food touches the animal, it takes +the particle within itself. The particle is life-giving and brings +pleasure. + +=The Emotions.= Pleasure and displeasure are the simple feelings. Most +situations in life bring about very complex feeling states known as +_emotions_. The emotions are made up of pleasure or displeasure mixed +or compounded with the sensations from the bodily reactions. + +The circulatory system, the respiratory system, and nearly all the +involuntary organs of the body form a great sounding board which +instantly responds in various ways to the situations of life. When the +youth sees the pretty maiden and when he touches her hand, his heart +pumps away at a great rate, his cheeks become flushed, his breathing is +paralyzed, his voice trembles. He experiences the emotion of love. The +state is complex indeed. There is pleasantness, of course, but there is +in addition the feeling of all the bodily reactions. + +When the mother sees her dead child lying in its casket, her head falls +over on her breast, her eyes fill with tears, her shoulders droop, her +chest contracts, she sobs, her breathing is spasmodic. Nearly every +organ of the body is affected in one way or another. The state is +_unpleasant_, but there is also the feeling of the manifold bodily +reactions. + +So it is always. The biologically important situations in life bring +about, through hereditary connections in the nervous system, certain +typical reactions. These reactions are largely the same for the same +type of situation, and they give the particular coloring to each +emotion. It is evident that the emotions are closely related to the +instincts. The reflexes that take place in emotions are of the same +nature as the instincts. Each instinctive act has its characteristic +emotion. There are fear instincts and fear emotions. Fear is unpleasant. +In addition to its unpleasantness there is a multitude of sensations +that come from the body. The hair stands on end, the heart throbs, the +circulation is hastened, breathing is interrupted, the muscles are +tense. This peculiar mass of sensations, blended with the +unpleasantness, gives the characteristic emotion of fear. But we need +not go into an analysis of the various emotions of love, hate, envy, +grief, jealousy, etc. The reader can do this for himself.[3] + +[3] See James' _Psychology, Briefer Course_, Chapter XXIV. + +Nearly every organ of the body plays its part in the emotions: the +digestive organs, the liver, the kidneys, the throat and mouth, the +salivary glands, the eyes and tear glands, the skin muscles, the facial +muscles, etc. And every emotion is made up of pleasantness or +unpleasantness and the sensations produced by some combination of bodily +reactions. + +It is well for us to remember the part that bodily conditions and states +play in the emotional life. The emotional state of a man depends upon +whether he has had his dinner or is hungry, whether the liver is working +normally, and upon the condition of the various secreting and excreting +organs and glands. In a word, it is evident that our emotions fall +within a world of cause and effect. _Our feeling states are caused._ + +=Importance in Life.= Our feelings and emotions are the fountains from +which nearly all our volitional actions flow. Feeling is the +_mainspring_ of life. Nearly everything we do is prompted by love, or +hate, or fear, or jealousy, or rivalry, or anger, or grief. If the +feelings have such close relation to action, then the schools must take +them into account, for by education we seek to control action. If the +feelings control action, then we must try to control the feelings. We +must get the child into a right state of mind toward the school, toward +his teacher, and toward his work. The child must like the school, like +the teacher, and _want_ to learn. + +Moreover, we must create the right state of mind in connection with +each study, each task. The child must come to feel the need and +importance of each individual task as well as of each subject. The task +is then desirable, it is to be sought for and worked at, it is important +for life. + +This is merely enlisting the child's nature in the interest of his +education. For motive, we must always look to the child's nature. The +two great forces which pull and drive are _pleasure_ and _pain_. Nature +has no other methods. Formerly the school used pain as its motive almost +exclusively. The child did his tasks to escape pain. For motive we now +use more often the positive influences which give pleasure, which pull +instead of drive. What will one not do _for_ the _loved_ one? What will +one not do _to_ the _hated_ one? The child who does not love his teacher +gets little good from school while under that teacher. Moreover, school +work is often a failure because it is so unreal, has so little relation +to an actual world, and seems foreign to any real needs of the child. No +one is going to work very hard unless the work is prompted by desire. +Our desires come from our needs. Therefore, if we are to enlist the +child's feelings in the service of his education, we must make the +school work vital and relate it, if possible, to the actual needs of the +child. + +It must not be forgotten, however, that we must build up permanent +attitudes of respect for authority, obedience, and reverence for the +important things of life. Neither must it be forgotten that we can +create needs in the child. If in the education of the child we follow +only such needs as he has, we will make a fine savage of him but nothing +else. It is the business of the school to create in the child the right +kind of needs. As was pointed out in our study of the instincts, we +must make the child over again into what he ought to be. But this +cannot be a sudden process. One cannot arouse enthusiasm in a +six-year-old child over the beauties of higher mathematics. It takes ten +or fifteen years to do that, and it must be done little by little. + +=Control of the Emotions.= Without training, we remain at the mercy of our +baser emotions. The child must be trained to control himself. Here is +where habit comes in to modify primitive action. The child can be +trained to inhibit or prevent the reactions that arise in hatred, envy, +jealousy, anger, etc. For a fuller discussion of this point we must wait +till we come to the discussion of habit and moral training. + +=Mood and Temperament.= A mood is a somewhat extended emotional state +continuing for hours or days. It is due to a continuance of the factors +which cause it. The state of the liver and digestive organs may throw +one for days into a cross and ugly mood. When the body becomes normal, +the mood changes or disappears. Similarly, one may for hours or days be +overjoyed, or depressed, or morose, or melancholy. Parents and teachers +should look well to the matter of creating and establishing continuous +and permanent states of feeling that are favorable to work and +development. + +Some people are permanently optimistic, others pessimistic. Some are +always joyful, others as constantly see only the dark side of life. Some +are always serious and solemn, others always gay, even giddy. These +permanent emotional attitudes constitute temperament, and are due to +fundamental differences within the body that are in some cases +hereditary. Crossness and moroseness, for example, may be due to a +dyspeptic condition and a chronically bad liver. The happy dispositions +belong to bodies whose organs are functioning properly, in which +assimilation is good--all the parts of the body doing their proper work. + +Poor eyes which are under a constant strain, through the reflex effects +upon various organs of the body, are likely to develop a permanently +cross and irritable disposition. Through the close sympathetic relation +of the various organs, anything affecting one organ and interfering with +its proper action is likely to affect many other organs and profoundly +influence the emotional states of the body. In growing children +particularly, there are many influences which affect their emotions, +things of which we seldom think, such as the condition of vision and +hearing, the condition of the teeth, nose, and throat, and the condition +of all the important vital organs of the body. When a child's +disposition is not what we think it ought to be, we should try to find +out the causes. + +=Training the Emotions.= The emotions are subject to training. The child +can be taught control. Moreover, he can be taught to appreciate and +enjoy higher things than mere animal pleasure; namely, art, literature, +nature, truth. The child thereby becomes a spiritual being instead of a +mere pig. The ideal of the school should be to develop men and women +whose baser passions are under control, who are calm, self-controlled, +and self-directed, and who get their greatest pleasure from the finer +and higher things of life, such as the various forms of music, the songs +of birds, the beauties and intricate workings of nature. + +This is a wonderful world and a wonderful life, but the child may go +through the world without seeing it, and live his life without knowing +what it is to live. His eyes must be opened, he must be trained to see +and to feel. It is not the place here to tell how this is to be done. +This is not a book on methods of teaching. We can only indicate here +that the business of the school is not merely to teach people how to +make a living, but to teach them how to enjoy the living. There are many +avenues from which we get the higher forms of pleasure. There are really +many different worlds which we may experience: the world of animals, the +world of plants, the mechanical world, the chemical world, the world of +literature and of art, the world of music. It is the duty of the schools +to open up these worlds to the children, and make them so many +possibilities of joy and happiness. + +The emotions and feelings, then, are not lawless and causeless, but are +a part of a world of law and order. They are themselves caused and +therefore subject to control and modification. + +=Attention.= Attention, too, is related to inherited tendencies on the one +side and to habits on the other. If one is walking in the woods and +catches a glimpse of something moving in the trees, the eyes +_instinctively_ turn so that the person can get a better view of the +object. If one hears a sudden sound, the head is instinctively turned so +that the person can hear better. One stops, the body is held still and +rigid, breathing is slow and controlled--all to favor better hearing. + +The various acts of attention are reflex and instinctive. But what is +attention? By attention we mean _sensory clearness_. When we say we are +attentive to a thing or subject, we mean that perceptions or ideas of +that thing or subject are _clear_ as compared to other perceptions and +ideas that are in consciousness at the same time. The contents of one's +consciousness, the perceptions and ideas that constitute one's mind at +any one moment are always arranged in an _attentive_ pattern, some +being clear, others unclear. The pattern constantly changes and shifts. +What is now clear and in the focus of consciousness, presently is +unclear and may in a moment disappear from consciousness altogether, +while other perceptions or ideas take its place. + +The first question that arises in connection with attention is, What are +the causes of attention? The first group of causes are hereditary and +instinctive. The child attends to loud things, bright things, moving +things, etc. But as we grow older, the basis of attention becomes more +and more _habit_. An illustration will make this clear. I once spent a +day at a great exposition with a machinist. He was constantly attending +to things mechanical, when I would not even see them. He had spent many +years working with machinery, and as a result, things mechanical at once +attracted him. Similarly, if a man and a woman walk along a street +together and look in at the shop windows, the woman sees only hats, +dresses, ribbons, and other finery, while the man sees only cigars, +pipes, and automobile supplies. Every day we live, we are building up +habits of attending to certain types of things. What repeatedly comes +into our experience, easily attracts our attention to the exclusion of +other things. + +=The Function of Attention.= Attention is the unifying aspect of +consciousness. There are always many things in consciousness, and we +cannot respond to all at once. The part of consciousness that is clear +and focal brings about action. The things to which we attend are the +things that count. + +In later chapters we shall learn that in habit-formation, attention is +an important factor. We must attend to the acts we are trying to +make habitual. In getting knowledge, we must attend to what we are +trying to learn. In committing to memory, we must attend to the ideas +that we are trying to fix and make permanent. In thinking and reasoning, +those ideas become associated together that are together in attention. + +Attention is therefore the controlling aspect of consciousness. It is +the basis of what we call _will_. The ideas that are clear and focal and +that persist in consciousness are the ideas that control our action. +When one says he has made up his mind, he has made a choice; that merely +means that a certain group of ideas persist in consciousness to the +exclusion of others. These are the ideas which ultimately produce +action. And it is our past experience that determines what ideas will +become focal and persist. + +=Training the Attention.= There are two aspects of the training of +attention. (1) We can learn to hold ourselves to a task. When we sit +down to a table to study, there may be many things that tend to call us +away. There lies a magazine which we might read, there is a play at the +theater, there are noises outside, there is a friend calling across the +street. But we must study. We have set ourselves to a task and we must +hold fast to our purpose. + +The young child cannot do this. He must be trained to do it. The +instruments used to train him are pleasure and pain, rewards and +punishments that come from parents. Gradually, slowly, the child gains +control over himself. No one ever amounts to anything till he can hold +himself to a task, to a fixed purpose. One must learn to form plans +extending over weeks, months, and years, and to hold unflinchingly to +them, just as one must hold himself to his study table and allow nothing +to distract or to interfere. No training a child can receive is more +important than this, for it gives him control over his life, it gives +him control over the ideas that are to become focal and determine +action. It is for this reason that we call such training a training of +attention. It might perhaps better be called a training of the will. But +the will is only the attentive consciousness. The idea that is clear, +that holds its own in consciousness, is the idea that produces action. +When we say that we _will_ to do a certain thing, all we can mean is +that the _idea of this act_ is clearest and holds its focal place in +consciousness to the exclusion of other ideas. It therefore goes over +into action. + +(2) The training just discussed may be called a general training of +attention giving us a general power and control over our lives, but +there is another type of training which is specific. As with the +machinist mentioned above, so with all of us; we attend to the type of +thing that we have formed a habit of attending to. Continued experience +in a certain field makes it more and more easy to attend to things in +that field. One can take a certain subject and work at it day after day, +year after year. By and by, the whole world takes on the aspect of this +chosen subject. The entomologist sees bugs everywhere, the botanist sees +only plants, the mechanic sees only machines, the preacher sees only the +moral and religious aspects of action, the doctor sees only disease, the +mathematician sees always the quantitative aspect of things. Ideas and +perceptions related to one's chosen work go at once and readily to the +focus of consciousness; other things escape notice. + +It is for this reason that we become "crankier" every year that we live. +We are attending to only one aspect of the world. While this blinds us +to other aspects of the world, it brings mastery in our individual +fields. We can, then, by training and practice, get a general control +over attention, and by working in a certain field or kind of work, we +make it easy to attend to things in that field or work. This to an +extent gives us control of our lives, of our destiny. + +=Interest.= The essential elements of interest are attention and feeling. +When a person is very attentive to a subject and gets pleasure from +experience in that subject, we commonly say that he is _interested_ in +that subject. + +Since the importance of attention and feeling in learning has already +been shown and will be further developed in the chapters which follow in +connection with the subjects of habit, memory, and thinking, little more +need be said here. + +The key to all forms of learning is _attention_. The key to attention is +_feeling_. Feeling depends upon the nature of the child, inherited and +acquired. In our search for the means of arousing interest, we look +first to the original nature of the child, to the instincts and the +emotions. We look next to the acquired nature, the habits, the ideals, +the various needs that have grown up in the individual's life. +Educational writers have overemphasized the original nature of the child +as a basis of interest and have not paid enough attention to acquired +nature. We should not ask so much what a child's needs are, but what +they _ought_ to be. Needs can be created. The child's nature to some +extent can be changed. The problem of arousing interest is therefore one +of finding in the child's nature a basis for attention and pleasure. If +the basis is not to be found there, then it must be built up. How this +can be done, how human nature can be changed, is to some extent the main +problem of psychology. Every chapter in this book, it is hoped, will be +found to throw some light on the problem. + + SUMMARY. The two elementary feeling states are pleasantness and + unpleasantness. The emotions are complex mental states composed of + feeling and the sensations from bodily reactions to the situations. + Feeling and emotion are the motive forces of life, at the bottom of + all important actions. The bodily reactions of emotions are reflex + and instinctive. Attention is a matter of the relative clearness of + the contents of consciousness. The function of attention is to unify + thought and action. It is the important factor in all learning and + thinking, for it is only the attentive part of consciousness that is + effective. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Make out a complete list of the more important emotions. + +2. Indicate the characteristic expression of each emotion in your list. + +3. Can you have an emotion without its characteristic expression? If, +for example, when a situation arises which ordinarily arouses anger in +you, you inhibit all the usual motor accompaniments of anger, are you +really angry? + +4. Are the expressions of the same emotion the same for all people? + +5. Try to analyze some of your emotional states: anger, or fear, or +grief. Can you detect the sensations that come from the bodily +reactions? + +6. Try to induce an emotional state by producing its characteristic +reactions. + +7. Try to change an emotional state to an opposite emotion; for example, +grief to joy. + +8. Try to control and change emotional states in children. + +9. Name some sensations that for you are always pleasant, others that +are always unpleasant--colors, sounds, tastes, odors, temperatures. + +10. Confirm by observation the statement of the text as to the +importance of emotions in all the important actions of life. + +11. To what extent do you have control of your emotional states? What +have you observed about differences in expression of deep emotions by +different people? In case of death in the family, some people wail and +moan and express their grief in the most extreme manner, while others do +not utter a sound and show great control. Why the difference? + +12. Make an introspective study of your conscious states to note the +difference in clearness of the different processes that are going on in +consciousness. Do you find a constant shifting? + +13. Perform experiments to show the effects of attention in forming +habits and acquiring knowledge. + +(1) Perform tests in learning, using substitution tests as described in +Chapter X. Use several different keys. In some experiments have no +distractions, in others, have various distracting noises. What +differences do you find in the results? + +(2) Try learning nonsense syllables, some lists with distractions, +others without distractions. + +(3) Try getting the ideas from stories read to you, as in the logical +memory experiment described in Chapter X. Some stories should be read +without distractions, others with distractions. + +14. Why are you unable to study well when under the influence of some +strong emotion? + +15. Are you trained to the extent that you can concentrate on a task and +hold yourself to it for a long time? + +16. Do you see that as far as will and attention and the emotions are +concerned, your life and character are in large measure in your own +hands? + +17. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters IV, V, and VI. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XIV, also +pp. 187-192 and pp. 370-371. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters V and XI. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIV. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters IV, VIII, and XI. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +HABIT + + +=The Nature of Habit.= We now turn from man's inherited nature to his +acquired nature. Inherited tendencies to action we have called +instincts; acquired tendencies to action we shall call habits. We can +best form an idea of the nature of habit by considering some concrete +cases. + +Let us take first the case of a man forming the habit of turning out the +basement light. It usually happens that when a man has an electric light +in the basement of his house, it is hard for him at first to think to +turn out the light at night when he retires, and as a consequence the +light often burns all night. This is expensive and unnecessary, so there +is a strong incentive for the man to find a plan which will insure the +regular turning-off of the light at bedtime. The plan usually hit upon +is the following: The electric switch that controls the basement light +is beside the basement stairway. The man learns to look at the switch as +he comes up the stairs, after preparing the furnace fire for the night, +and learns to take hold of the switch when he sees it and turn off the +light. Coming up the stairs means to look at the switch. Seeing the +switch means to turn it. Each step of the performance touches off the +next. The man sees that in order to make sure that the light will always +be turned off, the acts must all be made automatic, and each step must +touch off the next in the series. At first, the man leaves the light +burning about as often as he turns it off. After practicing for a time +on the scheme, the different acts become so well connected that he +seldom leaves the light burning. We say that he has formed the _habit_ +of turning off the light. + +For a second illustration, let us take the process of learning that nine +times nine equals eighty-one. At first, one does not say or write +"eighty-one" when one sees "nine times nine," but one can acquire the +habit of doing so. It does not here concern us how the child learns what +the product of nine times nine is. He may learn it by counting, by being +told, or by reading it in a book. But however he first learns it, he +fixes it and makes it automatic and habitual by _continuing_ to say or +to write, "nine times nine equals eighty-one." The essential point is +that at first the child does not know what to say when he hears or sees +the expression "nine times nine," but after long practice he comes to +give automatically and promptly the correct answer. For the definite +problem "nine times nine" there comes the definite response +"eighty-one." + +For a third illustration, let us take the case of a man tipping his hat +when he meets a lady. A young boy does not tip his hat when he meets a +lady until he has been taught to do so. After he learns this act of +courtesy he does it quite automatically without thinking of it. For the +definite situation, meeting a lady of his acquaintance, there comes to +be established the definite response, tipping the hat. A similar habit +is that of turning to the right when we meet a person. For the definite +situation, meeting a person on the road or street or sidewalk, there is +established the definite response, turning to the right. The response +becomes automatic, immediate, certain. + +There is another type of habit that may properly be called an +intellectual habit, such as voting a certain party ticket, say the +Democratic. When one is a boy, one hears his father speak favorably of +the Democratic party. His father says, "Hurrah for Bryan," so he comes +to say, "Hurrah for Bryan." His father says, "I am a Democrat," so he +says he is a Democrat. He takes the side that his father takes. In a +similar way we take on the same religious notions that our parents have. +It does not always happen this way, but this is the rule. But no matter +how we come to do it, we do adopt the creed of some party or some +church. We adopt a certain way of looking at public questions, and a +certain way of looking at religious questions. For certain rather +definite situations, we come to take definite stands. When we go to the +booth to vote, we look at the top of the ballot to find the column +marked "Democratic," and the definite response is to check the +"Democrat" column. Of course, some of us form a different habit and +check the "Republican" column, but the psychology of the act is the +same. The point is that we form the Democratic habit or we form the +Republican habit; and the longer we practice the habit, the harder it is +to change it. + +In the presidential campaign of 1912, Roosevelt "bolted" from the +Republican party. It was hard for the older Republicans to follow him. +While one occasionally found a follower of Roosevelt who was gray, one +usually found the old Republicans standing by the old party, the younger +ones joining the Progressive party. It is said that when Darwin +published "The Origin of Species," very few old men accepted the +doctrine of evolution. The adherents of the new doctrine were nearly +all young men. So there is such a thing as an intellectual habit. One +comes to take a definite stand when facing certain definite intellectual +situations. + +Similar to the type of habits which we have called intellectual is +another type which may be called "moral." When we face the situation of +reporting an occurrence, we can tell the truth or we can lie. We can +build up the habit of meeting such situations by telling the truth on +all occasions. We can learn to follow the maxim "Tell the truth at all +times, at all hazards." We can come to do this automatically, certainly, +and without thought of doing anything else. + +Most moral situations are fairly definite and clear-cut, and for them we +can establish definite forms of response. We can form the habit of +helping a person in distress, of helping a sick neighbor, of speaking +well of a neighbor; we can form habits of industry, habits of +perseverance. These and other similar habits are the basis of morality. + +The various kinds of habits which we have enumerated are alike in +certain fundamental particulars. In all of them there is a definite +situation followed by a definite response. One sees the switch and turns +off the light; he sees the expression "nine times nine" and says +"eighty-one"; he sees a lady he knows and tips his hat; in meeting a +carriage on the road, he turns to the right; when he has to vote, he +votes a certain ticket; when he has to report an occurrence, he tells it +as it happened. There is, in every case, a definite situation followed +by a definite response. + +Another characteristic is common to all the cases mentioned above, +_i.e._ the response is acquired, it does not come at first. In every +instance we might have learned to act differently. We could form the +habit of always leaving the light burning; could just as easily say +"nine times nine equals forty"; we could turn to the left; we could vote +the Republican ticket. We can form bad moral habits as well as good +ones, perhaps more easily. The point is, however, that we acquire +definite ways of acting for the same situations, and these definite ways +of acting are called habits. + +=Habit and Nerve-Path.= It has already been stated that a habit is a +tendency toward a certain type of action in a certain situation. The +basis of this tendency is in the nervous system. In order to understand +it we must consider what the nervous system is like. Nerves terminate at +one end in a sense organ and at the other end ultimately in a muscle. + +In Figure II, A is a sense organ, B a nerve going from the sense organ +to the brain C. D, E, F, G, and H are motor nerves going from the brain +to the muscles. Now, let us show from the diagram what organization +means and what tendency means. At first when the child sees the +expression "nine times nine," he does not say "eighty-one." The stimulus +brings about no definite action. It is as likely to go out through E or +F as through D. But suppose we can get the child to say "nine times nine +equals eighty-one." We can write the expression on the blackboard and +have the child look at it and say "nine times nine equals eighty-one." +Suppose the act of saying "eighty-one" is brought about by the +nerve-current going out through nerve-chain D. By repetition, we +establish a bond. A stimulus of a particular kind comes through A, goes +over B to C, and out over D, making muscles at M bring about a very +definite action in saying "eighty-one." + +[Illustration: FIGURE II.--THE ORGANIZATION OF TENDENCIES] + +From the point of view of physiology, the process of habit-formation +consists in securing a particular nerve coupling, establishing a +particular nerve path, so that a definite form of stimulation will bring +about a definite form of response. A nerve tendency is simply the +likelihood that a stimulus will take a certain course rather than any +other. This likelihood is brought about by getting the stimulus to take +the desired route through the nervous system to a group of muscles and +to continue following this route. The more times it passes the same way, +the greater is the probability that at any given time the stimulus will +take the accustomed route and bring about the usual response. At first +any sort of action is possible. A nerve stimulus can take any one of the +many routes to the different muscles. By chance or by conscious +direction, the stimulus takes a certain path, and by repetition we fix +and make permanent this particular route. This constitutes a nerve +tendency or habit. + +=Plasticity.= Our discussion should have made it clear that habit is +acquired nature, while instinct is inherited nature. Habit is acquired +tendency while instinct is inherited tendency. The possibility of +acquiring habits is peculiarly a human characteristic. While inanimate +things have a definite nature, a definite way of reacting to forces +which act upon them, they have little, if any, possibility of varying +their way of acting. Water might be said to have habits. If one cools +water, it turns to ice. If we heat it, it turns to steam. But it +_invariably_ does this. We cannot teach it any different way of acting. +Under the same conditions it always does the same thing. + +Plants are very much like inanimate things. Plants have definite ways of +acting. A vine turns around a support. A leaf turns its upper surface to +the light. But one cannot teach plants different ways of acting. The +lower forms of animals are somewhat like plants and inanimate objects. +But to a very slight extent they are variable and can form habits. Among +the higher animals, such as dogs and other domestic animals, there is a +greater possibility of forming habits. In man there are the greatest +possibilities of habit-formation. In man the learned acts or habits are +many as compared to the unlearned acts or instincts; while among the +lower animals the opposite is the case--their instincts are many as +compared to their habits. + +We may call this possibility of forming habits _plasticity_. Inanimate +objects such as iron, rocks, sulphur, oxygen, etc., have no plasticity. +Plants have very little possibility of forming habits. Lower animals +have somewhat more, and higher animals still more, while man has the +greatest possibility of forming habits. This great possibility of +forming habits is one of the main characteristics of man. Let us +illustrate the contrast between man and inanimate objects by an example. +If sulphur is put into a test tube and heated, it at first melts and +becomes quite thin like water. If it is heated still more, it becomes +thick and will not run out of the tube. It also becomes dark. Sulphur +_always_ does this when so treated. It cannot be taught to act +differently. Now the action of sulphur when heated is like the action of +a man when he turns to the right upon meeting a person in the street. +But the man has to acquire this habit, while the sulphur does not have +to learn its way of acting. Sulphur always acted in this way, while man +did not perform his act at first, but had to learn it by slow +repetition. + +Everything in the world has its own peculiar nature, but man is unique +in that his nature can be very much changed. To a large extent, a man is +_made_, his nature is _acquired_. After we become men and women, we have +hundreds and thousands of tendencies to action, definite forms of +action, that we did not have when young. Man's nature might be said to +consist in his tendencies to action. Some of these tendencies he +inherits; these are his instincts. Some of these he acquires; these are +his habits. + +=What Habits Do for Us.= We have found out what habits are like; let us +now see what they do for us. What good do they accomplish for us? How +are we different after forming a habit from what we were before? We can +best answer these questions by a consideration of concrete cases. +Typewriting will serve very well the purpose of illustration. We shall +give the result of an actual experiment in which ten university students +took part. During their first half hour of practice, they wrote an +average of 120 words. At the end of forty-five hours of practice, they +were writing an average of 680 words in a half hour. This was an +increase of speed of 560 per cent. An expert typist can write about +3000 words in a half hour. Such a speed requires much more than +forty-five hours practice, and is attained by the best operators only. + +[Illustration: FIGURE III.--LEARNING CURVES +The upper graph shows the improvement in speed of a group of students +working two half hours a day. The lower curve shows the improvement of a +group working ten half-hours a day.] + +In the foregoing experiment, the students improved in accuracy also. At +the beginning of the work, they made 115 errors in the half hour. At the +end of the practice, with much faster speed, they were making only +327 errors in a half hour. The actual number of errors had increased +280 per cent. The increase in errors was therefore exactly half as much +as the increase in speed. This, of course, was a considerable increase +in accuracy, for while the speed had increased to 5.6 times what it had +been at the beginning, the errors had increased only 2.8 times. The +subjects in this experiment paid much more attention to speed than they +did to accuracy. If they had emphasized accuracy, they would have been +doing almost perfect work at the end of the practice, and their speed +would have been somewhat less. Practice, then, not only develops speed +but also develops accuracy. + +There are also other results. At the beginning of work with the +typewriter, there is much waste of energy and much fatigue. The waste of +energy comes from using unnecessary muscles, and the fatigue is partly +due to this waste of energy. But even apart from this waste of energy, +an habituated act is performed with less fatigue. The various muscles +concerned become better able to do their work. As a result of +habituation there is, then, greater speed, greater accuracy, less waste +of energy, and less fatigue. + +If we look not at the changes in our work but at the changes in +ourselves, the changes in our minds due to the formation of habits, we +find still other results. At the beginning of practice with the +typewriter, the learner's whole attention is occupied with the work. +When one is learning to do a new trick, the attention cannot be divided. +The whole mind must be devoted to the work. But after one has practiced +for several weeks, one can operate the typewriter while thinking about +something else. We say that the habituated act sinks to a lower level of +consciousness, meaning that as a habit becomes more and more fixed, less +and less attention is devoted to the acts concerned. + +Increased skill gives us pleasure and also gives us confidence in our +ability to do the thing. Corresponding to this inner confidence is outer +certainty. There is greater objective certainty in our performance and a +corresponding inner confidence. By objective certainty, we mean that a +person watching our performance, becomes more and more sure of our +ability to perform, and we ourselves feel confidence in our power of +achievement. + +Now that we have shown the results of habituation let us consider +additional illustrations. In piano playing, the stimuli are the notes as +written in the music. We see the notes occupying certain places on the +scale of the music. A note in a certain place means that we must strike +a certain key. At first the response is slow, we have to hunt out each +note on the keyboard. Moreover, we make many mistakes; we strike the +wrong keys just as we do in typewriting. We are awkward, making many +unnecessary movements, and the work is tiresome and fatiguing. After +long practice, the speed with which we can manipulate the keys in +playing the piano is wonderful. Our playing becomes accurate, perfect. +We do it with ease, with no unnecessary movements. We can play the +piano, after we become skilled, without paying attention to the actual +movements of our hands. We can play the piano while concentrating upon +the meaning of the music, or while carrying on a conversation, or while +thinking about something else. As a rule, pleasure and confidence come +with skill. Playing a difficult piece on the piano involves a skill +which is one of the most complicated that man achieves. It is possible +only through habituation of the piano-playing movements. + +Nailing shingles on a roof illustrates well the various aspects of +habituation. The expert carpenter not only nails on many more shingles +in a day than does the amateur, but he does it better and with more +ease, and with much less fatigue. The carpenter knows exactly how much +he can do in a day, and each particular movement is certain and sure. +The carpenter has confidence in, and usually prides himself on, this +ability, thus getting pleasure out of his work. + +The operations in arithmetic illustrate most of the results of +habituation. Practice in addition makes for speed and accuracy. In a few +weeks' time we can very much increase our speed and accuracy in adding, +or in the other arithmetical operations. + +The foregoing examples are sufficient, although they could be multiplied +indefinitely. Almost any habit one might name would show clearly most of +the results enumerated. The most important aspects of habituation may be +summed up in the one word _efficiency_. Habituation gives us speed and +accuracy. Speed and accuracy mean skill. Skill means efficiency. + +=How Habits Are Formed.= It is clear from the foregoing discussion that +the essential thing in a habit is the definiteness of the connection +between the stimulus and the response, between the situation and the +reaction to the situation. Our question now is, how is this definiteness +of connection established? The answer is, _through repetition_. Let us +work the matter out from a concrete case, such as learning to play the +piano. In piano playing the stimulus comes from the music as printed on +the staff. A note having a certain position on the staff indicates that +a certain key is to be struck. We are told by our music teacher what +keys on the piano correspond to the various notes on the staff, or we +may learn these facts from the instruction book. It makes no difference +how we learn them; but after we know these facts, we must have practice +to give us skill. The mere knowledge will not make us piano players. In +order to be skillful, we must have much practice not only in striking +the keys indicated by the various note positions, but with the various +combinations of notes. For example, a note on the second space indicates +that the player must strike the key known as "A." But "A" may occur with +any of the other notes, it may precede them or it may follow them. We +must therefore have practice in striking "A" in all these situations. To +have skill at the piano, we must mechanize many performances. We must be +able to read the notes with accuracy and ease. We must practice so much +that the instant we see a certain combination of notes on the staff, our +hands immediately execute the proper strokes. Not only must we learn +what keys on the piano correspond to the various notes of the music, but +the notes have a temporal value which we must learn. Some are to be +sounded for a short time, others for a longer time. We have eighth +notes, quarter notes, half notes, etc. Moreover, the signature of the +music as indicated by the sharps or flats changes the whole situation. +If the music is written in "A sharp" then when "A" is indicated on the +staff, we must not strike the white key known as "A," but the black key +just above, known as "A sharp." + +Briefly, in piano playing, the stimulus comes from the characters +printed on the staff. The movements which these characters direct are +very complicated and require months and years of practice. We must +emphasize the fact that practice alone gives facility, years of +practice. But after these years of practice, one can play a piece of +music at sight; that is, the first stimulus sets off perfectly a very +complicated response. This sort of performance is one of the highest +feats of skill that man accomplishes. + +To get skill, then, one must practice. But mere repetition is not +sufficient. For practice to be most effective, one must put his whole +mind on what he is doing. If he divides his attention between the acts +which he is practicing and something else, the effect of the practice in +fixing and perfecting the habit is slight. It seems that when we are +building up a new nerve-path which is to be the basis of a new habit, +the nervous energies should not be divided; that the whole available +nervous energy should be devoted to the acts which we are repeating. +This is only another way of saying that when we are practicing to +establish a habit, we should attend to what we are doing and to nothing +else. But after the habit-connection is once firmly established, we can +attend to other things while performing the habitual act. The habitual +action will go on of itself. We may say, then, that in order to be able +to do a thing with little or no attention, we must give much attention +to it at first. + +Another important factor in habit-formation is pleasure. The act which +we are practicing must give us pleasure, either while we are doing it or +as a result. Pleasurable results hasten habit-formation. When we +practice an act in which we have no interest, we make slow progress or +none at all. Now the elements of interest are attention and pleasure. If +we voluntarily attend to a thing and its performance gives us pleasure, +or pleasure results from it, we say we are interested in it. The secret +of successful practice is interest. Repeatedly in laboratory experiments +it happens that a student loses interest in the performance and +subsequently makes little, if any, progress. One of the biggest problems +connected with habit-formation is that of maintaining interest. + +A factor which prevents the formation of habits is that of exceptions. +If a stimulus, instead of going over to the appropriate response, +produces some other action, there is an interference in the formation of +the desired habit. The effect of an exception is greater than the mere +neglect of practice. The _exception opens up another path_ and tends to +make future action uncertain. Particularly is this true in the case of +moral habits. Forming moral habits is usually uphill work anyway, in +that we have instincts to overcome. Allowing exceptions to enter, in the +moral sphere, usually means a slipping back into an old way of acting, +thereby weakening much the newly-made connection. + +In any kind of practice, when we become fatigued we make errors. If we +continue to practice when fatigued, we form connections which we do not +wish to make and which interfere with the desired habits. + +=Economy of Practice.= The principles which we have enumerated and +illustrated are fairly general and of universal validity. There are +certain other factors which we may discuss here under the head of +economical procedure. To form a habit, we must practice. But how long +should we practice at one time? This is an experimental problem and has +been definitely solved. It has been proved by experiment that we can +practice profitably for as long a time as we can maintain a high degree +of attention, which is usually till we become fatigued. This time is not +the same for all people. It varies with age, and in the case of the same +person it varies at different times. If ordinary college students work +at habit-formation at the highest point of concentration, they get the +best return for a period of about a half hour. It depends somewhat on +the amount of concentration required for the work and the stage of +fixation of the habit, _i.e._ whether one has just begun to form the +habit or whether it is pretty well fixed. For children, the period of +successful practice is usually much less than a half hour--five, ten, +fifteen, twenty minutes, depending upon the age of the child and the +kind of work. + +The best interval between periods of practice is the day, twenty-four +hours. If one practices in the morning for a half hour, one can practice +again in the afternoon with nearly as much return as he would secure the +next day, but not quite. In general, practice is better, gives more +return, if spread out. To practice one day as long as one can work at a +high point of efficiency, and then to postpone further practice till the +next day, gives one the most return for the time put in. But if one is +in a hurry to form a habit, one can afford to practice more each day +even if the returns from the practice do diminish proportionately. + +This matter has been tried out on the typewriter. If one practices for +ten half hours a day with half-hour rests between, one does not get so +much return for his time as he would if he should spread it out at the +rate of one or two half-hour practices a day. But by working ten half +hours a day, one gets much more efficiency in the same number of days +than if he should practice only one or two half hours a day. This point +must not be misunderstood. We do not mean that one must not work at +anything longer than a half hour a day. We mean that if one is forming a +habit, his time counts for more in forming the habit if spread out at +the rate of a half hour or an hour a day, than it does if put in at a +faster rate. Therefore if one is in no hurry and can afford to spread +out his time, he gets the best return by so doing, and the habit is more +firmly fixed than if formed hurriedly. But if one is in a hurry, and has +the time to devote to it, he can afford to concentrate his practice up +to five hours or possibly more in a day, provided that rest intervals +are interspersed between periods of practice. + +There is one time in habit-formation when concentrated practice is most +efficient. That is at the beginning. In a process as complicated as +typewriting, so little impression is made at the beginning by a short +period of practice that progress is but slight. On the first day, one +should practice about four or five times to secure the best returns, a +half hour each time. + +=What the Teacher Can Do.= Now, let us see how the teacher can be of +assistance to the pupil in habit-formation. The teacher should have a +clear idea of the nature of the habit to be formed and should +demonstrate the habit to the pupil. Suppose the habit is so simple a +thing as long division. The teacher should explain each step in the +process. She should go to the blackboard and actually solve a number of +problems in long division, so that the pupils can see just how to do it. +After this the pupils should go to the board and solve a problem +themselves. The reason for this procedure is that it is most economical. +If the children are left to get the method of doing long division from a +book, they will not be able to do it readily and will make mistakes. A +teacher can explain a process better than it can be explained in a book. +By giving a full explanation and demonstration and then by requiring the +children to work a few problems while she watches for mistakes, +correcting them at once, the teacher secures economy of effort and time. +The first step is to demonstrate the habit to the pupils; the second, to +have them do the act, whatever it is, correcting their mistakes; the +third, to require the pupils to practice till they have acquired skill. +The teacher must make provision for practice. + +=What Parents Can Do.= Parents can be of very great assistance to children +who are forming habits. + +(1) They can cooeperate with the school, which is directing the child in +the systematic formation of a great system of habits. The teacher should +explain these habits to the parents so that they may know what the +teacher is trying to do. Quite often the home and the school are working +at cross purposes. The only way to prevent this is for them to work in +the closest cooeperation, with the fullest understanding of what is being +undertaken for the child. Parents and teachers should often meet +together and talk over the work of training the children of the +community. Parents should have not merely a general understanding of the +work of the school, but they should know the details undertaken. The +school often assigns practice work to be done at home in reading, +writing, arithmetic. Parents should always know of these assignments and +should help the children get the necessary practice. They can do this by +reminding the child of the work, by preparing a suitable place where the +work may be done, and by securing quiet for the practice. Children like +play and it is easy for them to forget their necessary work. Parents can +be of the greatest service to childhood and youth by holding the +children to their responsibilities and duties. + +Few parents take any thought of whether their children are doing all +possible for their school progress. Few of those who do, make definite +plans and arrangements for the children to accomplish the necessary +practice and study. This is the parent's duty and responsibility. +Moreover, parents are likely to feel that children have no rights, and +think nothing of calling on them in the midst of their work to do some +errand. Now, children should work about the house and help their +parents, but there should be a time for this and a separate time for +study and practice on school work. + +When a child sits down for serious practice on some work, his time +should be sacred and inviolable. Instead of interfering with the child, +the parents should do everything in their power to make this practice +possible and efficient. In their relations with their children perhaps +parents sin more in the matter of neglecting to plan for them than in +any other way. They plan for everything else, but they let their +children grow up, having taken no definite thought about helping them to +form their life habits and to establish these habits by practice. When a +child comes home from school, the mother should find out just what work +is to be done before the next day and should plan the child's play and +work in such a way as to include all necessary practice. If all parents +would do this, the value to the work of the school and to the life of +the child would be incalculable. + +(2) Just as one of the main purposes of the teacher is to help the child +gain initiative, so it is one of the greatest of the parents' duties. +Parents must help the children to keep their purposes before them. +Children forget, even when they wish to remember. Often, they do not +want to remember. The parents' duty is to get the child to _want_ to +remember, and to help him to remember, whether he wants to or not. One +of the main differences between childhood and maturity is that the child +lives in the present, his purposes are all immediate ones. Habits always +look forward, they are for future good and use. Mature people have +learned to look forward and to plan for the future. They must, +therefore, perform this function for the children. They must look +forward and see what the child should learn to do, and then see that he +learns to do it. + +(3) Parents must help children to plan their lives in general and in +detail; _i.e._ in the sense of determining the ideals and habits that +will be necessary for those lives. The parents must do this with the +help of the child. The child must not be a blind follower, but as the +child's mind becomes mature enough, the parent must explain the matter +of forming life habits, and must show the child that life is a structure +that he himself is to build. Life will be what he makes it, and the time +for forming character is during early years. The parent must not only +tell the child this but must help him to realize the truth of it, must +help him continually, consistently. + +(4) Of course it is hardly necessary to say that the parent can help +much, perhaps most, by example. The parent must not only tell the child +what to do but must _show_ him how it should be done. + +(5) Parents can help in the ways mentioned above, but they can also help +by cooeperating among themselves in planning for the training of the +children of the community. One parent cannot train his children +independently of all the other people in the community. There must be a +certain unity of ideals and aims. Therefore, not only is there need for +cooeperation between parents and teachers but among parents themselves. +Although they cooeperate in everything else, they seldom do in the +training of their children. The people of a community should meet +together occasionally to plan for this common work. + +=Importance of Habit in Education and Life.= A man is the sum of his +habits and ideals. He has language habits; he speaks German, or French, +or English. He has writing habits, spelling habits, reading habits, +arithmetic habits. He has political habits, religious habits. He has +various social habits, habitual attitudes which he takes toward his +fellows. He has moral habits--he is honest and truthful, or he is +dishonest and untruthful. He always looks on the bright side, or else on +the dark side of events. All these habits and many more, he has. They +are structures which he has built. One's life, then, is the sum of his +tendencies, and these tendencies one establishes in early life. + +This view gives an importance to the work of the school which is derived +from no other view. The school is not a place where we get this little +bit of information, or the other. It is the place where we are molded, +formed, and shaped into the beings we are to be. The school has not +risen to see the real importance of its work. Its aims have been low and +its achievements much lower than its aims. Teachers should rise to the +importance of their calling. Their work is that of gods. They are +creators. They do not make the child. They do not give it memory or +attention or imagination. But they are creators of tendencies, +prejudices, religions, politics, and other habits unnumbered. So that in +a very real sense, the school, with all the other educational +influences, makes the man. We do not give a child the capacity to learn, +but we can determine what he shall learn. We do not give him memory, but +we can select what he shall remember. We do not make the child as he is +at the beginning, but we can, in large measure, determine the world of +influences which complete the task of _making_. + +In the early part of life every day and every hour of the day +establishes and strengthens tendencies. Every year these tendencies +become stronger. Every year after maturity, we resist change. By +twenty-five or thirty, "character has set like plaster." The general +attitude and view of the world which we have at maturity, we are to hold +throughout life. Very few men fundamentally change after this. It takes +a tremendous influence and an unusual situation to break one up and make +him an essentially different man after maturity. Every year a "crank" +becomes "crankier." + +It is well that this is so. Everything in the world costs its price. +Rigidity is the price we pay for efficiency. In order to be efficient, +we must make habitual the necessary movements. After they are +habituated, they resist change. But habit makes for regularity and +order. We could not live in society unless there were regularity, +order, fixity. Habit makes for conservatism. But conservatism is +necessary for order. In a sense, habit works against progress. But +permanent improvement without habit would be impossible, for permanent +progress depends upon holding what we gain. It is well for society that +we are conservative. We could not live in the chaos that would exist +without habit. Public opinion resists change. People refuse to accept a +view that is different from the one they have held. We could get nowhere +if we continually changed, and it is well for us that we continue to do +the old way to which we have become accustomed, till a new and better +one is shown beyond doubt. Even then, it is probably better for an old +person to continue to use the accustomed methods of a lifetime. Although +better methods are developed, they will not be so good for the old +person as those modes of action that he is used to. The possibility of +progress is through new methods which come in with each succeeding +generation. + +When we become old we are not willing to change, but the more reasonable +of us are willing that our children should be taught a better way. +Sometimes, of course, we find people who say that what was good enough +for them is good enough for their children. Most of us think better, and +wish to give our children a "better bringing up than ours has been." + +These considerations make clear the importance of habit in life. They +should also make clear a very important corollary. If habits are +important in life, then it is the duty of parents and teachers to make a +careful selection of the habits that are to be formed by the children. +The habits that will be necessary for the child to form in order to meet +the various situations of his future life, should be determined. There +should be no vagueness about it. Definite habits, social, moral, +religious, intellectual, professional, etc., will be necessary for +efficiency. We should know what these various habits are, and should +then set about the work of establishing them with system and +determination, just as we would the building of a house. Much school +work and much home training is vague, indefinite, uncertain, done +without a clear understanding of the needs or of the results. We +therefore waste time, years of the child's life, and the results are +unsatisfactory. + +=Drill in School Subjects.= In many school subjects, the main object is to +acquire skill in certain processes. As previously explained, we can +become skillful in an act only by repetition of the act. Therefore, in +those subjects in which the main object is the acquiring of skill, there +must be much repetition. This repetition is called drill. The matter of +economical procedure in drill has already been considered, but there are +certain problems connected with drill that must be further discussed. + +Drill is usually the hardest part of school work. It becomes monotonous +and tiresome. Moreover, drill is always a means. It is the means by +which we become efficient. Take writing, for example. It is not an end +in itself; it is the means by which we convey thoughts. Reading is a +means by which we are able to get the thought of another. In acquiring a +foreign language, we have first to master the elementary tools that will +enable us to make the thought of the foreign language our own. + +It seems that the hardest part of education always comes first, when we +are least able to do it. It used to be that nearly all the work of the +school was drill. There was little school work that was interesting in +itself. In revolt against this kind of school, many modern educators +have tried to plan a curriculum that would be interesting to the child. +In schools that follow this idea, there is little or no drill, pure and +simple. There is no work that is done for the sole purpose of acquiring +skill. The work is so planned that, in pursuing it, the child will of +necessity have to perform the necessary acts and will thereby gain +efficiency. In arithmetic, there is no adding, subtracting, multiplying, +or dividing, only as such things must be done in the performance of +something else that is interesting in itself. For example, the child +plays store and must add up the sales. The child plays bean bag and must +add up the score. Practice gained in this indirect way is known as +incidental drill. Direct drill consists in making a direct approach; we +wish to be efficient at adding, so we practice adding as such and not +merely as incidental to something else. + +This plan of incidental drill is in harmony with the principle of +interest previously explained. There are several things, however, that +must be considered. The proper procedure would seem to be to look +forward and find out in what directions the child will need to acquire +skill and then to help him acquire it in the most economical way and at +the proper time. Nature has so made us that we like to do a new trick. +When we have taught a child how to add and subtract, he likes to perform +these operations because the operations themselves give pleasure. +Therefore much repetition can be allowed and much skill acquired by a +direct approach to the practice. When interest drags, incidental drill +can be fallen back upon to help out the interest. Children should be +taught that certain things must be done, certain skill must be acquired. +They should accept some things on the authority of elders. They should +be taught to apply themselves and to give their whole attention to a +thing that must be done. A desire for efficiency can be developed in +them. The spirit of competition can sometimes be effectively used to add +interest to drill. Of course, interest and attention there must be, and +if it cannot be secured in one way, it must be in another. + +Experiments have abundantly shown the value of formal drill, that is to +say, drill for drill's sake. If an arithmetic class is divided, one half +being given a few minutes' drill on the fundamental operations each day +but otherwise doing exactly the same work as the other half of the +class, the half receiving the drill acquires much more skill in the +fundamental operations and, besides, is better at reasoning out problems +than the half that had no drill. The explanation of the latter fact is +doubtless that the pupils receiving the drill acquire such efficiency in +the fundamental operations that these cause no trouble, leaving all the +energies of the pupils for reasoning out the problems. + +It has been shown experimentally that a direct method of teaching +spelling is more efficient than an indirect method. It is not to be +wondered at that such turns out to be the case. For in a direct +approach, the act that we are trying to habituate is brought more +directly before consciousness, receiving that focal attention which is +necessary for the most efficient practice in habit-formation. If one +wishes to be a good ball pitcher, one begins to pitch balls, and +continues pitching balls day after day, morning, noon, and night. One +does not go about it indirectly. If one wishes to be a good shot with a +rifle, one gets a rifle and goes to shooting. Similarly, if one wishes +to be a good adder, the way to do is to begin adding, not to begin doing +something else. Of course any method that will induce a child to realize +that he ought to acquire a certain habit, is right and proper. We must +do all we can to give a child a desire, an interest in the thing that he +is trying to do. But there is no reason why the thing should not be +faced directly. + +=Rules for Habit Formation.= In the light of the various principles which +we have discussed, what rules can be given to one forming habits? The +evident answer is, to proceed in accordance with established principles. +We may, however, bring the most important of these principles together +in the form of rules which can serve as a guide and help to one forming +habits. + +(1) _Get initiative._ By this is meant that a person forming a habit +should have some sustaining reason for doing it, some end that is being +sought. This principle will be of very little use to young children, +only to those old enough to appreciate reasons and ends. In arithmetic, +for example, a child should be shown what can be accomplished if he +possesses certain skill in addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It +is not always possible for a young person to see why a certain habit +should be formed. For the youngest children, the practice must be in the +form of play. But when a child is old enough to think, to have ideals +and purposes, reasons and explanations should be worked out. + +(2) _Get practice._ If you are to have skill, you must practice. +Practice regularly, practice hard while you are doing it. Throw your +whole life into it, as if what you are doing is the most important +thing in the world. Practice under good conditions. Do not think that +just any kind of practice will do. Try to make conditions such that they +will enable you to do your best work. Such conditions will not happen by +chance. You must make them happen. You must make conditions favorable. +You must seek opportunities to practice. You must realize that your life +is in the making, that _you_ are making it, that it is to a large extent +composed of habits. These habits you are building. They are built only +by practice. Get practice. When practicing, fulfill the psychological +conditions. Work under the most favorable circumstances as to length of +periods, intervals, etc. + +(3) _Allow no exceptions._ You should fully realize the great influence +of exceptions. When you start in to form a habit, allow nothing to turn +you from your course. Whether the habit is some fundamental moral habit +or the multiplication table, be consistent, do not vacillate. Nothing is +so strong as consistent action, nothing so weak as doubtful, wavering, +uncertain action. Have the persistence of a bull dog and the regularity +of planetary motion. + +=Transfer of Training.= Our problem now is to find out whether forming one +habit helps one to form another. In some cases it does. The results of a +recent experiment performed in the laboratory of educational psychology +in the University of Missouri, will show what is meant. It was found +that if a person practiced distributing cards into pigeon holes till +great proficiency was attained, and then the numbering of the boxes or +pigeon holes was changed, the person could learn the new numbering and +gain proficiency in distributing the cards in the new way more quickly +than was the case at first. Similarly, if one learns to run a +typewriter with a certain form of keyboard, one can learn to operate a +different keyboard much more quickly than was the case in learning the +first keyboard. + +It is probable that the explanation of this apparent transfer is that +there are common elements in the two cases. Certain bonds established in +the first habit are available in the second. In the case of distributing +the cards, many such common elements can be made out. One gains facility +in reading the numbering of the cards. The actual movement of the hand +in getting to a particular box is the same whatever the number of the +box. One acquires schemes of associating and locating the boxes, schemes +that will work in both cases. But suppose that one spends fifteen days +in distributing cards according to one scheme of numbering, and then +changes the numbering and practices for fifteen days with the new +numbering, at the end of the second fifteen days one has more skill than +at the close of the first fifteen days. In fact, in five days one has as +much skill in the new method as was acquired in fifteen days in the +first method. However, and this is an important point, the speed in the +new way is not so great as the speed acquired in thirty days using one +method or one scheme all the time. Direct practice on the specific habit +involved is always most efficient. + +One should probably never learn one thing _just because_ it will help +him in learning something else, for that something else could be more +economically learned by direct practice. Learning one language probably +helps in learning another. A year spent in learning German will probably +help in learning French. But two years spent in learning French will +give more efficiency in French than will be acquired by spending one +year on German and then one year on French. If the only reason for a +study is that it helps in learning something else, then this study +should be left out of the curriculum. If the only reason for studying +Latin, for example, is that it helps in studying English, or French, or +helps in grammar, or gives one a larger vocabulary in English on account +of a knowledge of the Latin roots, then the study of the language cannot +be justified; for all of these results could be much more economically +and better attained by a direct approach. Of course, if Latin has a +justification in itself, then these by-products are not to be despised. + +The truth seems to be that habits are very specific things. A definite +stimulus goes over to a definite response. We must decide what habits we +need to have established, and then by direct and economical practice +establish these habits. It is true that in pursuing some studies, we +acquire habits that are of much greater applicability in the affairs of +life than can be obtained from other studies. When one has acquired the +various adding habits, he has kinds of skill that will be of use in +almost everything that is undertaken later. So also speaking habits, +writing habits, spelling habits, moral habits, etc., are of universal +applicability. Whenever one undertakes to do a thing that involves some +habit already formed, that thing is more easily done by virtue of that +habit. One could not very well learn to multiply one number by another, +such as 8,675,489 by 439,857, without first learning to add. + +This seems to be all there is to the idea of the transfer of training. +One gets an act, or an idea, or an attitude, or a point of view that is +available in a new thing, thereby making the new thing easier. The +methods one would acquire in the study of zooelogy would be, many of +them, directly applicable in the study of botany. But, just as truly, +one can acquire habits in doing one thing that will be a direct +hindrance in learning another thing. Knocking a baseball unfits one for +knocking a tennis ball. The study of literature and philosophy probably +unfits one for the study of an experimental science because the methods +are so dissimilar, in some measure antagonistic. + +=Habit and Moral Training.= By moral training, we mean that training which +prepares one to live among his fellows. It is a training that prepares +us to act in our relations with our fellow men in such a way as to bring +happiness to our neighbors as well as to ourselves. Specifically, it is +a training in honesty, truthfulness, sympathy, and industry. There are +other factors of morality but these are the most important. It is +evident at once that moral training is the most important of all +training. This is, at any rate, the view taken by society; for if a man +falls short in his relations with his fellows, he is punished. If the +extent of his falling is very great, his liberty is entirely taken away +from him. In some cases, he is put to death. Moral training, in addition +to being the most important, is also the most difficult. What the public +schools can do in this field is quite limited. The training which the +child gets on the streets and at home almost overshadows it. + +=Nature of Moral Training.= A good person is one who does the right social +thing at the right time. The more completely and consistently one does +this, the better one is. What kind of training can one receive that will +give assurance of appropriate moral action? Two things can be done to +give a child this assurance. The child can be led to form proper ideals +of action and proper habits of action. By ideal of action, we mean that +the child should know what the right action is, and have a desire to do +it. Habits of action are acquired only through action. As has been +pointed out in the preceding pages, continued action of a definite kind +develops a tendency to this particular action. One's character is the +sum of his tendencies to action. These tendencies can be developed only +through practice, through repetition. Moral training, therefore, has the +same basis as all other training, that is, in habits. The same procedure +that we use in teaching the child the multiplication table is the one to +use in developing honesty. In the case of the tables, we have the child +say "fifty-six" for "eight times seven." We have him do this till he +does it instantly, automatically. Honesty and truthfulness and the other +moral virtues can be fixed in the same way. + +=Home and Moral Training.= The home is the most important factor in moral +training. This is largely because of the importance of early habits and +attitudes. Obedience to parents and respect for authority, which in a +large measure underlie all other moral training, must be secured and +developed in the early years of childhood. The child does not start to +school till about six years old. At this age much of the foundation of +morality is laid. Unless the child learns strict obedience in the first +two or three years of life, it is doubtful whether he will ever learn it +aright. Without the habit of implicit obedience, it is difficult to +establish any other good habit. + +Parents should understand that training in morality consists, in large +measure, in building up habits, and should go about it in a systematic +way. As various situations arise in the early life of a child, the +parents should obtain from him the appropriate responses. When the +situations recur, the right responses should be again secured. Parents +should continue to insist upon these responses till tendencies are +formed for the right response to follow when the situation arises. After +continued repetition, the response comes automatically. The good man or +woman is the one who does the right thing as the situation presents +itself, does it as a matter of course because it is his nature. He does +not even think of doing the wrong thing. + +One of the main factors in child training is consistency. The parent +must inflexibly require the right action in the appropriate situation. +Good habits will not be formed if parents insist on proper action one +day but on the next day allow the child to do differently. + +Parents must plan the habits which they wish their children to form and +execute these plans systematically, exercising constant care. Parents, +and children as well, would profit from reading the plan used by +Franklin. Farseeing and clear-headed, Franklin saw that character is a +structure which one builds, so he set about this building in a +systematic way. For a certain length of time he practiced on one virtue, +allowing no exceptions in this one virtue. When this aspect of his +character had acquired strength, he added another virtue and then tried +to keep perfect as to both.[4] + +[4] See _Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin_. + +=The School and Moral Training.= In this, as in all other forms of +training, the school is supplementary to the home. The teacher should +have well in mind the habits and ideals that the home has been trying to +develop and should assist in strengthening the bonds. The school can do +much in developing habits of kindness and sympathy among the children. +It can develop civic and social ideals and habits. Just how it can best +do this is a question. Should moral ideals be impressed systematically +and should habits be formed at the time these ideals are impressed, or +should the different ideals be instilled and developed as occasion +demands? This is an experimental problem, and that method should be +followed which produces the best results. It is possible that one +teacher may use one method best while a different teacher will have +better success with another method. + +More important than the question of a systematic or an incidental method +is the question of making the matter vital when it is taken up. Nothing +is more certain than that mere knowledge of right action will not insure +right action. In a few hours one can teach a child, as matters of mere +knowledge, what he should do in all the important situations of life; +but this will not insure that he will henceforth do the right things. + +There are only two ways by which we can obtain any assurance that right +action will come. The first way is to secure right habits of response. +We must build up tendencies to action. Tendencies depend upon previous +action. The second way is to help the child to analyze moral situations +and see what results will follow upon the different kinds of action. +There can be developed in a child a desire to do that which will bring +joy and happiness to others, rather than pain and sorrow. But this +analysis of moral situations is not enough to insure right moral action; +there must be practice in doing the right thing. The situation must go +over to the right response to insure its going there the next time. The +first thing in moral training is to develop habits. Then, as soon as +the child is old enough he can strengthen his habits by a careful +analysis of the problem why one should act one way rather than another. +This adds motive; and motive gives strength and assurance. + + SUMMARY. Habits are acquired tendencies to specific actions in + definite situations. They are fixed through repetition. They give us + speed, accuracy, and certainty, they save energy and prevent + fatigue. They are performed with less attention and become + pleasurable. The main purpose of education is to form the + habits--moral, intellectual, vocational, cultural--necessary for + life. Habits and ideals are the basis of our mature life and + character. Moral training is essentially like other forms of + training, habit being the basis. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Practice on the formation of some habit until considerable skill is +acquired. Draw a learning curve similar to the one on page 95, showing +the increase in skill. A class experiment can be performed by the use of +a substitution test. Take letters to represent the nine digits, then +transcribe numbers into the letters as described on page 192. Keep a +record of successive five-minute periods of practice till all have +practiced an hour. This gives twelve practice periods for the +construction of a learning curve. The individual experiments should be +more difficult and cover a longer period. Suitable experiments for +individual practice are: learning to operate a typewriter, pitching +marbles into a hole, writing with the left hand, and mirror writing. The +latter is performed by standing a mirror vertically on the table, +placing the paper in front and writing in such a way that the letters +have the proper form and appearance when seen in the mirror. The subject +should not look at his hand but at its reflection in the mirror. A piece +of cardboard can be supported just over the hand so that only the image +of the hand in the mirror can be seen. + +2. A study of the interference of habit can be made as follows: Take +eight small boxes and arrange them in a row. Number each box plainly. Do +not number them consecutively, but as follows, 5, 7, 1, 8, 2, 3, 6, 4. +Make eighty cards, ten of each number, and number them plainly. Practice +distributing the cards into the boxes. Note the time required for each +distribution. Continue to distribute them till considerable skill is +acquired. Then rearrange the order of the boxes and repeat the +experiment. What do the results show? + +3. Does the above experiment show any transfer of training? Compare the +time for each distribution in the second part of the experiment, _i.e._ +after the rearrangement of the boxes, with the time for the +corresponding distribution in the first part of the experiment. The +question to be answered is: Are the results of the second part of the +experiment better than they would have been if the first part had not +been performed? State your results and conclusions and compare with the +statements in the text. + +4. A study of the effects of spreading out learning periods can be made +as follows: Divide the class into two equal divisions. Let one division +practice on a substitution experiment as explained in Exercise 1, for +five ten-minute periods of practice in immediate succession. Let the +other division practice for five days, ten minutes a day. What do the +results indicate? The divisions should be of equal ability. If the first +ten-minute practice period shows the sections to be of unequal ability, +this fact should be taken into account in making the comparisons. Test +sheets can be prepared by the teacher, or they can be obtained from the +Extension Division of the University of Missouri. + +5. An experiment similar to No. 4 can be performed by practicing adding +or any other school exercise. Care must be taken to control the +experiment and to eliminate disturbing factors. + +6. Try the card-distributing experiment with people of different ages, +young children, old people, and various ages in between. What do you +learn? Is it as easy for an old person to form a habit as it is for a +young person? Why? + +7. If an old person has no old habits to interfere, can he form a new +habit as readily as can a young person? + +8. Cite evidence from your own experience to prove that it is hard for +an old person to break up old habits and form new ones which interfere +with the old ones. + +9. Do you find that you are becoming "set in your ways?" + +10. What do we mean by saying that we are "plastic in early years"? + +11. Have you planned your life work? Are you establishing the habits +that will be necessary in it? + +12. Is it an advantage or a disadvantage to choose one's profession or +occupation early? + +13. Attention often interferes with the performance of a habitual act. +Why is this? + +14. If a man removes his vest in the daytime, he is almost sure to wind +his watch. On the other hand if he is up all night, he lets his watch +run down. Why? + +15. Do you know of people who have radically changed their views late in +life? + +16. Try to teach a dog or a cat a trick. What do you learn of importance +about habit-formation? + +17. What branches taught in school involve the formation of habits that +are useful throughout life? + +18. Make a list of the moral habits that should be formed in early +years. + +19. Write an essay on _Habit and Life_. + +20. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN AND BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XI and XVII. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, pp. 48-59; also Chapter XV. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapters X, XI, and XII. + +ROWE: _Habit Formation_, Chapters V-XIII. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, p. 169, par. 37. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +MEMORY + + +=Perceptions and Ideas.= In a previous chapter, brief mention was made of +the difference between perceptions and ideas. This distinction must now +be enlarged upon and made clearer. Perceptions arise out of our sensory +life. We see things when these things are before our eyes. We hear +things when these things produce air vibrations which affect our ears. +We smell things when tiny particles from them come into contact with a +small patch of sensitive membrane in our noses. We taste substances when +these substances are in our mouths. Now, this seeing, hearing, smelling, +tasting, etc., is _perceiving_. We perceive a thing when the thing is +actually at the time affecting some one or more of our sense organs. A +perception, then, results from the stimulation of a sense organ. +Perception is the process of perceiving, sensing, objects in the +external world. + +Ideas are our _seeming_ to see, hear, smell, taste things when these +things are not present to the senses. This morning I saw, had a +_perception_ of, a robin. To-night in my study, I have an _idea_ of a +robin. This morning the robin was present. Light reflected from it +stimulated my eye. To-night, as I have an idea of the robin, it is not +here; I only seem to see it. The scene which was mine this morning is +now revived, reproduced. We may say, therefore, that ideas are the +conscious representatives of objects which are not present to the +senses. Ideas are revived experiences. + +Revived experience is memory. Since it is memory that enables us to live +our lives over again, brings the past up to the present, it is one of +the most wonderful aspects of our natures. The importance of memory is +at once apparent if we try to imagine what life would be without it. If +our life were only perceptual, if it were only the sights and sounds and +smells and tastes of the passing moment, it would have little meaning, +it would be bare and empty. But instead of our perceptions being our +whole life, they are only the starting points of life. Perceptions serve +to arouse groups of memory images or ideas, and the groups of ideas +enrich the passing moment and give meaning to the passing perceptions, +which otherwise would have no meaning. + +Suppose I am walking along the street and meet a friend. I see him, +speak to him, and pass on. But after I have passed on, I have ideas. I +think of seeing my friend the day before. I think of what he said and of +what he was doing, of what I said and of what I was doing. Perhaps for +many minutes there come ideas from my past experience. These ideas were +aroused by the perception of my friend. The perception was momentary, +but it started a long train of memory ideas. + +I pass on down the street and go by a music store. Within the store, a +victrola is playing _Jesus, Lover of My Soul_. The song starts another +train of memory ideas. I think of the past, of my boyhood days and +Sunday school, my early home and many scenes of my childhood. For +several minutes I am so engrossed with the memory images that I +scarcely notice anything along the street. Again, the momentary +perception, this time of sounds, served to revive a great number of +ideas, or memories, of the past. + +These illustrations are typical of our life. Every moment we have +perceptions. These perceptions arouse ideas of our past life and +experience. One of these ideas evokes another, and so an endless chain +of images passes along. The older we become, the richer is our +ideational life. While we are children, the perceptions constitute the +larger part of our mental life, but as we become older, larger and +larger becomes the part played by our memory images or ideas. A child is +not content to sit down and reflect, giving himself up to the flow of +ideas that come up from his past experience, but a mature person can +spend hours in recalling past experience. This means that the older we +grow, the more we live in the past, the less we are bound down by the +present, and when we are old, instead of perceptions being the main part +of mental life, they but give the initial push to our thoughts which go +on in an endless chain as long as we live. + +=The Physiological Basis of Memory.= It will be remembered that the basis +of perception is the agitation of the brain caused by the stimulation of +a sense organ by an external thing or force. If there is no stimulation +of a sense organ, there is no sensation, no perception. Now, just as the +basis of sensation and perception is brain activity, so it is also the +basis of ideas. In sensation, the brain activity is set up from without. +In memory, when we have ideas, the brain activity is set up from within +and is a fainter revival of the activity originally caused by the +stimulation of the sense organ. Our ideas are just as truly conditioned +or caused by brain activity as are our sensations. + +Memory presents many problems, and psychologists have been trying for +many years to solve them. We shall now see what they have discovered and +what is the practical significance of the facts. + +=Relation of Memory to Age and Sex.= It is a common notion that memory is +best when we are young, but such is not the case. Numerous experiments +have shown that all aspects of memory improve with age. Some aspects of +memory improve more than others, and they improve at different times and +rates; but all aspects do improve. From the beginning of school age to +about fourteen years of age the improvement of most aspects of memory is +rapid. + +If we pronounce a number of digits to a child of six, it can reproduce +but few of them, a child of eight or ten can reproduce more, a child of +twelve can reproduce still more, and an adult still more. If we read a +sentence to children of different ages, we find that the older children +can reproduce a longer sentence. If we read a short story to children of +different ages, and then require them to reproduce the story in their +own words, the older children reproduce more of the story than do the +young children.[5] + +[5] See age and sex graphs, pp. 184, 188, 189. + +Girls excel boys in practically all the aspects of memory. + +In rote memory, that is, memory for lists of unrelated words, there is +not much difference; but the girls are somewhat better. However, in the +ability to remember the ideas of a story, girls excel boys at every age. +This superiority of girls over boys is not merely a matter of memory. A +girl is superior to a boy of the same age in nearly every way. This is +merely a fact of development. A girl develops faster than a boy, she +reaches maturity more quickly, in mind as well as in body. Although a +girl is lighter than a boy at birth, on the average she gains in weight +faster and is heavier at twelve than a boy of the same age. She also +gains faster in height, and for a few years in early adolescence is +taller than a boy of the same age. Of course, boys catch up and finally +become much taller and heavier than girls. Similarly, a girl's mind +develops faster than the mind of a boy, as shown in memory and other +mental functions. + +=The Improvement of Memory by Practice.= All aspects of memory can be +improved by practice, some aspects much, other aspects little. The +memory span for digits, or letters, or words, or for objects cannot be +much improved, but memory for ideas that are related, as the ideas of a +story, can be considerably improved. In extensive experiments conducted +in the author's laboratory, it was found that a person who at first +required an hour to memorize the ideas in a certain amount of material, +could, after a few months' practice, memorize the same amount in fifteen +minutes. And in the latter case the ideas would be better remembered +than they were at the beginning of the experiment. Not only could a +given number of ideas be learned in less time, but they would be better +retained when learned in the shorter time. If a person comes to us for +advice as to how to improve his memory, what should we tell him? In +order to answer the question, we must consider the factors of a good +memory. + +=Factors of a Good Memory.= (1) The first requirement is to get a good +impression in the beginning. Memory is revived experience. The more +vivid and intense the first experience, the more sure will be the later +recall. So if we wish to remember an experience, we must experience it +in the first place under the most favorable conditions. The thing must +be seen clearly, it must be understood, it must be in the focus of +consciousness. + +The best teaching is that which leads the child to get the clearest +apprehension of what is taught. If we are teaching about some concrete +thing, a plant, a machine, we should be sure that the child sees the +essential points, should be sure that the main principles enter his +consciousness. We should find out by questioning whether he really does +clearly understand what we are trying to get him to understand. Often we +think a pupil or student has forgotten, when the fact is that he never +really knew the thing which we wished to have him remember. + +The first requisite to memory, then, is to _know in the first place_. If +we wish to remember knowledge, the knowledge must be seen in the +clearest light, really _be_ knowledge, at the outset. Few people ever +really learn how to learn. They never see anything clearly, they never +stick to a point till it is apprehended in all its relations and +bearings; consequently they forget, largely because they never really +knew in the fullest sense. + +Most teaching is too abstract. The teacher uses words that have no +meaning to the pupil. Too much teaching deals with things indirectly. We +study _about_ things instead of studying things. In geography, for +example, we study about the earth, getting our information from a book. +We read about land formations, river courses, erosion, etc., when +instead we should study these objects and processes themselves. The +first thing in memory, then, is clear apprehension, clear understanding, +vivid and intense impression. + +(2) The second thing necessary to memory is to repeat the experience. +First we must get a clear impression, then we must repeat the experience +if we would retain it. It is a mistake to believe that if we have once +understood a thing, we will always thereafter remember it. We must think +our experiences over again if we wish to fix them for permanent +retention. + +We must organize our experience. To organize experience means to think +it over in its helpful relations. In memory, one idea arouses another. +When we have one idea, what other idea will this arouse? It depends on +what connections this idea has had in our minds in the past. It depends +on the associations that it has, and associations depend on our thinking +the ideas over together. + +Teachers and parents should help children to think over their +experiences in helpful, practical relations. Then in the future, when an +idea comes to mind, it brings along with it other ideas that have these +helpful, practical relations. We must not, then, merely repeat our +experiences, but must repeat them in helpful connections or +associations. In organizing our experience, we must systematize and +classify our knowledge. + +One of the chief differences in men is in the way they organize their +knowledge. Most of us have experiences abundant enough, but we differ in +the way we work over and organize these experiences. Organization not +only enables us to remember our experience, but brings our experience +back in the right connections. + +The advice that should be given to a student is the following: Make sure +that you understand. If the matter is a lesson in a book, go through it +trying to get the main facts; then go through it again, trying to see +the relation of all the facts. Then try to see the facts in relation to +your wider experience. If it is a history lesson, think of the facts of +the lesson in their relation to previous chapters. Think of the details +in their bearing on wider and larger movements. + +A teacher should always hold in mind the facts in regard to memory, and +should make her teaching conform to them. She should carefully plan the +presentation of a new topic so as to insure a clear initial impression. +A new topic should be presented orally by the teacher, with abundant +illustration and explanation. It cannot be made too concrete, it cannot +be made too plain and simple. + +Then after the teacher has introduced and made plain the new topic, the +pupil reads and studies further. At the next recitation of the class, +the first thing in order should be a discussion, on the part of the +pupils. This will help the pupils to get the facts cleared up and will +help the teacher to find out whether the pupils have the facts right. + +The first part of the recitation should also be a time for questions. +Everything should now be made clear, if there are any errors or +misunderstandings on the pupil's part. Of course any procedure in a +recitation should depend upon the nature of the material and to some +extent on the stage of advancement of the pupil; but in general such a +procedure as that just outlined will be most satisfactory and +economical: first clear initial presentation by the teacher; then +reading and study on the part of the pupil, and third, discussions on +the following day. + +Teachers should also endeavor to show students how to study to the best +advantage. Pupils do not know how to study. They do not know what to +look for, and do not know how to find it after they know what they are +looking for. They should be shown. Of course, some of them learn without +help how to study. But some never learn, and it would be a great saving +of time to help all of them master the arts of study and memorizing. + +A very important factor in connection with memory is the matter of +meaning. If a person will try to memorize a list of nonsense words, he +will find that it is much more difficult than to memorize words that +have meaning. This is a significant fact. It means that as material +approaches nonsense, it is difficult to memorize. Therefore we should +always try to grasp the meaning of a thing, its significance. In +science, let us always ask, what is the meaning of this fact? What +bearing does it have on other facts? How does it affect the meaning of +other facts? + +=Kinds of Memories.= We should not speak of memory as if it were some sort +of power like muscular strength. We should always speak of _memories_. +Memories may be classified from several different points of view: A +classification may be based on the kind of material, as memory for +concrete things, the actual objects of experience, on the one hand, and +memory for abstract material, such as names of things, their attributes +and relations, on the other. Again, we can base a classification on the +type of ideation to which the material appeals, as auditory memory, +visual memory, motor memory. We can also base a classification on the +principle of _meaning_. This principle of classification would give us +at least three classes: memory for ideas as expressed in sentences, +logical memory; memory for series of meaningful words not logically +related in sentences, rote memory; memory for series of meaningless +words, a form of rote memory. This classification is not meant to be +complete, but only suggestive. With every change in the kind of +material, the method of presenting the material to the subject, or the +manner in which the subject deals with the material, there may be a +change in the effectiveness of memory. + +While these different kinds or aspects of memory may have some relation +to one another, they are to some extent independent. One may have a good +rote memory and a poor logical memory, or a poor rote memory and a good +logical memory. That is to say, one may be very poor at remembering the +exact words of a book, but be good at remembering the meaning, the +ideas, of the book. One may be good at organizing meaningful material +but poor at remembering mere words. On the other hand, these conditions +may be reversed; one may remember the words but never get the meaning. +It is of course possible that much of this difference is due to habit +and experience, but some of the difference is beyond doubt due to +original differences in the nervous system and brain. These differences +should be determined in the case of all children. It is quite a common +thing to find a feeble-minded person with a good rote memory, but such a +person never has a good logical memory. One can have a good rote memory +without understanding, one cannot have a good logical memory without +understanding. + +Let us now ask the question, why can one remember better words that are +connected by logical relations than words that have no such connection? +If we read to a person a list of twenty nonsense words, the person can +remember only two or three; but if a list of twenty words connected in a +sentence were read to a person, in most cases, all of them would be +reproduced. The reason is that the words in the latter case are not new. +We already know the words. They are already a part of our experience. We +have had days, perhaps years, of experience with them. All that is now +new about them is perhaps a slightly new relation. + +Moreover, the twenty words may contain but one, or at most only a few, +ideas, and in this case it is the ideas that we remember. The ideas hold +the words together. If the twenty words contain a great number of ideas, +then we cannot remember all of them from one reading. If I say, "I have +a little boy who loves his father and mother very much, and this boy +wishes to go to the river to catch some fish," one can easily remember +all these words after one reading. But if I say, "The stomach in all the +Salmonidae is syphonal and at the pylorus are fifteen to two hundred +comparatively large pyloric coeca"; although this sentence is shorter, +one finds it more difficult to remember, and the main reason is that the +words are not so familiar. + +=Memory and Thinking.= What is the relation of memory to thinking and the +other mental functions? One often hears a teacher say that she does not +wish her pupils to depend on memory, but wishes them to reason things +out. Such a statement shows a misunderstanding of the facts; for +reasoning itself is only the recall of ideas in accordance with the laws +of association. Without memory, there would be no reasoning, for the +very material of thought is found to be the revived experiences which we +call ideas, memories. + +One of the first requisites of good thinking is a reliable memory. One +must have facts to reason, and these facts must come to one in memory to +be available for thought. If one wishes to become a great thinker in a +certain field, he must gain experience in that field and organize that +experience in such a way as to remember it and to recall it when it is +wanted. + +What one does deplore is memory for the mere words with no understanding +of the meaning. In geometry, for example, a student sometimes commits to +memory the words of a demonstration, with no understanding of the +meaning. Of course, that is worse than useless. One should remember the +meaning of the demonstration. If one has memorized the words only, he +cannot solve an original problem in geometry. But if he has understood +the meaning of the demonstration, then he recalls it, and is enabled to +solve the problem. If one does not remember the various facts about the +relationships in a triangle, he cannot solve a problem of the triangle +until he has worked out and discovered the necessary facts. Then memory +would make them available for the solution of the problem. + +=Memory and School Standing.= That memory plays a large part in our life +is evident; and, of course, it is an important factor in all school +work. It matters not what we learn, if we do not remember it. The author +has made extensive experiments to determine the relation that memory has +to a child's progress in school. + +The method used was to give logical memory tests to all the children in +a school and then rank the children in accordance with their abilities +to reproduce the story used in the test. Then they were ranked according +to their standing in their studies. A very high correlation was found. +On the whole, the pupils standing highest in the memory tests were found +to stand highest in their studies. It is true, of course, that they did +not stand highest merely because they had good memories, but because +they were not only better in memory, but were better in most other +respects too. Pupils that are good in logical memory are usually good in +other mental functions. + +A test of logical memory is one of the best to give us an idea of the +school standing of pupils. Not only is the retention of ideas of very +great importance itself, but the acquiring of ideas, and the organizing +of them in such a way as to remember them involves nearly all the mental +functions. The one who remembers well ideas logically related, is the +one who pays the closest attention, the one who sees the significance, +the one who organizes, the one who repeats, the one who turns things +over in his mind. A logical memory test is therefore, to some extent, a +test of attention, association, power of organization as well as of +memory; in a word, it is a test of mental power. + +Other things being equal, a person whose power of retention is good has +a great advantage over his fellows who have poor ability to remember. +Suppose we consider the learning of language. The pupil who can look up +the meaning of a word just once and remember it has an advantage over +the person who has to look up the meaning of the word several times +before it is retained. So in any branch of study, the person who can +acquire the facts in less time than another person, has the extra time +for learning something else or for going over the same material and +organizing it better. The scientist who remembers all the significant +facts that he reads, and sees their bearing on his problems, has a great +advantage over the person who does not remember so well. + +Of course, there are certain dangers in having a good memory, just as +there is danger in being brilliant generally. The quick learner is in +danger of forming slovenly habits. A person who learns quickly is likely +to form the habit of waiting till the last minute to study his lesson +and then getting a superficial idea of it. The slow learner must form +good habits of study to get on at all. + +Teachers and parents should prevent the bright children from forming bad +habits of study. The person who learns quickly and retains well should +be taught to be thorough and to use the advantage that comes from +repetition. The quick learner should not be satisfied with one attack on +his lesson, but should study the lesson more than once, for even the +brilliant learner cannot afford to neglect the advantages that come from +repetition. A person with poor memory and only mediocre ability +generally can make up very much by hard work and by work that takes +advantage of all the laws of economical learning. But he can never +compete successfully with the person who works as hard as he does and +who has good powers of learning and retention. + +The author has found that in a large class of a hundred or more, there +is usually a person who has good memory along with good mental ability +generally, and is also a hard worker. Such a person always does the best +work in the class. A person with poor memory and poor mental powers +generally cannot hope to compete with a person of good memory, good +mental powers generally, if that person is also a good worker. + +=Learning and Remembering.= A popular fallacy is expressed in the saying +"Easy come, easy go." The person who is the best learner is also the +best in retaining what is learned, provided all other conditions are the +same. This matter was determined in the following way: A logical memory +test was given to all the children in a city school system. A story was +read to the pupils and then reproduced by them in writing. The papers +were corrected and graded and nothing more was said about the test for +one month. Then at the same time in every room, the teachers said, "You +remember the story I read to you some time ago and which I asked you to +reproduce. Well, I wish to see how much of the story you still +remember." The pupils were then required to write down all the story +that they could recall. + +It was found that, in general, the children who write the most when the +story is first read to them, write the most after the lapse of a month, +and the poorest ones at first are the poorest ones at the end of the +month. Of course, the correspondence is not perfect, but in some cases, +in some grades, it is almost so. + +The significance of this experiment is very great. It means that the +pupil who gets the most facts from a lesson will have the most facts at +any later time. This is true, of course, only if other things are equal. +If one pupil studies about the matter more, reflects upon it, repeats it +in his mind, of course this person will remember more, other things +being equal. But if neither reviews the matter, or if both do it to an +equal extent, then the one who learns the most in the first place, +remembers the most at a later time. + +I have also tested the matter out in other ways. I have experimented +with a group of men and women, by reading a passage of about a page in +length, repeating the reading till the subject could reproduce all the +facts. It was found that the person who acquired all the facts from the +fewest readings remembered more of the facts later. It must be said that +there is less difference between the subjects later than at first. + +In the laboratory of Columbia University a similar experiment was +performed, but in a somewhat different way. Students were required to +commit to memory German vocabularies and were later tested for their +retention of the words learned. It was found that those who learned the +most words in a given time, also retained the largest percentage of what +had been learned. It should not be surprising that this is the case. The +quick learner is the one who makes the best use of all the factors of +retention, the factors mentioned in the preceding paragraph--good +attention, association, organization, etc. + +Another experiment performed in the author's laboratory bears out the +above conclusions. A group of students were required to commit to memory +at one sitting a long list of nonsense syllables. The number of +repetitions necessary to enable each student to reproduce them was +noted. One day later, the students attempted to reproduce the syllables. +Of course they could not, and they were then required to say them over +again till they could just repeat them from memory. The number of +repetitions was noted. The number of repetitions was much less than on +the first day. On the third day, the process was repeated. The number of +repetitions was fewer still. This relearning was kept up each day till +each person could repeat the syllables from memory without any study. +It was found that the person who learned the syllables in the fewest +repetitions the first time, relearned them in the fewest repetitions on +succeeding days. All the experiments bearing on the subject point to the +same conclusion; namely, that the quick learner, if other things are +equal, retains at least as well as the slow learner, and usually retains +better. + +=Transfer of Memory Training.= We have said above that there are many +kinds or aspects of memory. It has also been said that we can improve +memory by practice. Now, the question arises, if we improve one aspect +of memory, does this improve all aspects? This is an important question; +moreover, it is one to be settled by experiment and not by argument. + +The most extensive and thorough experiment was performed by an English +psychologist, Sleight. The experiment was essentially as follows: He +took a large number of pupils and tested the efficiency of the various +aspects of their memory. He then took half of them and trained one +aspect of their memory until there was considerable improvement. The +other section had no memory training meanwhile. After the training, both +groups again had all aspects of their memory tested. Both groups showed +improvement in all aspects because the first tests gave them some +practice, but the group that had been receiving the training was no +better in those aspects not trained than was the group receiving no +training at all. Aspects of memory much like the one trained showed some +improvement, but other aspects did not. + +The conclusion is that memory training is specific, that it affects only +the kind of memory trained, and related memories. This is in harmony +with what we learned about habit. When we receive training, it affects +only the parts of us trained and other closely related parts. + +=Learning by Wholes.= We do not often have to commit to memory verbatim, +but when we do, it is important that we should know the most economical +way. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that the most economical way +is to read the entire selection through from beginning to end and +continue to read it through in this way till the matter is learned by +heart. + +In long selections, the saving by this method is considerable. A pupil +is not likely to believe this because if he spends a few minutes +learning in this manner, he finds that he cannot repeat a single line, +while if he had concentrated on one line, he could have repeated at +least that much. This is true; but although he cannot repeat a single +line by the whole procedure, he has learned nevertheless. It would be a +good thing to demonstrate this fact to a class; then the pupils would be +satisfied to use the most economical procedure. The plan holds good +whether the matter be prose or poetry. + +But experiments have been carried on only with verbatim learning. The +best procedure for learning the facts so that one can give them in one's +own words has not yet been experimentally determined. + +=Cramming.= An important practical question is whether it pays to go over +a great amount of material in a very short time, as students often do +before examinations. From all that has been said above, one could infer +the solution to this problem. Learning and memorizing are to some extent +a growth, and consequently involve time. + +There is an important law of learning and memory known as Jost's law, +which may be stated as follows: If we repeat or renew associations, the +repetitions have most value for the old associations. Therefore when we +learn, we should learn and then later relearn. This will make for +permanent retention. Of course, if we wish to get together a great mass +of facts for a temporary purpose and do not care to retain them +permanently, cramming is the proper method. If we are required to pass +an examination in which a knowledge of many details is expected and +these details have no important permanent value, cramming is justified. +When a lawyer is preparing a case to present to a court, the actual, +detail evidence is of no permanent value, and cramming is justified. + +But if we wish to acquire and organize facts for their permanent value, +cramming is not the proper procedure. The proper procedure is for a +student to go over his work faithfully as the term of school proceeds, +then occasionally review. At the end of the term, a rapid review of the +whole term's work is valuable. After one has studied over matter and +once carefully worked it out, a quick view again of the whole subject is +most valuable, and assists greatly in making the acquisition permanent. +But if the matter has not been worked out before, the hasty view of the +material of the course, while it may enable one to pass the examination, +has no permanent value. + +=Function of the Teacher in Memory Work.= The function of a teacher is +plainly to get the pupils to learn in accordance with the laws of memory +above set forth; but there are certain things that a teacher can do that +may not have become evident to the reader. It has been learned in +experiments in logical memory that when a story is read to a subject and +the subject attempts to reproduce it, certain mistakes are made. When +the story is read again, it is common for the same mistakes to be made +in the recall. Certain ideas were apprehended in a certain way; and, +when the piece is read again, the subject pays no more attention to the +ideas already acquired and reported, and they are therefore reported +wrongly as they were in the first place. Often the subject does not +notice the errors till his attention is called to them. + +This suggests an important function of the teacher in connection with +the memory work of the pupils. This function is to correct mistakes in +the early stages of learning. A teacher should always be on the watch to +find the errors of the pupils and to correct them before they are fixed +by repetition. + +A teacher should, also, consider it her duty to test the memory +capacities of the pupils and to give each the advice that the case +demands. + +=Some Educational Inferences.=--There are certain consequences to +education that follow from the facts of memory above set forth that are +of considerable significance. Many things have been taught to children +on the assumption that they could learn them better in childhood than +later, because it was thought that memory and the learning capacity were +better in childhood. But both of these assumptions are false. As +children grow older their learning capacity increases and their memories +become better. + +It has particularly been held that rote memory is better in childhood +and that therefore children should begin their foreign language study +early. It is true that as far as _speaking_ a foreign language is +concerned, the earlier a child begins it the better. But this is not +true of learning to read the language. The sounds of the foreign +language that we have not learned in childhood in speaking the mother +tongue are usually difficult for us to make. The organs of speech become +set in the way of their early exercise. In reading the foreign language, +correct pronunciation is not important. We are concerned with _getting_ +the thought, and this is possible without pronouncing at all. Reference +to graphs on pages 190 and 191 will show that rote memory steadily +improves throughout childhood and youth. The author has performed +numerous experiments to test this very point. He has had adults work +side by side with children at building up new associations of the rote +memory type and found that always the adult could learn faster than the +child and retain better what was learned. + +The experience of language teachers in college and university does not +give much comfort to those who claim that language study should be begun +early. These teachers claim that the students who have had previous +language study do no better than those who have had none. It seems, +however, that there certainly ought to be _some_ advantage in beginning +language study early and spreading the study out over the high school +period. But what is gained does not offset the tremendous loss that +follows from requiring _all_ high school students to study a foreign +language merely to give an opportunity for early study to those who are +to go on in the university with language courses. A mature university +student that has a real interest in language and literature can begin +his language study in the university and make rapid progress. Some of +the best classical scholars whom the author knows began their language +study in the university. While it would have been of some advantage to +them to have begun their language study earlier, there are so few who +should go into this kind of work that society cannot afford to make +provision for their beginning the study in the high school. + +The selection and arrangement of the studies in the curriculum must be +based on other grounds than the laws of memory. What children make most +progress in and need most to know are the concrete things of their +physical and social environment. Children must first learn the +world--the woods and streams and birds and flowers and plants and +animals, the earth, its rocks and soils and the wonderful forces at work +in it. They must learn man,--what he is and what he does and how he does +it; how he lives and does his work and how he governs himself. They +should also learn to read and to write their mother tongue, and should +learn something of that great store of literature written in the mother +tongue. + +The few that are to be scholars in language and literature must wait +till beginning professional study before taking up their foreign +language; just as a person who is to be a lawyer or physician must also +wait till time to enter a university before beginning special +professional preparation. The child's memory for abstract conceptions is +particularly weak in early years; hence studies should be so arranged as +to acquaint the child with the concrete aspects of the world first, and +later to acquaint him with the abstract relations of things. Mathematics +should come late in the child's life, for the same reason. Mathematics +deals with quantitative relations which the child can neither learn nor +remember profitably and economically till he is more mature. The child +should first learn the world in its descriptive aspects. + +=Memory and Habit.= The discussion up to this point should have made it +clear to the reader that memory is much the same thing as habit. Memory +considered as retention depends upon the permanence of the impression on +the brain; but in its associative aspects depends on connections between +brain centers, as is the case with habit. The association of ideas, +which is the basis of their recall, is purely a matter of habit +formation. + +When I think of George Washington, I also think of the Revolution, of +the government, of the presidency, of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, +etc., because of the connections which these ideas have had in my mind +many times before. There is a basis in the brain structure for these +connections. There is nothing in any _idea_ that connects it with +another idea. Ideas become connected because of the _way in which we +experience them_, and the reason one idea calls up another idea is +because the brain process that is the cause of one idea brings about +another brain process that is the cause of a second idea. The whole +thing is merely a matter of the way the brain activities become +organized. Therefore the various laws of habit-formation have +application to memory in so far as memory is a matter of the association +of ideas, based on brain processes. + +One often has the experience of trying to recall a name or a fact and +finds that he cannot. Presently the name or fact may come, or it may not +come till the next day or the next week. What is the cause of this +peculiar phenomenon? The explanation is to be found in the nervous +system. When one tries to recall the name and it will not come to mind, +there is some temporary block or hindrance in the nerve-path that leads +from one center to the other and one cannot think of the name till the +obstruction is removed. We go on thinking about other things, and in the +meantime the activities going on in the brain remove the obstruction; so +when the matter comes up again, the nerve current shoots through, and +behold, the name comes to mind. + +[Illustration: FIGURE IV--ASSOCIATIVE CONNECTIONS +The diagram represents schematically the neural basis of the association +of ideas.] + +Now the only preventive of such an occurrence is to be found in the law +of habit, for the block ordinarily occurs in case of paths or bonds not +well established. We must _think together_ the things we wish to have +associated. Repetition is the key to the situation, repetition which is +the significant thing in habit-formation, repetition which is the only +way of coupling two things which we wish to have associated together. + +Of course, there is no absolute coupling of two ideas. One sometimes +forgets his own name. When we are tired or ill, things which were the +most closely associated may not hang together. But those ideas hold +together in the firmest way that have been experienced together most +often in a state of attention. The diagram on page 147 illustrates +schematically the neural connections and cross-connections which are the +bases of the association of ideas, the circles _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_, +and _F_ represent brain processes which give rise to ideas, and the +lines represent connecting paths. Note that there are both direct and +indirect connections. + + SUMMARY. Sensation and perception give us our first experience with + things; memory is revived experience. It enables us to live our + experience over again and is therefore one of the most important + human traits. The physiological basis of memory is in the brain and + nervous system. Memory improves with practice and up to a certain + point with the age of the person. It is better in girls than in + boys. Good memory depends on vivid experience in the first place and + on organization and repetition afterward. The person who learns + quickly usually retains well also. Memory training is specific. The + extension of the learning process over a long time is favorable to + memory. Memory ideas are the basis of thinking and reasoning. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. The teacher can test the auditory memory of the members of the class +for rote material by using letters. It is better to omit the vowels, +using only the consonants. Prepare five groups of letters with eight +letters in a group. Read each group of letters to the class, slowly and +distinctly. After reading a group, allow time for the students to write +down what they recall, then read the next group and so proceed till the +five groups have been read. Grade the work by finding the number of +letters reproduced, taking no account of the position of the letters. + +2. In a similar way, test visual memory, using different combinations of +letters. Write the letters plainly on five large squares of cardboard. +Hold each list before the class for as long a time as it took to read a +group in experiment No. 1. + +3. Test memory for words in a similar way. Use simple words of one +syllable, making five lists with eight words in a list. + +4. Test memory for objects by fastening common objects on a large +cardboard and holding the card before the class. Put eight objects on +each card and prepare five cards. Expose them for the same length of +time as in experiment No. 2. + +5. Test memory for _names_ of objects by preparing five lists of names, +eight names in a list, and reading the names as in experiment No. 1. + +6. You now have data for the following study: Find the average grade of +each student in the different experiments. Find the combined grade of +each student in all the above experiments. Do the members of the class +hold the same rank in all the tests? How do the boys compare with the +girls? How does memory for objects compare with memory for names of +objects? How does auditory memory compare with visual? What other points +do you learn from the experiments? + +7. The teacher can make a study of the logical memory of the members of +the class by using material as described on page 184. Make five separate +tests, using stories that are well within the comprehension of the class +and that will arouse their interest. Sufficient material will be found +in the author's _Examination of School Children_ and Whipple's _Manual_. +However, the teacher can prepare similar material. + +8. Do the students maintain the same rank in the separate tests of +experiment No. 7? Rank all the students for their combined standing in +all the first five tests. Rank them for their combined standing in the +logical memory tests. Compare the two rankings. What conclusions are +warranted? + +9. You have tested, in experiment No. 7, logical memory when the +material was read to the students. It will now be interesting to compare +the results of No. 7 with the results obtained by allowing the students +to read the material of the test. For this purpose, select portions from +the later chapters of this book. Allow just time enough for the +selection to be read once slowly by the students, then have it +reproduced as in the other logical memory experiment. Give several +tests, if there is sufficient time. Find the average grade of each +student, and compare the results with those obtained in No. 7. This will +enable you to compare the relative standing of the members of the +class, but will not enable you to compare the two ways of acquiring +facts. For this purpose, the stories would have to be of equal +difficulty. Let the members of the class plan an experiment that would +be adequate for this purpose. + +10. A brief study of the improvement of memory can be made by practicing +a few minutes each day for a week or two, as time permits, using +material that can be easily prepared, such as lists of common words. Let +the members of the class plan the experiment. Use the best plan. + +11. The class can make a study of the relation of memory to school +standing in one of the grades below the high school. Give at least two +tests for logical memory. Give also the rote memory tests described on +page 189. Get the class standing of the pupils from the teacher. Make +the comparison as suggested in Chapter I, page 15. Or, the correlation +can be worked out accurately by following the directions given in the +_Examination of School Children_, page 58, or in Whipple's _Manual_, +page 38. + +12. Let the members of the class make a plan for the improvement of +their memory for the material studied in school. Plan devices for +learning the material better and for fixing it in memory. At the end of +the course in psychology, have an _experience_ meeting and study the +results reported. + +13. Prepare five lists of nonsense syllables, with eight in a list. Give +them as in experiment No. 3, and compare the results with those of that +experiment. What do the results indicate as to the value to memory of +_meaningful_ material? What educational inferences can you make? In +preparing the syllables, put a vowel between two consonants, and use no +syllable that is a real word. + +14. A study of the effects of distractions on learning and memory can be +made as follows: Let the teacher select two paragraphs in later chapters +of this book, of equal length and difficulty. Let the students read one +under quiet conditions and the other while an electric bell is ringing +in the room. Compare the reproductions in the two cases. + +15. From the chapter and from the results of all the memory tests, let +the students enumerate the facts that have educational significance. + +16. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapter XV. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pp. 165-170. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and VIII. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XIII. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapter VII. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THINKING + + +In Chapter III we learned about sensation. We found that when a sense +organ is stimulated by its appropriate type of stimulus, this +stimulation travels through the sensory nerves and sets up an excitation +in the brain. This excitation in the brain gives us sensation. We see if +the eye is stimulated. We hear if the ear is stimulated, etc. In +Chapter VII we learned that after the brain has had an excitation giving +rise to sensation, it is capable of reviving this excitation later. This +renewal or revival of a brain excitation gives us an experience +resembling the original sensation, only usually fainter and less stable. +This revived experience is called _image_ or _idea_. The general process +of retention and revival of experience is, as we have seen, known as +memory. An idea, then, is a bit of revived experience. A perception is a +bit of immediate or primary experience. I am said to perceive a chair if +the chair is present before me, if the light reflected from the chair is +actually exciting my retinas. I have an _idea_ of the chair when I +_seem_ to see it, when the chair is not before me or when my eyes are +shut. These distinctions were pointed out in the preceding chapter. Let +us now proceed to carry our study of ideas further. + +=Association of Ideas.= The subject of the association of ideas can best +be introduced by an experiment. Take a paper and pencil, and think of +the word "horse." Write this word down, and then write down other words +that come to mind. Write them in the order in which they come to mind. +Do this for three or four minutes, and try the experiment several times, +beginning with a different word each time. Make a study of the lists of +words. Compare the different lists and the lists written by different +students. + +In the case of the writer, the following words came to mind in the first +few seconds: horse, bridle, saddle, tail, harness, buggy, whip, man, +sky, stars, sun, ocean. Why did these words come, and why did they come +in that order? Why did the idea "horse" suggest the idea "bridle"? And +why did "bridle" suggest "saddle"? Is there something in the nature of +ideas that couples them with certain other ideas and makes them _always_ +suggest the other ideas? No, there is not. Ideas become coupled together +in our experience, and the coupling is in accordance with our +experience. Things that are together in our experience become coupled +together as ideas. The idea "horse" may become coupled with any other +idea. The general law of the association of ideas is this: Ideas are +joined together in memory or revived experience as they were joined in +the original or perceptive experience. + +But the matter is complicated by the fact that things are experienced in +different connections in perceptive experience. I do not always +experience "horse" together with "bridle." I sometimes see horses in a +pasture eating clover. So, as far as this last experience is concerned, +when I think "horse" I should also think "clover." I sometimes see a +horse running when a train whistles, so "whistle" and "horse" should be +coupled in my mind. A horse once kicked me on the shoulder, so "horse" +and "shoulder" should be connected in my mind. And so they are. The very +fact that these various experiences come back to me proves that they are +connected in my mind in accordance with the original experiences. The +revival of various horse experiences has come to me faster than I could +write them down, and they are all bound together in my memory. If I +should write them all out, it would take many hours, perhaps days. + +Not only are these "horse ideas" bound together with one another, but +they are bound more or less directly, more or less closely, to +everything else in my life. I can, therefore, pass in thought from the +idea "horse" to any other idea, directly or indirectly. Now, in any +given case, what idea will actually come first after I have the idea +"horse"? This depends upon the tendencies established in the nervous +system. The brain process underlying the idea "horse" has connections +with many other processes and tends to excite these processes. The +factors that strengthen these tendencies or connections are the +frequency, recency, primacy, and vividness of experience. Let us +consider, in some detail, each of these factors. + +=Primacy of Experience.= A strong factor in determining association is the +_first experience_. The first, the original, coupling of ideas tends to +persist. The first connection is nearly always a strong one, and is also +strengthened by frequent repetition in memory. Our first experience with +people and things persists with great strength, across the years, in +spite of other associations and connections established later. Just now +there comes to mind my first experience with a certain famous scientist. +It was many years ago. I was a student in an eastern university. This +man gave a public lecture at the opening of the session. I remember many +details of the occurrence with great vividness. Although I studied under +this man for three years, no other experience with him is more prominent +than the first. First experiences give rise to such strong connections +between ideas that these connections often persist and hold their own as +against other connections depending upon other factors. + +The practical consequences of this factor in teaching are, of course, +evident. Both teachers and parents should take great care in the matter +of the first experiences of children. If the idea-connections of first +experiences are likely to persist, then these connections should be +desirable ones. They should not be useless connections, nor should they, +ordinarily, be connections that will have to be radically undone later. +Usually it is not economical to build up connections between ideas that +will not serve permanently, except in cases in which the immaturity of +the mind makes such a procedure necessary. + +=Recency of Experience.= The most recent connection of ideas is relatively +strong, and is often the determining one. But the most recent connection +must be very recent or it has no especial value. If I have seen a +certain friend to-day, and his name is brought to mind now, to-day's +experience with him will likely be brought to mind _first_. But if my +last seeing him was some days or months ago, the idea-connection of the +last meeting has no great value. Of course, circumstances always alter +the matter. Perhaps we should say in the last instance that, other +things being equal, the last experience has no special value. If the +last experience was an unusual one, such as a death or a marriage, then +it has a value due to its vividness and intensity and its emotional +aspects. These factors not only add strength to the connections made at +the time but are the cause of frequent revivals of this last experience +in memory in the succeeding days. All these factors taken together often +give a last experience great associative strength, even though the last +experience is not recent. + +=Frequency of Experience.= The most frequent connection of ideas is +probably the most important factor of all in determining future +associations. The first connection is but one, and the last connection +is but one, while repeated connections may be many in number. +Connections which recur frequently usually overcome all other +connections. Hence frequency is the dominant factor in association. Most +of the strength of first connections is due to repetitions in memory +later. The first experience passes through the mind again and again as +memory, and thereby becomes strengthened. The fact that repetition of +connections establishes these connections is, of course, the +justification of drill and review in school studies. The practical needs +of life demand that certain ideas be associated so that one calls up the +other. Teachers and parents, knowing these desirable connections, +endeavor to fix them in the minds of children by repetition. The +important facts of history, literature, civics, and science we endeavor, +by means of repetition, to fasten in the child's mind. + +=Vividness and Intensity of Experience.= A vivid experience is one that +excites and arouses us, strongly stimulating our feelings. Such +experiences establish strong bonds of connection. When I think of a +railroad wreck, I think of one in which I participated. The experience +was vivid, intense, and aroused my emotions. I hardly knew whether I was +dead or alive. Then, secondly, I usually think of a wreck which I +witnessed in childhood. A train plunged through a bridge and eighteen +cars were piled up in the ravine. The experience was vivid and produced +a deep and lasting impression on me. + +The practical significance of this factor is, of course, great. When +ideas are presented to pupils these ideas should be made clear. Every +conceivable device should be used to clarify and explain,--concrete +demonstration, the use of objects and diagrams, pictures and drawings, +and abundant oral illustration. We must be sure that the one taught +understands, that the ideas become focal in consciousness and take hold +of the individual. This is the main factor in what is known as +"interest." An interesting thing is one that takes hold of us and +possesses us so that we cannot get away from it. Such experiences are +vivid and have rich emotional connections or accompaniments. Ideas that +are experienced together at such times are strongly connected. + +=Mental Set or Attitude.= Another influence always operative in +determining the association of ideas is mental set. By mental set we +mean the mood or attitude one is in,--whether one is sad or glad, well +or ill, fresh or fatigued, etc. What one has just been thinking about, +what one has just been doing, are always factors that determine the +direction of association. One often notices the effects of mental set in +reading newspapers. If one's mind has been deeply occupied with some +subject and one then starts to read a newspaper, one may actually +miscall many of the words in the article he is reading; the words are +made to fit in with what is in his mind. For example, if one is all +wrought up over a wedding, many words beginning with "w" and having +about the same length as the word "wedding," will be read as "wedding." + +Mental set may be permanent or temporary. By permanent we mean the +strong tendencies that are built up by continued thought in a certain +direction. One becomes a Methodist, a Democrat, a conservative, a +radical, a pessimist, an optimist, etc., by continuity of similar +experiences and similar reactions to these experiences. Germans, French, +Irish, Italians, Chinese, have characteristic sets or ways of reacting +to typical situations that may be called racial. These prejudicial ways +of reacting may be called racial sets or attitudes. Religious, +political, and social prejudices may all be called sets or attitudes. + +Temporary sets or attitudes are leanings and prejudices that are due to +temporary states of mind. The fact that one has headache, or +indigestion, or is in a hurry, or is angry, or is hungry, or is +emotionally excited over something will, for the time, be a factor in +determining the direction of association. + +One of the tasks of education is to build up sets or attitudes, +permanent prejudices, to be constant factors in guiding association and, +consequently, action. We wish to build up permanent attitudes toward +truth, honesty, industry, sympathy, zeal, persistence, etc. It is +evident that attitude is merely an aspect of habit. It is an habitual +way of reacting to a definite and typical situation. This habitual way +is strengthened by repetition, so that set or attitude finally, after +years of repetition, becomes a part of our nature. Our prejudices become +as strong, seemingly, as our instinctive tendencies. After a man has +thought in a particular groove for years, it is about as sure that he +will come to certain definite conclusions on matters in the line of his +thought as that he would give typical instinctive or even reflex +reactions. We know the direction association will take for a +Presbyterian in religious matters, for a Democrat in political matters, +with about as much certainty as we know what their actions will be in +situations that evoke instinctive reactions. + +=Thinking and Reasoning.= Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind. +This flow of ideas is in accordance with the laws of association above +discussed. The order in which the ideas come is the order fixed by +experience, the order as determined by the various factors above +enumerated. + +In early life, one's mind is chiefly perceptual, it is what we see and +hear and taste and smell. As one grows older his mind grows more and +more ideational. With increasing age, a larger and larger percentage of +our mental life is made up of ideas, of memories. The child lives in the +present, in a world of perceptions. A man is not so much tied down to +the present; he lives in memory and anticipation. He thinks more than +does the child. A man is content to sit down in his chair and think for +hours at a time, a child is not. This thinking is the passing of ideas, +now one, then another and another. These ideas are the survivals or +revivals of our past experience. The order of their coming depends on +our past experience. + +As I sit here and write, there surge up out of my past, ideas of creeks +and rivers and hills, horses and cows and dogs, boys and girls, men and +women, work and play, school days, friends,--an endless chain of ideas. +This "flow" of ideas is often started by a perception. For +illustration, I see a letter on the table, a letter from my brother. I +then have a visual image of my brother. I think of him as I saw him +last. I think of what he said. I think of his children, of his home, of +his boyhood, and our early life together. Then I think of our mother and +the old home, and so on and on. Presently I glance at a history among my +books, and immediately think of Greece and Athens and the Acropolis, +Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, schoolmates and teachers, and friends +connected in one way or another with my college study of Greek. + +In this description of the process of thinking, I have repeatedly used +the words "think of." I might have said instead, "there came to mind +ideas of Athens, ideas of friends," etc. Thinking, then, is a general +term for our idea-life. + +Reasoning is a form of thinking. Reasoning, too, is a flow of ideas. But +while reasoning is thinking, it is a special form of thinking; it is +thinking to a purpose. In thinking as above described and illustrated, +no immediate ends of the person are served; while in reasoning some end +is always sought. In reasoning, the flow of ideas must reach some +particular idea that will serve the need of the moment, the need of the +problem at hand. Reasoning, then, is controlled thinking, thinking +centering about a problem, about a situation that one must meet. + +The statement that reasoning is _controlled_ thinking needs some +explanation, for the reader at once is likely to want to know what does +the controlling. There is not some special faculty or power that does +the controlling. The control is exercised by the set into which one is +thrown by the situation which confronts one. The set puts certain +nerve-tracts into readiness to conduct, or in other words, makes +certain groups of ideas come into mind, and makes one satisfied only if +the right ideas come. As long as ideas come that do not satisfy, the +flow keeps on, taking one direction and then another, in accordance with +the way our ideas have become organized. An idea finally comes that +satisfies. We are then said to have reached a conclusion, to have made +up our mind, to have solved our problem. + +But the fact that we are satisfied is no sure sign that the problem is +correctly solved. It means only that our past experiences, available at +the time through association, say that the conclusion is right. Or, in +more scientific terms, that the conclusion is in harmony with our past +experience, as it has been organized and made available through +association. There is not within us a little being, a reasoner, that +sits and watches ideas file by and passes judgment upon them. The real +judge is our nervous system with its organized bonds or connections. + +An illustration may make the matter clearer: A boy walking along in the +woods comes to a stream too wide for him to jump across. He wishes to be +on the other side, so here is a situation that must be met, a problem +that must be solved. A flow of ideas is started centering about the +problem. The flow is entirely determined and directed by past experience +and the present situation. The boy pauses, looks about, and sees on the +bank a pole and several large stones. He has walked on poles and on +fences, he therefore sees himself putting the pole across the stream and +walking on it. This may be in actual visual imagery, or it may be in +words. He may merely say, "I will put the pole across and walk on it." +But, before having time to do it, he may recall walking on poles that +turned. He is not then satisfied with the pole idea. The perception of +stones may next become clear in his mind, and if no inhibiting or +hindering idea comes up, the stone idea carries him into action. He +piles the stones into the stream and walks across. + +As was mentioned above, the flow of ideas may take different forms. The +imagery may take any form but is usually visual, auditory, motor, or +verbal. + +Further discussion of the point that reasoning is determined by past +experience may be necessary. Suppose the teacher ask the class a number +of different questions, moral, religious, political. Many different +answers to the questions will be received, in some cases as many answers +to the questions as there are pupils. Ask whether it is ever right to +steal, whether it is ever right to lie, whether it is ever right to +fight, whether it is ever right to disobey a parent or teacher, whether +oak is stronger than maple, whether iron expands more when heated than +does copper, whether one should always feed beggars, etc. The answers +received, in each case, depend on the previous experience of the pupils. +The more nearly alike the experiences of the pupils, the more nearly +alike will be the answers. The more divergent the experiences, the more +different will be the answers. + +The basis of reasoning is ultimately the same sort of thing as the basis +of habit. We have repeated experiences of the same kind. The ideas of +these experiences become welded together in a definite way. Association +between certain groups of ideas becomes well fixed. Later situations +involving these groups of ideas set up definite trains of association. +We come always to definite conclusions from the same situations +provided that we are in the same mental set and the factors involved are +the same. + +Throughout early life we have definite moral and religious ideas +presented to us. We come to think in definite ways about them or with +them. It therefore comes about that every day we live, we are +determining the way we shall in the future reason about things. We are +each day getting the material for the solution of the problems that will +be presented to us by future situations. And the reason that one of us +will solve those problems in a different way from another is because of +having somewhat different experiences, and of organizing them in a +different way. + +=Meaning and the Organization of Ideas.= In the preceding paragraphs we +have several times spoken of the organization of ideas. Let us now see +just what is meant by this expression. Intimately connected with the +organization of ideas is _meaning_. What is the meaning of an idea? The +meaning of an idea is another idea or group of ideas that are very +closely associated with it. When there comes to mind an idea that has +arisen out of repeated experience, there come almost immediately with it +other ideas, perhaps vivid images which have been connected with the +same experience. Suppose the idea is of a horse. If one were asked, +"What is a horse?" ideas of a horse in familiar situations would present +themselves. One may see in imagination a horse being driven, ridden, +etc., and he would then answer, "Why, a horse is to ride," or "A horse +is to drive," or "A horse is a domestic animal," etc. + +Again, "What is a cloud? What is the sun? What is a river? What is +justice? What is love?" One says, "A cloud is that from which rain +falls," or "A cloud is partially condensed vapor. The sun is a round +thing in the sky that shines by day. A river is water flowing along in a +low place through the land. Justice is giving to people what they +deserve. Love is that feeling one has for a person which makes him be +kind to that person." The answer that one gives depends on age and +experience. + +But it is evident that when a person is asked what a thing is or what is +the meaning of a thing, he has at once ideas that have been most closely +associated with the idea in question. Now, since the most important +aspect of a thing is what we can do with it, what use it can be to us, +usually meaning centers about _use_. A chair is to sit in, bread is to +eat, water is to drink, clothes are to wear, a hat is a thing to be worn +on one's head, a shovel is to dig with, a car is to ride in, etc. + +Use is not quite so evident in such cases as the following: "Who was +Caesar? Who was Homer? Who is Edison? What was the Inquisition? What were +the Crusades?" However, one has, in these cases, very closely associated +ideas, and these ideas do center about what we have done with these men +and events in our thinking. "Caesar was a warrior. Homer was a writer of +epics. Edison is an inventor," etc. These men and events have been +presented to us in various situations as standing for various things in +the history of the world. And when we think of them, we at once think of +what they did, the place they fill in the world. This constitutes their +meaning. + +It is evident that an idea may have many meanings. And the meaning that +may come to us at any particular moment depends upon the situation. A +chair, for example, in one situation, may come to mind as a thing to sit +in; in another situation, as a thing to stand in the corner and look +pretty; in another, a thing to stand on so that one may reach the top +shelf in the pantry; in another, a thing to strike a burglar with; in +another, a thing to knock to pieces to be used to make a fire. + +The meaning of a thing comes from our experience with it, and the thing +usually comes to have more and more meanings as our experience with it +increases. When we meet something new, it may have practically no +meaning. Suppose we find a new plant in the woods. It has little +meaning. We may be able to say only that it is a plant, or it is a small +plant. We touch it and it pricks us, and it at once has more meaning. It +is a plant that pricks. We bite into it and find it bitter. It is then a +plant that is bitter, etc. In such a way, objects come to have meaning. +They acquire meaning according to the connections in which we experience +them and they may take on different meanings for different persons +because of the different experiences of these persons. The chief +interest we have in objects is in what use we can make of them, how we +can make them serve our purposes, how we can make them contribute to our +pleasure. + +The organization of experience is the connecting, through the process of +association, of the ideas that arise out of our experience. Our ideas +are organized not only in accordance with the way we experience them in +the first place, but in accordance with the way we think them later in +memory. Of course, ideas are recalled in accordance with the way we +experience them, but since they are experienced in such a multitude of +connections, they are recalled later in these various connections and it +is possible in recall to repeat one connection to the exclusion of +others. + +Organization can therefore be a selective process. Although "horse" is +experienced in a great variety of situations or connections, for our +purposes we can select some one or more of these connections and by +repetition in recalling it, strengthen these connections to the +exclusion of others. Herein lies one of the greatest possibilities in +thinking and reasoning, which enables us, to an extent, to be +independent of original experience. We must have had experience, of +course, but the strength of bonds between ideas need not depend upon +original experience, but rather upon the way in which these ideas are +recalled later, and especially upon the number of times they are +recalled. + +It is in the matter of the organization of experience that teachers and +parents can be of great help to young people. Children do not know what +connections of ideas will be most useful in the future. People who have +had more experience know better and can, by direction and suggestion, +lead the young to form, and strengthen by repetition, those connections +of ideas that will be most useful later. + +In the various school studies, a mass of ideas is presented. These +ideas, isolated or with random connections, will be of little service to +the pupils. They must be organized with reference to future use. This +organization must come about through thinking over these ideas in +helpful connections. The teacher knows best what these helpful +connections are and must help the pupil to make them. + +Suppose the topic studied in history is the Battle of Bunker Hill. The +teacher should assist the child to think the battle over in many +different connections. There are various geographical, historical, and +literary aspects of the battle that are of importance. These aspects +should be brought to mind and related by being thought of together. +Thinking things together binds them together as ideas; and later when +one idea comes, the others that have been joined with it in the past in +thought, come also. Therefore, in studying the Battle of Bunker Hill, +the pupil not only reads about it, but gets a map and studies the +geography of it, works out the causes that led up to the battle, studies +the consequences that followed, reads speeches and poems that have been +made and written since concerning the battle, the monument, etc. + +Similarly, all the topics studied in school should be thought over and +organized with reference to meaning and with reference to future use. As +a result of such procedure, all the topics become organized and +crystallized, with all related ideas closely bound together in +association. + +One of the greatest differences in people is in the organization of +their ideas. Of course, people differ in original experience, but they +differ more in the way they organize this experience and prepare it for +future needs. Just as in habit-formation we should by exercise and +practice acquire those kinds of skill that will serve us best in the +future, so in getting knowledge we should by repetition strengthen the +connections between those ideas that we shall need to have connected in +the future. All education looks forward and is preparatory. As a result +of training in the organization of ideas, a pupil can learn how to +organize his experience, in a measure, independent of the teacher. He +learns to know, himself, what ideas are significant, and what +connections of ideas will be most helpful. Such an outcome should be one +of the ends of school training. + +=Training in Reasoning.= We have already mentioned ways in which a child +can be helped in gaining power and facility in reasoning. In this +paragraph we shall discuss the matter more fully. There are three +aspects of training in reasoning, one with reference to original +experience, one with reference to the organization of this experience as +just discussed, and one with reference to certain habits of procedure in +the recall and use of experience. + +(1) _Original experience._ Before reasoning in any field, one must have +experience in that field. There is no substitute for experience. After +having the experience, it can be organized in various ways, but +experience there must be. Experience may be primary, with things +themselves, or it may be secondary, received second hand through books +or through spoken language. We cannot think without ideas, and ideas +come only through perceptions of one kind or another. + +Originally, all experience arises out of sensations. Language makes it +possible for us to profit through the perceptual experience of others. +But even when we receive our experience second hand, our own primary +experience must enable us to understand the meaning of what we read and +hear about, else it is valueless to us. Therefore, if we wish to be able +to reason in the field of physics, of botany, of chemistry, of medicine, +of law, or of agriculture, we must get experience in those fields. The +raw material of thought comes only through experience. In such a subject +as physical geography, for example, the words of the book have little +meaning unless the child has had original experience in the matter +discussed. He must have seen hills and valleys and rivers and lakes and +rocks and weathering, and all the various processes discussed in +physical geography; otherwise, the reading of the text is almost +valueless. The same thing is true of all subjects. To reason in any +subject we must have had original experience in it. + +(2) _The organization of experience._ After experience comes its +organization. This point has already been fully explained. It was +pointed out that organization consists in thinking our experience over +again in helpful relations. Here parents and teachers can be of very +great service to children. + +(3) _Habits of thought._ There are certain habits of procedure in +reasoning, apart from the association of the ideas. One can form the +habit of putting certain questions to oneself when a problem is +presented, so that certain types of relations are called up. If one is a +scientist, one looks for causes. If one is a lawyer, one looks up the +court decisions. If one is a physician, one looks for symptoms, etc. + +One of the most important habits in connection with reasoning is the +habit of caution. Reasoning is waiting, waiting for ideas to come that +will be adequate for the situation. One must form the habit of waiting a +reasonable length of time for associations to run their course. If one +act too soon, before his organized experience has had time to pass in +review, he may act improperly. Therefore one must be trained to a proper +degree of caution. Of course, caution may be overdone. One must act +sometime, one cannot wait always. + +Another habit is that of testing out a conclusion before it is finally +put into practice. It is often possible to put a conclusion to some sort +of test before it is put to the real test, just as one makes a model and +tries out an invention on a small scale. One should not have full +confidence in a conclusion that is the result of reasoning, till the +conclusion has been put to the final test of experiment, of trial. + +This last statement leads us to the real function of reasoning. Reason +points the way to action in a new situation. After the situation is +repeated for a sufficient number of times, action passes into the realm +of habit. + +=Language and Thinking.= The fact that man has spoken and written language +is of the greatest significance. It has already been pointed out that +language is a means through which we can get experience secondhand. This +proves to be a great advantage to man. But language gives us still +another advantage. Without language, thinking is limited to the passing +of sensory images that arise in accordance with the laws of association. +But man can name things and the attributes of things, and these names +become associated, so that thinking comes to be, in part at least, a +matter of words. Thinking is talking to oneself. One cannot talk without +language. + +The importance that attaches to language can hardly be overestimated. +When the child acquires the use of language, he has acquired the use of +a tool, the importance of which to thinking is greater than that of any +other tool. Now, one can think without language, in the sense that +memory images come and go,--we have defined thinking as the flow of +imagery, the passing or succession of ideas. But after we have named +things, thinking, particularly reasoning, becomes largely verbal, or as +we said above, _talking to oneself_. + +Not only do we give names to concrete things but we give names to +specific attributes and to relations. As we organize and analyze our +experiences, there appear uniformities, principles, laws. To these we +give names, such as white, black, red, weight, length, thickness, +justice, truth, sin, crime, heat, cold, mortal, immortal, evolution, +disintegration, love, hate, envy, jealousy, possible, impossible, +probable, etc. We spoke above of meanings. To meanings we give names, so +that a single word comes to stand for meanings broad and significant, +the result of much experience. Such words as "evolution" and +"gravitation," single words though they are, represent a wide range of +experiences and bring these experiences together and crystallize them +into a single expression, which we use as a unit in our thought. + +Language, therefore, makes thought easier and its accomplishment +greater. After we have studied Caesar for some years, the name comes to +represent the epitome, the bird's-eye view of a great man. A similar +thing is true of our study of other men and movements and things. Single +words come to represent a multitude of experiences. Then these words +become associated and organized in accordance with the principles of +association discussed above, so that it comes about that the older we +are, the more we come to think in words, and the more these words +represent. The older we are, the more abstract our thinking becomes, the +more do our words come to stand for meanings and attributes and laws +that have come out of the organization of our experience. + +It is evident that the accuracy of our thinking depends upon these words +standing for the _truth_, depends upon whether we have organized our +experience in accordance with facts. If our word "Caesar" does not stand +for the real Caesar, then all our thinking in which Caesar enters will be +incorrect. If our word "justice" does not stand for the real justice, +then all our thinking in which justice enters will be incorrect. + +This discussion points to the tremendous importance of the organization +of experience. Truth is the agreement of our thought with the thing, +with reality. We must therefore help the young to see the world clearly +and to organize what they see in accordance with the facts and with a +view to future use. Then the units of this organized experience are to +be tagged, labeled, by means of words, and these words or labels become +the vehicles of thought, and the outcome of the thinking depends on the +validity of the organization of our experience. + + SUMMARY. Thinking is the passing of ideas in the mind; its basis is + in the association of memory ideas. The basis of association is in + original experience, ideas becoming bound together in memory as + originally experienced. The factors of association are primacy, + recency, frequency, intensity, and mental set or attitude. Reasoning + is thinking to a purpose. We can be trained in reasoning by being + taught to get vivid experience in the first place and in organizing + this experience in helpful ways, having in mind future use. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. A series of experiments should be performed to make clear to the +students that the basis of the association of ideas is in _experience_ +and not in the nature of the ideas themselves. + +(a) Let the students, starting with the same word, write down all the +ideas that come to mind in one minute. The teacher should give the +initial idea, as sky, hate, music, clock, table, or wind. The first ten +ideas coming to each student might be written on the blackboard for +study and comparison. Are any series alike? Is the tenth idea in one +series the same as that in any other? + +(b) For a study of the various factors of association, perform the +following experiment: Let the teacher prepare a list of fifty +words--nouns and adjectives, such as wood, murder, goodness, bad, death, +water, love, angel. Read the words to the class and let each student +write down the first idea that comes to mind in each case. After the +list is finished, let each student try to find out what the determining +factor was in each case, whether primacy, frequency, recency, vividness, +or mental set. When the study is completed, the student's paper should +contain three columns, the first column showing the stimulus words, the +second showing the response words, the third showing the determining +factors. The first column should be dictated and copied after the +response words have been written. + +(c) Study the data in (a) and (b), noting the variety of ideas +that come to different students for the same stimulus word. It will be +seen that they come from a great variety of experiences and from all +parts of one's life from childhood to the present, showing that all our +experiences are bound together and that we can go from one point to any +other, directly or indirectly. + +2. Perform an experiment to determine how each member of the class +thinks, _i.e._ in what kind of imagery. Let each plan a picnic in +detail. How do they do it? Do they see it or hear it or seem to act it? +Or does it happen in words merely? + +3. Think of the events of yesterday. How do they come to you? Do your +images seem to be visual, auditory, motor, or verbal? Do you seem to +have all kinds of imagery? Is one kind predominant? + +4. Test the class for speed of free association as described on +page 193. Repeat the experiment at least five times and rank the members +of the class from the results. + +5. Similarly, test speed for controlled association as described on +page 195 and rank the members of the class. + +6. Compare the rankings in Nos. 4 and 5. + +7. The teacher can extend the controlled association tests by preparing +lists that show different kinds of logical relations with one another, +from genus to species, from species to genus, from verb to object, from +subject to verb, etc. Do the students maintain the same rank in the +various types of experiments? Do the ranks in these tests correspond to +the students' ranks in thinking in the school subjects? + +8. At least two series of experiments in reasoning should be performed, +one to show the nature of reasoning and the other to show the ability of +the members of the class. + +(a) Put several problems to the class, similar to the following: What +happens to a wet board laid out in the sunshine? Explain. Suppose corn +is placed in three vessels, 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 is sealed up air tight +and kept warm? Number 2 is kept open and warm? Number 3 is kept open and +warm and moist. What happens in each case? Explain. + +Condensed milk does not sour as long as the can remains unopened. After +the can is opened, the milk sours if allowed to become warm; it does not +sour if kept frozen. Why? Two bars of metal are riveted together. One +bar is lead, the other iron. What happens when the bars are heated to +150 C? 500 C? 1000 C? 2000 C? Answer the following questions: Is it ever +right to steal? To kill a person? To lie? Which are unwise and mistaken, +Republicans or Democrats? + +In the above, do all come to the same conclusion? Why? Were any unable +to come to a conclusion at all on some questions? Why? Do the +experiments make it clear that reasoning is dependent upon experience? + +(b) Let the teacher prepare five problems in reasoning well within the +experience of the class, and find the speed and accuracy of the students +in solving them. Compare the results with those in the controlled +association tests. Test the class with various kinds of mechanical +puzzles. + +9. The students should study several people to ascertain how well those +people have their experience organized. Is their experience available? +Can they come to the point immediately, or, are they hazy, uncertain, +and impractical? + +10. It is claimed that we have two types of people, theoretical and +practical. This is to some extent true. What is the explanation? + +11. From the point of view of No. 10, compare teachers and engineers. + +12. If anything will work in theory, will it work in practice? + +13. From what you have learned in the chapter and from the experiments, +write a paper on training in reasoning. + +14. What are the main defects of the schools with reference to training +children to think? + +15. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +COLVIN and BAGLEY: _Human Behavior_, Chapters XVI and XVIII. + +DEWEY: _How We Think_, Parts I and III. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapters VIII and XII; +also pp. 192-195. + +PILLSBURY: _Essentials of Psychology_, Chapters VI and IX. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_, Chapter XV. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, Chapters V, VI, and X. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES + + +=Physical Differences.= One never sees two people whose bodies are exactly +alike. They differ in height or weight or color of the skin. They differ +in the color of the hair or eyes, in the shape of the head, or in such +details as size and shape of the ear, size and shape of the nose, chin, +mouth, teeth, feet, hands, fingers, toes, nails, etc. The anatomist +tells us that we differ internally just as we do externally. While the +internal structure of one person has the same general plan as that of +another, there being the same number of bones, muscles, organs, etc., +there are always differences in detail. We are built on the same plan, +_i.e._ we are made after a common type. We vary, above and below this +type or central tendency. + +Weight may be taken for illustration. If we should weigh the first +thousand men we meet, we should find light men, heavy men, and men of +medium weight. There would be few light men, few heavy men, but many men +of medium weight. This fact is well shown in diagram by what is known as +a curve of distribution or frequency surface, which is constructed as +follows: Draw a base line A B, and on this line mark off equal distances +to represent the various weights. At the left end put the number +representing the lightest men and at the right the number representing +the heaviest men; the other weights come in between in order. Then +select a scale; we will say a millimeter in height above the base line +represents one person of the weight represented on the base, and in +drawing the upper part of the figure, A C B, we have but to measure up +one millimeter for each person weighed, of the weight indicated below on +the base. + +[Illustration: FIGURE V--FREQUENCY SURFACE--WEIGHT +The solid line represents men, the broken line, women.] + +A study of this frequency surface shows a tendency for people to be +grouped about the central tendency or average. There are many people of +average weight or nearly so, but few people who deviate widely from the +average weight. If we measure people with reference to any other +physical characteristic, or any mental characteristic, we get a similar +result, we find them grouped about an average or central tendency. + +=Mental Differences.= Just as we differ physically, so also we differ +mentally, and in the various aspects of our behavior. The accompanying +diagram (Free Association) shows the distribution of a large number of +men and women with respect to the speed of their flow of ideas. When men +and women are measured with respect to any mental function, a similar +distribution is found. + +[Illustration: FIGURE VI--FREQUENCY SURFACE--FREE ASSOCIATION +Solid line, men; broken line, women. The numbers below the base +represent the number of words written in the Free Association test, and +the numbers at the left represent the number of people making the +respective scores.] + +An interesting question is whether our mental differences have any +relation or connection with one another. If one mental characteristic is +of high order, are all the others of high order also? Does a good memory +indicate a high order of attention, of association, of imagination, of +learning capacity? Experiments show that mental characteristics have at +least some degree of independence. But the rule is that they generally +go together, a high order of ability in one mental function indicating a +high order of ability in at least some others, and a low order of +ability in one function indicating a low order in other functions. + +However, it seems that abilities that are very much specialized, such as +musical ability, artistic ability, etc., may exist in high order while +other mental functions may be only mediocre. It is a common thing for a +musical person to be of rather poor ability otherwise. To the extent +that special abilities require specialized differences in the structure +of brain, nervous system, or sense organ, they can exist in some degree +of independence of other functions. Musical ability to some extent does +require some such differences and may therefore be found either with a +high or a low degree of ability in other characteristics. + +It is doubtless true that at maturity the unequal power of mental +functions in the same person may be partly due to the fact that one +function has been exercised and others neglected. A person having very +strong musical tendencies is likely to have such a great interest in +music that he will think other activities are not worth while, and will +consequently neglect these other activities. It will therefore turn out +that at maturity the great differences in mental functions in such a +person are in part due to exercise of one function and neglect of +others. But there can be no doubt that in many cases there are large +original, inherited differences, the individual being poor in one aspect +of mind and good in others. Feeble-minded people are usually poor in all +important aspects of mind. However, one sometimes finds a feeble-minded +person having musical or artistic ability, and often such a person has a +good rote memory, sometimes a good verbal memory. However, the so-called +higher mental functions--logical memory, controlled association, and +constructive imagination--are all poor in a feeble-minded person. + +Each mental function may be looked upon as in some measure independent; +each is found existing in people in varying degrees from zero ability up +to what might be called genius ability. The frequency curves in Fig. VI +show this. Take rote memory for example. Idiots are found with +practically zero ability in rote memory. At the other extreme, we find +mathematical prodigies who, after watching a long freight train pass and +noting the numbers of the cars, can repeat correctly the number of each +car. Rote memory abilities can be found representing every step between +these two extremes. This principle of distribution holds true in the +case of all mental functions. We find persons practically without them, +and others possessing them in the highest order, but most people are +grouped about the average ability. + +=Detecting Mental Differences.= It has already been said that mind has +many different aspects and that people differ with respect to these +aspects. Now let us ask how we can measure the degree of development of +these aspects or functions of mind. We measure them just as we measured +muscular speed as described in the first chapter. Each mental function +means ability to do something--to learn, to remember, to form images, +to reason, etc. To measure these different capacities or functions we +have but to require that the person under consideration _do_ something, +as learn, remember, etc., and measure how well and how fast he does it, +just as we would measure how far he can jump, how fast he can run, etc. + +In such measurements, the question of practice is always involved. If we +measure running ability, we find that some are in practice while others +are not. Those in practice can run at very nearly their ultimate +capacity. Those who are not in practice can be trained to run much +faster than they do. To get a true measure of running capacity, we +should practice the persons to be measured till each runs up to the +limit of his capacity, and then measure each one's speed. The same thing +is true, to some extent, when we come to measure mental functions +proper. However, the life that children live gives exercise to all +fundamental functions of the mind, and unless some of the children +tested have had experience which would tend to develop some mental +functions in a special way, tests of the various aspects of learning +capacity, memory, association, imagination, etc., are a fairly good +measure of original, inherited tendencies. + +Of course, it must be admitted that there are measurable differences in +the influence of environment on children, and when these differences are +extreme, no doubt the influence is shown in the development of the +child's mind. A child reared in a home where all the influences favor +its mental development, ought to show a measurable difference in such +development when compared with a child reared in a home where all the +influences are unfavorable. It is difficult to know to what extent this +is true, for the hereditary and environmental influences are usually in +harmony, the child of good hereditary stock having good environmental +influences, and vice versa. When this is not the case, _i.e._ when a +child of good stock is reared under poor environmental influences, or +when a child of poor stock is reared under good influences, the results +seem to show that the differences in environment have little effect on +mental development, as far as the fundamental functions are concerned, +except in the most extreme cases. + +Each mental function is capable of some development. It can be brought +up to the limit of its possibilities. But recent experiments indicate +that such development is not very great in the case of the elementary, +fundamental functions. Training, however, has a much greater effect on +complex mental activities that involve several functions. Rote memory is +rather simple; it cannot be much affected by training. The memory for +ideas is more complex; it can be considerably affected by training. The +original and fundamental functions of the mind depend upon the nature of +the nervous system which is bequeathed to us by heredity. This cannot be +much changed. However, training has considerable effect on the +cooerdinations and combinations of mental functions. Therefore, the more +complex the mental activities which we are testing, the more likely they +are to have been affected by differences in experience and training. + +If we should designate the logical memory capacity of one person by 10, +and that of another by 15, by practice we might bring the first up to 15 +and the second to 221/2, but we could not equalize them. We could never +make the memory of the one equal to that of the other. In an extreme +case, we might find one child whose experience had been such that his +logical memory was working up to the limit of its capacity, while the +other had had little practice in logical memory and was therefore far +below his real capacity. In such a case, a test would not show the +native difference, it would show only the present difference in +functioning capacity. + +Fairly adequate tests for the most important mental functions have been +worked out. A series of group tests with directions and norms follow. +The members of the class can use these tests in studying the individual +differences in other people. The teacher will find other tests in the +author's _Examination of School Children_, and in Whipple's _Manual of +Mental and Physical Tests_. + + +=MENTAL TESTS= + +GENERAL DIRECTIONS + +The results of the mental tests in the school will be worse than useless +unless the tests are given with the greatest care and scientific +precision. Every test should be most carefully explained to the children +so that they will know _exactly_ what they are to do. The matter must be +so presented to them that they will put forth _all possible_ effort. +They must take the tests seriously. Great care must be taken to see that +there is no cheating. The work of each child should be his own work. In +those tests in which time is an important element, the time must be +_carefully kept_, with a stop watch if one is available. The papers +should be distributed for the tests and turned face downward on the +pupil's desk. The pupil, when all are ready to begin, should take the +paper in his hand and at the signal "begin" turn it over and begin work, +and when the signal "stop" is given, should quit work instantly and turn +the paper over. Before the work begins, the necessary information should +be placed on each paper. This information should be the pupil's name, +age, grade, sex, and school. This should be on every paper. When the +test is over the papers should be immediately collected. + + +LOGICAL MEMORY + +=Object.= The purpose of this test is to determine the pupil's facility in +remembering and reproducing ideas. A pupil's standing in the test may +serve as an indication of his ability to remember the subject matter of +the school studies. + +[Illustration: FIGURE VII--LOGICAL MEMORY "WILLIE JONES"] + +=Method.= The procedure in this test is for the teacher to read slowly and +distinctly the story to be reproduced. Immediately after the reading the +pupils are to write down all of the story that they can recall. They +must not begin to write till _after_ the reading. Ten minutes should be +allowed for the reproduction. This is ample time, and each pupil should +be told to use the whole time in working on his reproduction. At the end +of ten minutes, collect the papers. Care should be taken to see that +each pupil does his own work, that there is no copying. Before reading +the story, the teacher should give the following instructions: + + I shall read to you a story entitled "Willie Jones and His Dog" (or + "A Farmer's Son," or "A Costly Temper," as the case may be). After I + have read the story you are to write down all you can remember of + it. You are not to use the exact words that I read unless you wish. + You are to use your own words. Try to recall as much as possible and + write all you recall. Try to get all the details, not merely the + main facts. + +=Material.= For grades three, four, and five, use "Willie Jones and His +Dog"; for grades six, seven, and eight, use "A Farmer's Son"; for the +high school, use "A Costly Temper." The norms for the latter are based +on eighth grade and high school pupils. + + * * * * * + + +WILLIE JONES AND HIS DOG + +Willie | Jones | was a little | boy | only | five years old. | He had a +dog | whose name was Buster. | Buster was a large | dog | with long, | +black, | curly | hair. | His fore | feet | and the tip | of his tail | +were white. | One day | Willie's mother | sent him | to the store | +which was only | a short | distance away. | Buster went with him, | +following behind. | As Buster was turning | at the corner, | a car | +struck him | and broke | one | hind | leg | and hurt | one | eye. | +Willie was | very | sorry | and cried | a long | time. | Willie's +father | came | and carried | the poor | dog | home. | The broken leg | +got well | in five | weeks | but the eye | that was hurt | became blind.| + + +A FARMER'S SON + +Will | was a farmer's | son | who attended school | in town. | His +clothes | were poor and his boots | often smelled | of the farmyard | +although he took great | care of them. | Since Will had not gone to +school | as much | as his classmates, | he was often | at a +disadvantage, | although his mind | was as good | as theirs,--| in fact, +he was brighter | than most | of them. | James, | the wit | of the +class, | never lost an opportunity | to ridicule | Will's mistakes, | +his bright | red | hair, | and his patched | clothes. | Will | took the +ridicule | in good part | and never | lost his temper. | One Saturday | +as Will | was driving | his cows | to pasture, | he met James | teasing +| a young | child, | a cripple. | Will's | indignation | was aroused | +by the sight. | He asked | the bully | to stop, | but when he would not, +| Will pounced | upon him | and gave him | a good | beating, | and he +would not | let James go | until he promised | not to tease | the +crippled | child | again. | + + +A COSTLY TEMPER + +A man | named John | Murdock | had a servant | who worried him | much by +his stupidity. | One day | when this servant was more | stupid | than +usual, | the angry | master | of the house | threw a book | at his head. +| The servant | ducked | and the book flew | out of the window. | + +"Now go | and pick that book up!" | ordered the master. | The servant | +started | to obey, | but a passerby | had saved him | the trouble, | and +had walked off | with the book. | The scientist | thereupon | began to +wonder | what book | he had thrown away, | and to his horror, | +discovered | that it was a quaint | and rare | little | volume | of +poems, | which he had purchased | in London | for fifty | dollars. | + +But his troubles | were not over. | The weeks went by | and the man had +almost | forgotten his loss, | when, strolling | into a secondhand | +bookshop, | he saw, | to his great delight, | a copy of the book | he +had lost. | He asked the price. | + +"Well," | said the dealer, | reflectively, | "I guess we can let you +have it | for forty | dollars. | It is a very | rare book, | and I am +sure | that I could get seventy-five | dollars for it | by holding on a +while." | + +The man of science | pulled out his purse | and produced the money, | +delighted at the opportunity of replacing | his lost | treasure. | When +he reached home, | a card | dropped out | of the leaves. | The card was +his own, | and further | examination | showed that he had bought back | +his own property. | + +"Forty dollars' | worth of temper," | exclaimed the man. | "I think I +shall mend my ways." | His disposition | afterward | became so | good | +that | the servant became worried, | thinking the man | must be ill. | + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: FIGURE VIII--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A FARMER'S SON"] + +=The Results.= The material for the test is divided into units as +indicated by the vertical lines. The pupil's written reproduction should +be compared unit by unit with the story as printed, and given one credit +for each unit adequately reproduced. The norms for the three tests are +shown in the accompanying Figures VII, VIII, and IX. In these and all +the graphs which follow, the actual ages are shown in the first +horizontal column. The norms for girls appear in the second horizontal +column, the norms for boys in the column at the bottom. By the _norm_ +for an age is meant the average performance of all the pupils of that +age examined. Age ten applies to those pupils who have passed their +tenth birthday and have not reached their eleventh birthday, and the +other ages are to be similarly interpreted. The vertical lines in the +graphs indicate birthdays and the scores written on these lines indicate +ability at these exact ages. The column marked ten, for example, +includes all the children that are over ten and not yet eleven. The +graphs show the development from age to age. In general, it will be +noticed, there is an improvement of memory with age, but in the high +school, in the "Costly Temper" test, there is a decline. This may not +indicate a real decline in ability to remember ideas, but a change in +attitude. The high school pupil probably acquires a habit of +remembering only significant facts. His memory is selective, while in +the earlier ages, the memory may be more parrot-like, one idea being +reproduced with about as much fidelity as another. This statement is +made not as a _fact_, but as a _probable_ explanation. + + +ROTE MEMORY + +[Illustration: FIGURE IX--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A COSTLY TEMPER"] + +=Object.= The object of the rote memory tests is to determine the pupil's +memory span for unrelated impressions--words that have no logical +relations with one another. Much school work makes demands upon this +ability. Therefore, the tests are of importance. + +=Method.= There are two lists of words, _concrete_ and _abstract_, with +six groups in each list. The list of concrete words should be given +first, then the abstract. The procedure is to pronounce the first group, +_cat_, _tree_, _coat_, and then pause for the pupils to write these +three words. Then pronounce the next group, _mule_, _bird_, _cart_, +_glass_, and pause for the reproduction, and so on through the list. + +[Illustration: FIGURE X--CONCRETE ROTE MEMORY] + +Give the following instructions: + + We wish to see how well you can remember words. I shall pronounce + first a group of three words. _After_ I have pronounced them, you + are to write them down. I shall then pronounce a group of four + words, then one of five words, and so continue with a longer group + each time. You must pay very close attention for I shall pronounce + a group but once. You are not required to write the words in their + order, but just as you recall them. + +=Material.= The words for the test are given in the following lists: + + _Concrete_ _Abstract_ + + 1. cat, tree, coat 1. good, black, fast + 2. mule, bird, cart, glass 2. clean, tall, round, hot + 3. star, horse, dress, fence, man 3. long, wet, fierce, white, cold + 4. fish, sun, head, door, shoe, 4. deep, soft, quick, dark, great, + block dead + 5. train, mill, box, desk, oil, 5. sad, strong, hard, bright, + pup, bill fine, glad, plain + 6. floor, car, pipe, bridge, hand, 6. sharp, late, sour, wide, rough, + dirt, cow, crank thick, red, tight + +[Illustration: FIGURE XI--ABSTRACT ROTE MEMORY] + +=Results.= The papers are graded by determining the number of concrete +words and the number of abstract words that are reproduced. No account +is taken of whether the words are in the right position or not. A +perfect score in each test would therefore be thirty-three. The norms +are shown in Figures X and XI. + + +THE SUBSTITUTION TEST + +=Object.= This test determines one's ability to build up new associations. +It is a test of quickness of learning. + +=Method.= The substitution test-sheets are distributed to the pupils and +turned face down on the desks. The teacher gives the following +instructions: + + We wish to see how fast you can learn. At the top of the sheet which + has been distributed to you there is a key. In nine circles are + written the nine digits and for each digit there is written a letter + which is to be used instead of the digit. Below the key are two + columns of numbers; each number contains five digits. In the five + squares which follow the number you are to write the letters which + correspond to the digits. Work as fast as you can and fill as many + of the squares as you can without making mistakes. When I say + "stop," quit work instantly and turn the paper over. + +Before beginning the test the teacher should explain on the blackboard +the exact nature of the test. This can be done by using other letters +instead of those used in the key. Make sure that the pupils understand +what they are to do. Allow _eight_ minutes in grades three, four, and +five, and _five_ minutes above the fifth grade. + +=Material.= For material, use the substitution test-sheets. This and the +other test material can be obtained from the University of Missouri, +Extension Division. + +=Results.= In grading the work, count each square correctly filled in as +one point, and reduce the score to speed per minute by dividing by eight +in grades three, four, and five, and by five in the grades above. + +The norms are shown in Figure XII. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XII--SUBSTITUTION TEST] + + +FREE ASSOCIATION + +=Object.= This test determines the speed of the free flow of ideas. The +result of the test is a criterion of the quickness of the flow of ideas +when no restriction or limitation is put on this flow. + +=Method.= The procedure in this test is to give the pupils a word, and +tell them to write this word down and all the other words that come into +their minds. Make it clear to them that they are to write whatever word +comes to mind, whether it has any relation to the word that is given +them or not. Start them with the word "cloud." Give the following +instructions: + + I wish to see how many words you can think of and write down in + three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it down and then + all the other words that come into your minds. Do not write + sentences, merely the words that come into your minds. Work as fast + as you can. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XIII--FREE ASSOCIATION TEST] + +=Results.= Score the work by counting the number of words that have been +written. The norms are shown in Figure XIII. + + +OPPOSITES + +=Object.= This is a test of controlled association. It tests one aspect of +the association of ideas. All thinking is a matter of association of +ideas. Reasoning is controlled association. The test may therefore be +taken as a measure of speed in reasoning. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XIV--OPPOSITES TEST--LISTS I AND II] + +=Method.= Distribute the lists of opposites to the pupils and turn them +face down on the desks. Use List One in grades three, four, and five, +and List Two in grades above. Allow two minutes in grades three, four, +and five and one minute in grades above. Give the following +instructions: + + On the sheets that have been distributed to you are fifty words. + After each word you are to write a word that has the opposite + meaning. For example, if one word were "far," you could write + "near." Work as fast as you can, and when I say "stop" quit work + instantly and turn your paper over. + +=Results.= The score is the number of opposites correctly written. The +norms are shown in Figure XIV. + +OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 1 + + 1. good 18. up 35. before + 2. big 19. thick 36. winter + 3. rich 20. quick 37. ripe + 4. out 21. pretty 38. night + 5. sick 22. heavy 39. open + 6. hot 23. late 40. first + 7. long 24. wrong 41. over + 8. wet 25. smooth 42. love + 9. yes 26. strong 43. come + 10. high 27. dark 44. east + 11. hard 28. dead 45. top + 12. sweet 29. wide 46. wise + 13. clean 30. empty 47. front + 14. sharp 31. above 48. girl + 15. fast 32. north 49. sad + 16. black 33. laugh 50. fat + 17. old 34. man + +OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 2 + + 1. strong 18. strange 35. fine + 2. deep 19. wrong 36. plain + 3. lazy 20. quickly 37. sharp + 4. seldom 21. black 38. late + 5. thin 22. good 39. sour + 6. soft 23. fast 40. wide + 7. many 24. clean 41. drunk + 8. valuable 25. tall 42. tight + 9. gloomy 26. hot 43. empty + 10. rude 27. long 44. sick + 11. dark 28. wet 45. friend + 12. rough 29. fierce 46. above + 13. pretty 30. great 47. loud + 14. high 31. dead 48. war + 15. foolish 32. cloudy 49. in + 16. present 33. hard 50. yes + 17. glad 34. bright + + +THE WORD-BUILDING TEST + +=Object.= This is a test of a certain type of inventiveness, namely +linguistic invention. Specifically, it tests the pupil's ability to +construct words using certain prescribed letters. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XV--WORD-BUILDING TEST] + +=Method.= The pupils are given the letters, _a_, _e_, _o_, _m_, _n_, _r_, +and told to make as many words as possible using only these letters. +Give the following instructions: + + I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes, using + only the letters which I give you. The words must be real English + words. You must use only the letters which I give you and must not + use the same letter more than once in the same word. You do not, of + course, have to use all the letters in the same word. A word may + contain one or more letters up to six. + +=Material.= The pupils need only sheets of blank paper. + +=Results.= The score is the number of words that do not violate the rules +of the test as given in the instructions. The norms are shown in Figure XV. + + +THE COMPLETION TEST + +=Object.= This is, to some extent, a test of reasoning capacity. Of +course, it is only one particular aspect of reasoning. The pupil is +given a story that has certain words omitted. He must read the story, +see what it is trying to say, and determine what words, put into the +blanks, will make the correct sense. The meaning of the word written in +a particular blank must not only make the sentence read sensibly but +must fit into the story _as a whole_. Filling in the blanks in this way +demands considerable thought. + +=Method.= Distribute the test-sheets and turn them face down on the desks. +Allow ten minutes in all the tests. Give the following instructions: + + On the sheets which have been distributed is printed a story which + has certain words omitted. You are to put in the blanks the words + that are omitted. The words which you write in must give the proper + meaning so that the story reads correctly. Each word filled in must + not only give the proper meaning to the sentence but to the story as + a whole. + +=Material.= Use the completion test-sheets, "Joe and the Fourth of July," +for grades three, four, and five; "The Trout" for grades, six, seven, +and eight; and "Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine" for the high school. + +=Results.= In scoring the papers, allow one credit for each blank +correctly filled. The norms are shown in Figures XVI, XVII, and XVIII. +It will be noticed that the boys excel in the "Trout" story. This is +doubtless because the story is better suited to them on the ground of +their experience and interest. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XVI--COMPLETION TEST--"JOE AND THE FOURTH OF +JULY"] + + * * * * * + + +JOE AND THE FOURTH OF JULY + +Joe {ran}[6] errands for {his} mother and {took} care of the {baby} +until by the Fourth of July his penny {grew} to be a dime. The day +before the Fourth, he {went} down town all by {himself} to get his fire +{works}. There were so {many} kinds he hardly knew which to {buy}. The +clerk knew that it takes a {long} time to decide, for he had been a +{boy} himself not very {long} ago. So he helped Joe to {select} the very +best kinds. "When are you going to {fire} them off?" asked the clerk. "I +will fire {them} very {early} to-morrow," said the boy. So that night +Joe set the {alarm} clock, and the next {morning} got up {early} to fire +his firecrackers. + +[6] The italicized words and letters are left blank in the test sheets. + + +THE TROUT + +The trout is a fine fish. Once a big trout {lived} in a pool {close} by +a spring. He used to {stay} under the bank with {only} his head showing. +His wide-open {eyes} shone like jewels. I tried to {catch} him. I would +{creep} up to the {edge} of the pool {where} I could see his {bright} +eyes looking up. + +I {caught} a grasshopper and {threw} it over {to} him. Then there was a +{splash} in the water and the grasshopper {was gone}. I {did} this {two} +or three times. Each time I {saw} the rush and splash and saw the bait +had been {taken}. + +So I put the sa{me} bait on my {hook} and {threw} it over into the +{water}. But {all} was silent. The fish was an {old} one and had {grown} +very wise. I did this {day} after day with the same luck. The trout +{knew} there was a {hook} hidden in the bait. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XVII--COMPLETION TEST--"THE TROUT"] + + +DOCTOR GOLDSMITH'S MEDICINE + +This {is} a story of good medicine. Most medicine is {bad} to {take}, +but this was so good {that} the sick man {wished} for more. + +{One} day a poor woman {went} to Doctor Goldsmith and {asked} him to +{go} to see her {sick} husband. "He {is} very sick," she said, "and I +{can} not {get} him to eat anything." + +{So} Doctor Goldsmith {went} to {see} him. The doctor {saw} at once that +the {reason} why the man {could} not eat was {because} he was {so} poor +that he had {not} been {able} to buy good food. + +Then he {said} to the woman, "{Come} to my house this evening and I will +{give you} some {medicine} for your {husband}." + +The woman {went} in the evening and the {doctor} gave {her} a small +paper box tied {up} tight. "{It} is very heavy," {she} said. "May I +{see} what it looks {like}?" "{No}," said the doctor, "{wait} until you +get {home}." When she {got} home, and she and {her} husband {opened} the +box so that he {could} take the first {dose} of medicine,--what do you +think they {saw}? The box was {filled} with silver {money}. {This} was +the {good} doctor's medicine. + + * * * * * + +=Importance of Mental Differences.= (1) _In school work._ One of the +important results that come from a knowledge of the mental differences +in children is that we are able to classify them better. When a child +enters school he should be allowed to proceed through the course as fast +as his development warrants. Some children can do an eight-year course +in six years; others require ten years; still others can never do it. +The great majority, of course, can do it in eight years. + +[Illustration: FIGURE XVIII--COMPLETION TEST--"DR. GOLDSMITH'S +MEDICINE"] + +Norms for adults, as obtained from university students, are: + + TEST MEN WOMEN + Substitution Test 29.1 32.2 + Rote Memory, Concrete 28.5 28.6 + Rote Memory, Abstract 28.4 27.9 + Free Association 51.5 49.3 + Completion, _Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine_ 48.1 49.0 + Word Building 20.5 20.1 + Logical Memory, _Costly Temper_ 64.0 69.6 + +[Illustration: FIGURE XIX--FREQUENCY SURFACES--COMPARING FOURTH GRADE +WITH HIGH SCHOOL + +The numbers along the base represent mental age; those at the left, the +number of pupils of the respective ages.] + +It may be thought that a child's success in school branches is a +sufficient measure of his ability and that no special mental +measurements are needed. This is a mistake. Many factors contribute to +success in school work. Ability is only one of these factors, and should +be specially and independently determined by suitable tests. Children +may fail in school branches because of being poorly started or started +at the wrong time, because of poor teaching, sickness, moving from one +school to another, etc. On the other hand, children of poor ability may +succeed at school because of much help at home. Therefore special mental +tests will help in determining to what extent original mental ability +is a factor in the success or failure of the different pupils. + +As far as possible, the children of the same grade should have about the +same ability; but such is seldom the case. In a recent psychological +study of a school system, the author found wide differences in ability +in the same grade. The distribution of abilities found in the fourth +grade and in the high school are shown in Figure XIX. It will be seen +that in the fourth grade pupils are found with ability equal to that of +some in the high school. Of course to some extent such a condition is +unavoidable, for a pupil must establish certain habits and acquire +certain knowledge before passing from one grade to another. However, +much of the wide variation in ability now found in the same grade of a +school could be avoided if the teacher had accurate knowledge of the +pupils' abilities. When a teacher learns that a child who is doing +poorly in school really has ability, she is often able to get from that +pupil the work of which he is capable. It has been demonstrated by +experience that accurate measures of children's abilities are a great +help in gradation and classification. + +A knowledge of mental differences is also an aid in the actual teaching +of the children. The instance mentioned at the close of the last +paragraph is an example. A knowledge of the differences among the mental +functions of the same pupil is especially helpful. It has been pointed +out that the different mental functions in the same pupil are sometimes +unequally developed. Sometimes considerable differences exist in the +same pupil with respect to learning capacity, the different aspects of +memory, association, imagination, and attention. When a teacher knows of +these differences, she can better direct the work of the pupils. + +For example, if a pupil have a very poor memory, the teacher can help +him by aiding him to secure the advantage that comes from close and +concentrated attention, frequent repetitions, logical organization, etc. +On the other hand, she can help the brilliant student by preventing him +from being satisfied with hastily secured, superficial knowledge, and by +encouraging him to make proper use of his unusual powers in going deeper +and more extensively into the school subjects than is possible for the +ordinary student. In many ways a teacher can be helpful to her pupils if +she has an accurate knowledge of their mental abilities. + +(2) _In life occupations._ Extreme variations in ability should +certainly be considered in choosing one's life work. Only persons of the +highest ability should go into science, law, medicine, or teaching. Many +occupations demand special kinds of ability, special types of reaction, +of attention, imagination, etc. For example, the operation of a +telephone exchange demands a person of quick and steady reaction. The +work of a motorman on a street car demands a person having the broad +type of attention, the type of attention that enables one to keep in +mind many details at the same time. Scientific work demands the type of +concentrated attention. As far as it is possible, occupations demanding +special types of ability should be filled by people possessing these +abilities. It is best for all concerned if each person is doing what he +can do best. It is true that many occupations do not call for special +types of ability. And therefore, as far as ability is concerned, a +person could do as well in one of these occupations as in another. The +time will sometime come when we shall know the special abilities +demanded by the different occupations and professions, and by suitable +tests shall be able to determine what people possess the required +qualifications. + +The schools should always be on the lookout for unusual ability. +Children that are far superior to others of the same age should be +allowed to advance as fast as their superior ability makes possible, and +should be held up to a high order of work. Such superior people should +be, as far as possible, in the same classes, so that they can the more +easily be given the kind and amount of work that they need. The schools +should find the children of unusual special ability, such as ability in +drawing, painting, singing, playing musical instruments, mechanical +invention, etc. Some provision should be made for the proper development +and training of these unusual abilities. Society cannot afford to lose +any spark of genius wherever found. Moreover, the individual will be +happier if developed and trained along the line of his special ability. + +=Subnormal Children.= A small percentage of children are of such low +mentality that they cannot do the ordinary school work. As soon as such +children can be picked out with certainty, they should be taken out of +the regular classes and put into special classes. It is a mistake to try +to get them to do the regular school work. They cannot do it, and they +only waste the teacher's time and usually give her much trouble. +Besides, they waste their own time; for while they cannot do the +ordinary school work, they can do other things, perhaps work of a manual +nature. The education of such people should, therefore, be in the +direction of simple manual occupations. + +For detecting such children, in addition to the tests given above, +elaborate tests for individual examination have been devised. The most +widely used is a series known as the Binet-Simon tests. A special group +of tests is provided for the children of each age. If a child can pass +the tests for his age, he is considered normal. If he can pass only the +tests three years or more below his age, he is usually considered +subnormal. But a child's fate should not depend solely upon any number +or any kind of tests. We should always give the child a trial and see +what he is able to achieve. This trial should cover as many months or +years as are necessary to determine beyond doubt the child's mental +status. + + SUMMARY. Just as we differ in the various aspects of body, so also + we differ in the various aspects of mind. These differences can be + measured by tests. A knowledge of these differences should aid us in + grading, classifying, and teaching children, as well as in the + selection of occupation and professions for them. Mental traits have + some degree of independence; as a result a high degree of one trait + may be found with low degree of some others. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Many of the tests and experiments already described should have shown +many of the individual differences of the members of the class. The +teacher will find in the author's _Examination of School Children_ a +series of group tests with norms which can be used for a further study +of individual differences. + +2. The tapping experiment described in the first chapter can now be +repeated and the results taken as a measure of reaction time. + +3. You should now have available the records of all the tests and +experiments so far given that show individual differences. Make out a +table showing the rank of each student in the various tests. Compute the +average rank of each student for all the tests. This average rank may be +taken as a measure of the intelligence of the students, as far as such +can be determined by the tests used. Correlate this ranking with +standing in the high school classes. It will give a positive +correlation, not perfect, however. Why not? If your measures of +intelligence were absolutely correct, you still would not get a perfect +correlation with high school standing. Why not? + +4. If you had a correct measure of intelligence of 100 mature people in +your city, selected at random, would this measure give you an exact +measure of their success in life? Give the reason for your answer. + +5. Of all the tests and experiments previously described in this book, +which gives the best indication of success in high school? + +6. If the class in psychology is a large one, a graph should be prepared +showing the distribution of abilities in the class. For this purpose, +you will have to use the absolute measures instead of ranks. Find the +average for each test used. Make these averages all the same by +multiplying the low ones and dividing the high ones. Then all the grades +of each student can be added. This will give each test the same weight +in the average. The use of a slide rule will make this transference to a +new average very easy. A more accurate method for this computation is +described in the author's _Examination of School Children_, p. 65. + +The students should make a study of individual differences and the +distribution of ability in some grade below the high school. The tests +described in this chapter can be used for that purpose. + +7. Is it a good thing for high school students to find out how they +compare with others in their various mental functions? If you have poor +ability, is it a good thing for you to find it out? If the teacher and +students think best, the results of all the various tests need not be +made known except to the persons concerned. The data can be used in the +various computations without the students' knowing whose measures they +are. + +8. To what extent is ability a factor in life? You find people of only +ordinary ability succeeding and brilliant people failing. Why is this? + +9. None of the tests so far used measures ideals or perseverance and +persistence. These are important factors in life, and there is no very +adequate measure for any of them. The students might plan some +experiments to test physical and mental persistence and endurance. The +tapping experiment, for example, might be continued for an hour and the +records kept for each minute. Then from these records a graph could be +plotted showing the course of efficiency for the hour. Mental adding or +multiplying might be kept up continuously for several hours and the +results studied as above. + +10. We have said that ideals and persistence are important factors in +life. Are they inherited or acquired? + +11. Do you find it to be the rule or the exception for a person standing +high in one mental function to stand high in the others also? + +12. Make a complete outline of the chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_. Chapter XVI. + +PYLE: _The Examination of School Children_. + +PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Chapter XVII. + +TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, pp. 309-311. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY + + +=The General Field.= Psychology has now reached that stage in its +development where it can be of use to humanity. It can be of use in +those fields which demand a knowledge of human nature. As indicated in +the first chapter, these fields are education, medicine, law, business, +and industry. We may add another which has been called "culture." We +cannot say that psychology is able yet to be of very great service +except to education, law, and medicine. It has been of less service to +the field of business and industry, but in the future, its contribution +here will be as great as in the other fields. While the service of +psychology in the various fields is not yet great, what it will +eventually be able to do is very clear. It is the purpose of this +chapter to indicate briefly, the nature and possibilities of this +psychological service. + +=Education.= Throughout the preceding chapters, we have emphasized the +educational importance of the facts discussed. There is little left to +say here except to summarize the main facts. Since education is a matter +of making a child over into what he ought to be, the science of +education demands a knowledge of the original nature of children. This +means that one must know the nature of instincts, their relations to one +another, their order of development, and the possibilities of their +being changed, modified, developed, suppressed. It means that one must +know the nature of the child's mind in all its various functions, the +development and significance of these functions,--memory, association, +imagination, and attention. The science especially demands that we +understand the principles of habit-formation, the laws of economical +learning, and the laws of memory. + +This psychological knowledge must form the ground-work in the education +of teachers for their profession. In addition to this general +preparation of the teacher, psychology will render the schools a great +service through the psycho-clinicist, who will be a psychological expert +working under the superintendents of our school systems. His duty will +be to supervise the work of mental testing, the work of diagnosis for +feeble-mindedness and selection of the subnormal children, the teaching +of such children. He will give advice in all cases which demand expert +psychological knowledge. + +=Medicine.= In the first place, there is a department of medicine which +deals with nervous diseases, such as insanity, double personality, +severe nervous shock, hallucination, etc. This entire aspect of medicine +is wholly psychological. But psychology can be of service to the general +practitioner both in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A thorough +psychological knowledge of human nature will assist a physician in +diagnosis. Often the best way to find out what ails a patient's body is +through the patient's mind, and the doctor must know how to get the +truth from the patient's mind even in those cases in which the patient +is actually trying to conceal the truth. A profound practical knowledge +of human nature is necessary,--a knowledge which can be obtained only +by long and careful technical study as well as practice and experience. + +Psychology can be of service in the treatment of disease. The physician +must understand the peculiar mental characteristics of his patient in +order to know how to deal with him. In some cases, hypnotism is a +valuable aid in treatment, and in many cases, ordinary normal suggestion +can be of considerable service. The state of mind of a sick person has +much to do with his recovery. The physician must know this and must know +how to induce the desired state of mind. Indeed, a patient's trouble is +often imaginary, exists in the mind only; in such cases, the treatment +should be wholly mental, _i.e._ through suggestion. Of course, the best +physicians know these facts and make use of them in their practice, but +preparation for this aspect of their work should be a regular part of +their medical education. They should not be left to learn these facts +from their practice as best they may, any more than they should be +expected to learn their physiology and anatomy in this way. + +=Law.= The service of psychology to law can be very great, but owing to +the necessary conservatism of the courts, it will be a long time before +they will make much use of psychological knowledge. Perhaps the greatest +service will be in determining the credibility of evidence. Psychology +can now give the general principles in this matter. Witnesses go on the +stand and swear to all sorts of things as to what they heard and saw and +did, often months and even years previously. The expert clinical +psychologist can tell the court the probability of such evidence being +true. Experiments have shown that there is a large percentage of error +in such evidence. The additional value that comes from the oath has been +measured. The oath increases the liability of truth only a small +percentage. + +Experiments have also shown that one's feeling of certainty is no +guarantee of truth. Sometimes the point we feel surest about is the one +farthest from the truth. In fact, feeling sure of a thing is no +guarantee of truth. + +In a particular case in court, the psychologist can determine the +reliability of the evidence of a particular witness and enable the judge +and the jury to put the proper value on such witness's testimony. For +example, a witness may swear to a certain point involving the estimation +of time and distance. The psychologist can measure the witness's +accuracy in such estimates, often showing that what the witness claims +to be able to do is an impossibility. A case may hinge on whether an +interval of time was ten minutes or twelve minutes, or whether a +distance was three hundred or four hundred feet. A witness may swear +positively to one or both of these points. The psychologist can show the +court the limitations of the witness in making such estimates. + +Psychology can be of service in the examination of the criminal himself. +Through association tests and in other ways, the guilt or innocence of +the prisoner can often be determined, and his intellectual status can +also be determined. The prisoner may be insane, or feeble-minded, or +have some other peculiar mental disorder. Such matters fall within the +realm of psychology. After a prisoner has been found guilty, the court +should have the advice of the clinical psychologist in deciding what +should be done with him. + +It should be added that the court and not the attorneys should make use +of the psychologist. Whenever a psychologist can be of service in a case +in court, the judge should summon such assistance, just as he should if +expert chemical, physical, physiological, or anatomical knowledge should +be desired. + +A knowledge of human nature can be of much service to society in the +prevention of crime. This will come about from a better knowledge of the +psychological principles of habit-formation and moral training, through +a better knowledge of how to control human nature. A large percentage of +all crime, perhaps as much as forty per cent, is committed by +feeble-minded people. Now, if we can detect these people early, and give +them the simple manual education which they are capable of receiving, we +can keep them out of a life of crime. + +Studies of criminals in reform schools show that the history of many +cases is as follows: The person, being of low mentality, could not get +on well at school and therefore came to dislike school, and consequently +became a truant. Truancy led to crime. Crime sent the person to the +court, and the court sent the person to the state reformatory. + +The great duty of the state is the prevention of crime. Usually little +can be done in the way of saving a mature criminal. We must save the +children before they become criminals, save them by proper treatment. +Society owes it to every child to do the right thing for him, the right +thing, whether the child is an idiot or a genius. Merely from the +standpoint of economy, it would be an immense saving to the state if it +would prevent crime by the proper treatment of every child. + +=Business.= The contribution of psychology in this field, so far, is in +the psychology of advertising and salesmanship, both having to do +chiefly with the selling of goods. Students of the psychology of +advertising have, by experiment, determined many principles that govern +people when reading newspapers and magazines, principles having to do +with size and kind of type, arrangement and form, the wording of an +advertisement, etc. The object of an advertisement is to get the reader +interested in the article advertised. The first thing is to get him to +_read_ the advertisement. Here, various principles of attention are +involved. The next thing is to have the _matter_ of the advertisement of +such a nature that it creates interest and remains in memory, so that +when the reader buys an article of that type he buys the particular kind +mentioned in the advertisement. + +In salesmanship, many subtle psychological principles are involved. The +problem of the salesman is to get the attention of the customer, and +then to make him _want_ to buy his goods. To do this with the greatest +success demands a profound knowledge of human nature. Other things being +equal, that man can most influence people who has the widest knowledge +of the nature of people, and of the factors that affect this nature. The +successful salesman must understand human feelings and emotions, +especially sympathy; also the laws of attention and memory, and the +power of suggestion. A mastery of the important principles requires +years of study, and a successful application of them requires just as +many years of practice. + +The last paragraph leads us to a consideration of the general problem of +influencing men. In all occupations and professions, one needs to know +how to influence other men. We have already discussed the matter of +influencing people to buy goods. People who employ labor need to know +how to get laborers to do more and better work, how to make them loyal +and happy. The minister needs to know how to induce the members of his +congregation to do right. The statesman needs to know how to win his +hearers and convince them of the justice and wisdom of his cause. +Whatever our calling, there is scarcely a day when we could not do +better if we knew more fully how to influence people. + +=Industry.= The service of psychology here is four-fold: (1) Finding what +men are fitted for. (2) Finding what kinds of abilities are demanded by +the various trades and occupations. (3) Helping the worker to understand +the psychological aspects of his work. (4) Getting the best work out of +the laborer. + +_Finding what men are fitted for._ In the preceding chapter, we +discussed the individual variations of men. Some people are better +fitted physically and mentally for certain types of work than they are +for other types of work. The determination of what an individual is +fitted for and what he is not fitted for is the business of psychology. +In some cases, the verdict of psychology can be very specific; in +others, it can be only general. Much misery and unhappiness come to +people from trying to do what they are not fitted by nature to do. There +are many professions and occupations which people should not enter +unless they possess high general ability. Now, psychology is able to +measure general ability. There are many other occupations and +professions which people should not enter unless they possess some +special ability. Music, art, and mechanics may be mentioned as examples +of occupations and professions demanding specific kinds of ability. In +industrial work, many aspects demand very special abilities, as quick +reaction, quick perception, fine discrimination, calmness and +self-control, ingenuity, quick adaptation to new situations. Psychology +can aid in picking out the people who possess the required abilities. + +_The different abilities demanded._ It is the business of psychology to +make a careful analysis of the specific abilities required in all the +various works of life. There are hundreds of occupations and often much +differentiation of work within an occupation. It is for the psychologist +of the future to make this analysis and to classify the occupations with +reference to the kinds of abilities demanded. Of course, many of them +will be found to require the same kind of ability, but just as surely, +many will be found to require very special abilities. It is a great +social waste to have people trying to fill such positions unless they +possess the specific abilities required. + +It should be the work of the high school and college to explain the +possibilities, and the demands in the way of ability, of the various +occupations of the locality. By possibilities and demands are meant the +kinds of abilities required and the rewards that can be expected, the +kind of life which the different fields offer. It is the further duty of +the high school and college to find out, as far as possible, the +specific abilities of the students. With this knowledge before them, the +students should choose their careers, and then make specific preparation +for them. The schools ought to work in close cooeperation with the +industries, the student working for a part of the day in school and a +part in the industries. This would help much in leading the student to +understand the industries and in ascertaining his own abilities and +interests. + +_The psychological aspects of one's work._ All occupations have a +psychological aspect. They involve some trick of attention, of +association, of memory. Certain things must be looked for, certain +habits must be formed, certain movements must be automatized. Workmen +should be helped to master these psychological problems, to find the +most convenient ways of doing their work. Workmen often do their work in +the most uneconomical ways, having learned their methods through +imitation, and never inquiring whether there is a more economical way. + +_Securing efficiency._ Securing efficiency is a matter of influencing +men, a matter which we have already discussed. Securing efficiency is +quite a different matter from that treated in the preceding paragraph. A +workman may have a complete knowledge of his work and be skilled in its +performance, and still be a poor workman, because he does not have the +right attitude toward his employer or toward his work. The employer must +therefore meet the problem of making his men like their work and be +loyal to their employer. The laborer must be happy and contented if he +is to do good work. Moreover, there is _no use in working_, or in living +either, if one cannot be happy and contented. + +We have briefly indicated the possibilities of psychology in the various +occupations and professions. There is a further application that has no +reference to the practical needs of life, but to enjoyment. A +psychological knowledge of human nature adds a new interest to all our +social experience. The ability to understand the actions and feelings +of men puts new meaning into the world. The ability to understand +oneself, to analyze one's actions, motives, feelings, and thoughts, +makes life more worth living. A knowledge of the sensations and sense +organs adds much pleasure to life in addition to its having great +practical value. Briefly, a psychological knowledge of human nature adds +much to the richness of life. It gives one the analytical attitude. +Experiences that to others are wholes, to the psychologist fall apart +into their elements. Such knowledge leads us to analyze and see clearly +what otherwise we do not understand and see only darkly or not at all. +Literature and art, and all other creations and products of man take on +a wholly new interest to the psychologist. + + SUMMARY. Psychology is of service to education in ascertaining the + nature of the child and the laws of learning; to law, in determining + the reliability of evidence and in the prevention of crime; to + medicine, in the work of diagnosis and treatment; to business, in + advertising and salesmanship; to the industries, in finding the man + for the place and the place for the man; to everybody, in giving a + keener insight into, and understanding of, human nature. + + +CLASS EXERCISES + +1. Visit a court room when a trial is in progress. Note wherein +psychology could be of service to the jury, to the judge, and to the +attorneys. + +2. To test the reliability of evidence, proceed as follows: Take a large +picture, preferably one in color and having many details; hold it before +the class in a good light where all can see it. Let them look at it for +ten or fifteen seconds, the time depending on the complexity of the +picture. The students should then write down what they saw in the +picture, underscoring all the points to which they would be willing to +make oath. Then the students should answer a list of questions prepared +by the teacher, on various points in the picture. Some of these +questions should be suggestive, such as, "What color is the dog?" +supposing no dog to be in the picture. The papers giving the first +written description should be graded on the number of items reported and +on their accuracy. The answers to the questions should be graded on +their accuracy. How do girls compare with boys in the various aspects of +the report? What is the accuracy of the underlined points? + +3. Let the teacher, with the help of two or three students, perform +before the class some act or series of acts, with some conversation, and +then have the students who have witnessed the performance write an +account of it, as in No. 2. + +4. Divide the class into two groups. Select one person from each to look +at a picture as in No. 1. These two people are then to write a complete +account of the picture. This account is then read to another person in +the same group, who then writes from memory his account and reads to +another. This is to be continued till all have heard an account and +written their own. You will then have two series of accounts of the same +picture proceeding from two sources. It will be well for the two who +look at the picture to be of very different types, let us say, one +imaginative, the other matter-of-fact. + +Do all the papers of one series have some characteristics that enable +you to determine from which group they come? What conclusions and +inferences do you draw from the experiment? + +5. Does the feeling of certainty make a thing true? See how many cases +you can find in a week, of persons feeling sure a statement is true, +when it is really false. + +6. In the following way, try to find out something which a person is +trying to conceal. Prepare a list of words, inserting now and then words +which have some reference to the vital point. Read the words one by one +to the person and have him speak the first word suggested by those read. +Note the time taken for the responses. A longer reaction time usually +follows the incriminating words, and the subject is thrown into a +visible confusion. + +7. Talk to successful physicians and find out what use they make of +suggestion and other psychological principles. + +8. Spend several hours visiting different grades below the high school. +In how many ways could the teachers improve their work by following +psychological principles? + +9. Could the qualities of a good teacher--native and acquired--be +measured by tests and experiments? + +10. Visit factories where men do skillful work and try to learn by +observation what types of mind and body are required by the different +kinds of work. + +11. Does the occupation which you have chosen for life demand any +specific abilities? If so, do you possess them in a high degree? + +12. Could parents better train their children if they made use of +psychological principles? + +13. In how many ways will the facts learned in this course be of +economic use to you in your life? In what ways will they make life more +pleasurable? + +14. Make a complete outline of this chapter. + + +REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + +MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XXVII-XXXIII. + +MUeNSTERBERG: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_. + + + + +ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING + + +COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. C.: _Human Behavior_. The Macmillan +Company, 1913. + +DAVENPORT, C. B.: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_. Henry Holt & +Company, 1911. + +DEWEY, J.: _How We Think_. D. C. Heath & Company, 1910. + +KELLICOTT, W. E.: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_. D. Appleton +& Company, 1911. + +KIRKPATRICK, E. A.: _The Fundamentals of Child Study_. The Macmillan +Company, 1912. + +MUeNSTERBERG, H.: _Psychology, General and Applied_. D. Appleton & +Company, 1914. + +MUeNSTERBERG, H.: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_. Houghton +Mifflin Company, 1913. + +PILLSBURY, W. B.: _Essentials of Psychology_. The Macmillan Company, +1916. + +PYLE, W. H.: _Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Warwick and York, +1912. + +PYLE, W. H.: _The Examination of School Children_. The Macmillan +Company, 1913. + +ROWE, S. H.: _Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching_. Longmans, +Green, & Company, 1911. + +TITCHENER, E. B.: _A Beginner's Psychology_. The Macmillan Company, +1916. + + + + +GLOSSARY + + +Most of the terms given below are explained in the text, but it is hoped +that this alphabetical list with brief definitions will prove helpful. +It is a difficult task to make the definitions scientific and at the +same time brief, simple, and clear. + +_Abnormal._ Having mental or physical characteristics widely different +from those commonly found in ordinary people. + +_Acquired nature._ Those aspects of habit, skill, knowledge, ideas, and +ideals that come from experience and are due to experience. + +_Action._ Muscular contractions usually producing motion of the body or +of some part of the body. + +_Adaptation._ Adjustment to one's surroundings. + +_Adaptive._ Readily changing one's responses and acquiring such new +responses as enable one to meet successfully new situations; also having +tendencies or characteristics which enable one to be readily adjustable. + +_After-images._ Images that follow immediately after stimulation of a +sense organ, and resulting from this stimulation. + +_Association._ Binding together ideas through experiencing them +together. + +_Attention._ Relative clearness of perceptions and ideas. + +_Attitude._ The tendency toward a particular type of response in action +or a particular idea or association in thought. + +_Bond._ The connection established in the nervous system which makes a +certain response follow a certain stimulus or a certain idea follow +another idea or perception. + +_Capacity._ The possibility of learning, achieving, etc. + +_Color blindness._ Inability to experience certain colors, usually red +and green. + +_Complementary color._ Complementary colors are those which, mixed in +the right proportion, produce gray. + +_Congenital._ Inborn. + +_Connection._ The nerve-path through which a stimulus produces a +response or through which one idea produces or evokes another. + +_Conscious._ Having consciousness, or accompanying consciousness or +producing consciousness. + +_Consciousness._ The mental states--perceptions, ideas, feelings--which +one has at any moment. + + _Low level of consciousness._ Conscious processes not so clear as + others existing at the same time. + + _High level of consciousness._ Conscious processes that are clear as + compared to others existing at the same time. + +_Contrast._ The enhancing or strengthening of a sensation by another of +opposite quality. + +_Correlation._ The relation that exists between two functions, +characteristics, or attributes that enables us, finding one, to predict +the presence of the other. + +_Development._ The appearance, or growth, or strengthening of a +characteristic. + +_Emotion._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus sensations from +characteristic bodily reactions. + +_Environment._ The objects and forces about us which affect us through +our senses. + +_Environmental instincts._ Instincts which have originated, at least in +part, from the periodic changes in man's environment. + +_Eugenics._ The science of race improvement through selective breeding +or proper marriages or in some cases through the prevention of marriage. + +_Experience._ What we learn of the world through sensation and +perception. + +_Fatigue._ Inability to work produced by work and which only rest will +cure. + +_Feeble-minded._ Having important mental traits only poorly developed or +not at all. + +_Feeling._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience or of ideational +states. + +_Function._ The use of a thing or process, also any mental process or +combination of processes considered as a unit. + +_Genetic._ Having reference to origin and development. + +_Habits._ Definite responses to definite stimuli depending upon bonds +established by use after birth. + +_Heredity._ Transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring. + +_Human nature._ The characteristics and tendencies which we have as +human beings, with particular reference to mind and action. + +_Ideals._ Definite tendencies to act in definite ways. Ideas of definite +types of action with tendency toward the actions; ideas of definite +conditions, forms, and states together with a desire to experience or +possess them. + +_Ideas._ Revived perceptions. + +_Images._ Revived sensations, simpler than ideas. + +_Imitation._ Acting as we see others act. + +_Impulse._ Tendency to action. + +_Individualistic instincts._ Those instincts which more immediately +serve individual survival. + +_Individual differences._ The mental and physical differences between +people. + +_Inherited nature._ Those aspects of one's nature due directly to +heredity. + +_Instincts._ Definite responses produced by definite stimuli through +hereditary connections in the nervous system. + +_Intellectual habits._ Definite fixed connections between ideas; +definite ways of meeting typical thought situations. + +_Intensity._ The amount or strength of a sensation or image, how far it +is from nothing. + +_Interest._ The aspect given to experience or thinking by attention and +pleasure. + +_Learning._ Establishing new bonds or connections in the nervous system; +acquiring habits; gaining knowledge. + +_Memory._ The retention of experience; retained and reproduced +experience. + +_Mental set._ Mental attitude or disposition. + +_Mind._ The sum total of one's conscious states from birth to death. + +_Nerve-path._ The route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or excitation. + +_Original nature._ All those aspects of mind and body directly +inherited. + +_Perceive._ To be aware of a thing through sensation. + +_Perception._ Awareness of a thing through sensation or a fusion of +sensations. + +_Plasticity._ Modifiability, making easy the formation of new bonds or +nerve-connections. + +_Presupposition._ A theory or hypothesis on which an argument or a +system of arguments or principles is based. + +_Primary._ First, original, elementary, perceptive experience as +distinguished from ideational experience. + +_Reaction._ The action immediately following a stimulus and produced by +it. + +_Reasoning._ Thinking to a purpose; trying to meet a new situation. + +_Reflex._ A very simple act brought about by a stimulus through an +hereditary nerve-path. + +_Response._ The act following a stimulus and produced by it. + +_Retention._ Memory; modification of the nervous system making possible +the revival of experience. + +_Science._ Knowledge classified and systematized. + +_Sensation._ Primary experience; consciousness directly due to the +stimulation of a sense organ. + +_Sense._ To sense is to have sensation, to perceive. A sense is a sense +organ or the ability to have sensation through a sense organ. + +_Sense organ._ A modified nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or +mechanism making possible a certain form of stimulation. + +_Sensitive._ Capable of giving rise to sensation, or transmitting a +nerve-current. + +_Sensitivity._ Property of, or capacity for being sensitive. + +_Sensory._ Relating to a sense organ or to sensation. + +_Situation._ The total environmental influences of any one moment. + +_Socialistic instincts._ The instincts related more directly to the +survival of a social group. + +_Stimulation._ The setting up of a nerve process in a sense organ or in +a nerve tract. + +_Stimulus._ That which produces stimulation. + +_Subnormal._ Having characteristics considerably below the normal. + +_Tendency._ Probability of a nerve-current taking a certain direction +due to nerve-organization. + +_Thinking._ The passing of images and ideas. + +_Thought._ Thinking; an idea or group of ideas. + +_Training._ Establishing nerve connection or bonds. + +_Vividness._ Clearness of sensations, perceptions, images, and ideas. + + + + +INDEX + + +Abilities, specialized, 179 + +Ability, unusual, 206 + +Adaptation of vision, 41 + +After-images, visual, 40 + +Ancestors, 22 f. + +Anger, 58 + +Appearance of instincts, 54 + +Applied psychology, 8-9, 210 ff. + +Association of ideas, 152 + +Astigmatism, 44 + +Attention, 80 ff.; + and will, 82. + +Attitude, 157 + + +Behavior, 7 + +Bodily conditions, 76 + +Brain, 7 + +Brightness, sensation of, 38 + +Business, 215 + + +Causality, 18, 21 + +Centrally initiated action, 51 + +Child, nature of, 11 + +Cold, sense of, 42 + +Collecting instinct, 62 + +College, function of, 217 + +Color blindness, 45 + +Color mixture, 39 + +Color, sensation of, 38 + +Completion test, 198 + +Concentrated practice, 102 + +Consciousness, 7 + +Conservatism, 109 + +Costly Temper test, 186 + +Cramming, 141 + +Criminal, the, 213 f. + +Curriculum, 145 + + +Darwin, 89 + +Defects of sense organs, 43 + +Development, individual, 24 ff.; + racial, 18-21; + significance of and causality, 21-24 + +Direct method, 112 + +Dizziness, organs that give us sense of, 42 + +Dramatization, 67 + +Drill in school subjects, 110-112 + +Dynamic, world as, 20 + + +Economical practice, 101 ff. + +Education, 210; + aim of, 10; + preparatory, 167; + science of, 9 ff. + +Educational inferences, 143 + +Educational psychology, 9 ff. + +Efficiency, 98, 108 + +Emotions, 74 ff. + +Environment, 31 + +Environmental instincts, 61 + +Envy, 58 + +Evolution, 19 ff. + +Exceptions, 101, 114 + +Excursions, 61 + +Experience, 8; + organization of, 169 + +Experiment, 13 ff. + +Eye, the, 37 + +Eye defects, 43 ff. + +Eyestrain, 20 + + +Farsightedness, 44 + +Fatigue, 101 + +Fear, 56 + +Feeble-mindedness, 29 + +Feeling, 73 ff. + +Fighting instincts, 58 + +Formal drill, III, 112 + +Free association frequency surface, 178 + +Free association test, 193 + +Frequency of experience, 156 + + +Gang instinct, 60 + +Genetic view of childhood, 24 + +Genius, 31 + + +Habit, 87 ff.; + and nerve path, 91; + how formed, 98 ff.; + importance in life, 107; + intellectual, 89; + moral, 90; + of thought, 169; + results of, 94; + specific, 116 + +Hearing, 41; + defects of, 45 + +Heredity, 24 ff. + +Heredity _vs._ Environment, 31 + +Heritage, social, 23 + +High school and fourth grade abilities compared, 203 + +High school, function of, 217 + +Home and moral training, 118 + + +Idea, 52 + +Ideas, 124 + +Imitation, 64 ff. + +Imitation in ideals, 67 + +Incidental drill, 111 + +Individual development, 24 ff. + +Individual differences, 176 ff. + +Individualistic instincts, 56 + +Industry, 216 + +Influencing men, 215 + +Inheritance, 22 + +Inherited tendencies, 50 ff. + +Initiative, 113 + +Instincts, 52 ff.; + classification of, 55; + significance of, 55 + +Interest, 84 + +Intervals between practice, 102 + + +Jealousy, 58 + +Joints, sense organs in, 42 + +Jost's law, 142 + + +Language and thinking, 170 ff. + +Language study, 144 + +Latin, 116 + +Law, service of psychology to, 212 + +Learning and remembering, 138 + +Learning by wholes, 141 + +Life occupations, 205 + +Logical memory, 184 ff. + + +Meaning, 163 ff. + +Medicine, 211 + +Memories, kinds of, 132 + +Memory, 124 ff.; + and age and sex, 127; + and habit, 146; + and school standing, 135; + and thinking, 134; + factors of, 128 ff.; + good, dangers resulting from, 137; + kinds of, 132 + +Mendelian principle, 26 + +Mental development, 19 + +Mental differences, 178; + detection of, 180; + importance of, 201 ff. + +Mental functions developed, 182 + +Mental set, 157 + +Mental tests, 183 ff. + +Mind and body, 34 ff. + +Mood, 78 + +Moral training, 117 ff. + +Motive, 77 + +Muscular speed, 14 + +Museum, school, 62 ff. + +Musical ability, 179 + + +Nearsightedness, 44 + +Needs of child, 77 + +Nerve tendency, 92 + +Norms in mental tests, 184 ff. + + +Occupations, 205 + +Opposites test, 195 ff. + +Organization of experience, 163 ff. + + +Pain sense, 42 + +Parents, and habit-formation of children, 104 ff., 119 + +Perception, 124 + +Physiological basis of memory, 126 + +Piano playing, 51, 97 + +Pitch, 41 + +Plasticity, 93 + +Play, 68 + +Pleasure and habit, 101 + +Pleasure, higher forms of, 80 + +Practice, 99, 113 + +Primary experience, 154 + +Psychology and culture, 218 + +Psychology defined, 5; + method of, 13; + problems of, 8 + + +Race, development of, 18 ff.; + improvement of, 30 + +Ranking students, 15 + +Reasoning, 159; training in, 168 + +Recalling forgotten names, 146 + +Recency of experience, 155 + +Regeneration, 23 + +Repetition, 99 + +Respect for authority, 77 + +Resemblance, 25 + +Retina, the, 37 f. + +Revived experience, 125 + +Rigidity, 108 + +Rote memory, 189 + +Rules for habit-formation, 113 + + +Salesmanship, 215 + +School, and habit, 108; + and moral training, 119 f. + +Schoolhouse, community center, 60 f. + +Science, 1 + +Scientific law, 3 + +Scientist, 1 ff. + +Securing efficiency, 218 + +Selecting habits, 109 + +Sense organs, affects of stimulating, 6, 7; + knowledge through, 35 + +Sleight's experiment, 140 + +Smell, 42 + +Social life of children, 60 + +Social tendencies, 59 + +Stimulation, 6 + +Stimulus and response, 50 + +Study, learning how to, 132 + +Subnormal children, 206 + +Substitution test, 192 + + +Taste, 42 + +Teacher, function of in memory work, 142; + function of in habit-formation, 103 + +Teaching too abstract, 129 + +Temperament, 78 + +Tendons, sense organs in, 42 + +Thinking, 152 ff., 159 + +Touch, 42 + +Transfer of training, 114 ff., 140 + +Truancies, 61 + +Typewriting, 51, 94 ff. + + +Vision, 37; importance of, 45 + +Visual contrast, 39 + +Vividness and intensity of experience, 156 + + +Wandering, 61 + +Warmth, sense of, 42 + +Weight, diagram showing frequency surface of, 177 + +Word-building test, 197 + +Work and psychology, 218 + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NATURE *** + +***** This file should be named 18477.txt or 18477.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/4/7/18477/ + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Suzanne Lybarger, Laura Wisewell +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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